THE MANLY ART

THE MANLY ART

Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America

Updated Edition

ELLiOlT J. GORN

CORNELL UNIVERSITY PRESS Ithaca and London

Copyright © 1986 by Cornell University
Afterword an d Selected Bibliography copyright © 2010 by Cornell University

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For information , addres s Cornel l Universit y Press , Sag e House , 51 2 Eas t Stat e Street ,
Ithaca, New York 14850.

First published 198 6 by Cornell University Press

Updated Edition first published 201 0 by Cornell University Press

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Dat a

Gorn, Elliott J., 1951 —
The Manly art.

Includes index.
1. Boxing—Unite d States. 2 . Boxing—Unite d States—Matches—History . I . Titl e
GV1125.G67 198 6 796.8'3O97 3 86-641 0
ISBN-13: 978-0-8014-7608-2 (pbk . : alk. paper)

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Frontispiece
lohn Lawrenc e Sulliva n an d Jake Kilrain battl e for the championship o n July 8 , 1889 , in
Richburg, Mississippi , th e fight took seventy-fiv e round s lastin g tw o hour s an d fifteen
minutes. From The Modern Gladiator (1892).
For Ma x Gorn , 1 9 1 0 - 1 9 7 9 ,
and Ann e Franci s Gor n
 Contents

Illustrations 9

Preface π

Prologue: The English Priz e Ring 1 9

1. Hat s in the Rin g 3 4

"The Tremendous Man of Colour" 3 4
First Blood 3 6
Professors of Pugilism 4 7
Ideology and the Ring 5 6

2. Th e First American Champion s 6 9

The Rise of "Yankee' Sulliva n 6 9
The Battle of Hastings 7 3
"The Great $10,000 Match between Sullivan and Hyer" 8 1

3. Th e Age of Heroes 9 8
"The Good Time Coming" 9 8
The Era of John Morrissey 10 8
The Fate of Champions 12 3

4. Th e Meanings of Prize Fighting 12 9

Working-Class Culture in Antebellum Cities 12 9
Meaning in Mayhem 13 6
The Rites of Violence 14 4
 CONTENTS

Triumph an d Declin e 14 8
"The Grea t Contes t fo r the Championship o f the World" 14 8
Civil Wars 15 9
". . . The Gangs Who Rage and Howl at the Ropes" 16 4

"Fight Lik e a Gentleman , Yo u Son o f a Bitch , I f You Can" 17 9

The Rise of Sport s 17 9
The Strenuou s Lif e 18 5
Fighting Clerks , Boxing Brahmins , Vigorous Victorians 19 4

The En d o f th e Bare-Knuckl e Er a 20 7
"My Name' s John L . Sullivan an d I Can Lic k An y
Son-of-a-Bitch Alive " 20 7
The New Orde r 21 6
". . . Nigh New Orlean s upon a n Emerald Plai n . . ." 22 7
"The Champio n o f All Champions" 23 7

Epilogue: The Manl y Ar t 24 8

Afterword t o th e Update d Editio n 25 5

Notes 26 3

Selected Bibliograph y 31 3

Index 319
 Illustrations

John L . Sulliva n an d Jak e Kilrai n battl e fo r th e

championship, Jul y 8 , 188 9 frontis .
The secon d Crib-Molineau x fight , Septembe r 28 , 181 1 2 1
"Gentleman" Joh n Jackson' s sparrin g rooms , 182 1 2 5
"A visi t t o th e five s court, " London , 182 5 2 8
James "Deaf " Burke , champio n o f England , 1832-3 9 4 3
Sparring maste r Willia m Fuller , 182 4 5 2
James "Yankee " Sulliva n an d To m Hye r 8 4
The grea t $10,00 0 match , Februar y 7 , 184 9 9 3
John Morrisse y an d Joh n C . Heena n 11 5

Morrissey battle s Heenan , Octobe r 20 , 185 8 11 9

John C . Heena n an d To m Sayer s squar e off , Apri l 17 , i86 0 15 3
Climax o f th e Heenan-Sayer s figh t 15 4
" 'Yanke e Doodle ' o n hi s muscle " (cartoon ) 15 8
American Fistiana, cove r o f th e 187 3 editio n 16 7
"The Slugger s o f Nebraska " 17 5
Harry Hill' s Ne w Yor k Cit y Sportin g Hous e 18 4
"Education: I s ther e n o middl e course? " (cartoon ) 18 6
Amateur boxing , Ne w Yor k Athleti c Club , 189 0 (broadside ) 19 0

•9 •
 ILLUSTRATIONS

"Prize figh t afte r a banquet " 20 0

President Theodor e Roosevel t spar s wit h forme r middleweigh t

champion Mik e Donova n 20 3
John L . Sulliva n an d Joh n Floo d battl e o n a Hudso n Rive r barge ,
May 16 , 188 1 21 2
The ne w champion , Joh n Lawrenc e Sulliva n 21 7
"Modern consistency , tho u ar t a (paste ) jewel " (cartoon ) 22 3
The las t bare-knuckl e championshi p fight , Jul y 8 , 188 9 23 4
James J . Corbett , firs t titl e challenge r unde r th e
Queensberry rule s 24 0
The en d o f th e bare-knuckl e era , Septembe r 7 , 189 2 24 4

10
 Preface

My fathe r wa s a boxin g fan . Befor e h e married , h e attende d weekl y

fights wit h hi s buddie s i n Ne w Yor k City. I suspect tha t hi s interes t i n th e
ring originate d durin g hi s youth ; althoug h h e neve r formall y boxed ,
Montreal's anti-Semitis m i n th e 1920 s dre w hi m an d hi s brother s int o
countless fistfights . Later , whe n h e serve d i n the merchan t marin e durin g
World Wa r II , simila r provocation s ha d similar results .
Growing u p i n Lo s Angele s durin g th e fiftie s an d sixties , hi s childre n
were hei r t o tales abou t hi s occasiona l nee d t o defend hi s integrity . Thes e
stories merged imperceptibl y int o accounts of famous boxers—"Gentleman "
Gene Tunney , wh o taugh t a clas s a t Yale , Jewis h champion s suc h a s
Benny Leonar d an d Ma x Baer , an d th e greates t fighte r o f the m all , Jo e
Louis. These , i n turn , blurre d int o childhood lesson s o n ho w t o deal wit h
a bull y o r a n anti-Semite , a s ou r tin y fist s punche d m y father' s ope n
hands.
I neve r aske d him , bu t I a m sur e tha t h e foun d boxin g th e mos t
compelling o f al l sports . Th e agility , cleverness , an d ferocit y o f grea t
boxers, th e courag e displaye d i n th e ring , an d th e dram a o f tw o me n
stalking eac h othe r fascinate d him . S o her e i s a paradox : m y father— a
union membe r wh o considere d himsel f a politica l radical—believe d tha t
boxing shoul d b e outlawed . Countles s time s I heard hi m sa y tha t i f give n
the chance , h e woul d vot e t o abolis h th e sport . Ye t thi s wa s no t a
chastened ma n atonin g fo r ol d mistakes . H e enjoye d watchin g televise d
bouts unti l h e die d (he wa s th e onl y perso n I kno w wh o correctl y
predicted th e outcome s o f bot h Ali-Spink s fights) , bu t h e believe d tha t
boxers wer e victim s o f racia l an d clas s discrimination , tha t th e rin g
encouraged violence , an d tha t pugilis m appeale d t o al l tha t wa s barba -
rous i n man .

//
 PREFACE

While I a m neithe r a s pugnaciou s no r a s knowledgeabl e abou t boxin g

as m y fathe r was , I shar e hi s ambivalence . Priz e fightin g glorifie s
violence, exploit s th e poor , exalt s forc e ove r reason , glamorize s atavism .
It i s thes e ver y horrors , however , s o reprehensibl e b y themselves , whic h
highlight al l tha t i s nobl e i n th e ring . Courage , th e ques t fo r excellence ,
the overcomin g o f fear , dream s o f transcendin g one' s socia l an d physica l
handicaps, boxers ' poeti c harmon y o f min d an d body , thei r competitiv e
strivings pas t al l reasonabl e huma n limits—th e ring' s dar k barbaris m
makes suc h qualitie s glow lik e fireflie s o n a Souther n night .
As I tr y t o indicat e throughou t thi s book , th e moralit y o f th e ring , it s
simultaneous attractio n an d repulsion , wa s a them e centra l t o boxin g
history; th e ambivalenc e m y fathe r an d I share d ha d dee p roots . Bu t i n
these pages , I ten d t o tak e th e par t o f th e lion s ove r th e Christians .
My specifi c subjec t i s America n bare-knuckl e priz e fightin g i n th e
nineteenth century . I seek t o rescu e fro m oblivio n th e deed s o f me n wh o
were extraordinaril y wel l know n i n thei r day . Th e colorfu l natur e o f th e
subject make s th e historian' s mos t ancien t role , tha t o f storyteller ,
particularly important . I hav e attempted , a s fa r a s m y abilitie s an d th e
historical source s allow , t o captur e th e live s an d time s o f earl y heroes .
But my emphasi s o n narrativ e i s mor e tha n simpl y a desir e t o tel l a
good story . T o understan d priz e fighting , t o captur e th e layere d an d
changing meaning s tha t th e spor t ha d fo r it s practitioners , fans , an d
opponents, w e mus t becom e enmeshe d i n th e cultur e o f th e ring. Onl y
when w e observ e boxing' s pageantry , rituals , an d ceremonies—only , tha t
is, whe n w e reconstruc t th e histor y an d experienc e o f th e ring—ca n w e
begin t o gras p it s socia l an d cultura l significance .
Prize fightin g wa s on e o f th e mos t popula r sport s amon g working -
class male s i n th e nineteent h century , an d grea t championshi p battle s
galvanized me n lik e fe w othe r events . I t wa s als o illegal . Pugilis m
elicited passionat e response s fro m it s partisan s an d fro m it s opponents ,
and thes e response s gre w ou t o f deepl y fel t assumption s concernin g ma n
and society . Boxin g i s not abou t instinct s o r innat e aggressiveness ; i t is
about values , socia l relationships , an d culture . T o understan d bare -
knuckle priz e fighting , I hav e discovered , i s necessaril y t o understan d
something abou t nineteenth-centur y America . Ideology , ethnicity , socia l
class formation , violence , urbanization , gende r roles , religiou s worl d
views, productiv e relationships , al l ar e par t o f sport s histor y i n genera l
and boxin g histor y i n particular .
I begi n wit h th e Englis h origin s o f th e ring , the n discus s th e earlies t
manifestations o f pugilis m i n th e youn g Unite d States . B y th e antebel -
lum era , a s ol d artisa n way s o f lif e dissolve d an d a moder n workin g clas s
12
 PREFACE

began t o emerg e i n America n cities , bare-knuckl e fightin g entere d it s

golden age . Boxin g encountere d stif f oppositio n durin g thes e earl y
Victorian years , fo r th e force s transformin g labor—entrepreneuria l capi -
talism, specializatio n o f tasks , industrialization—wer e drive n b y power -
ful bourgeoi s an d evangelica l ideologie s tha t militate d agains t th e "slop -
py" habit s o f laborin g men . Afte r th e Civi l War , however , priz e fightin g
was reformed . Fro m a fugitive , outla w sport—th e ver y word s "sport "
and "sporting " implie d socia l devianc e durin g muc h o f th e nineteent h
century—it becam e a mor e businesslike , quasi-respectabl e recreation ,
one tha t upper - an d middle-clas s me n foun d fascinating . M y las t chap -
ters explor e th e socia l basi s o f thi s transformatio n an d it s meanin g fo r
Victorian culture .
The Manly Art i s o f mixe d academi c parentage , thoug h th e discipline s
from whic h i t spring s migh t no t recogniz e thei r offspring . Still , on e ca n
detect geneti c strain s fro m folklore , anthropology , sociology , an d Ameri -
can studies , a s wel l a s labor , social , an d sport s history . I hav e bee n
deliberately eclectic ; I a m a partisa n o f n o particula r schoo l o f thought .
But I d o hav e som e axe s t o grind .
This i s gende r history . I t coul d no t hav e bee n writte n withou t th e
crucial insight s o f th e women' s studie s movement , tha t sexua l defini -
tions ar e a critica l par t o f consciousness , an d tha t the y chang e wit h
social, cultural , an d economi c circumstances . T o writ e abou t priz e
fighting i s necessaril y t o describ e importan t ritual s o f manhood . Bu t
awareness o f th e potentia l malleabilit y o f gende r role s give s adde d
significance t o th e stud y o f sports . Bare-knuckl e boxin g expresse d a
particular mal e etho s tha t gre w ou t o f specifi c historica l conditions .
This i s als o socia l histor y or , mor e precisely , fol k history . I attemp t
here, a s historian s hav e fo r th e pas t coupl e o f decades , t o understan d th e
lives o f thos e wh o lef t fe w record s bu t wh o nevertheles s wer e importan t
historical actors . Th e sam e biase s tha t rendere d wome n voiceles s i n th e
writing o f histor y simultaneousl y exclude d th e majorit y o f men , i n
particular workers , ethni c minorities , an d th e poor . The Manly Art i s a
small contributio n towar d rectifyin g tha t imbalance .
Finally, thi s i s labo r history . I f i n th e j95o s scholar s assume d tha t
America's workin g clas s wa s merel y a n extensio n o f th e peti t bourgeoi -
sie, the n thos e o f th e 1970 s an d 80 s threaten t o reduce culture t o politics .
I will stat e thi s baldly : mos t worker s di d no t spen d thei r fre e tim e
reading th e Rights of Man, toastin g To m Paine , an d strugglin g t o resis t
oppression. Probabl y mor e hour s wer e consume d a t cockfight s tha n a t
union meeting s durin g th e nineteent h century . Radical s ther e were , o f
course, an d the y hav e bee n studie d brilliantly . Bu t i f historian s ar e t o

13
 PREFACE

understand working-clas s people , the y mus t loo k closel y a t their folklor e

and recreations , thei r pastime s an d sports , fo r i t has bee n i n leisur e mor e
than i n politic s o r i n labo r tha t man y me n an d wome n hav e foun d th e
deepest sens e o f meanin g an d wholeness .
The Manly Art i s no t a complet e histor y o f th e priz e ring , no r a
"genealogy" o f champion s an d thei r battles . Th e name s o f som e
important fighter s d o no t eve n appea r here . Becaus e m y inten t i s t o
interpret boxing , no t merel y t o describ e it , I hav e ha d t o b e selectiv e i n
the event s I discuss . Besides , th e sources—mostl y newspaper s an d
popular pamphlets—contai n detaile d an d reliabl e informatio n o n a limit -
ed numbe r o f fights . I t i s o n thes e bout s tha t I have dwelle d i n orde r t o
reconstruct th e cultur e o f th e ring .

It i s almos t embarrassin g t o acknowledg e al l o f thos e wh o helpe d

bring thi s projec t t o fruition , fo r th e result s see m s o meage r whe n
measured agains t thei r talent s an d generosity . I hav e benefite d fro m
important institutiona l support . Yal e University , wher e I attende d gradu -
ate schoo l i n America n Studies , nurture d m e intellectually . Th e Harr y
Frank Guggenhei m Foundatio n funde d a one-yea r leav e o f absenc e fro m
my teachin g dutie s a t th e Universit y o f Alabama , allowin g m e t o revis e
the work . Th e office s o f th e dean s o f art s an d science s a t Alabam a an d a t
my ne w professiona l home , Miam i University , hav e bee n ver y support -
ive, especiall y wit h ai d fo r trave l t o collections an d fo r preparatio n o f th e
manuscript.
I als o than k th e staff s o f th e Sterlin g an d Beineck e librarie s a t Yal e
University, th e Widene r Librar y a t Harvar d University , th e Ne w Yor k
Public Library , th e New-Yor k Historica l Society , th e Ameli a Gayl e
Gorgas Librar y a t th e Universit y o f Alabama , an d Miam i University' s
King Library . Warre n Plat t o f th e Ne w Yor k Publi c Librar y an d Bonni e
Collier a t Yal e provide d bibliographica l ai d beyon d th e cal l o f duty . Ji m
Jacobs kindl y len t m e photocopie d material s compile d thirty-fiv e year s
ago b y Pau l Magriel , a bibliographe r an d chronicle r o f th e ring . Willia m
Schutte o f th e Universit y o f Wisconsin , Whitewater , provide d mos t o f
the illustrations . Severa l typist s als o contribute d thei r skills , ofte n unde r
tight deadlines , amon g the m Hele n an d Aliso n Genua , Ja n Wilson ,
Rhonda Johnson , Margare t Vines , Trac y Noel , J . R . Ford , an d especiall y
Kathleen Grondin . I than k the m all .
Alan Dunde s an d Lawrenc e Levine , m y mentor s a t th e Universit y o f
California, Berkeley , fo r th e firs t hal f o f my caree r a s a colleg e student ,
taught b y thei r exampl e no t onl y ho w t o d o humanisti c scholarshi p bu t
why. Severa l o f m y fello w graduat e students—Joe l Bernard , Edwar d

'4
 PREFACE

Ayers, Jan e Hunter , Joh n Endean , Geral d Burns , an d Michae l Smith —

helped m e get thi s projec t going . Davi d Brio n Davi s encourage d m y
work eve n whe n neithe r o f u s ha d muc h ide a wher e i t woul d lead . Hi s
critical judgmen t improve d th e tex t immeasurably . More , h e gav e m e th e
confidence t o tes t m y abilities , t o tr y ou t ideas , an d t o see k th e broades t
meanings i n history , bu t alway s withi n th e boundarie s o f rigorou s
scholarship. Ka i Erikso n als o brough t crucia l insight s t o th e manuscrip t
(and wr y humo r t o ou r discussions) , an d Jea n Agne w aske d question s
that helpe d fram e th e intellectua l structur e o f thi s boo k whil e h e offere d
personal supportivenes s tha t aide d it s completion .
I als o acknowledg e m y fello w "professor s o f pugilism. " Rand y
Roberts ha s le d th e wa y fo r al l o f u s wh o writ e sport s history ; hi s goo d
advice prove d indispensabl e o n numerou s occasions . Benjami n Rade r
also rea d th e entir e manuscrip t an d adde d importan t suggestions . Jeffre y
Sammons ha s bee n a constan t sourc e o f aid , an d hi s forthcomin g boo k
on twentieth-centur y boxin g wil l b e invaluable . Melvi n Adelma n kindl y
lent m e earl y draft s o f hi s path-breakin g stud y o f sport s i n nineteenth -
century Ne w Yor k City . Fre d Harve y Harringto n provide d a detaile d
critique o f chapte r thre e base d o n a biograph y h e i s writin g o n Joh n
Morrissey. Michae l T . Isenber g rea d chapte r seve n an d als o len t m e
drafts o f hi s fin e biography-in-progres s o f Joh n L . Sullivan , anothe r
work tha t promise s a brigh t futur e fo r historie s o f th e priz e ring .
My colleague s i n th e America n Studie s Departmen t a t th e Universit y
of Alabam a wer e alway s ther e a s I revised th e work . Le t m e specificall y
name thre e Alabam a facult y member s wh o rea d th e entir e manuscript .
Ralph Bogardu s brough t hi s breadt h o f knowledg e an d skil l a s a cultura l
critic t o bea r o n th e text ; Fre d Hobso n o f th e Englis h Departmen t cas t a
literary scholar' s ey e o n m y pros e an d improve d i t greatly ; an d Joh n
Kneebone aske d a socia l historian' s kee n questions . Al l contribute d wit h
their insigh t an d eve n mor e wit h thei r friendship . Thre e editor s helpe d
bring a youn g write r throug h th e shoals : Lawrenc e Malle y bolstere d m e
with earl y confidenc e i n m y work ; Pete r Agre e contribute d hi s copiou s
skills t o th e fina l product ; an d Roge r Haydo n save d m e fro m countles s
errors wit h a masterl y jo b o f cop y editing . A s th e manuscrip t neare d
completion, Joh n Kasso n adde d importan t word s o f criticis m an d en -
couragement. M y goo d frien d Alle n Tullo s alway s reminde d m e b y hi s
example tha t writin g histor y i s a s muc h a passio n a s a craft . I learne d
lessons i n courag e an d humo r an d huma n decenc y simpl y b y knowin g
Margaret Vines . An d m y brothe r Michae l Gor n an d kindre d spiri t Fran k
Travisano helpe d kee p m e goin g throughou t th e researc h an d writing .
My wif e o f twelv e years , Ann a Yee , laughe d a t m y spelling , ridicule d

15
 PREFACE

my grammar , an d belittle d m y verba l pomposity . Fro m deletin g stra y

commas t o expandin g centra l ideas , sh e contribute d t o every draf t o f thi s
work. Mor e important , sh e sustaine d m y spirit s i n goo d time s an d bad .
Thank yo u fo r bein g m y wif e an d lettin g m e b e you r husband . An d
thank you , Jade , ou r two-year-ol d daughter , fo r remindin g u s constantl y
of wha t i s importan t i n life .
Shortly afte r I began graduat e school , m y fathe r suggeste d tha t n o on e
had eve r writte n seriousl y abou t boxing . I assume d tha t a ma n wit h a
seventh-grade educatio n di d no t understan d th e complexitie s o f scholarl y
work, s o I pai d littl e attention . H e an d a cousin , Mann y Cole , persiste d
in tellin g m e tha t priz e fightin g wa s just th e thin g a studen t shoul d thin k
about. I remained aloof—unti l I needed a topic fo r a semina r paper . A s I
keep discovering , m y fathe r kne w mor e tha n I ever gav e hi m credi t for .
My mothe r wa s no t muc h intereste d i n athletics , bu t sh e taugh t he r
children a sportsmanlik e desir e t o d o thei r best . I f sh e loathe d boxing ,
she stil l coul d sympathiz e wit h a priz e fighter' s ambition . Bot h o f m y
parents nurture d m e an d sacrifice d fo r me . The y taugh t m e th e valu e o f
knowledge an d inculcate d a desir e t o understan d th e worl d an d t o hel p
others understan d it . Thi s boo k i s theirs i n mor e way s tha n I can express .

