KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

REPORT ON
SCRAP IRONS IN NEPAL AND THEIR USE

SUBMITTED BY: SUBMITTED TO:

Name: Nitesh Kumar Mehta Prof. Dr. Bhola Thapa
Group: ME-II (2nd year Energy) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Exam Roll No: 017140

Registration No: 022368-17
 ABSTRACT
This report deals with scrap iron in Nepal with its material structure, composition, processing,
material failure and protection from failures and degradation of materials. Today, Ferrous metals
are highly valuable in a wide variety of areas including in manufacturing and construction,
electronics and home appliances, agriculture and much more. The recycling of iron is therefore a
significant contributor to reducing CO2 emissions and mitigating potential environmental damage
from both commercial and domestic spheres. But in the context of Nepal as the industrial
revolution haven’t take place it is still being used in traditional way such as in foundry, metalcrafts,
statues, and household utensils due to lack of research, lack of budget, lack of infrastructure, etc.
With the help of this report one can understand the ferrous metal properties, processing, failure
and uses so that we may replace the traditional way of using it by the modern industrial
manufacturing processing due to which huge amount of ferrous metal ores which is untouchable
will be used and rate of import will decrease from other country.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER 2: HISTORY OF USE OF IRON IN NEPAL ............................................................. 2
2.1 Mining History ................................................................................................................. 2
2.2 Present Status of iron ores in Nepal ................................................................................. 3
CHAPTER 3: MATERIAL STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION .............................................. 4
3.1 Chemical composition ...................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER 4: PROCESSING STEEL AND ALLOYING ............................................................ 5
4.1 Effects of carbon .............................................................................................................. 5
4.2 Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram ............................................................................................. 6
4.2.1 Types of Ferrous Alloys on the Phase Diagram ....................................................... 6
4.2.2 Boundaries ................................................................................................................ 7
4.2.3 Eutectic Point ............................................................................................................ 7
4.2.4 Phase Fields .............................................................................................................. 7
4.2.5 Different Phases ........................................................................................................ 7
4.3 Effects of heat-treating ..................................................................................................... 8
4.3.1 Heat Treatment Processes ......................................................................................... 9
4.4 Effects of alloying .......................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 5: POSSIBLE FAILURES AND DEGRADATION OF STEELS ........................... 12
5.1 Corrosion of structural steel ........................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 6: METHODS TO PROTECT IRON FROM DEGRADATION.............................. 12
6.1 Surface preparation ........................................................................................................ 12
6.2 Paint coatings ................................................................................................................. 13
6.3 Hot-dip galvanizing ........................................................................................................ 14
CHAPTER 7: INSPECTION AND QUALITY CONTROL........................................................ 15
CHAPTER 8: HOW SCRAP IRON CAN BE USED .................................................................. 15
8.1 Iron Scrap Recycling ...................................................................................................... 15
CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 17
SURVEY REPORT ...................................................................................................................... 17
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 18

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1:Iron ore from Thoshe ........................................................................................................ 3
Figure 2:Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram ............................................................................................. 6
Figure 3:Steel microstructure in heat treatment process ............................................................... 10
Figure 4:Steel beam emerging from an automatic blast cleaning unit.......................................... 13
Figure 5:Cross section through a multi-coat paint system ............................................................ 14
Figure 6:Cross-section through a hot-dip galvanized coating [6] ................................................. 14

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 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Ferrous materials/metals might be characterized as those metals whose fundamental constituent is
iron, for example, pig iron, created iron, cast iron, steel and their amalgams. The chief crude
materials for ferrous metals are pig iron. Ferrous materials are generally more grounded and harder
and are utilized in day by day life items. Ferrous material has an uncommon property that their
qualities can be changed by heat treatment forms or by expansion of little number of alloying
components. Ferrous metals have diverse physical properties as indicated by their carbon content.
The ferrous metals are iron base metals which incorporate all assortments of iron and steel. Most
basic building materials are ferrous materials which are combinations of iron. Ferrous methods
iron. Iron is the name given to unadulterated ferrite Fe, just as to melded blends of this ferrite with
enormous measure of carbon (might be 1.8%), these blends are known as pig iron and cast iron.
Principally pig iron is created from the iron mineral in the shoot heater from which cast iron,
fashioned iron and steel can be delivered.
Steel is a material for the most part accommodating for indirect economy as it might be used,
reused and reused on and on. Steel made today is scrap for tomorrow and in this way again
transforms into an advantage. Steel scrap starts from a couple of particular sources and it changes
both in respect of physical and invention properties. The age of a piece move can contrast from
one day to over 100 years old. The properties depend upon where the piece starts from and when
it was conveyed. Different assessments of steel are made for arrangement of employments. It along
these lines becomes central that the piece is confined generally by blend and size or assessment
sensible for relaxing, all together for the reusing system to be as practical as could be normal in
light of the current situation.
Depending on its origin of generation, steel scrap is classified in to three main categories
i. Home/In-house scrap,
ii. New scrap, or prompt scrap, and
iii. Old scrap or obsolete/end of life cycle scrap
Home/In-house scrap is the internally generated scrap during the manufacturing of steel products
in the steel plants. This form of scrap rarely leaves the steel plant production area. Instead, it is
returned to the steelmaking furnace on site and melted again. This scrap has known physical
properties and chemical composition.
New scrap (also called prompt or industrial scrap) is generated from manufacturing units which
are involved in the fabricating and making of steel products, such as forming of auto components,
white goods, machining, tool and equipment manufacture. Scrap accumulates when steel is cut,
drawn, extruded, or machined. It is usually transported quickly back to steel plants for re-melting.
The supply of new scrap is a function of industrial activity. When activity is high, more quantity
of new scrap is generated. The chemical composition and physical characteristics of new scrap is
well known. This scrap is typically clean, meaning that it is not mixed with other materials.

