Step-Growth Polymerization

In chemical compounds, polymerization can occur via a variety of reaction mechanisms that vary in
complexity due to the functional groups present in the reactants[4] and their inherent steric effects. In

more straightforward polymerizations, alkenes form polymers through relatively simple radical
reactions; in contrast, reactions involving substitution at a carbonyl group require more complex
synthesis due to the way in which reactants polymerize.[4] Alkanes can also be polymerized, but only
with the help of strong acids.[5]
As alkenes can polymerize in somewhat straightforward radical reactions, they form useful
compounds such as polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride (PVC),[4] which are produced in high
tonnages each year[4] due to their usefulness in manufacturing processes of commercial products,
such as piping, insulation and packaging. In general, polymers such as PVC are referred to as
"homopolymers," as they consist of repeated long chains or structures of the same monomer unit,
whereas polymers that consist of more than one monomer unit are referred to as copolymers (or co-
polymers).[6]
Other monomer units, such as formaldehyde hydrates or simple aldehydes, are able to polymerize
themselves at quite low temperatures (ca. −80 °C) to form trimers;[4] molecules consisting of 3
monomer units, which can cyclize to form ring cyclic structures, or undergo further reactions to
form tetramers,[4] or 4 monomer-unit compounds. Such small polymers are referred to as oligomers.
[4]
Generally, because formaldehyde is an exceptionally reactive electrophile it
allows nucleophilic addition of hemiacetal intermediates, which are in general short-lived and
relatively unstable "mid-stage" compounds that react with other molecules present to form more
stable polymeric compounds.
Polymerization that is not sufficiently moderated and proceeds at a fast rate can be very hazardous.
This phenomenon is known as hazardous polymerization and can cause fires and explosions.
Step-growth[edit]
Main article: Step-growth polymerization
There are two main classes of polymerization reaction mechanisms: step-growth and chain-growth.
In step-growth (or step) polymerization, each step may involve the combination of two polymer
molecules of any lengths to form a longer polymer molecule. The average molar mass increases
slowly and long chains are formed only late in the reaction.[7][8]
Step-growth polymers are formed by independent reaction steps between functional groups of
monomer units, usually containing heteroatoms such as nitrogen or oxygen. Most step-growth
polymers are also classified as condensation polymers, since a small molecule such as water is lost
when the polymer chain is lengthened. For example, polyester chains grow by reaction
of alcohol and carboxylic acid groups to form ester links with loss of water. However, there are
exceptions; for example polyurethanes are step-growth polymers formed from isocyanate and
alcohol bifunctional monomers) without loss of water or other small molecule, and are classified
as addition polymers rather than condensation polymers.
Step-growth polymers increase in molecular weight at a very slow rate at lower conversions and
reach moderately high molecular weights only at very high conversion (i.e., >95%).
Chain-growth[edit]
Main article: Chain-growth polymerization
In chain-growth (or chain) polymerization, the only chain-extension reaction step is the addition of a
monomer to a growing chain with an active center such as a free radical or ion. Once the growth of a
chain is initiated by formation of an active center, chain propagation is usually rapid by addition of a
sequence of monomers. Long chains are formed from the beginning of the reaction.[7][8]
Chain-growth polymerization (or addition polymerization) involves the linking together of molecules
incorporating double or triple carbon-carbon bonds. These unsaturated monomers (the identical
molecules that make up the polymers) have extra internal bonds that are able to break and link up
with other monomers to form a repeating chain, whose backbone typically contains only carbon
atoms. Chain-growth polymerization is involved in the manufacture of polymers such
as polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). A special case of chain-growth
polymerization leads to living polymerization.
In the radical polymerization of ethylene, its π bond is broken, and the two electrons rearrange to
create a new propagating center like the one that attacked it. The form this propagating center takes
depends on the specific type of addition mechanism. There are several mechanisms through which
this can be initiated. The free radical mechanism is one of the first methods to be used. Free radicals
are very reactive atoms or molecules that have unpaired electrons. Taking the polymerization of
ethylene as an example, the free radical mechanism can be divided into three stages: chain
initiation, chain propagation, and chain termination.
Polymerization of ethylene
Free radical addition polymerization of ethylene must take place at high temperatures and
pressures, approximately 300 °C and 2000 atm. While most other free radical polymerizations do not
require such extreme temperatures and pressures, they do tend to lack control. One effect of this
lack of control is a high degree of branching. Also, as termination occurs randomly, when two chains
collide, it is impossible to control the length of individual chains. A newer method of polymerization
similar to free radical, but allowing more control involves the Ziegler–Natta catalyst, especially with
respect to polymer branching.
Other forms of chain growth polymerization include cationic addition polymerization and anionic
addition polymerization. While not used to a large extent in industry yet due to stringent reaction
conditions such as lack of water and oxygen, these methods provide ways to polymerize some
monomers that cannot be polymerized by free radical methods such as polypropylene. Cationic and
anionic mechanisms are also more ideally suited for living polymerizations, although free radical
living polymerizations have also been developed.
Esters of acrylic acid contain a carbon-carbon double bond which is conjugated to an ester group.
This allows the possibility of both types of polymerization mechanism. An acrylic ester by itself can
undergo chain-growth polymerization to form a homopolymer with a carbon-carbon backbone, such
as poly(methyl methacrylate). Also, however, certain acrylic esters can react with diamine monomers
by nucleophilic conjugate addition of amine groups to acrylic C=C bonds. In this case the
polymerization proceeds by step-growth and the products are poly(beta-amino ester) copolymers,
with backbones containing nitrogen (as amine) and oxygen (as ester) as well as carbon.[9]
Physical polymer reaction engineering[edit]

To produce a high-molecular-weight, uniform product, various methods are employed to better
control the initiation, propagation, and termination rates during chain polymerization and also to
remove excess concentrated heat during these exothermic reactions compared to polymerization of
the pure monomer (also referred to as bulk polymerization). These include emulsion
polymerization, solution polymerization, suspension polymerization, and precipitation polymerization.
Although the polymer dispersity and molecular weight may be improved, these methods may
introduce additional processing requirements to isolate the product from a solvent.
Photopolymerization[edit]
Main article: Photopolymer
Most photopolymerization reactions are chain-growth polymerizations which are initiated by the
absorption of visible[10] or ultraviolet light. The light may be absorbed either directly by the reactant
monomer (direct photopolymerization), or else by a photosensitizer which absorbs the light and then
transfers energy to the monomer. In general only the initiation step differs from that of the ordinary
thermal polymerization of the same monomer; subsequent propagation, termination and chain
transfer steps are unchanged.[11] In step-growth photopolymerization, absorption of light triggers an
addition (or condensation) reaction between two comonomers that do not react without light. A
propagation cycle is not initiated because each growth step requires the assistance of light.[12]
Photopolymerization can be used as a photographic or printing process, because polymerization
only occurs in regions which have been exposed to light. Unreacted monomer can be removed from
unexposed regions, leaving a relief polymeric image.[11] Several forms of 3D printing—including layer-
by-layer stereolithography and two-photon absorption 3D photopolymerization—use
photopolymerization.[13]
Multiphoton polymerization using single pulses have also been demonstrated for fabrication of
complex structures using a digital micromirror device

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In chemical compounds, polymerization can occur via a variety of reaction mechanisms that vary in

complexity due to the functional groups present in the reactants[4] and their inherent steric effects. In

Physical polymer reaction engineering[edit]

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