ELLIOTT J . GOR N
Oxford, Ohio

16
THE MANLY ART
 Prologue: The Englis h Priz e Rin g

The marqui s o f Queensberry , Si r Henr y Smith , Lor d Yarmouth , Th e

Honourable Berkele y Craven , Majo r Mellish , Genera l Grosvenor , Lor d
Pomfret, Si r Charle s Alton , an d countles s othe r me n o f ran k stoo d
shoulder t o shoulde r a t th e ropes , waitin g fo r th e fighter s t o appear .
Behind them , th e motle y crow d know n a s "th e fancy " presse d forward .
Professional gamblers , taver n keepers , an d youn g dandie s ou t fo r a
grand time ; prostitutes, costermongers , pugilists , and pickpockets; wealth y
"Corinthians" wh o patronize d lower-clas s recreations ; cockfighters , do g
trainers, butchers , weavers , an d chimne y sweeps ; hig h an d low , ric h an d
poor—twenty thousan d Englishme n mingle d a t Thistleto n Gap , outsid e
London, o n Septembe r 28 , 1811. 1
Shortly afte r noo n To m Crib , a bellhange r turne d taver n keepe r an d
now champio n o f England , spran g upo n th e stag e an d bowe d t o th e
crowd. Thre e month s o f trainin g o n th e estat e o f Captai n Barclay—a n
old patro n o f th e rin g wh o allegedl y stake d te n thousan d pound s o n hi s
man—had steele d th e champion' s fram e wit h muscle . Thirt y year s old ,
five-feet-ten-inches tall , weighin g thirtee n ston e si x (on e hundre d an d
eighty-eight pounds) , Cri b wa s a t th e heigh t o f hi s pugilisti c powers .
Tom Molineaux , a n America n an d a black man , followe d th e champi -
on int o the ring. Almos t th e sam e siz e a s Crib, Molineau x ha d astonishe d
Englishmen ove r th e previou s yea r wit h spectacula r display s o f powe r
and craft . Ringsid e bettin g stoo d a t three-to-on e fo r Crib , bu t man y
feared tha t th e titl e wa s i n jeopardy . Molineaux' s foreignnes s disturbe d
the fanc y eve n mor e tha n hi s color , fo r i t raise d th e prospec t tha t
England migh t los e th e championship , a symbo l o f nationa l virility. 2
These fear s seeme d wel l founded . Cri b an d Molineau x ha d me t almos t
a yea r before , o n a cold , we t Decembe r day . Pierc e Egan , th e grea t

19
 T H E MANL Y AR T

chronicler o f sportin g life , declare d tha t interes t i n previou s contest s

paled besid e thi s on e because , fo r th e firs t time , nationa l hono r wa s a t
stake. Fancyme n slogge d throug h ankle-dee p mu d o n thei r wa y t o
Copthall Common , thirt y mile s nort h o f London , a tre k tha t wa s
rewarded wit h a n outstandin g fight . Th e America n bega n a s a four-to -
one underdog , bu t b y th e nint h roun d th e champio n wa s i n trouble .
"Both th e combatant s appeare d dreadfull y punished," Ega n wrote ,
"and Crib' s hea d wa s terribl y swelle d o n th e lef t side . . . . Molineaux
rallied wit h a spiri t unexpected , bore d i n upo n Crib , an d b y a stron g
blow throug h th e Champion' s Guard , whic h h e plante d i n hi s face ,
brought hi m down." 3
By th e thirteent h round , th e odd s ha d turne d t o six-to-fou r o n
Molineaux. Thre e round s later , the y wer e roughl y even , an d th e momen -
tum shifte d bac k an d fort h unti l th e twenty-nint h round , whe n Crib ,
retreating an d counterpunching , caugh t Molineau x wit h a blo w t o th e
right ey e tha t seriousl y impaire d hi s vision . Th e challenge r carrie d th e
fight fo r te n mor e rounds , continuin g t o punis h Crib , bu t h e finall y
collapsed fro m exhaustion . "Molineaux, " Ega n concluded , "prove d
himself a s courageous a man a s ever a n adversar y contende d w i t h . . . . Th e
Black astonishe d everyone , no t onl y b y hi s extraordinar y powe r o f
hitting, an d hi s giganti c strength , bu t als o b y hi s acquaintanc e wit h th e
science, whic h wa s fa r greate r tha n an y ha d give n hi m credi t for. "
Indeed, rumor s wer e rif e tha t onl y chicaner y b y Crib' s second s an d
interference b y th e crow d kep t th e championshi p fro m Molineaux' s
grasp. 4
So, a s th e rematc h began , thos e a t ringsid e eye d th e challenge r wit h
deep apprehension . Th e tw o heroe s picke d u p wher e the y ha d lef t of f i n
their firs t fight . Fourt h round : "althoug h [Crib ] wa s bleedin g fro m ever y
wound, h e smile d wit h confidence , an d rallie d i n th e firs t styl e o f
manliness. A numbe r o f goo d blow s wer e exchanged . Cri b milling awa y
at th e bod y an d Molineaux punishing th e head. " Fift h round : "Molineau x
commenced a rally, an d th e punishment wa s trul y dreadfu l o n bot h sides ;
but th e Moor ha d th e bes t o f i t an d th e champio n fel l fro m a hit." 5
Molineaux, however , wa s no t th e sam e fighte r a s a year before . Whil e
Crib traine d wit h Captai n Barclay , th e challenge r wa s unabl e t o fin d a
wealthy backer , s o he sparre d an d fough t priz e battle s i n orde r t o suppor t
himself. H e als o frequente d th e tavern s an d flash house s patronize d b y
the sportin g fraternity , drinkin g to o muc h an d dissipatin g hi s strength . A s
a result , Molineaux' s "bottom"—th e fancy' s wor d fo r endurance —
betrayed him . Sixt h round : "Cri b no w gav e th e Moor s o sever e a blo w
in th e bod y wit h hi s righ t hand , tha t i t no t onl y appeare d t o roll him up,

20
 PROLOGUE

The second Crib-Molineaux championship fight, September 28, 181 I, in which

the American black and the English champion battled for eleven rounds.
Engraved by the celebrated illustrators George and Robert Isaac Cruikshank.

but seemed as if he had completely knocked the wind out of him." Ninth
round: "It was so evident which way the battle would now terminate, that
it was 'Lombard Street to a China Orange' Crib was the conqueror. The
Moor in running in, had his jaw broke, and he fell as if dead from a
tremendous left-handed blow of the Champion." Molineaux managed to
rise for two more rounds berore giving in.6
Crib's return home was triumphant; grateful Englishmen mobbed his
coach in every town. Back in London, several Corinthians raised a
subscription for an engraved silver cup. "You are requested," Crib was
told before a gathering of wealthy ring patrons, "to accept this cup as a
tribute of respect for the uniform valor and integrity you have shewn in
your several combats, but most particularly for the additional proofs of
native skill and manly intrepidity displayed by you in your last memourable

. 2I .
 THE MANL Y AR T

battle, whe n th e caus e reste d no t merel y o n individua l fame , bu t fo r th e

pugilistic reputatio n o f you r nativ e country , i n contendin g wit h a formi -
dable foreig n antagonist. " A sumptuou s dinne r followed , the n toasts ,
songs, an d genera l convivialit y cappe d th e celebration. 7
Here wa s th e Englis h priz e rin g i n it s glory . " I hav e know n th e time, "
George Borro w recalle d o f thes e days , "whe n a pugilisti c encounte r
between tw o note d champion s wa s almos t considere d a s a national affair ;
when ten s o f thousand s o f individuals , hig h an d low , meditate d an d
brooded upo n it , th e firs t thin g i n th e mornin g an d th e las t a t night , unti l
the grea t even t wa s decided. " Molineau x an d Cri b wer e beneficiarie s o f
boxing's apotheosis . Patronag e b y th e aristocrac y an d gentry , participa -
tion b y les s tha n gentee l member s o f th e lowe r class , a share d lov e o f
conviviality an d hig h times , a share d admiratio n fo r courage , display s o f
honor, an d physica l prowess , an d a share d fea r o f nationa l decadenc e
and effeminancy , al l mad e priz e fightin g England' s mos t popula r spor t
from th e las t decade s o f th e eighteent h throug h th e firs t quarte r o f th e
nineteenth century. 8
The precis e origin s o f Englis h pugilis m ar e obscure . W e kno w tha t
fistic comba t wa s a n even t i n th e ancien t Gree k Olympiad . Pindar , fo r
example, celebrate d Diagoras ' victor y i n th e game s o f 47 4 B.C. : "Bu t d o
thou, O fathe r Zeus , tha t rules t ove r th e heigh t o f Atabyrium , gran t
honour t o th e hym n ordaine d i n prais e o f a n Olympia n victor , an d t o th e
hero wh o hat h foun d fam e fo r hi s prowes s a s a boxer ; an d d o tho u giv e
him grac e an d reverenc e i n th e eye s o f citizen s an d o f stranger s too . Fo r
he goet h i n a straigh t cours e alon g a pat h tha t hatet h insolence ; h e hat h
learnt ful l wel l al l th e lesson s prompte d b y th e prudenc e whic h h e
inheriteth fro m goodl y ancestors. " Fo r Pindar , th e boxer' s achievemen t
was no t merel y physica l bu t mora l a s well , a sig n o f prope r upbringin g
by a goo d famil y an d a culminatio n o f virtuou s livin g worth y o f Zeus '
blessing. 9
Even lord s an d warrior s compete d t o wi n prizes , entertai n eac h other ,
uphold thei r honor , demonstrat e virility , an d pa y homag e t o the dead . Fo r
the ancien t Greeks , gifte d fighter s personifie d importan t cultura l values .
A dangerous , blood y sport , boxin g wa s considere d goo d preparatio n fo r
warfare, s o me n o f grea t scienc e an d finess e receive d specia l praise .
Boxers becam e exalte d heroes , model s o f th e agonisti c idea l wh o
celebrated th e god s wit h thei r deed s an d embodie d th e goa l o f unifie d
mental, physical , an d spiritua l cultivation . Sport s i n genera l an d boxin g
in particula r wer e encourage d becaus e the y taugh t disciplin e whil e
exemplifying Gree k ideal s o f grac e an d beauty. 10
The Greek s passe d th e ide a o f fisti c comba t o n t o th e Romans , a s th e
22
 PROLOGUE

Latin origin s o f ou r wor d pugilism testify , bu t boxin g matche s becam e

ever mor e blood y spectacle s durin g th e ascendanc y o f Rome . Unde r th e
Empire, fighter s too k t o ne w extreme s th e Gree k practic e o f wearin g a
thong—called caestus b y th e Romans—t o protec t th e hand . Sometime s
metal spike s wer e embedde d i n th e surface . Virgi l describe s a pair i n The
Aeneiď.

From somewher e h e produce d th e glove s o f Ery x

And tosse d the m int o th e ring , al l stif f an d heavy .
Seven layer s of hid e and insew n lea d and iron . . . .
You can stil l se e th e bloo d an d a splas h o f brain s
That staine d the m lon g ago . . . .

Virgil goe s o n t o recoun t a mythi c boxin g match , par t o f th e funera l

games honorin g Anchises , i n whic h th e ol d champio n Entellu s triumphe d
over youn g Dares . Th e figh t wa s stoppe d onc e th e outcom e becam e
clear, an d th e vanquishe d ma n wa s carrie d off , spittin g bloo d an d teeth .
Entellus the n face d hi s prize , a steer ,

Drew bac k hi s right hand, poise d it , sen t i t smashin g

Between th e horns , shatterin g th e skul l an d splashin g
Brains o n th e bones , a s the grea t beas t cam e down , lifeless .

The champio n declare d th e stee r a sacrific e t o th e go d Ery x an d vowe d

to la y asid e th e glove s forever. "
In both Greec e an d Rome , then , boxin g wa s mor e tha n mer e entertain -
ment. I t gre w ou t o f cultura l sensibilitie s tha t mad e mal e prowess ,
violent competition , an d persona l ambitio n par t o f large r socia l an d
religious ideals . Thu s fist-fightin g too k it s plac e alongsid e othe r bloody ,
gladitorial spectacles. 12
Pugilism ma y hav e bee n introduce d t o England durin g th e Roma n
occupation, bu t i f so , i t disappeare d shortl y afte r th e Christia n er a bega n
and apparentl y di d no t retur n unti l th e seventeent h century . Perhap s th e
idea o f boxin g reemerge d a s Englishme n rediscovere d th e classics ,
learning abou t i t fro m Virgi l an d Homer. 13 Certainl y th e morall y relaxe d
atmosphere followin g th e Purita n ascendanc y permitte d th e reviva l o f
rough sports , alon g wit h thei r attendan t vice s o f drinking , gambling , an d
carousing. Indeed , durin g th e Restoratio n o f th e mid-i6oos , ancien t rura l
recreations returne d i n ful l glor y an d bloodiness , amon g the m cockfighting ,
bullbaiting, an d football . Boxin g dre w strengt h fro m thi s sportin g
revival, bu t th e rin g di d no t hav e dee p root s i n th e Englis h countryside .
Rather, i t becam e a n urba n phenomenon , supporte d b y cit y nobles , loca l

23
 THE MANL Y AR T

squires migratin g t o th e commercia l centers , an d growin g number s o f

working-class men. 14
James Fi g i s generall y credite d a s th e fathe r o f th e Englis h ring ,
though other s certainl y boxe d befor e him . Th e firs t manua l o n fisti c
exercise, Captai n Godfrey' s A Treatise on the Useful Science of Defense
published i n 1740 , calle d Fi g th e greates t teache r o f boxin g o f th e earl y
1700s. I n additio n t o foundin g hi s ow n school , Fig' s Amphitheatre , h e
fought severa l priz e battle s an d exhibite d hi s pugilisti c talents , alon g
with th e art s o f swordsmanshi p an d cudge l pla y (fightin g wit h heav y
sticks), a t suc h seasona l gathering s a s the Southwark Fair . Jac k Broughto n
succeeded Fig , receivin g th e duk e o f Cumberland' s patronag e an d
reigning a s th e secon d grea t foundin g fathe r o f th e ring . Broughto n als o
fought priz e battle s an d taugh t "th e theor y an d practic e o f tha t trul y
British Art " i n hi s Londo n Academy . Abov e all , h e brough t a mor e
refined ton e t o th e ring an d promulgate d th e sport' s first rules , a cod e
that guide d priz e fightin g fro m 174 3 throug h 1838 . I n on e o f hi s
championship bouts , Fi g ha d bee n strangle d fo r hal f a minut e befor e
extricating himsel f fro m hi s opponent' s grip . Broughton' s rule s helpe d
eliminate suc h brutality ; the y als o outlawe d hittin g belo w th e bel t an d
striking a falle n opponent . Th e ne w cod e furthe r specifie d tha t a roun d
ended whe n a ma n wa s punche d o r throw n down , tha t th e nex t roun d
began thirt y second s late r wit h bot h boxer s toein g a mar k calle d th e
"scratch" i n th e middl e o f th e ring, an d tha t eac h sid e appoin t second s
to assis t betwee n rounds , umpire s t o settl e disputes , an d a refere e whos e
decisions wer e final.' 5
These precedent s wer e important , bu t i t wa s no t unti l nea r th e en d o f
the eighteent h centur y tha t boxin g woul d gro w s o popula r a s t o b e
deemed th e nationa l spor t o f England . Th e reason s wer e complex .
Pugilism's rise wa s par t o f a large r flowering o f commercialize d leisur e
and popula r recreations . Leadin g th e way wer e newl y reorganize d specta -
tor sport s suc h a s cricke t an d hors e racing , wit h thei r forma l rules ,
sophisticated betting , an d powerfu l club s comprise d o f influentia l pa -
trons. Th e emergenc e o f severa l skilled , colorfu l champions , moreover ,
was crucia l t o th e ring' s development—Danie l Mendoza , th e quic k an d
clever Jew ; Bil l Richmond , a n America n blac k wh o pioneere d counter -
punching an d othe r defensiv e strategies ; "Gentleman " Joh n Jackson ,
teacher o f th e manl y ar t fo r a whol e generatio n o f Englis h aristocrats ;
John Gully , a butcher' s so n wh o ros e fro m debtors ' prison t o champion ,
wealthy bookmaker , an d membe r o f Parliament ; a s wel l a s Je m Belcher ,
Tom Spring , Richar d Humphries , Bo b Gregson , To m Hickman , Jac k
Langan, an d man y others. 16

24
 PROLOGUE

"Gentleman" John Jackson's sparring rooms, 1821. Such notables as Lord

Byron took lessons from the "sparring master to the aristocracy." Engraved by
the Cruikshank brothers. Courtesy of the Print Collections, The New York
Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations .

The great English essayist William Hazlitt captured boxing's glory in

" The Fight," his account of the championship battle in I 82 I between
Tom "The Gas-man" Hickman, and William Neate. Hazlitt described
the taverns, bristling with excitement, as members of the fancy gathered
the night before to discover the secret location of the battle and enjoy
one another's company. He recounted his discussions with trainers,
boxers, and other "knowing ones." Hazlitt painted the spectacle in
colors still vivid today: "Reader, have you ever seen a fight? If not, you
have a pleasure to come, at least if it is a fight like that between the
Gas-man and Bill Neate. The crowd was very great when we arrived on
the spot; open carriages were coming up, with streamers flying and
music playing, and the country people were pouring in over hedge and
ditch, in all directions, to see their hero beat or be beaten." Hazlitt
sketched the young swells at ringside in their white box coats, the burly
club-bearing ring keepers who kept the "magic circle" clear, the boxers

. 25 .
 THE MANL Y AR T

themselves strippin g of f thei r garments , Neat e quietl y confident , Hickma n

strutting lik e th e coc k o f th e walk . A t th e las t instan t work-a-da y tim e
stopped, an d th e specia l rhyth m o f th e rin g began . "Ther e wa s no w a dead
pause—attention wa s awe-struck . Wh o a t tha t moment , bi g wit h a grea t
event, di d no t dra w hi s breat h short—di d no t fee l hi s hear t throb ? Al l wa s
ready.... They wer e le d u p to the scratch—shook hands , and wen t a t it." 17
Hazlitt brilliantly evoke d the ring's uniqu e combination o f lightheartednes s
and brutality . Hi s word s di d no t mas k th e violenc e bu t describe d th e
bloody eb b an d flo w o f th e battl e unti l it s chillin g denouement : "[Neate ]
planted a tremendous blo w o n [Hickman's ] cheek-bon e an d eyebrow , an d
made a re d rui n o f tha t sid e o f hi s face . Th e Gas-ma n wen t down , an d
there wa s anothe r shout— a roa r of triump h a s the wave s o f fortun e rolle d
tumultuously fro m sid e t o side . . . . " Bu t th e challenge r woul d no t giv e
up. I n th e twelft h roun d Neat e lunge d again , strikin g Hickma n wit h ful l
force: "Al l trace s o f life , o f natura l expression , wer e gon e fro m him . Hi s
face wa s lik e a huma n skull , a death' s head , spoutin g blood . Th e eye s
were fille d wit h blood , th e nos e streame d blood , th e mout h gape d blood .
He wa s no t lik e a n actua l man , bu t lik e a preternatural , spectra l
appearance, o r lik e on e o f th e figure s i n Dante' s Inferno. " Hickma n
came u p fo r si x mor e rounds , the n lapse d int o unconsciousness . Hazlit t
chastened thos e critic s o f th e rin g wh o assume d superio r air s yet coul d
never replicat e th e courag e an d self-possessio n o f on e wh o li t ga s lamp s
for a living . "Th e Fight " ende d a s i t began , wit h description s o f grea t
conviviality an d share d memorie s o n th e retur n tri p t o London. 18
Hazlitt caugh t th e priz e rin g a t th e pea k o f it s grandeur , whe n me n
lived fo r th e thril l o f a goo d figh t o n whic h t o wager ; whe n remarkabl e
writers, Vincen t Dowling , Joh n Badcock , an d especiall y Pierc e Egan ,
catered t o th e desir e o f th e newl y literat e masse s fo r fres h pros e o n
exciting subjects ; whe n dozen s o f th e country' s mos t distinguishe d
gentlemen belonge d t o th e Pugilisti c Club , whos e member s arrange d
matches, pu t u p stakes , an d wor e thei r distinctiv e blue-and-buff uniform s
at ringside ; whe n th e cza r o f Russi a an d th e kin g o f Prussia , i n
celebration o f thei r victor y ove r Napoleon , wer e treate d t o a n exhibitio n
of th e ar t o f self-defens e b y th e grea t Englis h champions ; whe n th e
Prince Regent , a patro n o f th e ring , organize d a n hono r guar d o f twent y
leading pugilist s t o atten d hi m a t hi s coronatio n a s Georg e I V i n 1821. 19
Above all , boxin g epitomize d a cultura l style . Th e pursui t o f raucou s
sports ha d dee p root s i n th e countryside , an d man y Briton s revele d i n th e
national lov e o f roug h play . Violen t recreation s affirme d masculin e
values suc h a s prowess , valor , an d physica l courage . "Th e Englis h clare t
had flowe d s o freely, " Pierc e Ega n wrot e o f on e fight , "tha t neve r

26
 PROLOGUE

before o r sinc e di d I see tw o me n s o thoroughl y an d handsomel y painte d

with th e tru e bloo d red , fro m th e crow n o f th e hea d t o th e waistband .
They woul d hav e mad e a rar e subjec t fo r a painter. " Boxin g wa s on e o f
several bruta l pastimes—includin g cockfighting , bull - an d bearbaiting ,
cudgel play , an d dogfighting—lon g popula r wit h th e Englis h people . O n
the simples t level , th e bloodines s i n rin g an d pi t parallele d th e bloodi -
ness o f societ y i n th e lat e eighteent h an d earl y nineteent h centuries .
Street violenc e threatene d peace-lovin g citizen s wit h assaults , robbery ,
gang attack , an d murder . More , th e er a wa s rif e wit h revolutionar y
bloodbaths, war s o f unprecedente d ferocity , publi c executions , grindin g
poverty, restiv e labor , an d repressiv e capital. 20
But boxin g wa s fa r mor e tha n butcher y turne d spectacle . Priz e
fighting engendere d a mal e aesthetic . Fo r th e fancy , a goo d bou t wa s a n
artistic idealizatio n o f reality , displayin g manliness , fai r play , an d finel y
developed physica l skills . Th e ring , i t wa s said , taugh t Englishme n
bulldog courage , fosterin g a sens e o f nationa l prid e whil e counterin g
effeminacy. Pugilis m elevate d hono r ove r money-gettin g an d martia l
valor ove r comfort . Equall y important , th e fanc y foun d beaut y i n man' s
sheer physicality . Th e sam e Pierc e Ega n wh o evoke d scene s drenche d
with bloo d als o praise d champio n Richar d Humphrie s fo r hi s "eleganc e
of position, " hi s "coo l an d promp t judgement, " hi s "fortitud e o f
manner," an d hi s "manl y an d tastefu l attitudes. " Boxing , Ega n argued ,
taught lesson s i n humanity , settlin g quarrel s wit h th e sam e finalit y a s
pistols an d dagger s bu t withou t th e attendan t los s o f life . Bloodlettin g
artfully performed , violenc e withi n explici t rules , brutalit y committe d
with style—th e rin g articulate d a n idea l o f manhoo d tha t boun d display s
of sanguin e passion s withi n a n aestheti c o f restrain t an d decorum. 21
The son s o f th e aristocrac y an d gentr y wer e especiall y attracte d t o
boxing. A t Eto n an d Harrow , youn g gentleme n acquire d blac k eye s an d
split lip s alon g wit h courage , coolnes s unde r pressure , an d a sens e o f
leadership an d command , th e mora l foundation s o f th e lande d classes '
rule. Perhap s th e aggressiv e masculinit y o f th e rin g wa s a defensiv e
reaction fo r th e me n o f a n ol d uppe r clas s whos e relativ e powe r an d
wealth—the ver y basi s o f thei r patriarcha l prerogatives—wer e declining .
Prize fight s an d othe r popula r recreation s momentaril y reestablishe d elit e
authority amon g th e masses . The y allowe d gentleme n a t onc e t o mingl e
with th e multitude , cementin g th e loyalt y o f thei r socia l inferiors , bu t
simultaneously t o distanc e themselve s throug h display s o f wealt h an d
largesse. Equall y important , sport s reasserte d gentr y values , especiall y
love o f pageantry , bol d ris k taking , an d martia l courage. 22
Though boxin g wa s nourishe d b y th e sam e etho s a s othe r traditiona l

27
 THE MANLY ART

"A visit to the fives court," London, 1825. Here boxers sparred, matches were
made, stakes deposited, and benefits given. Engraved by Robert Isaac Cruikshank
for Pierce Egan's Sporting Anecdotes (1825). Courtesy of the Print Collection,
The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations.

recreations, it was not a venerable country amusement like cockfighting.