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Old scrap, otherwise called as obsolete scrap, is the steel that has been disposed of when steel
items (for example vehicles, apparatuses, hardware, structures, spans, ships, jars, railroad mentors
and carts and so on.) have served their valuable life. Old apparatus and gear are unloaded by
railroads, safeguard, port specialists and so on. The main choice of purchasers of such gear and
apparatuses are to recondition them and sell at more significant expense. The subsequent choice is
to destroy them and sell as extra parts for support of gear being used. The third and last alternative
is selling as metal scrap. So also, old vehicles should be rejected after fruition of its administration
life. Be that as it may, in Nepal, subsequent to serving the life in huge urban areas, such vehicles
are typically migrated to Tier–II and Tier-III urban areas and humble communities where interest
for such vehicles exists. By and by, no approach exists towards rejecting of vehicles and this needs
prompt consideration of Govt. of India as more seasoned the vehicles, more prominent is the
contamination level. Old scrap is regularly debased, contingent upon its root and the assortment
frameworks. Since the old scrap is the material that has been being used for quite a long time,
synthetic synthesis and physical qualities are not generally notable. It is likewise frequently
blended in with other junk. Because of these reasons, old scrap isn't anything but difficult to reuse.
It requires cleaning, arranging, expulsion of coatings, and other arrangement like squeezing,
pounding, shearing, destroying and so on. Before use. Out of date scrap may contain radiation
source with related ecological and wellbeing dangers. These low force radioactive sources may
stream into scrap from squanders arranged by look into research facilities, logical checks,
businesses, emergency clinics and so on. Albeit, satisfactory shields have been made at port taking
care of imported scrap to guarantee recognition of radioactive material in imported ferrous scrap
however the comparative measures will be required for the scrap handling industry moreover.

CHAPTER 2: HISTORY OF USE OF IRON IN NEPAL

2.1 Mining History
Nepal has over 200 years long history of indigenous mining activities. Small scale historical iron,
copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, nickel mines and placer gold panning in the major rivers and many slate,
quartzite, dolomite and limestone quarries were operational in many districts. Old working pits,
adits, smelting places, scattered slag and remnant of mine materials stand as solid proofs of such
mining activities in the past. In many cases the name of the village is derived after the particular
mines e.g. Taba Khani, Falam Khani, Shisa Khani, Sun Khani etc. Before 1951(2007BS) Nepal
was one of the exporter of iron and copper to Tibet and cobalt to India. A gun factory based on
Thoshe iron deposit was established in 1921 at Thoshe Megchan in Ramechhap [1] . Its remnants
still exist there. But after the change in the government in 1951 such mining activities were
gradually closed because of change in the policy of new government, unavailability of charcoal
for smelting, technical difficulties in mining at depth etc. Therefore, reassessment and evaluation
of such deposits/ mines by DMG and/ or by private sector are extremely warranted for further
exploration and mining. One of the examples is Thoshe iron deposit (old working mine) which
was reassessed by DMG [2] and later explored in detail by N & C Minerals Pvt. Ltd. It has prepared
a mining plan and obtained the mining license from DMG but it is still unable to develop mine and
exploit the iron ore due to many complexities in getting permission from Department of Forest,
lack of infrastructures, support from central and local government, huge amount of investment

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required to purchase mining equipment, hire well trained technical manpower and sustainable mine
development without any environment damage and also decrease in international price of iron ore.
Currently the company is in the process of mine development to exploit iron ore in near future.
Now GON/ DMG is in the process to mine Dhauwadi – Pokhari hematite ore deposit in
Nawalparasi for iron and also continuing petroleum and natural gas exploration in Dailekh.

2.2 Present Status of iron ores in Nepal

Iron (Fe) is the principal metal which is used extensively in infrastructure development works, and
to manufacture steel, heavy machinery equipment, arms, agricultural tools etc. Iron ores like
magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), limonite/goethite (FeO(OH).nH2O) and siderite (FeCO3)
occurrences/ prospects/ deposits are known to exist in more than 88 localities. Some of these ores
were extensively mined and smelted in different parts of Nepal for more than 100 years till 1951
(2007BS) but none of these mines are in operation since then. The well-known iron ore deposits
are Phulchoki (Lalitpur), Thoshe (Ramechhap, Fig.1), Labdi Khola (Tanahun), Jirbang (Chitwan),
Dhauwadi Pokhari (Nawalparasi), Falamkhani/ Dhuwakot (Parbat), Bhedikhor and Lukarban
(Baglung), Purchaundi/ Lamunigad (Bitadi), Dahabagar, Kachali, and Ekghar/ Khanigaon
(Bajhang). Iron prospects and old workings are also known from different parts of Baitadi,
Bajhang, Jajarkot, Rolpa, Surkhet, Myagdi, Baglung, Parbat, Chitwan, Ramechhap, Okhaldhunga
and Taplejung districts [3]. Phulchoki iron deposit still remained untransformed into
commercialization due to its location in the environmentally sensitive area and also shortage of
power like electricity and unavailability of good quality coal in Nepal. Thoshe iron deposit was
mined in small scale during Rana's regime for more than 100 years till 2007BS. But it was totally
stopped after 2007BS. DMG [4]did the assessment of this prospect and calculated geological
reserve of about 10.5-million-ton iron ore. Further extension of the area and detail exploration by
N & C Minerals Pvt. Ltd. has estimated about 15.9million ton iron ore with an average grade
45.3%Fe [5]. DMG issued 7 prospecting and 4 mining licenses to the private/ public companies in
FY 2018 (DMG, Annual report, 2019). DMG is in the process to mine Dhauwadi – Pokhari
hematite ore deposit in Nawalparasi.

Figure 1:Iron ore from Thoshe

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 CHAPTER 3: MATERIAL STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
Iron in its solid state is, like all other metals, polycrystalline-that is, it consists of many crystals
that join one another on their boundaries. A crystal is a well-ordered arrangement of atoms that
can best be pictured as spheres touching one another. They are ordered in planes, called lattices,
which penetrate one another in specific ways. For iron, the lattice arrangement can best be
visualized by a unit cube with eight iron atoms at its corners. Important for the uniqueness of steel
is the allotropy of iron—that is, its existence in two crystalline forms. In the body-centred cubic
(bcc) arrangement, there is an additional iron atom in the Centre of each cube. In the face-centred
cubic (fcc) arrangement, there is one additional iron atom at the Centre of each of the six faces of
the unit cube. It is significant that the sides of the face-centred cube, or the distances between
neighboring lattices in the fcc arrangement, are about 25 percent larger than in the bcc
arrangement; this means that there is more space in the fcc than in the bcc structure to keep foreign
(i.e., alloying) atoms in solid solution.
Iron has its bcc allotropy below 912° C (1,674° F) and from 1,394° C (2,541° F) up to its melting
point of 1,538° C (2,800° F). Referred to as ferrite, iron in its bcc formation is also called alpha
iron in the lower temperature range and delta iron in the higher temperature zone. Between 912°
and 1,394° C iron is in its fcc order, which is called austenite or gamma iron. The allotropic
behavior of iron is retained with few exceptions in steel, even when the alloy contains considerable
amounts of other elements. There is also the term beta iron, which refers not to mechanical
properties but rather to the strong magnetic characteristics of iron. Below 770° C (1,420° F), iron
is ferromagnetic; the temperature above which it loses this property is often called the Curie point.
3.1 Chemical composition
On the basis of chemical composition, steels can be grouped into three major classes: carbon
steels, low-alloy steels, and high-alloy steels. All steels contain a small number of incidental
elements left over from steelmaking. These include manganese, silicon, or aluminum from
the deoxidation process conducted in the ladle, as well as phosphorus and sulfur picked up
from ore and fuel in the blast furnace. Copper and other metals, called residuals, are
introduced by scrap used in the steelmaking furnace. Because all these elements together
normally constitute less than 1 percent of the steel, they are not considered alloys.
Carbon steels are by far the most produced and used, accounting for about 90 percent of the
world’s steel production. They are usually grouped into high-carbon steels, with carbon
above 0.5 percent; medium-carbon steels, with 0.2 to 0.49 percent carbon; low-carbon steels,
with 0.05 to 0.19 percent carbon; extra-low-carbon steels, with 0.015 to 0.05 percent carbon;
and ultralow-carbon steels, with less than 0.015 percent carbon. Carbon steels are also
defined as having less than 1.65 percent manganese, 0.6 percent silicon, and 0.6 percent
copper, with the total of these other elements not exceeding 2 percent.