The ring was a product of those social and economic forces transforming
England, and it grew from tensions endemic in society. The fancy was a
large and heterogeneous club, replicating the diversity of the burgeoning
metropolis. It was this very heterogeneity which was so appealing,
giving the ring its colorful blend of rich and poor, well-born and debased,
resplendent and ragged. Great men and small now migrated in unprece­
dented numbers to booming new centers of commerce and manufactur­
ing. Urban life provided the fancy with a multitude of watering holes,

. 28 .
 PROLOGUE

including dozen s o f tavern s ru n b y forme r boxers , wher e th e sportin g

crowd coul d drink , sing , an d recal l famou s battles. 23
Equally important , th e cit y hel d a larg e working-clas s population , me n
for who m a purs e o f te n o r fift y o r on e hundre d pounds , alon g wit h th e
chance t o becom e a her o amon g one' s peers , wa s wort h th e ris k o f
permanent injury , eve n death. 24 Boxer s cam e fro m th e rank s o f coa l
heavers, cana l diggers , brickmakers , chai r carriers , butchers , tailors ,
masons, da y laborers , an d al l variet y o f workingmen . Man y stil l belonge d
to viabl e crafts , bu t mos t wer e becomin g permanen t wag e laborer s wit h
little chanc e o f attainin g autonom y throug h th e dyin g apprenticeshi p
system. Member s o f ethni c groups—Irishman , blacks , an d Jews—wer e
especially draw n t o th e rin g becaus e o f thei r lowl y socia l an d economi c
status an d becaus e i t offere d a chance t o compet e agains t Englishme n o n
an equa l footing. 25 Priz e fightin g wa s thu s par t o f a hybri d cultur e tha t
appealed t o th e highes t an d th e lowes t i n th e Englis h socia l structure ,
combined som e o f th e ancien t recreation s brough t fro m th e countrysid e
with ne w sport s an d games , an d fitte d the m al l int o emergen t pattern s o f
commercialization an d industria l rhythm s o f work .
The rin g wa s abov e al l a focus fo r cultura l conflic t tha t aros e fro m th e
new economi c an d socia l order . Evangelica l religio n an d capitalis t form s
of busines s organization—an d her e I refe r no t simpl y t o th e ris e o f
factories bu t t o th e specializatio n o f labor , concentratin g productiv e
resources i n eve r fewe r hands—militate d agains t th e free-and-eas y cul -
tural styl e tha t priz e fightin g represented . Fo r th e prosperou s bourgeoi s
and th e dissentin g preacher , th e ascendan t etho s o f productivity , humani -
tarian reform , stead y habits , sobe r self-control , accumulatio n o f proper -
ty, an d devotio n t o th e domesti c famil y seeme d a s inevitabl e a s sunrise .
But th e value s an d powe r o f suc h ne w me n wer e a direc t threa t t o th e
gentry, ol d aristocrats , wealth y youn g dandies , professiona l gamblers ,
the urba n underworld , an d a larg e segmen t o f th e workin g class. 26
The flowering o f pugilis m wa s a cultural statemen t opposin g effort s b y
the middl e clas s t o reshap e th e worl d i n it s own image . Ever y priz e figh t
addressed thi s conflict , assertin g th e importanc e o f gran d displa y an d
passional exces s ove r th e mor e restraine d ne w mores . Wit h a share d
dramatization o f values , th e rin g momentaril y unifie d grea t me n an d
small. "Ther e i s somethin g peculiarl y exhilaratin g i n a boxin g match, "
wrote th e edito r o f a journal entitle d The Fancy. "Th e ric h ma n forget s
his pride , th e poo r hi s modest y befor e hi s betters,—equalit y reign s
triumphant fo r th e day , an d wit h perfec t goo d nature , 'Lord s hustl e wit h
jockeys,' an d exchang e jokes , an d laug h a t th e rude , ye t ofte n witt y

29
 T H E M A N L Y AR T

remarks o f th e lowl y train. " Suc h a levelin g wa s onl y temporary , o f

course, an d b y keepin g th e line s o f patro n an d patronize d clear , th e rite s
of th e rin g ultimatel y reinforce d hierarchy . Still , fo r a n instant , th e
mighty an d th e humbl e spok e eac h other' s language , share d eac h other' s
joys. Ever y matc h defie d th e la w o f 175 0 bannin g boxin g an d gav e
testimony, howeve r tenuous , t o th e influenc e o f th e ol d rulin g class , t o
the loyalt y o f thos e wh o receive d thei r largesse , an d t o the unit y o f grea t
men an d smal l i n quest o f th e pleasure s o f th e fanc y life . I t wa s precisel y
because th e aristocrac y legitimate d priz e fightin g wit h thei r suppor t tha t
Lord Byro n an d Joh n Keats , Willia m Hogart h an d Georg e Cruikshank ,
could ris k offendin g th e middl e clas s b y givin g t o boxin g a n artisti c
expression. 27
Even champion s o f labor , wh o ofte n appropriate d abstemiou s value s
as tool s o f working-clas s pride , wer e attracte d t o th e cultur e o f th e ring .
William Cobbett , perhap s labor' s greates t spokesman , penne d hi s "De -
fense o f Pugilism " i n 1805 . Cobbet t declare d tha t boxin g wa s th e safes t
way fo r me n t o settl e difference s whil e upholdin g thei r honor . Mor e
important, h e grounde d hi s cas e i n republica n ideology , a se t o f belief s
quite compatibl e wit h defens e o f workingmen' s rights . Cobbett , lik e s o
many othe r Englis h writers , feare d tha t hi s natio n migh t slid e fro m
liberty int o slavery , tha t prosperit y woul d degenerat e int o opulence, the n
luxury, effeminacy , cowardice , an d finall y foreig n domination . Thu s th e
supreme republica n ideal—productiv e labo r fo r fre e an d autonomou s
men—contained seed s o f it s ow n destruction . Englan d ha d alread y
reached th e stag e o f effeminacy , bu t suc h sport s a s boxin g migh t hel p
stop th e decline . Priz e fight s dramatize d manlines s an d self-esteem ,
traits essentia l t o th e advanc e o f workers . Decade s afte r Cobbet t wrot e
his article , militan t labo r newspaper s stil l carrie d new s o f th e ring .
Despite som e misgiving s tha t wil d sport s wer e a kin d o f opiat e t o
oppressed workers , man y radical s maintaine d bot h thei r politica l ideal s
and thei r lov e o f ol d leisur e traditions. 28
Support fro m divers e socia l group s notwithstanding , bare-knuckl e
fighting's golde n ag e laste d littl e mor e tha n a generation . Jus t whe n
boxing wa s bein g haile d a s th e nationa l spor t whos e lesson s helpe d
English armie s prevail , i t bega n t o decline . Grea t matche s continue d t o
occur i n comin g decades , an d man y me n stil l foun d i n th e rin g a n
expression o f thei r sensibility . Bu t afte r abou t 182 5 purse s gre w smalle r
and crowd s mor e furtive . Priz e fightin g wa s drive n underground , neve r
again t o enjoy th e ope n suppor t o f influentia l me n whic h ha d protecte d i t
in earlie r years. 29

30
 PROLOGUE

The reason s wer e man y an d complex. I n 182 4 John Jackson , wh o did

so muc h t o se t a gentlemanl y ton e an d encourag e aristocrati c patronage ,
closed th e door s o f hi s academy . Shortl y afte r th e "Commande r i n
Chief" retired , th e Pugilisti c Clu b disbanded , forcin g individua l fighter s
once agai n t o secur e thei r ow n patrons . Thi s becam e increasingl y
difficult t o d o becaus e suspicio n ha d bee n buildin g tha t man y boxer s
were throwin g matches . Th e doubt s raise d b y fixe d fight s no t onl y
undermined men' s loyalties , the y jeopardized gambling , on e of the sport' s
main attractions . Th e very intimatio n tha t a boxer, bribe d b y professiona l
gamblers, migh t thro w a bout , subverte d th e fancy' s confidenc e tha t
fights trul y represente d th e bes t effort s b y th e bes t me n an d tha t on e
could wage r o n a pugilis t an d b e certai n o f hi s integrity. 30
But thes e wer e superficia l reason s fo r the ring' s decline , symptom s a s
much a s causes . Boxin g wa s one o f man y sport s altere d o r swep t asid e
as Englis h societ y evolved . A renewe d evangelica l crusade , obsesse d
with man' s sinfulnes s an d hi s abilit y t o choos e salvation , demande d
strict piet y an d renounce d al l o f th e ol d pleasure s o f th e flesh . Th e
middle clas s i n particula r foun d confirmatio n o f it s outloo k i n militan t
Christianity's zea l t o refor m me n an d women . Th e bourgeoisie—owner s
of productiv e property , especiall y ne w businesses an d industries based on
capital investment , intensiv e division o f labor, and expansion o f markets—
was comin g int o it s own early i n the nineteent h century , an d as it s asset s
and powe r grew , i t sough t t o reshap e th e nationa l cultur e i n it s ow n
image. Compare d t o new , middle-clas s source s o f wealth , th e gentry' s
and aristocracy' s materia l bas e i n lan d an d rent s wa s steadil y shrinkin g
in importance . O f course , th e middl e clas s neve r completel y impose d it s
views o n th e res t o f society ; indeed , ther e wer e importan t division s
within th e bourgeoisi e itself . Nevertheless , a ne w cultura l etho s wa s
emerging. A melang e o f middle-clas s goal s an d evangelica l ideals —
making wa r o n disorderliness , enforcin g labo r discipline , safeguardin g
public morality , pursuin g humanitaria n reforms , an d stampin g ou t suc h
irrational behavio r a s gambling , drinking , swearing , an d publi c
bloodletting—now heade d th e cultura l agenda. 31
The spiri t o f refor m wa s a t ful l tid e b y th e earl y nineteent h century ,
which i s anothe r wa y o f sayin g tha t middle-clas s an d evangelical value s
were gainin g th e uppe r han d ove r mor e traditiona l views . Me n forme d
organizations, petitione d government , passe d laws , an d enforce d ne w
behaviors. Piety , productivity , an d mora l earnestnes s di d no t squar e wit h
Corinthian life . A s th e elit e patron s o f popula r recreation s sa w thei r
economic power , politica l control , an d socia l prestig e challenge d b y the

31
 THE MANL Y AR T

bourgeoisie, the y bega n t o tur n inwar d a s a clas s an d withdra w fro m

public life . No w th e ol d sport s themselve s wer e undercut , fo r wher e th e
gentry an d aristocrac y ha d see n manl y fortitude , health y paternalism ,
and a chanc e fo r som e innocen t slumming , th e middl e clas s foun d onl y
depravity an d th e debasemen t o f th e poor . Fait h i n progress , i n a n eve r
brighter futur e fo r humankind , wa s th e touchston e o f bourgeoi s thought .
Yet atavisti c spectacle s suc h a s boxin g matche s symbolicall y denie d th e
inevitability o f progress , displayin g instea d man' s penchan t fo r evil . Th e
old sport s an d leisur e tradition s wer e obstacle s t o th e spiri t o f improve -
ment becaus e the y seeme d t o encourag e a n etho s o f pleasur e fo r it s ow n
sake, o f livin g fo r th e thril l o f th e moment. 32
The reformers ' weapon s include d ne w anti-priz e figh t law s an d
strengthened polic e departments ; official s bega n houndin g th e sportin g
fraternity a s neve r before . A definitiv e sig n o f thi s crackdow n cam e i n
1824, whe n loca l magistrate s stoppe d a figh t betwee n Ne d Neal e an d
Jem Burn s outsid e Londo n a t Moulse y Hurst , lon g th e favorit e venu e fo r
great bouts . Moreover , th e court s no w prosecute d fighters , seconds ,
bottleholders, an d eve n spectator s t o a n unprecedente d extent. 33 Bu t i t
was mor e tha n a matte r o f forc e alone . Th e evangelical s an d th e
bourgeoisie wer e i n a positio n t o begi n shiftin g publi c opinio n thei r way ,
to articulat e thei r ow n ideolog y an d hav e other s adop t it . Fo r growin g
numbers o f Englishmen , th e pious , benevolent , an d libera l outloo k
became compelling , fo r i t hel d ou t th e promis e o f shapin g one' s ow n
destiny i n a n er a tha t increasingl y subjecte d me n t o socia l force s beyon d
their control .
The ol d rulin g classe s retaine d considerabl e influence , bu t thei r abilit y
to se t th e ton e o f cultura l lif e gre w eve r weaker . Increasingly , th e uppe r
classes retreate d int o thei r ow n exclusiv e circle s becaus e the y no w
lacked th e secur e superiorit y tha t ha d allowe d the m t o mingl e wit h th e
lower order s an d becaus e birth , no t power , wa s becomin g thei r onl y wa y
of distinguishin g themselve s fro m wealth y parvenus . Man y workin g me n
continued t o enjoy th e wil d sport s o f old , bu t withou t upper-clas s suppor t
their activitie s wer e ofte n stoppe d b y polic e an d loca l official s inten t o n
enforcing morality , upholdin g labo r disciplin e an d breakin g u p all riotou s
gatherings i n thi s er a o f working-clas s rebellion . Th e ol d recreation s
were no t dead , bu t lackin g protectio n b y powerfu l men , the y wer e force d
underground. Importan t matche s stil l occurre d o n occasion , yet n o
longer coul d i t b e claime d wit h accurac y tha t priz e fightin g wa s th e
national spor t o f England. 34
Crib an d Molineau x ha d square d of f a t a propitiou s moment . Thei r

32
 PROLOGUE

bouts woul d hav e bee n grea t one s i n an y era , bu t th e socia l worl d i n

which the y occurre d mad e the m singular . Tha t world , however , wa s
already crumbling . Althoug h priz e fightin g woul d prospe r again , i t
would neve r b e quit e th e same .

?.?
 1
Hats i n th e Rin g

"The Tremendou s Ma n o f Colour "

If Englishme n wer e apprehensiv e a s a foreigne r attempte d t o seiz e

their championship , American s shoul d hav e bee n overjoye d b y th e effort s
of To m Molineau x t o humbl e th e ol d Mothe r Country . Twistin g th e
British lion' s tai l wa s alway s grea t spor t fo r th e youn g nation , an d
symbolic display s o f prowes s coul d hav e prove d quit e usefu l a s relation s
between th e tw o countrie s deteriorate d o n th e ev e o f th e Wa r o f 1812 .
Yet Molineaux' s fello w citizen s pai d hi m littl e attention . Description s o f
his fight s agains t Crib , excerpte d fro m Englis h journals , appeare d
sporadically i n th e America n press . Bu t thes e second-han d account s
generated a feebl e respons e i n America . Eve n th e controversia l en d o f
the firs t match—when , i t wa s allege d b y friend s o f Molineaux , Crib' s
seconds use d underhande d tactic s t o bu y thei r ma n preciou s extr a
seconds o f rest , allowin g hi m t o recove r an d revers e th e tid e o f th e
fight—received littl e notice . Whil e ten s o f thousand s o f Englishme n
could recit e Molineaux' s exploits , relativel y fe w American s eve n kne w
his name. ' N o doub t wor d o f hi s deed s circulate d orally , bu t th e
sparseness o f documentar y evidenc e force s u s t o th e conclusio n tha t
American interes t wa s neithe r broa d no r deep. Indeed , th e mos t astonishin g
thing abou t To m Molineau x i s tha t w e kno w s o littl e abou t him. 2
He wa s bor n i n eithe r Marylan d o r Virgini a i n 1784 . Accordin g t o
legend, youn g Molineau x live d i n bondag e unti l h e fough t hi s wa y t o
freedom. Promisin g t o manumi t hi s servan t i n exchang e fo r a victor y
against anothe r slave , Molineaux' s maste r be t heavil y o n Tom , wo n hi s
wager, an d free d hi s slave . Unfortunately , n o evidenc e exist s t o back thi s
charming story . Tha t master s ha d slave s figh t eac h othe r i s a commo n

34
 HATS I N TH E RIN G

motif i n Afro-America n an d whit e souther n folklore , an d suc h fight s

probably di d tak e place . Willia m Faulkne r include d a variatio n o n th e
theme i n Absalom! Absalom! However , ther e i s n o substantia l proo f tha t
the practic e wa s widespread . Excep t fo r whit e rough-and-tumbl e fight -
ing, boxin g wa s know n bu t no t particularl y popula r i n th e pre-Civi l Wa r
South.3 Eve n bruta l master s recognize d th e nee d t o protec t thei r invest -
ments, an d i n th e nam e o f productivit y slaveowner s generall y discour -
aged violenc e amon g thei r bondsmen . Promotin g fight s woul d hav e
undermined th e ver y disciplin e the y sough t t o bolster . Perhaps , a s th e
legend goes , To m Molineau x cam e fro m a lin e o f fightin g Molineau x
men, a famil y o f slave s wh o battle d thei r wa y t o freedom . Bu t th e
evidence fail s t o uphol d thes e claims. 4
Whether bor n a slav e o r not , Molineau x wa s a fre e ma n b y th e
opening year s o f th e nineteent h century . Lik e man y othe r fre e blacks , h e
decided tha t th e cit y offere d life' s bes t opportunities , an d a s h e reache d
his twentiet h year , h e migrate d t o Ne w York . Ther e To m haule d an d
lifted a s a porte r an d doc k worker , earnin g a livin g whil e addin g muscl e
to hi s soli d frame . H e probabl y engage d i n informal , surreptitiou s
boxing matche s wit h fello w laborer s an d Britis h seamen . B y 180 9
Molineaux wa s sufficientl y confiden t o f hi s abilitie s tha t h e saile d fo r
England wit h hope s o f attainin g pugilisti c fame. 5
Shortly afte r arriving , Molineau x sough t ou t Bil l Richmond , anothe r
ambitious an d talente d fre e blac k American . Richmond , bor n o n State n
Island i n 1763 , ha d someho w com e t o th e attentio n o f Genera l th e Ear l
Percy, late r th e duk e o f Northumberland , wh o mad e hi m hi s servant . A t
the beginnin g o f th e America n Revolution , bot h returne d t o England ,
where Perc y secure d fo r hi s charg e a n apprenticeshi p t o a cabinetmaker .
Richmond eventuall y worke d a s a journeyman i n hi s trade , bu t alon g th e
way h e learne d t o bo x an d soo n bega n displayin g hi s skill s i n regula r
ring battles . H e wa s quit e successfu l a s a priz e fighter , winnin g numer -
ous bout s wit h a uniqu e styl e o f quic k blow s followe d b y defensiv e
retreat. Wit h hi s earning s fro m th e ring , Richmon d opene d a taver n i n
London, th e Hors e an d Dolphin , wher e h e serve d th e fanc y an d traine d
hundreds o f youn g me n i n pugilisti c science . A quiet, dignifie d individu -
al, Richmon d gaine d fro m boxin g a statu s an d securit y no t readil y
available t o fre e black s i n America. 6
Although almos t fift y year s old , h e wa s stil l a n activ e priz e fighte r
when youn g To m se t foo t i n th e Hors e an d Dolphin . Th e tw o me n wer e
temperamentally dissimilar , bu t th e vetera n sa w i n Molineaux th e strength
and skil l necessar y t o challeng e fo r th e title . The y forme d a n alliance :
Richmond becam e Tom' s manager , trainer , patron , an d second . H e als o

35
 THE MANL Y AR T

tried t o shiel d youn g Molineau x fro m th e danger s o f th e sportin g life .