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 Low-alloy steels have up to 8 percent alloying elements; any higher concentration is
considered to constitute a high-alloy steel. There are about 20 alloying elements besides
carbon. These are manganese, silicon, aluminum, nickel, chromium, cobalt, molybdenum,
vanadium, tungsten, titanium, niobium, zirconium, nitrogen, sulfur, copper, boron, lead,
tellurium, and selenium. Several of these are often added simultaneously to achieve specific
properties.

CHAPTER 4: PROCESSING STEEL AND ALLOYING

4.1 Effects of carbon
In its pure form, iron is soft and generally not useful as an engineering material; the principal
method of strengthening it and converting it into steel is by adding small amounts of carbon.
In solid steel, carbon is generally found in two forms. Either it is in solid solution in austenite
and ferrite or it is found as a carbide. The carbide form can be iron carbide (Fe3C, known as
cementite), or it can be a carbide of an alloying element such as titanium. (On the other hand,
in gray iron, carbon appears as flakes or clusters of graphite, owing to the presence of silicon,
which suppresses carbide formation.)
Alloy metals can exist in different phases. Phases are physically homogeneous states of an
alloy. A phase has a precise chemical composition – a certain arrangement and bonding
between the atoms. This structure of atoms imparts different properties to different phases.
We can choose the phase we want and use it in our applications. The effects of carbon are
best illustrated by an iron-carbon equilibrium diagram. Hence, Phase diagrams are graphical
representations of the phases present in an alloy at different conditions of temperature,
pressure, or chemical composition.
There are four major uses of alloy phase diagrams:
▪ Development of new alloys based on application requirements.
▪ Production of these alloys.
▪ Development and control of appropriate heat treatment procedures to improve the
chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of these new alloys.
▪ Troubleshooting problems that arise in application of these new alloys, ultimately
improving product predictability
When it comes to alloy development, phase diagrams have helped prevent overdesign for
applications. This keeps cost and process time down. They also help develop alternative alloys
or same alloys with alternative alloying elements. It can help to reduce the need for using
scarce, hazardous, or expensive alloying elements. Performance-wise, phase diagrams help
metallurgists understand which phases are thermodynamically stable, metastable, or unstable
in the long run. Appropriate elements can then be chosen for alloying to prevent machinery
breakdown. Material for exhaust piping, for example, if not chosen properly, may lead to
breakdown at higher temperatures. The service life also improves as phase diagrams show us
how to solve problems such as intergranular corrosion, hot corrosion, and hydrogen damage.

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4.2 Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
The iron-carbon phase diagram is widely used to understand the different phases of steel and
cast iron. Both steel and cast iron are a mix of iron and carbon. Also, both alloys contain a
small amount of trace elements. The graph is quite complex but since we are limiting our
exploration to Fe3C, we will only be focusing up to 6.67 weight percent of carbon. This iron
carbon phase diagram is plotted with the carbon concentrations by weight on the X-axis and
the temperature scale on the Y-axis.

Figure 2:Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

4.2.1 Types of Ferrous Alloys on the Phase Diagram

The weight percentage scale on the X-axis of the iron carbon phase diagram goes from 0%
up to 6.67% Carbon. Up to a maximum carbon content of 0.008% weight of Carbon, the

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 metal is simply called iron or pure iron. It exists in the α-ferrite form at room temperature.
From 0.008% up to 2.14% carbon content, the iron carbon alloy is called steel. Within this
range, there are different grades of steel known as low carbon steel (or mild steel), medium
carbon steel, and high carbon steel [6].When the carbon content increases beyond 2.14%,
we reach the stage of cast iron. Cast iron is very hard but its brittleness severely limits its
applications and methods for forming.
4.2.2 Boundaries
Multiple lines can be seen in the diagram titled A1, A2, A3, A4, and ACM. The A in their
name stands for the word ‘arrest’. As the temperature of the metal increases or decreases,
phase change occurs at these boundaries when the temperature reaches the value on the
boundary.
Normally, when heating an alloy, its temperature increases. But along these lines (A1, A2,
A3, A4, and ACM) the heating results in a realignment of the structure into a different phase
and thus, the temperature stops increasing until the phase has changed completely. This is
known as thermal arrest as the temperature stays constant. Alloy steel elements such as
nickel, manganese, chromium, and molybdenum affect the position of these boundaries on
the phase diagram. The boundaries may shift in either direction depending on the element
used. For example, in the iron carbon phase diagram, addition of nickel lowers the A3
boundary while the addition of chromium raises it.
4.2.3 Eutectic Point
Eutectic point is a point where multiple phases meet. For the iron-carbon alloy diagram,
the eutectic point is where the lines A1, A3 and ACM meet. The formation of these points is
coincidental.
At these points, eutectic reactions take place where a liquid phase freezes into a mixture of
two solid phases. This happens when cooling a liquid alloy of eutectic composition all the
way to its eutectic temperature. The alloys formed at this point are known as eutectic alloys.
On the left and right side of this point, alloys are known as hypoeutectic and hypereutectic
alloys respectively (‘hypo’ in Greek means less than, ‘hyper’ means greater than).
4.2.4 Phase Fields
The boundaries, intersecting each other, mark certain regions on the Fe3C diagram. Within
each region, a different phase or two phases may exist together. At the boundary, the phase
change occurs. These regions are the phase fields. They indicate the phases present for a
certain composition and temperature of the alloy. Let’s learn a little about the different
phases of the iron-carbon alloy.
4.2.5 Different Phases

1. α-ferrite
Existing at low temperatures and low carbon content, α-ferrite is a solid solution of
carbon in BCC Fe. This phase is stable at room temperature. In the graph, it can be seen

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 as a sliver on the left edge with Y-axis on the left side and A2 on the right. This phase
is magnetic below 768°C.It has a maximum carbon content of 0.022 % and it will
transform to γ-austenite at 912°C as shown in the graph [6].
2. γ-austenite
This phase is a solid solution of carbon in FCC Fe with a maximum solubility of 2.14%
C. On further heating, it converts into BCC δ-ferrite at 1395°C. γ-austenite is unstable
at temperatures below eutectic temperature (727°C) unless cooled rapidly. This phase
is non-magnetic.
3. δ-ferrite
This phase has a similar structure as that of α-ferrite but exists only at high
temperatures. The phase can be spotted at the top left corner in the graph. It has a
melting point of 1538°C.
4. Fe3C or cementite
Cementite is a metastable period of this combination with a fixed structure of Fe3C. It
disintegrates incredibly gradually at room temperature into Iron and carbon (graphite).
This disintegration time is long and it will take any longer than the administration life
of the application at room temperature. Some different variables (high temperatures
and expansion of certain alloying components for example) can influence this decay as
they advance graphite development. Cementite is hard and fragile which makes it
appropriate for reinforcing prepares. Its mechanical properties are an element of its
microstructure, which relies on how it is blended in with ferrite.
5. Fe-C liquid solution
Marked on the diagram as ‘L’, it can be seen in the upper region in the diagram. As the
name suggests, it is a liquid solution of carbon in iron. As we know that δ-ferrite melts
at 1538°C, it is evident that melting temperature of iron decreases with increasing
carbon content.
4.3 Effects of heat-treating
Heat treatment of steels is the heating and cooling of metals to change their physical and
mechanical properties, without letting it change its shape. Heat treatment could be said to be
a method for strengthening materials but could also be used to alter some mechanical
properties such as improving formability, machining, etc. The most common application is
metallurgical but heat treatment of metals can also be used in the manufacture of glass,
aluminum, steel and many more materials.
The process of heat treatment involves the use of heating or cooling, usually to extreme
temperatures to achieve the desired result. It is a very important manufacturing processes
that can not only help the manufacturing process but can also improve product, its
performance, and its characteristics in many ways [6].

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 Advantages of heat treatment
1. To remove structural inhomogeneity
2. To relieve internal stresses
3. To soften the metal for easy machinability
4. To remove the gases trapped inside the structure
5. To refine the grain to obtain the desired structure
6. To alter ductility, toughness and electrical properties
4.3.1 Heat Treatment Processes