With hi s siz e an d speed , th e novic e easil y defeate d hi s firs t tw o
opponents, settin g u p the battle s wit h Crib . Bu t hi s fall, a s we have seen ,
was a s meteori c a s hi s rise . Th e tw o blac k American s drifte d apar t a s
Molineaux faile d t o lear n hi s mentor' s stead y way s an d busines s acu -
men. Richmon d coul d onl y watc h a s th e fanc y lif e o f th e Englis h rin g
leached hi s protege' s magnificen t physique . Th e "tremendou s ma n o f
colour," a s Ega n calle d Molineaux , fough t a fe w mor e battle s an d gav e
sparring exhibitions , unti l th e dissipation s o f th e sportin g underworl d
destroyed hi s health. H e died penniles s i n Dubli n a t the age of thirty-eight. 7
Virtually al l w e kno w abou t Molineau x come s fro m Englis h sources .
Either becaus e o f hostility , o r mor e likel y becaus e o f indifference , th e
American pres s pai d littl e attentio n t o th e youn g hero . Eve n th e firs t
history o f priz e fightin g publishe d i n th e Unite d States , th e American
Fistiana o f 1849 , faile d t o mentio n Molineaux' s name. 8 Hi s fam e i n
England an d obscurit y a t hom e giv e testimon y t o th e stat e o f America n
prize fightin g durin g th e earl y year s o f th e century . Transplantin g th e
manly ar t t o America n soi l wa s n o simpl e matter . Unti l th e prope r
conditions developed , boxin g wa s sociall y an d culturall y meaningles s o n
these shores , an d s o i t wen t largel y ignored . Onl y ver y slowl y woul d
Americans infus e th e rin g wit h significance .

First Bloo d

Scattered reference s t o boxin g appeare d i n Americ a durin g th e

eighteenth century . I n 173 3 the Boston Gazette reprinte d a few matter-of -
fact line s abou t a n Englis h fight , perhap s th e firs t an d certainl y on e o f
very fe w reference s t o th e rin g acros s th e entir e colonia l era : "O n
Monday las t a Boxin g Matc h wa s fough t o n th e Bowlin g Gree n a t
Harrow o n th e Hill , betwee n Joh n Faulcone r o f Brentford , Carpenter ,
and Bo b Russell , wh o keep s a n Alehous e a t Paddington . . . ." N o
comment appeare d wit h thi s item. 9 A generatio n late r tw o Englis h
soldiers garrisone d a t Castl e Willia m i n Massachusett s engage d i n a bou t
to settl e a n allege d affront . On e o f th e me n die d fro m th e beating , an d a
jury o f inques t decide d tha t hi s opponen t mus t b e committed fo r trial . N o
doubt simila r matche s occurre d withou t s o tragi c a result . Perhap s som e
Americans eve n bega n t o emulat e Englis h soldier s an d sailors . Bu t suc h
incidents remaine d uncommon.' °
Years, eve n decades , stil l separate d new s storie s o n pugilism , an d
little evidenc e suggest s tha t boxin g existe d a s par t o f a n undergroun d

36
 HATS I N TH E RIN G

culture. Englis h fighter s wer e prosperin g an d ha d ever y reaso n t o remai n

at home . Internationa l turbulenc e disrupte d migratio n t o Americ a fro m
the Revolutio n throug h th e Wa r o f 1812 , an d eve n whe n th e flow
resumed, th e forme r colonial s deprecate d al l thing s English , envyin g th e
old Mothe r Country' s powe r whil e despisin g he r socia l life . Brutal ,
riotous, patronize d b y effet e aristocrat s an d debase d urba n rabble , boxin g
symbolized th e corruption s tha t a virtuou s republi c mus t avoid . More -
over, materia l condition s wer e no t ye t rip e fo r transplantin g pugilism .
Labor remaine d scarc e an d well-compensate d i n America , an d priz e
fighting depende d o n a n underclas s o f unattache d me n wh o ha d littl e t o
lose b y enterin g th e ring. "
As the eighteenth centur y becam e th e nineteenth , however , th e pac e of
pugilistic event s quickened . A Frenc h emigre , Morea u d e St . Méry , fled
his country' s Revolutio n an d settle d i n Philadelphia , wher e h e recorde d
his observation s o f America n life . St . Mér y include d th e followin g
description o f a bou t fro m th e 1790s :

Boxing has it s rules and regulations . Th e two athletes settle on a site fo r

the fight . The y stri p to their shirts , an d rol l u p their sleeve s to the elbows.
Then a t a give n signa l the y ru n a t eac h othe r an d swin g o n chest , head ,
face an d bellies, blows whose noise can only be realized by those who have
been presen t a t suc h spectacles .
At each new clash, the y draw back, and start again from th e mark. I f one
of th e tw o ha s falle n i n on e o f thes e attacks , hi s adversar y canno t touc h
him a s long as he is on the ground; but i f he makes the slightest movemen t
to get up , th e othe r ha s the right t o hit hi m agai n an d force hi m to remain
on the ground. Nobod y interferes t o separate the combatants: a ring is made
around them , an d th e spectator s urg e o n thei r favorites .

Clearly th e fighter s recognize d som e rules , bu t th e apparen t absenc e

of rounds , seconds , an d defensiv e technique s make s i t equall y obviou s
that th e Philadelphians ' battle s di d no t faithfull y replicat e th e Englis h
ring unde r Broughton' s code . St . Mér y conclude d hi s remark s wit h a
graphic descriptio n o f th e bout' s outcome :

At th e en d o f th e figh t th e boxer s ar e bruised , disfigured , an d covere d

with blood, which they spit out, vomit out, or drip from th e nose. Teeth are
broken, eye s ar e swolle n an d shut , an d sometime s sigh t i s completel y
obliterated. Boxin g matche s ar e alway s hel d i n th e late r evening , b y th e
light o f th e moon , unles s th e participant s belon g t o th e lowes t orders ,
or ar e drunk , i n whic h cas e the y figh t i n broa d dayligh t wher e an y on e
can see. 12

37
 THE MANL Y AR T

St. Méry' s observation s ar e importan t fo r severa l reasons . Althoug h

he attribute d thes e bout s t o quarrelsomeness , i t i s clea r tha t th e fight s
were stage d fo r th e enjoymen t o f spectator s a s muc h a s fo r th e hono r o f
the combatants . Ther e wa s a stron g elemen t o f ceremon y here . Th e me n
agreed wher e the y woul d figh t ahea d o f time , strippe d i n a certai n way ,
came u p t o th e scratch , bega n wit h a n agree d signal , refraine d fro m
hitting eac h othe r whil e down . The y fough t withou t interference , an d th e
spectators forme d a huma n rin g fro m whic h t o chee r an d wager . I f no t
exactly model s o f pugilisti c decoru m (hittin g a ma n tryin g t o ris e wa s a
clear violatio n o f Broughton' s rules ) th e battle s wer e structure d affairs .
They occurre d ofte n enoug h fo r St . Mér y t o generaliz e abou t thei r
timing. N o doub t mos t bout s wer e hel d a t nigh t becaus e boxin g alread y
had a n unsavor y reputation , an d perhap s th e cove r o f darknes s protecte d
participants fro m th e constabulary . Nevertheless , St . Méry' s crypti c
remark abou t drunk s an d th e lowes t socia l order s indicate s tha t som e
respectable peopl e wer e als o involved , althoug h jus t ho w respectable —
artisans, laborers , perhap s th e gentry—i s impossibl e t o say . Abov e all ,
St. Méry' s accoun t i s th e mos t substantia l earl y evidenc e o f boxin g
taking roo t o n America n soil . H e described no t simpl y brawl s occasione d
by inebriatio n o r quarrelsomenes s bu t th e beginnin g o f fistfightin g a s
ritualized, rule-bound , repeatabl e spectacles. 11
Two decade s late r a n 181 6 fight betwee n Jaco b Hye r an d To m Beasle y
marked a ne w watershed . Wit h th e Wa r o f 181 2 settled , Englis h
merchant seame n wer e agai n welcom e i n America n ports . Thei r pugna -
cious exampl e apparentl y inspire d American s Beasle y an d Hyer —
respectively a marine r an d a butcher—t o settl e a quarre l wit h a stand-u p
fight. Th e encounte r wa s no t a regula r priz e battl e sinc e n o stak e mone y
was involved , bu t th e tw o me n di d attemp t t o observ e Broughton' s rules .
Unfortunately, th e bou t degenerate d int o a brawl . Hye r brok e hi s arm ,
Beasley wa s badl y beaten , an d mutua l friend s intervened , declarin g th e
contest a draw . Th e Hyer-Beasle y matc h wa s no t th e firs t rin g figh t i n
this country , a s American Fistiana woul d claim , no r wa s i t th e firs t
match a t whic h spectator s wer e welcome . Rather , it s significanc e la y i n
the perception tha t i t wa s a histori c even t wort h recording , i n it s bein g
the earlies t America n figh t kep t aliv e a s livin g memor y o f a heroi c past .
When me n gathere d a t Ne w York' s Empir e Clu b decade s later , the y
recounted thi s battl e tim e an d again . B y sharin g memorie s o f earl y
fights, boxin g aficionado s establishe d standard s fo r compariso n acros s
generations; Hye r an d Beasle y wer e importan t precisel y becaus e the y
were remembere d a s foundin g fathers . Indeed , th e sens e o f historica l
continuity transcende d mer e memory , fo r Jaco b Hye r passe d hi s pugilisti c

38
 HATS I N TH E RIN G

talents o n t o hi s so n Tom , wh o becam e on e o f th e grea t champion s o f th e

nineteenth century , settin g a n America n preceden t fo r fisti c families. 14
Another mileston e wa s reache d i n 182 3 whe n th e firs t ful l newspape r
coverage o f a n America n figh t appeare d i n th e New York Evening Post:

On Tuesda y th e 8t h July , a t hal f pas t 6 P.M . bein g nea r th e Ferr y a t

Grand Street , I observe d a larg e numbe r o f men , wome n an d childre n
collecting, an d lik e others, 1 followe d t o Gardner's wharf , a t the upper end
of Cherry Street , wher e I saw a large ring forming, an d on enquiry foun d a
lad abou t 1 8 year s old , a butcher , an d a ma n who m the y calle d th e
champion o f Hickor y Street , bot h stripped , an d eac h ha d a second . Afte r
the prope r arrangements , th e second s drew bac k a little, an d th e wor d wa s
given fo r battle .

A round-by-roun d descriptio n followed . Th e figh t laste d fort y min -

utes, durin g whic h th e youn g butche r showe d th e "boldnes s an d courag e
of a bulldog, " "struttin g aroun d th e rin g lik e a game-cock, " unti l h e
finished hi s opponen t i n th e eight h round. 15
Here wa s th e beginnin g o f a literar y convention , th e assertio n b y th e
reporter tha t h e chance d upo n th e bout ; alread y boxin g wa s hel d i n suc h
low regar d tha t editor s apologize d fo r coverin g it . Th e Post's articl e
confirmed th e presenc e o f forma l trappings : umpires , a roped ring ,
prearranged signal s fo r commencin g hostilities . Th e fighter s an d second s
adhered t o rule s limitin g th e violenc e agains t a n injure d man , whil e
spectators backe d thei r favorite s wit h lou d cheer s an d ne w wager s a s th e
odds change d wit h th e eb b an d flow o f th e fight . Althoug h previou s
American battle s mus t hav e involve d monetar y stakes , th e $20 0 purs e
provides th e firs t incontrovertibl e evidenc e o f a regula r America n " p r i z e "
fight.16
But muc h mor e tha n just mone y wa s a t ris k here . Th e referenc e t o th e
"champion o f Hickor y Street " indicate s tha t boxer s wer e alread y be-
coming neighborhoo d heroes . Ther e wer e nationalisti c overtone s a s
well. O n Independenc e Day , jus t befor e th e match , th e butche r ha d
quarreled wit h a foreigne r an d bea t hi m severely . Accuse d o f fou l pla y
by hi s antagonist' s countrymen—probabl y Iris h immigrants—th e butche r
challenged an y on e o f the m t o a regula r priz e fight , an d th e bou t
described b y th e Post wa s th e result . Th e ethni c communit y raise d th e
money, chos e a representative , an d brough t th e matc h of f insid e fou r
days, makin g th e figh t a comparativel y spontaneou s affair . Th e princi -
pals engage d i n n o extensiv e prefigh t training , whil e convenien t times ,
locations, an d rule s wer e settle d o n quickly . Abov e all , thi s an d simila r

39
 T H E M A N L Y AR T

battles gre w ou t o f particular , loca l circumstances , an d th e motive s

behind the m wer e a melang e o f financia l incentives , persona l honor ,
neighborhood pride , an d ethni c antagonisms. 17
Unfortunately, crucia l informatio n i s missin g fro m th e Post's account .
We will neve r kno w ho w th e tw o hundre d dollar s wer e raise d (i n 182 3
the amoun t approache d th e averag e man' s incom e fo r on e year) . Perhap s
some well-to-d o patron s helpe d stak e th e fighters , bu t suc h me n o f
means wer e mor e likel y gambler s tha n bankers . Th e mone y probabl y
came fro m a broadl y base d subscriptio n collecte d i n neighborhoo d
taverns an d shops . I n addition , th e socia l identitie s o f th e "men , women ,
and children " attendin g th e fight , th e frequenc y o f suc h encounters ,
even th e name s o f th e principal s an d seconds , al l remai n los t t o history.' 8
Nevertheless, th e manl y ar t acquire d it s ow n practitioners , traditions ,
and fans . N o doub t mor e rin g activitie s too k plac e tha n th e survivin g
record indicates ; som e editor s probabl y censore d boxin g new s a s morall y
corrupting. Ye t th e sketchines s o f documentatio n als o reflect s th e natur e
of earl y pugilism , fo r fight s remaine d loca l an d sporadic , arisin g
spontaneously fro m rea l conflicts . Boxin g wa s becomin g par t o f a n ora l
culture base d o n powerfu l communit y ties , an d i t wa s slowl y bein g
woven int o th e textur e o f lower-clas s mal e stree t life . Bu t al l o f thes e
trends wer e embryonic . Throug h th e firs t quarte r o f th e nineteent h
century mos t American s wer e unawar e tha t boxin g matche s eve n too k
place i n thei r country. 19
The mos t importan t fight s o f th e 1820 s wer e th e tw o battle s betwee n
Ned Hammond , formerl y o f Dublin , an d Georg e Kensett , a n immigran t
from Liverpool . Neithe r wa s a bi g man , eac h standin g abou t fiv e feet ,
six inche s tal l an d weighin g on e hundre d fift y pounds . Thei r firs t figh t
took plac e o n Octobe r 14 , 1824 . Th e participant s pitche d th e rin g o n
Coney Island , onl y t o b e chase d awa y a t bayone t poin t b y infantr y unde r
the sherif f o f King s County . The y reconvene d a t Jamaica , Queens :
Round 1—th e me n cam e u p cautiousl y an d i n goo d style . A hi t fro m
Hammond whic h dre w th e claret fro m Kensetť s mug . Afte r som e counter-
hitting the y closed . Kenset t down . . . .
Round 11—Kenset t quit e groggy— a jaw-cracker fro m Hammond . Hits ,
"like ange l visits , fe w an d fa r between"— a close ; bot h down—quit e
tame. . . .
Round 27—Kenset t stil l weaker , an d stil l obstinate . Muc h hitting : a
struggle a t th e ropes , an d Kenset t down . A blo w fro m Hammon d bein g
adjudged foul , conclude d th e fight , mos t unexpectedl y i n favor o f Kensett .
The breez y styl e o f th e newspape r coverag e offere d a t leas t a pale reflec -

40
 HATS I N TH E RIN G

tion of Englis h sportin g life , an d the author clearly kne w the work of Pierc e
Egan. Nonetheless , th e fight proved disappointing, fo r Kenset t wa s a good
hitter yet a poo r defensiv e boxe r whil e Hammond' s "nerve , hardiness ,
and bottom " faile d t o compensat e fo r hi s lac k o f aggressiveness. 20
Hammond's backer s fume d ove r th e outcom e believin g tha t th e figh t
had bee n fixed . Bickerin g laste d tw o years , an d friend s o f th e principal s
arranged th e first know n rematc h i n America n priz e figh t histor y t o clea r
up accusation s o f fou l play . The y dre w u p regula r article s o f agreement ,
a custo m borrowe d fro m th e Englis h ring . Despit e th e fac t tha t magis -
trates an d judges prosecute d boxer s unde r law s agains t assault , mayhem ,
and riot , an d tha t priz e fighting wa s universall y regarde d a s a n illega l
activity, thes e article s wer e contracts , signe d b y th e principals , seconds ,
and witnesses , settin g fort h i n legalisti c detai l th e term s o f th e bout . I n
this particula r case , th e partie s agree d t o figh t fo r fiv e hundre d dollar s a
side, t o pitc h thei r rin g withi n fift y mile s o f Ne w York , an d t o allo w th e
usual half-minut e res t betwee n rounds . Th e article s als o specifie d a dat e
for th e contest , name d a stakeholder , an d directe d eac h part y t o charter a
steamboat. O n figh t da y al l wen t smoothly , wit h carefu l regar d t o prope r
forms. Th e sportin g crow d arrive d safely , umpire s wer e appointed , an d
the second s place d sid e bets . Th e fighter s toe d th e scratch , shoo k hands ,
and awaite d th e cal l o f "Time. " Thousand s o f dollar s i n wagers , i t
appeared, woul d b e settle d withi n a n establishe d framewor k o f customs ,
rules, an d conventions. 21
Yet th e form s tha t me n establishe d fo r a fai r figh t faile d t o contai n
their passions . Accordin g t o the report , Hammon d coul d barel y ris e fro m
his bottleholder' s kne e fo r th e sevent h round , bu t hi s opponen t appeare d
fresh a s whe n th e figh t began . Whil e Hammon d reeled , hi s second ,
James Sanford—wh o fough t unde r th e rin g nam e " T h e America n
Phenomenon"—ran t o refere e Patric k Burn s claimin g tha t Kenset t ha d
defaulted b y fallin g withou t a blo w i n th e previou s round . Althoug h i t
was a speciou s charge , Burn s agree d an d awarde d th e fight t o Hammond .
Supporters o f th e winne r the n brok e int o th e rin g an d "se t u p a yel l
equal t o th e mos t savag e trib e o f Indians—bearin g Hammon d awa y fro m
the ground , callin g hi m victor , an d thi s outrageou s turbulenc e wa s
continued int o th e ver y street s o f Ne w York." 22
Despite th e breakdow n o f pugilisti c etiquette , th e Hammond-Kenset t
battles wer e archetype s fo r bout s o f th e nex t tw o decades . Coverag e o f
these contest s wa s unusuall y detailed , revealin g th e ritual s an d ceremo -
nies tha t no w clustere d aroun d th e ring . B y th e 1830 s round-by-roun d
newspaper reports , combinin g disclaimer s o f suppor t fo r th e priz e rin g

41
 THE MANL Y AR T

with detaile d account s writte n i n th e slan g o f insiders , becam e common -

place, especiall y wit h th e publicatio n o f gentlemen' s sportin g magazine s
such a s Porter's Spirit of the Times an d penn y dailie s fo r th e urba n
working class , chiefl y th e New York Herald. Ne w custom s appeared ,
such a s th e takin g o f battl e colors—painte d handkerchief s tie d aroun d
the fighters ' waist s an d o n th e pos t i n eac h man' s corner , th e winne r
seizing th e loser' s color s a s a trophy . Flippin g a coi n fo r choic e o f sid e
quickly becam e th e rule , a s di d th e fighters ' habi t o f throwin g thei r hat s
into th e rin g a s the y approached . Article s o f Agreement , specifyin g
stakes, forfeits , dates , locations , seconds , an d othe r detail s no w governe d
most bouts . An d th e amoun t o f tim e separatin g th e signin g o f article s
from th e fight s themselve s lengthene d t o accommodat e large r crowds ,
higher stakes , an d stricte r training. 23
Perhaps mos t significant , th e Hammond-Kenset t fight s replicate d i n
microcosm th e long-standin g enmit y betwee n Iris h an d English . "Oul d
Ireland forever, " cheere d on e hackne y coachman . "Dow n wit h th e
English. . .Hurrah fo r th e Irish, " hi s comrade s chime d in . Bu t whe n
Kénsett delivere d som e goo d blows , i t wa s "Wel l don e Liverpool " fro m
the Anglophiles . Onc e th e Napoleoni c perio d an d th e Wa r o f 181 2
ended, thousand s o f immigrant s poure d int o America n cities . Fight s lik e
Hammond an d Kensetť s re-create d a familia r cultura l patter n fo r th e
new arrivals , a s man y o f Britain' s mos t intens e priz e battle s pitte d
Englishmen agains t Irishmen . Ethni c conflic t sometime s becam e s o hot ,
however, tha t rin g violenc e spille d ove r int o th e crowd . Th e inabilit y o f
Hammond an d Kenset t t o finis h a figh t withou t charge s o f frau d bein g
raised se t a n endurin g America n precedent. 24
English an d Iris h pugilist s migrate d t o th e Unite d State s i n par t
because growin g immigran t communitie s provide d ready-mad e base s o f
support. Mor e important , boxer s wer e pushe d ou t o f th e Ol d Worl d a s
much a s pulle d t o th e New . A s w e hav e seen , fro m th e lat e 1820 s
onward England' s climat e wa s inhospitabl e t o priz e fighting , causin g a
few first-rat e boxers , amon g the m Jame s "Deaf " Burke , t o journe y t o
America. Burk e succeede d Je m War d a s champio n o f Englan d i n 183 2
and defende d hi s titl e agains t Harr y Macon e an d Simo n Byrn e o f
Ireland. Unfortunately , Byrn e die d a s a resul t o f thei r ninety-eight-round ,
three-hour-and-sixteen-minute battle . Burk e wa s acquitte d o f homicide ,
and othe r fighter s ha d weathere d simila r trouble s i n th e past , bu t
England's chillin g mora l climat e mad e thing s difficul t fo r him . Ove r th e
next thre e year s h e wa s unabl e t o fin d a n acceptabl e match ; hi s backer s
gone, th e "Dea f Un's " fightin g skill s foun d n o outlet . Rathe r tha n giv e
up th e ring , h e cam e t o th e Unite d State s i n 1836. 25

42
 HATS I N TH E RIN G

James "Deaf" Burke , champion of England, 1832-39 . When Simon Byrn e died
at his hand s i n 1833 , the champion saile d for America , wher e he prolonge d hi s
career an d helpe d transplan t th e ring .