Hardening
Hardening involves heating of steel, keeping it at an appropriate temperature until all
pearlite is transformed into austenite, and then quenching it rapidly in water or oil. The
temperature at which austentizing rapidly takes place depends upon the carbon content in
the steel used. The heating time should be increased ensuring that the core will also be fully
transformed into austenite. The microstructure of a hardened steel part is ferrite, martensite,
or cementite.
Tempering
Tempering includes warming steel that has been extinguished and solidified for a
satisfactory timeframe with the goal that the metal can be equilibrated. The hardness and
quality got rely on the temperature at which treating is completed. Higher temperatures
will result into high pliability, however low quality and hardness. Low hardening
temperatures will deliver low pliability, however high quality and hardness. Practically
speaking, proper treating temperatures are chosen that will deliver the ideal degree of
hardness and quality. This activity is performed on all carbon prepares that have been
solidified, so as to lessen their weakness, with the goal that they can be utilized successfully
in wanted applications.
Annealing
Annealing involves treating steel up to a high temperature, and then cooling it very slowly
to room temperature, so that the resulting microstructure will possess high ductility and
toughness, but low hardness. Annealing is performed by heating a component to the
appropriate temperature, soaking it at that temperature, and then shutting off the furnace
while the scrap is in it. Steel is annealed before being processed by cold forming, to reduce
the requirements of load and energy, and to enable the metal to undergo large strains
without failure.
Normalizing
Normalizing involves heating steel, and then keeping it at that temperature for a period of
time, and then cooling it in air. The resulting microstructure is a mixture of ferrite and
cementite which has a higher strength and hardness, but lower ductility. Normalizing is

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performed on structures and structural components that will be subjected to machining,
because it improves the machinability of carbon steels
Carburization
Carburization is a heat treatment process in which steel or iron is heated to a temperature,
below the melting point, in the presence of a liquid, solid, or gaseous material which
decomposes so as to release carbon when heated to the temperature used.
Surface Hardening
In many engineering applications, it is necessary to have the surface of the component hard
enough to resist wear and erosion, while maintaining ductility and toughness, to withstand
impact and shock loading. This is known as surface hardening. This can be achieved by
local austentitizing and quenching, and diffusion of hardening elements like carbon or
nitrogen into the surface. Processes involved for this purpose are known as flame
hardening, induction hardening, nitriding and carbonitriding.

Figure 3:Steel microstructure in heat treatment process

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4.4 Effects of alloying
A third method to change the properties of steel is by including alloying components other
than carbon that produce qualities not attainable in plain carbon steel. Every one of the
roughly 20 components utilized for alloying steel impacts microstructure and on the
temperature, holding time, and cooling rates at which microstructures change. They change
the change focuses among ferrite and austenite, adjust arrangement and dissemination rates,
and contend with different components in framing intermetallic mixes, for example, carbides
and nitrides. There is an immense measure of observational data on how alloying influences
heat-treatment conditions, microstructures, and properties. Furthermore, there is a decent
hypothetical comprehension of standards, which, with the assistance of PCs, empowers
specialists to anticipate the microstructures and properties of steel while alloying, hot-
moving, heat-treating, and cold-shaping in any capacity.
A genuine case of the impacts of alloying is the creation of a high-quality steel with great
weldability. This is impossible by utilizing just carbon as a strengthener, since carbon makes
fragile zones around the weld, yet it tends to be finished by keeping carbon low and including
limited quantities of other reinforcing components, for example, nickel or manganese. On a
basic level, the reinforcing of metals is practiced by expanding the opposition of cross
section structures to the movement of disengagements. Disengagements are disappointments
in the grids of precious stones that cause it feasible for metals to be framed. At the point
when components, for example, nickel are kept in strong arrangement in ferrite, their
particles become inserted in the iron cross sections and square the developments of
disengagements. This wonder is called arrangement solidifying. A significantly more
prominent increment in quality is accomplished by precipitation solidifying, in which certain
components (e.g., titanium, niobium, and vanadium) don't remain in strong arrangement in
ferrite during the cooling of steel however rather structure finely scattered, incredibly little
carbide or nitride precious stones, which likewise adequately limit the progression of
separations. Furthermore, the vast majority of these solid carbide or nitride formers produce
a little grain size, in light of the fact that their hastens have a nucleation impact and hinder
precious stone development during recrystallization of the cooling metal. Delivering a little
grain size is another technique for reinforcing steel, since grain limits likewise control the
progression of separations.
Alloying elements have a strong influence on heat-treating, because they tend to slow the
diffusion of atoms through the iron lattices and thereby delay the allotropic transformations.
This means, for example, that the extremely hard martensite, which is normally produced by
fast quenching, can be produced at lower cooling rates. This results in less internal stress
and, most important, a deeper hardened zone in the work scrap. Improved hardenability is
achieved by adding such elements as manganese, molybdenum, chromium, nickel, and
boron. These alloying agents also permit tempering at higher temperatures, which generates
better ductility at the same hardness and strength [6].

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CHAPTER 5: POSSIBLE FAILURES AND DEGRADATION OF STEELS
Metal alloys are solids made from at least two different metallic elements. The elements are often
mixed together as liquid, and when they "freeze," into solids, tiny grains of crystal form to create
a polycrystalline material. A polycrystalline material is made of multiple crystals.
Within each of the grains of crystal, atoms are arranged in a periodic pattern. This pattern isn't
perfect, though. For example, some of the place’s atoms should be are empty. These empty spaces
are called vacancies. Atoms of each element in the alloy take advantage of these holes in the lattice.
In a process called diffusion, atoms hop through the material, changing its structure. Diffusion
happens in nearly every material, and materials can degrade because diffusion causes certain
changes in the structure of the material. Atoms of different elements tend to hop at different rates
because they are bound to their surrounding atoms with varying strength. When there's a greater
discrepancy in the hop rates in the different elements in the alloy, there's a more pronounced
diffusion along grain boundaries. This possibly leads to a faster degradation.
5.1 Corrosion of structural steel
The corrosion of structural steel is an electrochemical process that requires the simultaneous
presence of moisture and oxygen. In the absence of either, corrosion does not occur.
Essentially, the iron in the steel is oxidized to produce rust, which occupies approximately
6 times the volume of the original material consumed in the process. There are various types
of localized corrosion that can also occur; bimetallic corrosion, pitting corrosion and crevice
corrosion. However, these tend not to be significant for structural steelwork.
The rate at which the corrosion process progresses depends on a number of factors relating
to the ‘micro-climate’ immediately surrounding the structure, principally the time of wetness
and the atmospheric pollution level. Because of variations in atmospheric environments,
corrosion rate data cannot be generalized. However, environments can be broadly classified,
and corresponding measured steel corrosion rates provide a useful indication of likely
corrosion rates.

CHAPTER 6: METHODS TO PROTECT IRON FROM DEGRADATION

6.1 Surface preparation
Surface preparation is the essential first stage treatment of a steel substrate before the
application of any coating, and is generally accepted as being the most important factor
affecting the total success of a corrosion protection system.
The performance of a coating is significantly influenced by its ability to adhere properly to
the substrate material. The initial surface condition of steel can vary in terms of the amount
of residual mill scale and degree of initial rusting. However, generally it is an unsatisfactory
base upon which to apply modern, high performance protective coatings. A range of methods
of preparation and grades of cleanliness exist, but by far the most significant and important
method used for the thorough cleaning of mill-scaled and rusted surfaces is abrasive blast

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 cleaning. The standard grades of cleanliness for abrasive blast cleaning in accordance with
ISO 8501-1 [6]are:
▪ Sa 1 – Light blast cleaning
▪ Sa 2 – Thorough blast cleaning
▪ Sa 2½ – Very thorough blast cleaning
▪ Sa 3 – Blast cleaning to visually clean steel

Figure 4:Steel beam emerging from an

automatic blast cleaning unit

6.2 Paint coatings

Paint coatings for steel structures have developed over the years to comply with industrial
environmental legislation and in response to demands from bridge and structure owners for
improved durability performance. A paint consists of a pigment, dispersed in a binder, and
dissolved in a solvent. The most common methods for the classification of paints is either
by their pigmentation or by their binder type.
A cutting-edge paint framework for the most part involves a successive covering use of
paints or then again colors applied over metallic coatings to shape a 'duplex' covering
framework. Defensive paint frameworks typically comprise of preliminary; moderate/form
covers and finish coats. Each covering 'layer' in any defensive framework has a particular
capacity, and the various sorts are applied in a specific grouping of preliminary followed by
moderate/form covers in the shop, lastly the completion coat (or top coat) either in the shop
or on location.
Prefabrication primers are used on structural steelwork, immediately after blast cleaning, to
maintain the reactive blast cleaned surface in a rust-free condition through the fabrication

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 process until final painting can be undertaken. These types of primers are not used before
the application of thermally spraying coatings.
The method of application of paint systems and the conditions of application have a
significant effect on the quality and durability of the coating. Standard methods used to apply
paints to structural steelwork include application by brush, roller, conventional air spray and
airless spray/electrostatic airless spray.

Figure 5:Cross section through a multi-coat paint system

6.3 Hot-dip galvanizing
Hot-dip galvanizing is a process that involves immersing the steel component to be coated
in a bath of molten zinc (at about 450°C) after pickling and fluxing, and then withdrawing
it. The immersed surfaces are uniformly coated with zinc alloy and zinc layers that form a
metallurgical bond with the substrate. The resulting coating is durable, tough, abrasion
resistant, and provides cathodic (sacrificial) protection to any small damaged areas where
the steel substrate is exposed. The typical minimum average coating thickness for
structural steelwork is 85μm [6].

Figure 6:Cross-section through a hot-dip galvanized coating [6]

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CHAPTER 7: INSPECTION AND QUALITY CONTROL
Inspection forms an integral part of quality control. Its purpose is to check that the requirements
of the specification are being complied with and to provide a report with proper records to the
client. One of the greatest assets to the coating inspector is a clear written specification that can be
referred to without doubt.
The appointment of an appropriately qualified third-party inspector should be seen as an
investment in quality and not just an additional cost. Inspection of the processes, procedures and
materials required for the protective coating of steel structures is vital, since a major error in even
one operation cannot be easily detected after the next operation has been carried out, and if not
rectified immediately can significantly reduce the expected life to first maintenance.