43
 THE MANL Y AR T

The tri p t o Americ a adde d a fe w year s t o Burke' s career . Hi s broa d

provincial dialec t an d colorfu l phrasings—h e referre d t o Americ a a s
"Yankeeshire"—made hi m a curiosity. I n sparrin g exhibition s th e cham -
pion's quicknes s an d strengt h allowe d hi m easil y t o dispos e o f suc h
American pugilist s a s Ji m Phela n an d Ab e Vanderzee . Fo r a while Burk e
toured wit h Sa m O'Rourke , wh o ha d migrate d fro m Irelan d t o Americ a
earlier. I n 183 7 th e tw o agree d t o transfe r thei r talent s fro m th e sparrin g
stage t o th e priz e ring. 26
For thei r battl e the y chos e Ne w Orleans , a tow n whos e larg e Iris h
population adopte d O'Rourk e a s a hero . Handbill s poste d i n tavern s an d
on stree t corner s helpe d whi p u p excitement. B y on e o'cloc k o n Ma y 9 a
large crow d ha d gathere d a t th e fork s o f th e Bayo u Roa d t o witnes s th e
contest. Th e figh t wen t wel l unti l th e middl e o f th e thir d round , whe n
O'Rourke's secon d approache d Burke , an d suspectin g fou l play , th e Dea f
'Un struc k him . A t thi s th e crow d brok e th e ring , an d a free-for-al l
began. Som e claime d tha t th e O'Rourk e part y intende d t o giv e Burk e a
thrashing al l along , b y fai r mean s o r b y foul . Crowd s o f Irishme n arme d
with whips , sticks , shillelaghs , an d dra y pins , pursue d Burke , wh o
escaped wit h a hors e an d Bowi e knife . Bu t hi s fligh t di d no t en d matters .
O'Rourke's friend s returne d t o Ne w Orleans , drawin g thei r champio n
through th e street s i n a wagon . Enflame d b y ethni c hatreds , frustrate d b y
hard economi c times , an d drun k o n chea p liquor , partisan s o f th e tw o
men battle d throughou t th e afternoon . Th e mob s bea t severa l individu -
als, numerou s arrest s faile d t o quel l th e "wil d spiri t o f anarch y an d
confusion," an d th e mayo r finall y calle d ou t th e militi a t o restor e
order.27
Burke mad e hi s wa y bac k t o Ne w York , wher e friend s honore d hi m
with appearance s i n theater s an d clubs . Befor e returnin g t o Englan d i n
1838, h e engage d i n on e mor e priz e fight , an d i n contras t t o th e Ne w
Orleans debacle , th e Burke-O'Connel l battl e o f Augus t 21 , 183 7 wa s a n
orderly affair . Backe d b y loca l sportin g men , th e fighter s signe d article s
and wen t int o training . Exercise , beef , an d brow n brea d mad e u p thei r
daily regimen , an d accordin g t o th e New York Herald, bot h me n joine d
voluntary temperanc e societies . Thre e hundre d member s o f th e fanc y
came fro m a s fa r awa y a s Alban y an d Baltimore , pai d fiv e dollar s eac h
for steamboa t tickets , packe d th e vessel a t th e Catherin e Stree t dock , an d
headed fo r Hart' s Island , a fe w mile s u p Lon g Islan d Sound. 28
Once o n th e groun d th e participant s wen t throug h th e traditiona l
pugilistic customs . Sentrie s an d scout s watche d fo r th e constabulary , a
twenty-four-foot rin g wa s formed , an d outsid e i t anothe r rin g kep t

44
 HATS I N TH E RIN G

spectators a t bay . A s challenger , O'Connel l thre w i n hi s ha t first , the n

entered th e magi c circl e wit h printe r Abraha m Vanderze e an d distille r
Alexander Hamilton . Burk e followe d wit h hi s seconds , butche r Jak e
Somerendyke an d carpente r Bil l Hatfield . Eac h sid e the n selecte d a n
umpire, an d th e umpire s chos e a referee . A s th e rule s specifie d durin g
the bare-knuckl e era , al l thre e stoo d outsid e th e ropes , th e umpire s ple d
their caus e whe n the y believe d a fou l ha d bee n committed , an d th e
referee rendere d a fina l decision . Nex t th e principal s strippe d an d
revealed themselve s t o th e crowd . Finall y th e tw o shoo k hand s an d
began.
From th e ver y beginnin g th e fight belonge d t o Burke. H e punche d an d
wrestled O'Connel l dow n fo r te n blood y rounds . Finall y Burk e declare d
to O'Connelľ s seconds : " I wis h t o figh t honorable— 1 wil l no t strik e
him—Does you r ma n figh t an y more? " Wit h thi s th e battle ended . Asid e
from th e one-sidednes s o f th e contest , everythin g wen t remarkabl y
smoothly. Th e umpire s asked fo r an d receive d orde r fro m th e crow d
during th e fight , and , conclude d th e Spirit of the Times, "thos e wh o
conducted th e affai r deserv e al l th e praise . No t th e slightes t disturbance s
of an y kin d too k place . I t wa s wha t th e priz e rin g ough t t o be—a n
exhibition o f manl y an d courageou s contest."" 9
The Burke-O'Rourk e an d Burke-O'Connel l fight s wer e th e extreme s
of pugilisti c behavior . Unfortunately , th e disorderlines s o f th e forme r
was mor e th e rul e tha n th e exception . Accordin g t o American Fistiana,
many, probabl y mos t fight s o f thi s er a ende d wit h th e rin g broke n an d
spectators fightin g on e another . Matche s wer e informal , payin g haphaz -
ard attentio n t o rule s an d customs . Th e moder n practic e o f strictl y
dividing audienc e fro m performe r applie d onl y tenuously , whil e a combi-
nation o f drink , wagers , an d ethni c loyaltie s cause d me n t o defen d thei r
opinions passionately , ofte n makin g participant s o f spectators. 10
Early bare-knuckl e fightin g wa s ver y muc h a fol k recreation . Hammond ,
Kensett, Burke , an d O'Rourke—al l immigrants—wer e probabl y th e
only boxer s i n Americ a durin g th e 1820 s an d 1830 s wh o attempte d t o
make a livin g mainl y throug h priz e battle s an d sparrin g matches . Mos t
men wh o entere d th e rin g neve r fough t mor e tha n on e o r tw o bouts , an d
city directorie s revea l tha t pugilist s engage d i n a variet y o f preindustria l
trades. Bil l Harringto n wa s a butcher , Bil l Hatfiel d a carpenter , Joh n
McLain a driver , Rober t Flannaga n a blacksmith , Thoma s Hoope r a
shoemaker, Ab e Venderze e a printer , Ji m Phela n a grocer , Ji m Bevin s a
carter, Bil l Madde n a porter . Eve n thos e wh o participate d a s seconds ,
umpires, an d promoter s wer e intimatel y tie d t o loca l communitie s an d

45
 THE MANL Y AR T

markets: file r Patric k Burns , fo r example , groce r Pete r G . Hart , an d

tavern keeper s Mann y Kelly , Jac k Benjamin , Randal l Smith , an d Andre w
McLean. 31
But a larg e grou p o f earl y fighter s canno t b e trace d i n cit y directorie s
at all . Mor e ofte n o f Iris h tha n Englis h o r America n ancestry , thes e
individuals wer e par t o f a growin g urba n populatio n cas t adrif t b y
increasing labo r specializatio n an d th e ris e o f nationa l markets , unskille d
laborers wh o move d frequentl y i n searc h o f work . Compoundin g it s
fugitive nature , priz e fighting , alon g wit h severa l othe r popula r recre -
ations, wa s supporte d b y a n undergroun d econom y o f gamblers , hus -
tlers, sportsmen , an d mos t important , saloo n owners , wh o too k th e lea d
in sponsorin g matches . I f me n o f highe r status—whethe r fro m th e ol d
gentry, urba n professions , o r th e buddin g manufacturin g elite—patronize d
the ring , I fin d n o recor d o f it. 32
What canno t b e emphasize d to o strongl y i s tha t int o th e 1840 s
American priz e fightin g remaine d a loca l phenomenon , largel y ethnic ,
decidedly working-clas s an d traditiona l i n origins . Becaus e Iris h an d
English ancestrie s wer e s o important—tha t is , boxing di d no t immigrate ,
boxers did—pugilis m thrive d wher e ethni c communitie s wer e largest , i n
New Yor k an d Philadelphi a and , t o a lesse r degree , Boston , Baltimore ,
and Ne w Orleans . Matche s wer e mor e structure d an d rule-boun d tha n
street fights , bu t bot h gre w ou t o f genuin e persona l enmities ; publi c
spectacles an d privat e quarrel s becam e indistinguishable. 33 Placin g bet s
and contributin g stak e mone y wer e no t merel y profit-and-los s decisions ,
moreover, bu t expression s o f individual , neighborhood , an d ethni c loyal -
ties. Commercializatio n wa s no t yet pervasive , an d th e boundar y sepa -
rating dail y lif e fro m sport— a specia l real m se t of f fro m mundan e
concerns, containin g it s own uniqu e goals an d rule s o f conduct—remaine d
ambiguous. Ou r shar p contemporar y distinction s betwee n leisur e an d
work, participan t an d spectator , th e "rea l world " an d th e real m o f pla y
are sociall y constructe d ideas , product s o f a highl y rationalize d society ,
modern idea s alie n t o othe r time s an d places. 34
Early heroe s battle d fo r stake s rangin g fro m a fe w dollar s t o fiv e
hundred dollar s a side , an d thei r individua l animositie s readil y merge d
with loca l conflicts . Afte r Jame s Sanfor d los t t o Andre w McLan e i n
1832, fo r example , h e enliste d Bil l "Liverhead " Harringto n t o tak e o n
his conqueror . Philadelphia n McLan e an d Ne w Yorke r Harringto n wer e
each heroe s i n thei r respectiv e towns , an d althoug h thei r figh t originate d
in a persona l dispute , som e interprete d i t a s a contes t fo r urba n
superiority. Passion s ra n s o hig h tha t th e figh t ende d i n a free-for-all .
Again an d agai n socia l division s cut to o dee p t o allo w fai r stand-u p

46
 HATS I N TH E RIN G

battles. Pa t O'Donnel l an d Ji m O'Haga n fough t outsid e Newark , Ne w

Jersey, i n 183 2 fo r on e hundre d dollar s a side , "bu t th e excitemen t wa s
so grea t tha t al l th e rule s o f th e rin g wer e ignore d an d a genera l ro w
ensued, lastin g th e entir e afternoon. " Je m Ree d an d "Lon g Tom "
Burrett fough t a t Hart' s Islan d i n 1835 , an d thei r battl e quickl y becam e
an excus e fo r universa l mayhem . B y th e lat e thirties , eve n sparrin g
matches wer e occasionall y endin g i n melees , becaus e boxin g wa s infuse d
with th e large r socia l antagonism s o f th e urba n lowe r class. 35
In tracin g earl y prize-fightin g histor y wit h suc h detail , I d o no t mea n
to overemphasiz e th e plac e o f th e rin g i n th e nationa l consciousness .
American boxe r Andre w McLan e wrot e a lette r i n 183 2 t o forme r
English champio n Jac k Langan , th e "Brav e Iris h Lad. " McLan e assure d
his colleagu e tha t "i n th e Easter n State s boxin g i s no w i n muc h
practice," tha t a ma n lik e Langa n coul d "mak e a goo d thin g o f i t i n
America," tha t Englis h fighter s "woul d b e receive d wit h grea t respec t
in ou r Yanke e towns. " McLan e liste d America' s "pugilisti c corps, " al l
of who m wer e resident s o f Baltimore , Philadelphia , an d Ne w York . N o
doubt h e misse d some , bu t McLan e mentione d onl y fiftee n names , a
rather smal l figur e give n th e fac t tha t hundreds , perhap s thousand s o f
Englishmen ha d boxe d fo r priz e mone y durin g th e pas t decade . "Ou r
early missionarie s an d converts, " American Fìstiana conclude d abou t
these earl y years , "migh t almos t b e considere d a s member s o f som e
secret society , an d ha d t o mee t i n 'caves, ' o r som e suc h 'bac k slums ' o f
society." 36
But a foundatio n ha d bee n laid . Me n i n ke y citie s wer e familia r wit h
boxing customs , kne w th e specia l slan g o f th e Englis h ring , an d wer e
acquainted wit h rule s o f a fair , stand-u p fight . A smal l pugilisti c
fraternity ha d bee n bor n withi n America' s urba n workin g class . Boxer s
exhibited togethe r an d seconde d eac h other , whil e rin g promoters —
mostly taver n keeper s an d gamblers—arrange d matches , officiated , an d
nurtured ora l tradition s centere d o n heroi c encounter s o f the past . An d i n
a separat e auspiciou s development , sparrin g master s bega n teachin g th e
manly ar t o f self-defens e t o fashionabl e me n o f America n cities .

Professors o f Pugilis m

Prize fightin g wa s no t th e onl y incarnatio n o f America n boxin g a t

this earl y date . Sparring—i n whic h combatant s wor e gloves , endeavore d
to sho w thei r master y o f pugilisti c "science, " bu t di d no t attemp t t o wi n
a purs e o r t o hur t eac h other—gre w u p alongsid e th e prize ring . Sparrin g

47
 THE MANL Y AR T

masters exhibite d thei r skill s o n stag e an d gav e boxin g lesson s i n privat e

gymnasiums. Althoug h th e sam e me n wh o taugh t "scientific " pugilis m
sometimes fough t professiona l battles , participant s i n thes e tw o form s o f
boxing wer e no t precisel y th e same . Unlik e priz e fighters , "professor s
of pugilism " gaine d a toehol d o f respectability. 37
As i t ha d don e i n th e Englan d o f Fi g an d Broughton , sparrin g entere d
America cloake d i n th e mantl e o f swordsmanship . Unde r th e titl e
"Fencing," th e followin g advertisemen t appeare d i n th e elit e Columbian
Sentinel o n Februar y 10 , 1798 : "G . L . Barret t inform s th e gentleme n o f
Boston, tha t h e propose s teachin g th e elegan t accomplishmen t o f FENC -
ING, o n th e followin g terms : Entrance , 3 dolls , ever y 8 lesson s 5
dolls. . . . Mr. Barret t likewis e teache s th e Scientifi c an d manl y ar t o f
BOXING, o n th e abov e terms . Exactl y accordin g t o th e attitude s o f
either Humphrie s o r Mendoza. " Her e boxin g clearl y too k a bac k sea t t o
fencing. B y earl y i n th e ne w century , advertisement s fo r school s suc h a s
Barrett's appeare d mor e frequently . I n 181 5 a n Englis h immigran t
offered hi s services :

SELF-DEFENSE
At the reques t o f severa l gentlema n o f Philadelphia , Mr . GRA Y will fo r
a shor t tim e teac h th e followin g art s scientifically , viz :
PUGILISTIC SCIENCE ; SWOR D AN D CAN E EXERCISES ,
And al l th e othe r exercise s necessar y t o th e defenc e o f gentleme n wh o
may a t time s accidentall y b e subjecte d t o the consequence s resultin g fro m
the ungovernabl e passion s o f man .
Gray's notic e containe d tw o significan t departures : h e place d boxin g
ahead o f swor d exercise , an d h e wa s les s concerne d wit h "elegan t
accomplishment," i n Barrett's aristocratic phrase , than with self-defense. 38
Soon fencin g wa s subordinat e t o boxin g throughou t norther n cities ,
and th e nee d fo r gentleme n t o defen d themselve s fro m unprovoke d
attacks wa s sounde d agai n an d again . Som e sparrin g master s explicitl y
sought a n elit e clientele . Boxin g lesson s wer e healthfu l fo r individual s i n
sedentary—respectable—occupations, "openin g th e chest , strengthenin g
the arms, an d adding strengt h t o the valetudinarians." Moreover , pugilisti c
skills obviate d dueling : "Ever y generou s hear t mus t acknowledg e th e ar t
of self-defens e a s a necessar y branc h o f usefu l education, " th e National
Intelligencer o f Washingto n declared , becaus e "i t mus t greatl y ten d t o
lessen th e frequenc y o f duelling. " Pugilisti c arm s wer e a human e
alternative t o firearms. 39
By th e secon d quarte r o f th e centur y severa l sparrin g master s offere d
their service s i n majo r Eas t Coas t cities . Thei r effort s coincide d wit h a n

48
 HATS I N TH E RIN G

embryonic health-and-fitnes s gymnasiu m movement , allowin g th e manl y

art o f self-defens e t o tak e o n som e o f th e dignit y o f purposeful exercise .
Thus Jame s Rope r kep t tw o gymnasium s i n Philadelphia , an d althoug h
he taugh t boxin g alon g wit h othe r exercise s fo r man y years , h e apparent -
ly neve r entere d th e priz e ring . J . Hudso n itinerate d betwee n Bosto n an d
New Yor k t o exhibi t an d giv e lessons . "Hudso n i s a capita l teacher, "
the Spirit of the Times declared , "entirel y respectabl e i n al l relation s o f
life, an d o f gentlemanl y manners. " Joh n Sherida n kep t sparrin g room s
and ran Boston' s "pugilisti c club, " wher e i n 183 6 h e taugh t th e manl y
art t o "fort y o r fift y o f th e finest " youn g me n i n th e city . Sheridan' s
pupils wer e s o please d wit h thei r maste r tha t the y presente d hi m wit h a
silver pitcher . Sparrin g wit h gloves , th e Boston Evening Transcript
declared, offere d Sheridan' s student s a n invigoratin g exercis e fo r min d
and bod y afte r lon g sedentar y hour s o f work . Al l o f thi s represente d a
major change : "W e remembe r tha t som e fe w year s since , a gentlema n
who possesse d an y skil l i n pugilis m o r wa s know n t o b e th e pupi l o f a n
instructor i n th e science , wa s note d dow n a s a turbulen t fellow , fi t onl y
for lo w taver n rows , o r drunke n encounters . Bu t time s hav e changed , o r
at leas t publi c sentimen t has . I t i s no w admitted , tha t a gentlema n ma y
'know ho w t o us e hi s fists, ' an d no t b e les s a gentleman. . . ." Th e edito r
concluded that , thank s t o Sheridan , "pugilist " an d "ruffian " wer e n o
longer synonymous. 40
Others disagreed . Althoug h professor s o f pugilis m endeavore d t o kee p
their professio n honorable , man y American s stil l regarde d an y for m o f
boxing a s a debase d activity . Th e Telescope, a nonsectaria n evangelica l
newspaper, rejecte d th e distinctio n betwee n sparrin g an d fightin g pitche d
battles. Th e forme r le d t o th e latter , becaus e amateur s eithe r becam e
prize fighter s o r patronize d th e ring . "I s i t no t eviden t tha t suc h
shameful an d inhuma n practice s la y th e foundatio n o f vice , licentiousnes s
and murder? " Al l involve d wer e "guilt y equall y i n th e ey e o f th e la w
and reason , an d shoul d b e hel d i n disgrac e b y al l hones t an d mora l
men." Similarly , "A n Ol d Citizen " praise d th e edito r o f th e New York
Evening Post fo r refusin g t o cove r a n 182 6 fight , takin g th e sid e o f
"truth, moralit y an d virtue " ove r tha t o f "th e interested , th e ignoran t
and th e profligate. " H e sa w a n inheren t connectio n betwee n teachin g
sparring, givin g glov e exhibitions , an d fightin g fo r a prize :

I certainly hop e tha t th e corporation o f thi s city wil l interpos e t o take their
licenses from thos e houses where this brutal art is nightly taught. A taste for
the practic e threatens , i f no t speedil y discouraged , t o gai n groun d amon g
us, an d stage s ma y er e lon g b e erecte d i n our city , wher e th e eye s o f ou r

49
 THE MANL Y AR T

citizens ma y b e regale d b y th e spectacl e o f me n murderin g eac h othe r

according t o art . Th e boxin g matc h o f whic h yo u refuse d t o publis h th e
account, too k plac e o n Thanksgivin g day ; th e nex t ste p wil l probabl y b e t o
introduce thi s refined an d human e amusemen t o n Sundays .

Sparring school s taugh t th e rabbl e ne w form s o f brutality , an d "gentlemen "

who waste d thei r tim e o n suc h activitie s reinforce d republica n fear s o f a n
English-style aristocrati c clas s eatin g awa y a t th e substanc e o f a virtuou s
and Christia n nation. 4 '
The connectio n wa s no t just i n th e mind s o f critics . Despit e th e effort s
of suc h me n a s Sheridan , Hudson , an d Rope r t o dissociat e scientifi c
sparring fro m priz e fighting , othe r pugilist s practice d al l facet s o f th e
manly art. Rin g fighters—George Kensett , Ne d Hammond, James Sanford —
itinerated fro m cit y t o city , exhibitin g an d givin g lessons . Amon g th e
very firs t me n i n thi s countr y t o tr y makin g a livin g wit h nothin g bu t
their fists , the y earne d thei r mone y whereve r the y could . I n 1824 , fo r
example, Sanfor d fough t a priz e battl e agains t Bil l Hatfiel d a t Elizabet h
Point, Ne w York ; a yea r late r h e kep t a sparrin g schoo l wit h Georg e
Kensett i n Baltimore ; i n 182 6 Sanfor d gav e lesson s i n Bosto n wit h
Hammond's assistance ; the n h e move d sout h agai n fo r a ne w roun d o f
exhibitions. 42
Sparring matche s o n th e urba n stag e bridge d boxin g lesson s an d
regular priz e fighting . Whil e no t all-ou t battles , exhibition s containe d
important element s o f displa y an d competition . Fo r fift y cents—abou t
half th e dail y wag e o f a laborer—individual s witnesse d a fe w three -
round bouts , ostensibl y insulate d fro m th e priz e ring' s wors t excesses :
" G . Kenset t beg s leav e t o infor m th e gentleme n o f Georgetow n an d
Washington tha t h e intend s givin g a displa y o f th e ar t o f SEL F DE -
FENCE. . . . " Despit e th e gentee l ton e o f advertisement s lik e Kensett's ,
however, priz e fighting' s imag e o f brutalit y an d riotousnes s alway s
threatened th e tenuou s statu s o f bot h sparrin g lesson s an d exhibitions. 43
This tensio n wa s bes t reveale d i n th e caree r o f Willia m Fuller , th e
most prominen t sparrin g maste r o f hi s era . Bor n an d raise d i n Norfolk ,
England, youn g Fulle r wa s apprentice d a s a copperplat e printer . Hi s
pugilistic genealog y dre w hi m towar d th e ring , fo r me n o n bot h side s o f
his famil y boxed , refereed , an d seconde d bouts . H e gre w intimat e wit h
several heroe s o f th e Englis h fancy , includin g Jac k Slack , To m Crib , an d
Bill Richmond , wh o wa s on e o f th e Norfolkman' s teachers . Fulle r
developed int o a goo d priz e fighter , neve r champio n bu t alway s wel l
respected. I n 1814 , afte r Molineaux' s secon d defea t a t the hands of Crib ,
Fuller fough t a two-roun d battl e agains t th e America n blac k tha t laste d

50
 HATS I N TH E RIN G

over a n hour . Molineau x won , bu t i t was th e intensit y an d duratio n o f th e

fight whic h attracte d attention . A s a displa y o f skil l an d stamina , Pierc e
Egan believed , thi s battl e wa s "withou t parallel." 44
Within a fe w year s Fulle r move d t o France , wher e h e becam e cler k o f
the rac e course , keepe r o f a billiar d room , an d maste r o f a n elegan t
sparring schoo l a t Valenciennes . Ega n attribute d Fuller' s succes s no t
only t o hi s busines s acume n an d fluenc y i n Frenc h bu t t o hi s demeano r
as well : "Fro m hi s appropriat e deportment , hi s hote l i s muc h frequente d
both b y Frenc h an d Englis h gentlemen ; an d man y o f th e former , i t
appears, hav e bee n induce d t o hav e a tria l (à la Anglaise) wit h th e
gloves." I t remain s unclea r wh y Fuller , wit h hi s apparen t succes s i n
England an d France , emigrate d t o Americ a i n 1824 . Wha t ca n b e sai d
with certaint y i s tha t h e arrive d wit h credential s a s a fine priz e fighter , a
master o f scientifi c sparring , a successfu l businessman , an d a gentlema n
in th e styl e o f th e Englis h ring. 45
That Fulle r attempte d t o maintain hi s statur e i s indicate d b y hi s posin g
twice i n 182 4 fo r th e eminen t Dublin-bor n artis t Charle s Cromwel l
Ingham. Suc h luminarie s a s th e marqui s d e Lafayett e an d Ne w Yor k
governor DeWit t Clinto n sa t fo r Ingham , an d certainl y n o equall y
distinguished artis t i n Americ a befor e Thoma s Eakin s an d Georg e
Bellows, nearl y three-quarter s o f a century later , deigne d t o do image s of
pugilists. I n contrast , Ol d Worl d artist s ofte n too k boxer s a s thei r
subjects, an d eve n To m Molineau x wa s reproduce d i n paintings , engrav -
ings, an d statuar y b y me n a s wel l know n a s Georg e Cruikshank ,
Douglass Guest , an d Theodor e Géricault . N o doub t Ingham' s root s i n
Ireland, wher e fighter s wer e renowne d heroes , influence d hi s decisio n t o
paint a boxer . Bu t Fuller' s imag e a s a gentleman—som e calle d hi m th e
"Jackson o f America, " a referenc e t o "Gentleman " Joh n Jackson ,
former champio n o f England , frien d o f Lor d Byron , an d sparrin g maste r
of th e aristocracy—n o doub t attracte d Ingham' s attention. 46
For a fe w year s durin g th e lat e 1820 s Fulle r travele d fro m cit y t o cit y
between Charlesto n an d Montreal , stayin g lon g enoug h i n eac h t o giv e
lessons, exhibi t hi s skill s o n stage , an d appea r i n th e theater . Hi s
thespian effort s wer e confine d t o Pierc e Egan' s popula r Life in London,
described b y th e newspaper s a s "Th e Extravaganz a Burlett a o f Fun ,
Frolic, Fashio n an d Flash. " Fulle r playe d th e role s o f bot h Joh n Jackso n
and To m Crib , exhibitin g th e manl y ar t o f self-defens e t o larg e an d
appreciative audiences . Thoug h tam e b y moder n standards , Life in
London wa s risqu e i n it s day , a Regenc y Er a panoram a o f fashionabl e
young me n slummin g i n th e dive s an d bac k alley s o f London . Individu -
als wh o identifie d wit h th e character s o f To m an d Jerry—th e well-to-d o

5'
 THE MANLY ART

Sparring master William Fuller, 1824. Artist Charles Cromwell Ingham here
portrayed the "professor of pugilism" in the ring, but Fuller soon renounced
prize fighting for gentlemanly sparring. Courtesy of the Print Collection, The
New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations .

. 52 .
 HATS I N TH E RIN G

gentry, no t stric t moralist s bu t youn g gentleme n wit h ragge d edge s wh o

came fro m th e ol d uppe r clas s rathe r tha n th e risin g bourgeoisie—wer e
likely candidate s t o dro p i n a t Fuller' s sparrin g rooms. 47
After hi s firs t half-doze n year s i n America , Fulle r settle d int o a stabl e
routine. H e publishe d a prime r o n gymnastics , buil t a gymnasium , an d
for hi s remainin g tw o decade s mad e Ne w Yor k Cit y hi s home . H e
continued t o advertis e himsel f i n th e mos t gentlemanl y tone s an d adde d
fencing, gymnastics , quoits , an d bowlin g t o th e activitie s taugh t a t hi s
establishment. Th e sparrin g master' s statu s reache d it s pea k whe n th e
son o f forme r mayo r Phili p Hon e allegedl y save d hi s own lif e b y fendin g
off a gan g o f tough s wit h technique s h e ha d learne d a t Fuller' s gym .
Significantly, th e elde r Hon e staunchl y oppose d priz e fightin g ye t al -
lowed hi s so n t o take sparrin g lessons . Her e Fulle r also drew th e line . H e
fought onl y on e rin g battl e i n America , shortl y afte r h e emigrated . Onc e
he opene d hi s Ne w Yor k sparrin g rooms , however . Fulle r avoide d suc h
encounters an d wa s carefu l t o declar e tha t h e ha d n o intentio n o f
introducing priz e fightin g t o America. 48
Fuller's effort s t o distanc e himsel f fro m th e rin g pai d off . Eve n editor s
who refuse d t o publis h bare-knuckl e new s note d hi s "carefu l demeanor "
and "modes t conduct, " an d pointe d ou t th e "respectability " o f hi s
pupils. Thu s th e Charleston Mercury condemne d priz e fightin g fo r
brutalizing me n bu t recommende d Fuller' s sparrin g lessons : "W e hop e
that th e youn g gentleme n o f thi s cit y wil l avai l themselve s o f th e presen t
opportunity t o acquir e a knowledg e o f Pugilism , an d affor d tha t encour -
agement t o Mr . Fulle r whic h hi s conduct , sinc e h e ha s bee n amongs t us ,
so muc h deserves." 49 Similarly , Gabrie l Furman , a Brookly n lawyer ,
municipal cour t judge , stat e senator , an d Whi g candidat e fo r lieutenan t
governor, condemne d priz e fightin g a s "barbarous " an d "sanguinary "
but praise d Fuller' s gy m fo r bein g "conducte d i n suc h a manne r a s t o
give th e publi c n o reaso n t o complai n o f it s existenc e a s a n evil. " H e
noted tha t Fulle r refuse d t o mak e a public spectacl e o f hi s establishment ,
discreetly coverin g al l o f th e window s facin g th e street . Her e wa s boxin g
in it s mos t refine d state , takin g it s plac e besid e othe r health-givin g
gymnastic exercises. 50
Pugilism unde r Fuller' s auspice s coul d eve n alleviat e violence . I n a n
open lette r t o a Ne w Yor k newspape r a visito r fro m Virgini a praise d th e
sparring master' s "gentlemanl y deportmen t an d agreeabl e manners. "
Fuller ha d converte d a skeptic :

The write r entertaine d stron g prejudice s agains t Pugilism , an d believed ,

like man y others , i t ha d a tendenc y no t onl y t o fomen t quarrels , bu t t o

53
 THE MANL Y AR T

create a turbulen t disposition . Sinc e visitin g Mr . Fuller' s school , an d

witnessing th e goo d humou r an d urbanit y o f th e pupils , an d th e polit e
attention o f thei r teacher , h e cheerfull y recant s hi s forme r opinions ; an d
feels n o hesitatio n i n sayin g tha t th e science , i f encouraged , wil l hav e a
strong tendenc y t o eradicate a disgusting syste m o f fighting , unfortunatel y
very prevalen t i n thi s state .

Dueling, n o doubt , wa s tha t "disgustin g syste m o f fighting, " ye t th e

author o f thi s lette r appeale d t o precisely thos e value s whic h undergirde d
the cod e duello : prope r manners , gentlemanl y deportment , a sens e o f
honor, an d antipath y t o persona l affronts . Boxin g lesson s allowe d a ma n
to "suppor t hi s dignity , repe l insult , resis t attack , an d defen d hi s right s
from aggression. " Som e individual s coul d therefor e imagin e pugilism —
once purge d o f bloodlust , filth y lucre , an d th e unwashe d rabble—a s th e
moral equivalen t o f dueling , th e rin g a s a ne w fiel d o f honor. 5 '
More tha n anyon e else , Fulle r wa s abl e t o maneuve r aroun d th e
stigma tha t confine d boxin g t o society' s leas t privilege d groups . H e
deliberately appeale d t o th e urba n elite , advertisin g tha t hi s Ne w Yor k
gymnasium woul d preserv e th e healt h o f sportsme n returnin g fro m th e
country. H e offere d t o sho w letter s writte n b y doctor s endorsin g hi s
regimen o f sparrin g an d gymnastics . H e claime d tha t leadin g citizens ,
including clergymen , enrolle d i n hi s program . Abov e al l Fuller , alon g
with hi s partisan s an d colleagues , argue d tha t a scientifi c knowledg e o f
boxing technique s allowe d a gentlema n t o chastis e th e "insolent, " repe l
the assault s o f "ruffians, " an d defen d himsel f fro m "blackguards." 52
These, o f course , wer e cod e word s o f clas s prejudice ; insolent an d
ruffian referre d t o socia l inferior s wh o di d no t kno w thei r place . Th e
growing notio n tha t gentleme n mus t no w prepar e t o protec t themselve s
was base d o n fea r o f th e burgeonin g urba n masses . I t i s uncertai n
whether crim e actuall y sprea d a s th e househol d economy , wit h it s
paternal syste m o f right s an d obligation s betwee n maste r an d apprentice ,
declined. Wha t i s clear , however , i s tha t individual s wer e increasingl y
cast a s independen t agents—employees—int o urba n markets . A s th e
old artisa n syste m brok e dow n an d me n exchange d thei r labo r fo r
cash wage s i n a n impersona l nationa l economy , a t leas t th e perceptio n
that crim e an d violenc e threatene d respectabl e citizen s gre w i n intensity. 53
Robert Wain , a self-style d Philadelphi a aristocrat , mad e thes e point s
clear. Wai n rejoice d i n 182 0 tha t th e "savag e pleasure s o f publi c
pugilism" di d no t yet disgrac e Philadelphia . H e rejected argument s tha t
bloodsports offere d model s o f gallantr y an d courage , insistin g tha t the y
merely indulge d deprave d taste s fo r violence . Worse , th e rin g "elevate s

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 HATS I N TH E RIN G

the coal-heaver , th e publican , th e porte r o r th e negro—wh o happen s t o

possess muscula r strength , larg e bones , an d a thic k skull—int o th e
society o f ran k an d fashion. " Priz e fightin g brok e dow n clas s barriers ,
allowing a taver n keepe r o r a blac k man , Cri b o r Molineaux , t o mingl e
with th e aristocracy . Sparring , o n th e othe r hand , helpe d maintai n socia l
distinctions. "I n al l civilize d societies, " Wai n reasoned , "a n aristocrac y
must an d wil l exist , eithe r founde d o n letters , famil y o r fortune. "
American demagogue s wh o denie d thi s trut h unleashe d th e insolenc e o f
the lowe r orders . Sparrin g lessons , however , woul d hel p th e uppe r clas s
keep hac k drivers , woo d sawyers , carters , an d drayme n i n thei r place :
"Tobacco-smoke woul d no t b e puffe d i n th e face s o f ou r ladie s a t ever y
corner, no r whit e sil k stocking s jostled int o gutters , b y ever y athleti c an d
malicious porter . Th e aristocrac y o f fashio n an d gentilit y woul d b e mor e
clearly recognised , an d th e farc e o f relativ e republica n equalit y ceas e t o
ornament every ragge d vagabon d wit h the same attributes as a gentleman." 54
Clearly, me n lik e Wai n dreade d th e masse s and , equall y clearly , the y
sensed tha t politica l an d socia l powe r wer e eludin g thei r grasp . Th e
success o f Fulle r an d othe r sparrin g master s wa s du e a t leas t i n par t t o
fears tha t th e socia l transformatio n o f America n citie s wa s subtl y
changing clas s relationships , tha t inferior s n o longe r respecte d thei r
betters, an d tha t gentleme n mus t lear n t o protec t themselve s agains t
ruffians. Th e ris e o f boxin g school s signale d ne w anxietie s tha t a
dangerous underclas s no w threatene d socia l order .
In sum , sparring' s earl y association s wit h fencing , th e appeal t o
individuals travelin g abroad , th e suggestio n tha t th e glove s replac e
dueling pistols , th e gentee l deportmen t o f th e professor s o f pugilism , th e
notion tha t gentleme n mus t develo p thei r abilit y t o chastis e thei r inferi -
ors al l helpe d sparrin g teacher s establis h a tin y bastio n o f respectabilit y
within th e worl d o f boxing . Bu t w e mus t b e precis e abou t th e natur e o f
this respectability . Professor s o f pugilis m wer e no t wholl y successfu l i n
convincing American s o f th e utilit y o r moralit y o f thei r craft ; ther e wer e
never mor e tha n a handfu l o f boxin g school s i n Americ a a t an y tim e
before th e Civi l War . An d give n sparring' s tie s to the Englis h aristocracy ,
men lik e Fulle r evoke d fear s o f a n effet e uppe r clas s drawin g me n awa y
from republica n simplicit y towar d fashionabl e decadence .
For i t wa s indee d fashionabl e youn g men—th e kin d wh o migh t enjo y
seeing Pierc e Egan' s Life in London, frequen t th e countr y fo r fiel d
sports, rea d th e Spirit of the Times, an d worr y abou t attack s o n thei r
honor—who wer e mos t likel y t o enrol l a t gymnasium s lik e Fuller's . I n
future decade s boxin g lesson s an d sparrin g matche s attracte d a growin g
working-class clientele , bu t fo r no w severa l professor s o f pugilis m

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 THE MANL Y AR T

catered t o a self-declare d elit e tha t cultivate d a n aristocrati c style . Unlik e

the Englis h sportin g crowd , however , fe w o f America' s gentr y crosse d
the borde r int o ope n slumming . Insecuritie s ove r th e lac k o f fixe d an d
entitled upper-clas s status—Rober t Wai n wa s a perfec t example—mad e
elite amusement s insula r an d inward-looking , whil e republican , evangel -
ical, an d bourgeoi s ideologie s tempere d th e gentry' s ways . America n
sportsmen dre w th e lin e a t particularl y wil d an d violen t amusements .
Thus sparrin g exhibition s an d boxin g lesson s offere d a sanitize d versio n
of pugilism , retainin g som e o f priz e fighting' s elementa l excitemen t
without th e tain t o f lower-clas s life. 55
The stor y o f th e earl y sparrin g master s provide s a n excellen t exampl e
of ho w clas s division s increasingl y manifeste d themselve s i n nineteenth -
century popula r culture . Particula r style s o f entertainmen t appeale d t o
distinct socia l groups. 56 Mor e antisepti c tha n gor y priz e fight s bu t no t
exactly a deacon' s idea l o f mora l amusement , sparrin g wa s a fin e
compromise fo r a n insecur e gentry . Later , a s th e middl e clas s gre w mor e
open t o ne w form s o f leisure , boxin g lesson s an d exhibition s becam e a
half-way hous e t o priz e fighting . Indeed , th e restraine d for m o f pugilis m
taught b y Fulle r an d hi s kind , emphasizin g blow s wit h neatl y glove d
fists, eventuall y foun d it s enthronemen t i n th e marqui s o f Queensberr y
rules. Thi s code , adopte d lat e i n th e centur y fo r amateu r an d the n
professional boxing , glove d priz e fightin g itsel f wit h newfoun d
respectability.57

Ideology an d th e Rin g

Because mos t partisan s o f th e rin g wer e no t highl y literate , the y

rarely penne d justification s fo r thei r sport . Still , a fe w defender s o f
boxing cam e forth . Th e autho r o f th e onl y survivin g descriptio n o f th e
second Hammond-Kenset t figh t vente d hi s rag e agains t society' s mora l
guardians:

In giving th e histor y o f a contest o r combat betwee n tw o men , I am aware

of th e risk I ru n o f offendin g th e feeling s o f man y a canting , whinin g
swindler an d fastidiou s hypocrite , wh o wil l shak e th e head o f disapproba -
tion a t th e nam e o f a fight , an d fleece you a t th e sam e instant . I kno w I
shall commi t grea t violenc e upo n thes e shadow s of morality , wh o so much
infest th e world , wh o hav e th e impudenc e t o hol d themselve s u p a s ou r
judges an d superiors , entitlin g themselve s t o grea t respect—constantl y
assuming a solemn gravit y befor e th e world , t o cover thei r ow n ignoranc e

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 HATS I N TH E RIN G

or craft y designs ; wh o condem n i n other s wha t the y practic e withou t

scruple.

Particularly strikin g i s the vehemenc e o f th e attack , especiall y th e charg e

that th e moralist s wer e a t onc e impuden t fo r holdin g themselve s superio r
to other s an d hypocritica l becaus e solemnit y maske d thei r greed . Tha t
these "shadow s o f morality " wer e "swindlers"—me n "withou t scru -
ple" wh o woul d "fleec e you " wit h thei r "craft y designs"—underscore d
the author' s assumptio n tha t mora l arroganc e wen t hand-in-han d wit h
sharp busines s practices , tha t loft y pretension s an d cras s money-gettin g
were o f a piece. 58
Supporters o f pugilis m believe d tha t thei r spor t offere d alternative s t o
petty acquisitiveness . I n 180 6 Englishma n R . Payn e Knight' s "Eulog y
of Boxin g an d Coc k Fighting " appeare d i n th e Literary Magazine an d
articulated th e viewpoin t o f th e Britis h gentr y fo r Americans . Knigh t
denied tha t violenc e alon e rendere d bloodsport s interesting . Lover s o f
cockfighting o r bullbaitin g too k n o pleasur e i n seein g livestoc k butchere d
in slaughterhouses , an y mor e tha n me n o f th e fanc y enjoye d watchin g
bloody mismatches . Onl y violenc e i n th e contex t o f fai r comba t afforde d
genuine display s o f fortitud e an d honor . Th e priz e ring' s scene s o f valo r
were a credit t o England , a source o f pride , no t shame , fo r al l citizens. 39
Knight argue d tha t suppressio n o f Englis h matche s b y magistrate s
with th e mistake n notio n o f preservin g th e peac e threatene d "a n en d t o
that sens e o f honou r an d spiri t o f gallantry , whic h distinguishe s th e
common peopl e o f tha t countr y fro m tha t o f al l others ; an d whic h i s no t
only th e bes t guardia n o f thei r morals , bu t perhap s th e onl y securit y no w
left eithe r fo r thei r civi l libert y o r politica l independence. " Boxin g
promoted patriotis m a s wel l a s a nationa l etho s o f courag e an d fai r play .
If me n wer e prevente d fro m fightin g fo r prize s o r honorar y distinctions ,
they woul d us e dagger s t o settl e quarrels . I n th e end , "th e lowe r orde r
will becom e a base rabbl e o f coward s an d assassins , read y a t an y tim e t o
sacrifice th e highe r t o th e avaric e an d ambitio n o f a foreig n tyrant." 60
It i s difficul t t o tak e seriousl y Knight' s fea r tha t boxin g matche s wer e
all tha t stoo d betwee n Englan d an d foreig n domination . Nevertheless ,
his essa y wa s on e o f th e earlies t publishe d i n Americ a supportin g
pugilism. H e rejecte d shar p distinction s betwee n fightin g fo r a priz e an d
fighting t o settl e a disagreement ; th e tw o wer e boun d together , eac h
serving a s a mode l fo r th e other . Knigh t mad e n o apolog y fo r th e
passions displaye d i n th e ring , arguin g tha t the y wer e fundamenta l t o
man. Rathe r tha n den y thes e passions , boxin g an d simila r sport s taugh t
individuals ho w t o channel them . Th e abilit y t o accep t violenc e ye t plac e