CHAPTER 8: HOW SCRAP IRON CAN BE USED

8.1 Iron Scrap Recycling
Iron material is utilized wherever we see, Cars, structures, jars and so forth. Since it's all
over the place, it's smarter to reuse than leaving it as waste. 30% of all the iron items are
produced using reused iron. By reusing iron, we can spare about 65% of the vitality to make
iron from Iron minerals [7].
Steel has one outstanding characteristic: it can be endlessly recycled without its material
qualities being compromised. The iron atoms are indestructible, and by melting scrap metal
it is simple to get the atoms to arrange themselves in a new, regular way to form new steel
with new properties.
Recycling is really nothing new for the steel industry. Ever since the 19th century, indeed,
there have been processes for melting scrap metal and making new steel products.
Nowadays, scrap is a strategic and sought-after raw material for the steel industry. Naturally
enough, accompanying the iron atoms are all the other species of atoms, the alloying
elements, which go to constitute different steels. Most often, the scrap mixture can be
adjusted in order to utilize the existing alloying elements for new products.
Besides, it is likewise conceivable to reuse steel which has been surface treated. One model
that can be referenced here is electro electrifies steel sheets from for example engine
vehicles. At the point when the stirred steel item is sent for reusing and the steel experiences
remolding, the zinc covering winds up in the vent gas dust emanations and it is likewise
appropriately dealt with and reused.
On the one hand, steel plants utilize internal scrap, which derives from the companies’ own
production processes. This may include, for example, steel residues from ladles and furnaces
or cropped (sheared) tail-ends from continuous casting and rolling processes. On the other
hand, the plants utilize merchant (external) scrap; this consists of end-of-life steel products
(from scrap metal collections) and scrap from the fabrication/metalworking of steel products
in workshops (prompt scrap).

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 For merchant scrap, there is a well-established market in operation, with scrap metals being
bought and sold in accordance with agreed rules governing quality.

Benefits of Developing the Steel Scrap Processing Sector in Nepal

1. Domestic recovery of scrap will ensure reduction in scrap and metal imports, thereby
reducing trade deficits.
2. Metal scrap recycling will lead to natural resource conservation and energy savings.
3. Processing metal scrap in an organized, safe and environmentally efficient manner.
4. Promotion of a formal collection and shredding mechanism for end of life products that are
sources of metal scrap.
5. Generation of new sources of revenue and employment for the government.
6. Establishing mechanism such as e-auctions, defined payment systems for monitoring and
regulating the metals recycling sector in Nepal across the value chain.

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 CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION
We concluded that though we are rich in iron ores but due to no proper extraction due to lack of
research, lack of budget etc. we are still practicing the traditional way of using them. We are using
it mostly in the foundry. So, after knowing these various topics on ferrous metal, types of steel we
may be able to extract it and use it in industrial application which would reduce the import in
Nepal.

SURVEY REPORT
I have done survey to my friends through google form. I have collected their opinion about the
scrap iron and its use in Nepal. The survey report is presented in Microsoft Excel file.

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 REFERENCES

[1] Rana, M.N., 1965; Preliminary project report on Thosay iron works. NBM unpub. Report,
[Online].

[2] Kaphle Krishna P., 2019; Geological report on iron ores occurring along the Main Boundry
Thrust from Chhapre (Surkhet) to Mahakali River, Bheri, Seti and Mahakali Zone, Nepal.
DMG unpub. Report, p40, [Online].

[3] Singh, S.P., 1074; Report on Phulchoki Iron ore deposit. NBM unpub. Report, [Online].

[4] Kaphle, Krishna P., 2018; An overview on mineral resources of Nepal with special emphasis
on iron prospects and their contribution to national economy. Jour. Nepal Geol. Soc. vol.57,
pp11. (Abstract volume of NGC-IX), [Online].

[5] K. P. 2. Kaphle and R. N. J. N. G. S. V. S. i. p.-1. (. o. 6. N. G. C. 1.-1. N. 2. Exploration

results of Thoshe Iron deposit. [Online].

[6] J. G. e. Materials science and engineering:an introduction / William D.Callister.

[7] D.Deacon & R.Hudson (2012), Steel Designer’s Manual (7th Edition), Chapter 36 -
Corrosion and corrosion prevention, The Steel Construction Institute., [Online].

[8] http://www.cosmorecycle.com/english/iron-recycling/. [Online].

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