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 THE MANL Y AR T

limits o n it , t o orde r mayhe m wit h rule s an d a spirit o f gallantry , wa s th e

true measur e o f a civilizatio n an d th e sures t bulwar k o f freedom . Mos t
important, th e priz e rin g wa s no t onl y a sourc e o f entertainmen t fo r th e
lowly, bu t also , i n thi s ag e o f revolutions , a schoo l wher e the y acquire d
the etiquett e an d decoru m o f thei r betters , wher e the y imbibe d th e
concept o f fai r play , an d wher e the y learne d t o identif y wit h rathe r tha n
reject th e uppe r class . Thu s bot h paternalis m an d self-interes t compelle d
the elit e t o promot e sport s amon g th e lowe r orders . Sharin g th e ol d
aristocratic value s o f honor , gallantry , an d courag e di d no t eras e socia l
distinctions bu t maintaine d a spiri t o f mutualit y amon g classes. 61
Knight's aristocrati c perspectiv e wa s unusua l i n America , thoug h
gentlemen's publication s occasionall y reaffirme d hi s ideas . Th e New
York Sporting Magazine, fo r example , reprinte d a lette r t o th e edito r o f
Bell's Life in London whic h declare d tha t th e "nobl e art " se t a "manly "
tone bot h fo r ric h boy s i n boardin g school s an d fo r th e workin g class ,
combating effeminac y an d preparin g me n t o defen d thei r country . A n
article reprinte d i n th e American Turf Register declare d tha t th e rin g ha d
no roo m fo r bullie s an d braggarts , becaus e th e bes t boxer s wer e th e
coolest, mos t self-possessed , leas t quarrelsom e individuals . B y th e
1830s Willia m T . Porter' s Spirit of the Times coul d argu e tha t priz e
fighting ha d redeemin g virtues : "Ther e i s a feelin g o f courage—o f
proud, manl y self-dependence , accompanyin g th e champio n o f th e ring ,
that otherwis e woul d no t b e elicited . Th e manl y stand-u p figh t i s surel y
far preferabl e t o th e insidiou s knife—th e ruffianl y gan g system—o r
the cowardl y an d bruta l practic e o f biting , kickin g o r gougin g no w s o
prevalent." Bu t suc h comment s wer e rare , an d editor s reverse d them -
selves a t th e firs t sign s o f criticism. 62
In th e earl y year s o f th e America n ring , then , onl y a hin t o f
upper-class suppor t appeared . A smal l coteri e o f me n wh o identifie d
with th e cultura l styl e o f th e Englis h gentr y defende d popula r recre -
ations, occasionall y eve n boxing . Th e Spirit of the Times wa s th e mos t
vocal orga n o f thi s group , whic h include d lande d gentlemen , nort h an d
south, a s wel l a s heir s t o urba n mercantil e wealth . Edito r Willia m T .
Porter trie d t o captur e th e etho s o f Englis h leisure d gentleme n wh o
pursued age-ol d recreations , especiall y fiel d sport s an d hors e racing .
Such me n embrace d persona l honor , competitiv e prowess , an d convivial -
ity a s transcenden t values . The y rejected th e perfectionis m o f reformer s
and assume d tha t strif e wa s sow n i n man' s nature . Thoug h boxin g wa s
only a mino r an d controversia l spor t i n thei r canon , a t leas t a fe w
individuals openl y approve d o f priz e fighting' s rejectio n o f piet y an d
diligence. I t woul d no t b e surprisin g t o fin d tha t som e o f thes e gentleme n

Ĵ«
 HATS I N TII KR 1N G

attended o r eve n patronize d th e ring . Bu t withou t a n independen t

aristocracy, th e America n uppe r clas s wa s muc h mor e cautiou s tha n it s
English counterpar t i n partakin g o f raucou s sportin g life . Littl e evidenc e
actually exist s o f gentr y patronag e fo r priz e fighting , an d mos t gentlemen ,
if the y care d a t all , wer e probabl y satisfie d readin g abou t Englis h fight s
or slinkin g of f t o a n occasiona l sparrin g match . Th e majorit y n o doub t
agreed wit h Rober t Wain , tha t th e rin g wa s fo r th e rabbl e an d tha t th e
elite shoul d kee p it s distance. 63
Indeed, ther e wa s powerfu l oppositio n t o priz e fightin g withi n th e
gentry. Republicanism' s greates t champion , Thoma s Jefferson , wa s on e
of th e earlies t critica l voices . A youn g America n wh o goe s t o Englan d
for hi s education , Jefferso n declared , "learn s drinking , hors e racin g an d
boxing." Worse , "h e acquire s a fondnes s fo r Europea n luxur y an d
dissipation, an d a contempt fo r th e simplicit y o f hi s ow n country . . . . H e
is le d b y th e stronges t o f huma n passions , int o a spiri t o f femal e
intrigue . .. o r a passion fo r whores , destructiv e o f hi s health , an d i n bot h
cases learn s t o conside r fidelit y t o th e marriag e be d a s a n ungentlemanl y
practice." Her e Jefferso n place d sport s i n a broad ideologica l context .
"Luxury,""dissipation," an d "simplicity " wer e charge d word s i n th e
lexicon o f republicanism . Aristocrati c societie s bre d self-indulgen t prac -
tices suc h a s drinking , gambling , an d whoring ; me n o f inherite d wealt h
set a n exampl e o f debaucher y tha t corrupte d th e lowe r classes . A
republic base d upo n th e spiri t o f mutualit y amon g informe d an d produc -
tive citizen s coul d no t surviv e suc h behavior . Farmer s an d mechanics ,
tempted b y vision s o f luxury , abandone d simplicit y t o pursu e persona l
aggrandizement. Onc e th e wast e an d purposelessnes s o f wil d sport s
entered a republic, the y gre w lik e cancers , destroyin g tha t self-restraine d
virtue, tha t sens e o f communa l welfare , whic h alon e allowe d freedo m t o
64
prosper.
Editors, reformers , an d clergyme n o f th e soli d middl e clas s concurre d
with Jefferson . Befor e priz e fightin g eve n becam e establishe d i n America ,
a fe w me n wer e voicin g thei r oppositio n t o it . I n 179 0 th e edito r o f th e
Massachusetts Sentinel reveale d hi s mortificatio n a t finding a descriptio n
of a priz e figh t rathe r tha n somethin g trul y importan t unde r th e headlin e
"By Express " i n a n Englis h paper . Tha t tw o nobleme n acte d a s umpire s
and tha t 100,00 0 guinea s wer e wagere d o n th e contes t particularl y
piqued him . Suc h incident s confirme d America n accusation s tha t aristo -
cratic corruptio n rotte d al l o f Englis h society . Agreein g tha t suc h
spectacles mus t neve r corrup t a republic o f virtuou s farmer s an d tradesmen ,
the influentia l Gazette of the United States reprinte d th e Sentineľs
editorial.65
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 THE MANL Y AR T

Other America n journal s soo n joine d th e chorus , reissuin g antiboxin g

articles fro m Englis h sources . A n essa y reprinte d i n th e New York
Magazine, fo r example , argue d tha t huma n intelligenc e woul d inevitabl y
obviate violence , includin g war s an d revolutions . Whil e th e autho r
acknowledged th e nee d fo r martia l courag e t o secur e peac e i n a turbulen t
age, h e denie d tha t boxin g bre d valor . I n goo d Enlightenmen t fashio n h e
cited classica l authors—Solon , Xenophon , Galen , Euripides—t o sho w
that ancien t boxer s cam e fro m th e mos t vil e socia l classe s i n Greec e an d
made th e wors t soldiers . Brutality , cowardice , an d gree d wer e th e fruit s
of pugilism :

If w e di d no t kno w som e wh o ar e generou s an d courageou s wh o throug h

habit an d carelessness o f conduct attend thes e fights, w e should pronounc e
against th e possibilit y o f suc h virtue s enhabitin g th e bosom s of thos e wh o
can b e diverted b y seein g tw o nake d me n hammerin g eac h other , til l thei r
faces an d bodie s ar e covere d wit h bloo d an d contusions : the pertinacity o f
the man who is knocked down as fast a s he can rise, gives us rather a proof
of hi s basenes s tha n o f hi s courage , an d shoul d disgus t ever y reasonabl e
man; fo r h e i s animate d t o ac t thi s bruta l part , fro m a desire o f satisfyin g
the connoisseurs , o f who m h e i s t o receiv e th e wage s o f sin .

The corruptin g influenc e o f money , th e callousnes s o f thos e wh o pai d t o

witness suc h events , th e debasemen t o f me n wh o accepte d remuneratio n
for brutalizin g eac h other , th e carelessnes s o f goo d citizen s wh o faile d
to pu t a n en d t o suc h displays , al l delaye d th e advanc e o f huma n
progress. 66
Similarly, "O n Pugilism, " reprinte d i n th e Literary Magazine and
American Register i n 1806 , posite d a hierarch y o f recreation s base d o n
levels o f civilization—ar t an d musi c fo r th e refined , bloodsport s fo r th e
vulgar. Priz e fightin g elicite d "nothin g bu t brutality , ferociousness , an d
cowardess [s/c], " tende d t o "debas e th e mind , deade n th e feeling s an d
extinguish ever y spar k o f benevolence. " Boxin g wa s onl y slightl y les s
violent tha n dagger s o r duelin g pistols , an d thi s wa s no t goo d enough :
"The forc e o f laws , a s wel l a s th e persuasion , example , an d influenc e o f
all th e goo d shoul d b e vigorousl y exerte d t o outroo t ever y kin d o f
violence, al l contest s o f brut e forc e an d lawles s passions , amon g th e
members o f huma n society. " Th e belie f tha t violenc e coul d b e completel y
expunged represente d a lon g strid e towar d romanti c fait h i n huma n
perfectibility. Fo r thes e earl y critics , priz e fighting' s offens e wa s it s
denial o f mankind' s mora l progress . Eve n befor e boxin g reall y existe d i n
America, then , republica n ideology , wit h it s suspicion s o f al l thing s

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 HATS I N TH E RIN G

licentious an d immoderate , gav e me n a frame o f referenc e wit h whic h t o

judge th e ring. 67
By th e 1820 s a ne w criticis m appeared . Eve n wors e tha n bloodlust ,
prize fightin g ha d socia l consequence s tha t continue d lon g afte r bout s
ended. Accordin g t o the New York Spectator, boxin g encourage d insubor -
dination: "An d wha t wil l becom e o f th e moral s o f th e rising generation —
our apprentices , yout h fro m school , servants , mal e an d female , i f the y
have opportunit y t o mingl e i n thes e scene s o f riot , brutality , an d
systematic violation s o f orde r an d decency , wher e custom s mus t b e
acquired whic h will no t bea r repetition? " Her e wa s a crucia l problem .
Boxing no t onl y destroye d republica n simplicit y an d betraye d th e nobili -
ty o f huma n nature , i t wa s sociall y disruptive . Th e earl y nineteent h
century witnesse d th e beginning s o f wrenchin g transformation s i n famil y
roles an d productiv e relationships . I f th e proliferatio n o f urba n working -
class recreation s suc h a s priz e fightin g wer e no t reall y causin g socia l
insubordination, the y wer e a sympto m o f change . Apprentices , servants ,
youths—increasingly al l wer e free d fro m customar y obligation s i n th e
new wage-labo r market , al l gre w eve r les s respectfu l o f ran k an d titl e i n
this democrati c age , an d al l turne d t o raucou s sport s an d pastime s a s th e
old mora l econom y brok e down . Stagin g thei r ow n recreation s offere d
working-class American s a n alternativ e sourc e o f values , on e tha t th e
middle clas s feare d becaus e i t encourage d prid e an d independence .
Engaged i n it s ow n wil d pleasures , th e lowe r clas s seeme d volatile ,
dangerous, an d ou t o f control. 68
As rin g tradition s gre w ritualized , s o di d pres s condemnations . Th e
criticisms containe d a stron g elemen t o f hypocrisy : "I n th e nam e o f
decency le t u s no t imitat e th e manner s o f th e ol d world . . . . " Thi s of f hi s
chest, th e edito r o f th e New York Evening Post publishe d a round-by -
round repor t o f a bout. 69 Suc h disclaimer s precedin g eyewitnes s account s
became typica l b y th e 1840s . Bu t th e antiboxin g rhetori c wa s no t al l
sham. Editor s struggle d wit h thei r conscience s t o lea d th e publi c towar d
virtue. Tha t newspaper s mus t b e guardian s o f moralit y wa s axiomati c
inside an d outsid e publishin g circles . Commentin g o n a n 183 2 figh t tha t
took plac e i n Delaware , notin g tha t thousand s o f spectator s ha d attended ,
the edito r o f a Baltimor e newspape r declare d "th e condemnatio n o f suc h
a breac h o f decenc y an d morals , a s i n thi s bruta l exhibition , shoul d no t
be lef t t o publi c opinion. " Bot h lega l authoritie s an d molder s o f publi c
sentiment ha d a responsibilit y t o cur b thes e outrages. 70
Not onl y conscience , however , bu t profit s shape d editoria l decisions .
By th e 1830 s man y American s desire d new s o f priz e fightin g an d wer e
willing t o purchas e paper s tha t carrie d it . Thei r dollar s wer e powerfu l

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 THE MANL Y AR T

incentives t o ben d gentee l morality , s o tha t practicalit y an d idealis m

fought eac h othe r fo r editoria l attention . Here , i n th e ver y earl y stage s o f
commercialized leisure , th e markets ' insistenc e o n profitabilit y conflicte d
with ideologica l strictures . Th e resul t wa s decade s o f indecision , som e
newspapers publishin g figh t new s on e year , righteously refusin g t o do s o
the next. 71
Even th e working-clas s pres s an d th e upper-clas s sportin g magazine s
wavered. Th e New York Herald, fo r example , wa s th e mos t successfu l
penny dail y o f th e era , appealin g t o th e ne w urba n masse s b y mockin g
bourgeois an d evangelica l taste s wit h luri d storie s abou t disasters ,
atrocities, an d corruptio n i n high places . Althoug h th e Herald wa s on e o f
the mos t reliabl e source s o f boxin g new s before th e Civi l War , edito r
James Gordo n Bennet t stil l fel t th e nee d t o issu e disclaimer s wit h boxin g
stories. 72 Mor e revealin g still , Spirit of the Times edito r Willia m T .
Porter vacillate d wildly . Fo r it s firs t half-yea r hi s journa l containe d a
regular colum n givin g scrap s o f new s o n Englis h an d America n matches .
Then Porte r suddenl y declared , "w e hav e toda y evince d ou r respec t t o
the 'publi c voice ' b y expungin g th e 'Sport s o f th e Ring ' fro m ou r
columns. . . .The kin d admonition s o f ou r friend s instruc t u s tha t w e
may hav e mistake n 'th e tast e o f a n America n Public ' " 7 3
The Spirit of the Times continue d coverin g new s o f sports , fashion ,
and th e theater , bu t Porte r wa s persuade d tha t priz e fightin g wa s beyon d
the pale . A lette r fro m th e journal' s Liverpoo l corresponden t explaine d
why pugilis m endangere d publi c morality :
If yo u kne w wha t a curs e th e priz e rin g ha s been ; ho w low—ho w
brutalizing—how dreadfu l i n it s effects , yo u woul d exul t a s I do , tha t thi s
fashionable curs e ha s abate d i n England , an d tha t it s tain t i s littl e know n i n
America. Ha d I an enem y who m I wishe d t o ruin , bod y an d soul , I woul d
ask n o mor e tha n t o tur n hi m out int o th e compan y o f pugilist s an d thei r
clique, an d th e matte r woul d b e effecte d withou t delay . . . . Ten year s ago ,
the pugilisti c corps , i n London , amounte d t o a s man y a s 50 0 t o 1000 . O f
these, ther e wa s scarcel y on e wh o wa s not a deprave d character : scarcel y
one wh o wa s not "coc k o f th e walk " i n som e publi c house . Ther e h e rule d
the roost , an d braggin g o f th e delight s o f "Th e Fancy, " innoculate d callou s
apprentices an d journeyma n artisan s wit h a thirs t fo r suc h polit e accom -
plishments. Te n t o on e tha t th e pugilis t wa s als o a pickpocke t o r a burglar ;
if so , th e ruffia n coul d an d di d mak e converts , whe n an d ho w h e pleased ,
to hi s mor e secre t an d mor e nefariou s calling .

The rin g brutalize d taste , bre d crime , demoralize d laborers , an d corrup -

ted youth . Mor e perniciou s tha n hors e racin g o r th e theater , i t ha d n o
place i n a virtuou s nation .

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 HATS I N TH E RIN G

The ver y nex t year , however , th e Spirit of the Times publishe d a ful l
account o f th e Burke-O'Connel l fight , wit h a lon g apologi a explainin g
the valu e o f pugilisti c science . Althoug h Porte r continue d t o issu e
exculpations, hi s journa l regularl y carrie d boxin g storie s i n succeedin g
decades. Ye t becaus e America n priz e fightin g wa s s o totall y associate d
with th e urba n lowe r class , an d becaus e Porter' s readershi p identifie d
with th e Englis h lande d gentry , th e Spirit of the Times gav e muc h mor e
attention t o Britis h bouts , wit h thei r clingin g i f fade d bit s o f aristocrati c
glory, tha n t o America n ones. 74
Soon shor t storie s appeare d wit h th e anti-priz e figh t message . I n 183 8
the New Yorker carried a fictiona l accoun t o f a young countr y la d takin g
on a celebrate d pugilis t i n orde r t o sav e hi s mother' s hom e fro m
foreclosure. "Nothin g i s mor e disgusting, " th e narrato r assure d hi s
readers, "tha n th e descriptio n o f a priz e fight , wher e th e mos t dreadfu l
disfigurement an d injurie s don e b y ma n t o ma n i n a coo l deliberat e
manner fo r th e sak e o f lucre , ar e i f possible , mad e wors e b y bein g
recounted i n a slan g phras e an d systemati c for m t o ministe r t o th e wors t
appetite o f th e depraved. " Throug h shee r tenacity, th e la d knocke d hi s
opponent insensible , bu t no t before receivin g morta l blows . Wit h dyin g
breath, h e urge d th e onlooker s t o brin g th e priz e mone y t o hi s mother .
The woma n los t he r min d whe n sh e learne d he r son' s fate. 75
Similarly, "Th e Boxer, " whic h appeare d i n the Spirit of the Times an d
Atkinson's Casket, depicte d priz e fighter s a s barbarians . Her e a rough -
neck brok e hi s ankl e whe n lightnin g frightene d hi s horse . Th e drunke n
bully cursed , threatene d hi s wife , an d browbea t th e physician s attendin g
him. "Suc h a fou l mouthe d ruffia n I never encountere d anywhere, " hi s
doctor declared . "I t seeme d a s thoug h h e wa s possesse d o f a devil .
What a contras t t o th e swee t speechles s suffere r wh o I had lef t a t home !
and t o whom m y hear t yearne d t o return." Th e glimps e of domesti c blis s
underscored th e frenzie d violenc e o f th e boxer' s drunke n oaths :

. . .a flas h o f lightnin g gleame d ruddil y ove r him . "Ther e i t is!—Curs e

it—just th e sor t o f flash tha t frightene d m y horse— d it!"—an d th e
impious wretc h shoo k hi s fis t an d grinne d horribl y a ghastly smile !
"Be silen t sir ! b e silent ! o r w e wil l bot h leav e yo u instantly . You r
behavior i s impious ! It i s frightfu l t o witness ! Forbear, les t th e vengeanc e
of Go d descen d upo n you! "
"Come, come : non e o f you r d methodis m here ! G o o n wit h you r
business! Stic k t o you r shop. "

With that , anothe r bol t o f lightning—th e "wrathfu l fir e o f Heaven "

—filled th e roo m an d blinde d th e sinner. 76

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 T H E M A N L Y AR T

In s o man y ways , then , priz e fightin g threatene d deepl y hel d ideals .

Why woul d responsibl e individual s punc h eac h othe r senseles s and ,
equally important , wh y woul d anyon e watc h suc h spectacle ? Raucou s
sports violate d centra l tenet s o f republica n ideology , tha t worl d vie w o f
the revolutionar y er a whic h stil l move d nineteenth-centur y Americans .
Prize fightin g confirme d republica n fear s tha t idlenes s an d indulgenc e
had tempte d me n fro m th e pat h o f selflessness . Rathe r tha n actin g a s
autonomous producer s wh o contribute d t o th e genera l welfare , th e
sporting crow d thre w of f al l sens e o f persona l restraint , substitutin g
hedonism an d luxur y fo r virtue . Indeed , debauche d pleasure-seekin g
seemed symptomati c o f th e large r socia l declensio n afflictin g America n
cities, wher e gree d an d opulenc e no w supplante d th e ol d communa l
spirit o f mutualit y an d simplicity . Boxin g matche s disgrace d al l citizens ,
including otherwis e goo d me n wh o looke d awa y rathe r tha n sto p thes e
bloody spectacles. 77
Prize fightin g no t onl y fe d republica n fears , i t mocke d th e mor e
optimistic ideologie s ascendan t i n th e earl y nineteent h century . Th e rin g
contradicted romanti c assumption s o f man' s reaso n triumphin g ove r hi s
passions, o f th e mora l progres s o f humankind , o f a "benevolenc e
empire" spreadin g ove r th e world . Jus t whe n reformer s glowe d ove r th e
perfectibility o f huma n natur e an d institutions , her e wa s evidenc e o f
man's ineradicabl e rascality ; just whe n evangelical s urge d me n t o choos e
salvation, th e growin g sportin g fraternit y chos e sin ; just whe n th e middl e
class sa w vision s o f materia l progres s fo r all , th e fanc y wa s wastin g it s
best energie s o n crim e an d brutality . Especiall y gallin g wa s th e fac t tha t
men fough t fo r money—th e "wage s o f sin"—whil e other s bet o n th e
outcome o f bouts . Suc h behavio r perverte d th e ver y meanin g o f wealth .
It wa s ba d enoug h tha t me n gamble d awa y thei r family' s future s an d
went int o debt . Bu t winnin g mone y wa s equall y perniciou s becaus e
instead o f denotin g virtue , prosperit y flowe d t o thos e mos t lucky ,
treacherous, o r brutal . Fa r fro m bein g a rewar d fo r har d work , a tool o f
material progress , o r a sig n o f godliness , mone y becam e a symbo l o f
depravity.78
Above all , ther e wa s a strong clas s bia s i n th e antiboxin g rhetoric . Th e
American middl e clas s migh t scor n effet e Englis h aristocrat s but , wit h o r
without nobl e sponsors , th e lowe r clas s wa s stagin g it s ow n sports . Th e
references t o th e vilenes s o f Gree k an d Roma n boxers , t o the basenes s o f
men wh o fough t fo r lucre , t o th e vulgarit y o f th e mob s attendin g fights ,
all poin t t o a sens e o f uneas e wit h urba n masse s tha t remaine d culturall y
unconverted i n a n er a whic h demande d tha t me n stan d u p an d b e
counted. Member s o f th e fanc y wer e "ignoran t an d profligate, " wastin g

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time an d treasur e o n immediat e gratification s rathe r tha n channelin g thei r

energies towar d rationa l self-improvement . Impulsive , violen t men , priz e
fighters an d thei r il k scorne d sobe r discours e an d productiv e behavior ;
they live d t o drin k an d carouse . Wors t o f all , th e rin g corrupte d th e
young, turnin g the m awa y fro m stead y labo r an d destroyin g thei r respec t
for master s an d elders .
In al l o f thes e charge s th e critic s wer e partl y right . Th e priz e rin g was
a "magi c circle, " a "sacre d circle. " Her e a loosenin g o f conventiona l
morality wa s sanctioned , indee d expected , a s me n indulge d i n th e
irrationality o f violence , drink , an d gambling . I f boxin g partisan s faile d
to writ e extensivel y abou t thei r sport , the y spoke a symboli c languag e
through prize-figh t ritual s whic h reveale d thei r cor e values . I n a socia l
world grow n prosai c wit h materialis t desire s an d evangelica l rigidity , a
good figh t wa s a grand displa y fille d wit h excitement , hig h drama , an d
ceremony. Th e wagering , specia l slang , tyin g o f colors , appointmen t o f
a referee , preťigh t speeches , an d othe r ritualize d practices , al l denote d
entrance int o a uniqu e real m wit h it s ow n rule s an d customs .
Most strikin g wa s th e enjoymen t o f shee r masculin e beaut y foun d i n
the ring :

Burke presente d a n iro n frame , i n whic h al l superfluou s flesh seeme d

excluded. Hi s broa d an d extende d chest , hi s outwar d turne d knees , tha t
take of f fro m beaut y t o add s o much t o muscular power , hi s muscula r an d
well kni t lowe r limb s lef t n o doubt i n th e mind s o f th e spectator s tha t n o
common skil l o r bodil y strengt h woul d b e sufficien t t o overpowe r o r
vanquish th e possessor . O'Connel l strippe d t o greate r advantag e tha n
expected. Hi s upper fram e i s large an d muscular , bu t i t wants compactnes s
and tension . Hi s sinew s han g loose , an d hi s fram e i s fa r fro m bein g wel l
banded together .

This descriptio n wa s typical , an d i t wa s followed , agai n typically , b y

details o f th e position s eac h ma n too k i n th e ring , thei r thrusts , parries ,
and wrestlin g throws . Suc h lovin g wor d portrait s o f muscle s an d sinew s
are particularl y surprisin g i n ligh t o f th e era' s renowne d delicac y o f
language.79
While thei r contemporarie s sough t t o den y huma n animality , rin g
partisans glorie d i n ma n a s a n aggressive , natura l being . Ye t lov e o f
physicality wa s counterbalance d b y admiratio n fo r th e coo l self-contro l
of th e scientifi c boxer . O f course , th e pugilisti c worl d wa s neithe r a
model o f Victoria n propriet y nor . a s critic s charged , a locu s o f pur e
anarchy. Neithe r self-restrain t no r untrammele d aggressivenes s bu t razor -
edged balanc e bewee n rule s o f decoru m an d violence , a poeti c tensio n

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between fai r pla y an d bloodletting , la y a t th e hear t o f boxing' s aestheti c

appeal.
Ideally, th e ring wa s als o a tru e democracy , i n whic h me n succeede d
or faile d unde r condition s o f perfec t equalit y o f opportunity . Bu t a s a
market plac e o f violence , boxin g symbolicall y mocke d th e libera l belie f
that atomisti c competitio n le d t o socia l good . Afte r all , bloodie d bodie s
were wha t th e ring "produced. " Spectator s identifie d wit h thos e boxer s
who bes t represente d thei r ethni c group , neighborhood , o r trade . Person -
al toughness , loca l honor , drunke n conviviality , violen t display—ever y
bout uphel d thes e powerfull y antibourgeoi s values . Bare-knuckl e fight -
ing wa s thu s a transitiona l phenomenon , incorporatin g ol d value s an d
new. Th e priz e ring's for m wa s "modern"—achievement-oriented ,
meritocratic, egalitarian—bu t it s conten t "premodern"—ascriptive ,
nonrational, hierarchical . Fo r me n i n passag e betwee n way s o f life ,
boxing wa s a symboli c wa y station. 80
But i f th e rin g offere d brillian t dram a an d vivi d ritual , working-clas s
men stil l ha d littl e powe r i n th e dawnin g Victoria n world . Fro m th e
beginning, priz e fighter s wer e prosecute d unde r law s agains t riot, may -
hem, an d assault . B y th e mid-i83o s th e influ x o f Ne w Yor k pugilist s int o
New Jersey prompted th e nation's first anti-prize fight legislation. Newark ,
Hoboken, an d Belvill e ha d alread y witnesse d battles , an d i n 183 5 Ji m
Reed an d Andre w McLan e chos e Elizabethtow n Poin t fo r thei r encoun -
ter. Th e sherif f appeare d an d rea d th e Rio t Act , bu t h e wa s powerles s t o
stop th e battle. 81 Th e "bruta l an d demoralizin g exhibition, " a s th e New
Jersey Emporium and True American calle d it , incense d th e loca l
citizens, an d a t a publi c meetin g the y demande d legislation . On e wee k
later anothe r hundre d Ne w Yorker s crosse d th e Hoboke n ferr y fo r a ne w
match. Ferr y superintenden t Va n Buskir k ordere d th e interloper s of f th e
Elysian Fields , s o th e crow d move d t o Weehawke n Hill . Jus t a s the y
were gettin g read y fo r th e battle , anothe r peac e office r arrive d an d
ordered th e crow d t o disperse . Partisan s o f bot h fighter s turne d o n him ,
and wer e i t no t fo r th e arriva l o f Va n Buskir k an d hi s deputies , the y
might hav e kille d him . Nearl y a doze n participant s i n thi s "pugilisti c
riot" wer e incarcerate d i n th e Hackensac k jail. 82
The inciden t wa s to o muc h fo r th e Ne w Jerse y legislature . I n littl e
more tha n a mont h i t drafted , debated , an d passe d law s agains t th e
"degrading practic e o f priz e fighting. " T o aid , abet , o r participat e i n a
regular ring contes t o r eve n a "tes t o f pugilisti c skill"— a sparrin g
match—was no w a hig h misdemeanor , punishabl e b y u p t o tw o years '
imprisonment an d a one-thousand-dolla r fine. Steamshi p owner s an d
captains wh o allowe d thei r vessel s t o conve y passenger s t o fights

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 HATS I N TH E RIN G

hazarded simila r penalties , an d eve n spectator s riske d a year' s incarcera -

tion an d a two-hundred-dolla r fine . "Thi s i s a wholesome law, " th e New
Jersey State Gazette concluded , "an d ther e i s n o doub t tha t th e moralit y
of Eas t Jerse y wil l carr y i t rigidl y int o execution." 83
In futur e year s othe r state s woul d follo w Ne w Jersey' s lead . Bu t i t
would b e a mistak e t o rea d a sudde n shif t o f attitud e int o thes e laws .
Animosity towar d th e priz e rin g develope d earl y an d remaine d stron g
throughout th e era . Th e ne w law s wer e mor e a culmination tha n a brea k
with th e past , on e benchmar k amon g countles s other s o f th e ascendanc e
of suc h value s a s piety , diligence , an d progres s i n a natio n wher e
evangelical religio n an d th e marke t plac e wer e becomin g th e font s o f
ideology. Th e emergen t Victoria n ethos , profoundl y shape d b y Protestan t
Christianity an d capitalism , ha d a sharpe r edge , a mor e brittl e qualit y
than th e ol d republica n ideals ; head y fait h i n huma n perfectibilit y gav e
reformers littl e toleranc e fo r mora l backsliding . Th e anti-priz e figh t law s
made amorphou s attitude s towar d th e rin g explicit , bolstere d magistrate s
who otherwis e resorte d t o les s specifi c statutes , codifie d existin g atti -
tudes. Th e law s wer e neve r ver y successfu l i n bringin g dow n th e ropes ,
yet the y reflecte d middle-clas s fait h i n clear-cu t mora l precept s an d
Victorian impatienc e wit h th e haphazar d way s o f th e ol d order. 84
But law s o r n o laws , America n priz e fightin g faile d t o clai m a soli d
base o f suppor t amon g influentia l me n unti l nearl y th e end o f th e century .
For thi s reason , th e rin g coul d no t hav e attaine d th e height s tha t Englis h
pugilism reache d durin g th e Regenc y Era . Simpl y put , Americ a neve r
had a powerfu l aristocrac y t o counte r th e oppositio n o f th e middl e class .
Boxers i n th e Unite d Kingdo m receive d patronag e fro m grea t men , an d
in retur n th e exploit s o f fighter s confirme d th e lov e of th e old uppe r clas s
for valor . Th e lowe r an d highe r order s o f societ y remaine d sharpl y
divided, bu t throug h event s lik e priz e fight s the y momentaril y share d a
cultural styl e tha t cherishe d pageantry , camaraderie , an d masculin e feat s
of daring . Th e ol d elit e no t onl y enjoye d a littl e good-nature d slumming ,
it secure d th e loyalt y o f th e masse s wit h grea t display s o f largesse . Fo r
their part , th e commoner s go t suppor t fo r thei r sports , protectio n agains t
evangelical an d middle-clas s meddlers , an d flatterin g attentio n fro m th e
high an d mighty .
Yet Americ a ha d n o hereditar y aristocracy , n o Princ e Regen t t o
patronize he r champions , n o dukes an d earl s t o form a pugilistic club , n o
lords an d peer s t o frequen t th e sportin g house s an d atten d matches . Ric h
American merchant s an d lande d gentleme n migh t tak e sparrin g lesson s
or rea d th e Spirit of the Times, rac e thoroughbred s o r practic e fiel d
sports, bu t ther e the y dre w th e line . Eve n a ric h youn g frontie r hell -

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raiser lik e Andre w Jackson—know n fo r hi s breedin g stoc k o f horse s an d

fighting cocks—too k car e t o disavo w hi s wil d pas t onc e h e becam e a
national politica l figure . Wealth y me n o f leisur e suc h a s Joh n Co x
Stevens o f Ne w York , Colone l Ranso m Johnso n o f Nort h Carolina , an d
William Henr y Herber t o f Ne w Jersey , al l o f who m love d th e conviviali -
ty o f popula r recreations , stoppe d shor t o f embracin g th e ful l panopl y o f
English sports . I n othe r words , th e grou p t o whic h boxin g primaril y
appealed—the ne w urba n workin g class—wa s sociall y isolated. 85
Not onl y boxin g bu t al l pastime s suffere d unde r thes e circumstances ,
so tha t before 184 0 America n sport s wer e rathe r anemic . Occasiona l
horse races , runnin g meets , an d sailin g regatta s attracte d considerabl e
attention, bu t suc h event s wer e sporadi c an d crudel y organized . Th e
American wor k ethic , wit h it s root s i n republica n produce r culture ,
evangelical Christianity , an d ne w capitalis t imperative s o f growt h an d
profit, impede d th e developmen t o f al l recreations . I n hi s advic e manual ,
William Alcot t warne d youn g me n t o improv e ever y momen t o f ever y
day, fo r "h e wh o lose s a n hou r o r a minut e i s th e pric e o f tha t hou r
debtor t o th e community. " Similarly , th e edito r o f Nile's Weekly Register
mused afte r th e grea t 183 2 hors e rac e pittin g Eclips e agains t Si r Henr y
that "fe w hav e gaine d muc h b y it—bu t man y hav e los t wha t shoul d hav e
went t o th e paymen t o f thei r just debts . . . . The mone y expende d o r los t
and tim e waste d . . . i s no t fa r shor t i n it s valu e o f hal f th e cos t o f cuttin g
the Eri e Canal." 86
Men wh o bu m fo r th e heavenl y city , o r th e communit y o f virtue , o r
worldly treasur e d o no t wast e thei r carefull y husbande d energ y o n
frivolous pastimes . Sport s lik e boxin g woul d eventuall y b e accommodat -
ed t o bot h capitalis m an d Christianity , bu t fo r no w th e mos t powerfu l
ideologies i n America n lif e barel y tolerate d "innocent " amusements , le t
alone th e wil d way s o f th e sportin g fraternity . Afte r all , half-nake d me n
skillfully poundin g eac h othe r fo r cas h hardl y square d wit h th e spiri t o f
human progress , universa l benevolence , an d socia l improvement .

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 2

The Firs t American Champion s

The Ris e o f "Yankee " Sulliva n

Prize fightin g continue d t o carve ou t it s own urba n niche , despit e th e

negative social , ideological , an d lega l climate . Boxin g ha s alway s
brought fort h charismati c figure s becaus e i t place s th e lon e individua l a t
the cente r o f attention . Fighter s suc h a s Cri b an d Molineaux , Hickma n
and Neate , transforme d mer e fisticuff s int o epic drama . Th e ring elevate s
heroes an d antiheroe s wh o tak e thei r destinie s i n thei r ow n hands , wh o
succeed throug h shee r will an d ability , an d whos e struggle s dramatiz e th e
humbler conflict s o f u s all .
Such a ma n slippe d littl e notice d int o Americ a i n 1840 . Th e fact s o f
his earl y lif e ar e fragmentar y an d contradictory ; eve n hi s tru e nam e i s
uncertain. Variousl y calle d Fran k Murray , Franci s Murray , Franci s Martin ,
and Jame s Ambros e (probabl y hi s tru e name) , t o th e America n publi c h e
was alway s "Yankee " Sullivan . H e wa s bor n i n Banden , nea r Cork ,
Ireland, o n Apri l 12 , 1813 ; all w e kno w o f hi s yout h i s tha t h e manage d
to get int o a variet y o f scrapes , an d som e o f thes e resulte d i n th e issuin g
of challenge s an d th e raisin g o f stak e mone y b y friends . A s hi s skill s
became apparent , Ambros e sough t sparrin g matche s an d regula r rin g
encounters. Th e youn g fighte r me t an d defeate d journeyme n pugilist s
such a s Georg e Sharples s an d To m Brady . H e live d a t th e fringe s o f
Britain's crimina l underworl d an d befor e hi s twenty-fift h yea r wa s
arrested—some account s sa y fo r murder , som e sa y fo r burglary—an d
sent t o th e pena l colon y a t Botan y Bay , Australia . Her e Ambros e wa s
hired ou t a s a far m laborer , whic h allowe d hi m t o figh t a fe w regula r
battles wit h othe r convicts . H e soo n stowe d awa y o n a shi p boun d fo r
America, lande d i n Ne w York , bu t staye d les s tha n a year. 1

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 THE MANL Y AR T

Seeking a reputatio n i n th e Londo n priz e ring , Ambros e slippe d bac k

into Englan d unde r th e assume d nam e o f Yanke e Sullivan . I n a charac -
teristic sho w o f nerv e th e escape d convic t publishe d a not e i n Bell's Life
in London, challengin g an y ma n weighin g eleve n ston e (15 4 pounds ) t o
meet hi m fo r £5 0 a side . A fin e Englis h fighte r name d Hamme r Lan e
picked u p th e gauntlet . Sulliva n wa s overmatche d i n thi s fight , bu t b y a
stroke o f luc k Lan e fracture d hi s righ t ar m i n th e thir d round . Neverthe -
less, Lan e cam e u p to scratc h sixtee n mor e times , an d befor e hi s second s
"threw u p th e sponge"—capitulated—th e one-arme d fighte r severel y
punished Sullivan . I n contras t t o Lane' s "extraordinar y displa y o f
British bravery, " Sulliva n fostere d muc h il l will b y deliberatel y attackin g
his opponent' s injure d right limb . Probabl y fearin g rearrest , h e returne d
to America. 2
Though Sulliva n wa s hardl y a shinin g ligh t i n th e Englis h ring , hi s
fame a s conqueror o f Hamme r Lan e serve d hi m wel l i n America . Guide d
by anothe r immigran t boxer , Georg e Overs , th e "Mancheste r Pet, "
Sullivan hel d a fe w successfu l sparrin g benefit s an d befor e lon g wa s
running a saloo n i n th e Bowery . Hi s Sawdus t Hous e quickl y becam e a
clearinghouse fo r al l pugilisti c activitie s an d a resor t fo r working-clas s
men intereste d i n sportin g life . Iris h immigrants , whos e number s gre w
steadily durin g th e 1840 s wer e especiall y attracte d t o hi s establishment .
According t o a n anonymou s biographer , the y "woul d get togethe r o f a
Saturday night , i n a bac k roo m o f th e Sawdus t House , an d ove r thei r
well-filled glasses , woul d sin g an d tal k o f th e exploit s o f th e darin g
Sullivan, wh o couldn' t b e beat. " O f course , Sullivan' s Iris h friend s
hoped tha t h e woul d duplicat e hi s victor y ove r th e Englis h i n th e Unite d
States, an d i n a n er a o f growin g nativism , test s o f prowes s wit h
American fighter s wer e als o eagerl y anticipated . Sulliva n oblige d hi s
friends wit h a serie s o f bouts. 3
He fough t Englishma n Vincen t Hammon d nea r Philadelphi a o n Sep -
tember 7 , 1841 . Eac h sid e pu t u p on e hundre d dollars , an d Sulliva n
advised hi s chum s t o wage r al l the y coul d o n hi s winnin g "firs t blood. "
But i n th e earl y moment s o f th e figh t Hammon d caugh t Sulliva n wit h
a quic k blow , cuttin g th e insid e o f hi s mouth . Yanke e clinche d hi s lips ,
sucked i n th e blood , an d delivere d a tremendou s punc h tha t spli t
Hammond's chee k an d sen t hi m reelin g t o th e ground . Sulliva n clappe d
his hand s wit h delight , shoute d "firs t bood, " an d retire d t o hi s corne r
for th e customar y thirt y seconds ' rest . Th e entir e figh t laste d eigh t round s
in te n minutes , an d Sullivan' s friend s lef t mor e certai n tha n eve r o f thei r
man's prowes s an d cunning. 4
His victor y se t of f wha t American Fistiana calle d a n explosio n o f

7<>
 THE ľ 1 R S T AMERICA N CHAMPION S

"Hibernian crowing" : "Sulliva n wa s haile d b y al l sort s o f endearin g

epithets, suc h a s 'Yankee, ' 'Sully, ' 'Bully, ' etc . Th e larges t citie s an d th e
largest state s seeme d no t larg e enoug h fo r expressin g th e deligh t o f
Sullivan's enthusiasti c admirers. " Fo r day s figh t tal k rage d lik e a n
epidemic. Drun k wit h excitemen t an d ale , Yankee' s frien d Joh n McCleeste r
rushed ou t o f Sullivan' s saloon , foun d To m Hyer—th e so n o f Jaco b Hye r
and a well-know n native-bor n bruise r i n hi s ow n right—an d challenge d
him o n th e spot . The y too k th e Alban y steame r nort h th e nex t day , go t
off jus t abov e Ne w Yor k City , an d hel d a n informa l battle . McCleester' s
enthusiasm coul d no t overcom e Hyer' s three-inch , sixteen-poun d advan -
tage; afte r 10 1 round s an d almos t thre e exhaustin g hour s o f combat ,
McCleester wa s convince d b y hi s frien d Sulliva n t o giv e u p an d avoi d
further injury. 5
The native-bor n sportin g crow d wa s elated , an d no w Hye r wa s see n a s
the ma n t o humbl e Yanke e Sullivan . Bu t th e America n refuse d t o figh t
for les s tha n thre e thousan d dollar s a side , fa r mor e tha n Sullivan' s
backers coul d raise . Anothe r nativ e wit h prize-rin g pretensions , To m
Secor, wa s willin g t o challeng e Sulliva n fo r one-tent h o f tha t amount , s o
on Januar y 24 , 1842 , fiv e steamer s carrie d abou t tw o thousand intereste d
spectators t o the Ne w Yor k Narrows . Yanke e easily pummele d Seco r int o
submission, thoug h th e job too k sixty-fiv e round s sprea d ove r on e hour .
Sullivan no t onl y wo n th e fight , h e humiliate d hi s opponent . H e
peppered Secor' s face , the n fel l t o th e groun d a t th e slightes t blow ,
ending roun d afte r round . Sull y taunte d an d unnerve d hi s antagonist ,
pointed t o hi s blood y features , mad e faces , an d laughe d a t him. 6
The mor e invincibl e Sulliva n appeared , th e mor e hi s enemie s wante d
him beaten . A s American Fistiana pu t it , "the y cas t thei r eye s roun d
about th e pugilisti c circl e t o fin d a ma n capabl e o f holdin g u p th e hono r
of th e Star s an d Stripe s agains t th e encroachment s o f th e Gree n Fla g o f
the Emeral d Isle." 7 The y settle d o n Willia m Bell , a n Englis h immigran t
and sparrin g maste r wh o ha d bee n "teachin g th e goo d peopl e o f
Brooklyn ho w t o defen d themselve s agains t th e 'wil y influence' " o f
foreigners. Eac h sid e stake d thre e hundre d dollar s fo r a figh t t o b e hel d
on Monday , Augus t 29 , i842. 8
Heated discussions , heav y wagering , an d stree t fight s precede d th e
bout a s th e sportin g crow d weighe d th e merit s o f th e tw o men . Te n
steamboats transporte d a t leas t si x thousan d spectator s t o Hart's Island , a
favorite pugilisti c hideawa y abou t twent y mile s nort h o f Ne w Yor k Cit y
in Lon g Islan d Sound . Al l prope r form s wer e observed , includin g th e
fighters' dres s an d colors , th e presenc e o f seconds , bottleholders , um -
pires an d a referee, th e choice o f corners , an d th e roping of f o f inne r an d

7'
 THE MANL Y AR T

outer rings . I n it s extensive coverag e o f th e matc h th e Spirit of the Times

revealed it s mixe d fascinatio n wit h th e lowe r clas s an d contemp t fo r th e
crowd. Th e steamboats , "wit h thei r heape d u p masses , rockin g t o an d
fro i n th e stream , looke d lik e som e inferna l corteg e seekin g th e water s o f
the Styx , o r a savage eruptio n burstin g fort h fo r ravag e an d fo r plunder. "
On th e ground , th e massiv e crow d surge d forwar d i n anticipatio n o f th e
battle:

Four time s wa s a larg e oute r circl e made , an d a s ofte n di d th e wil d an d

insane savage s brea k i t in . Fo r ourselves , i n th e firs t struggle , w e wer e
fortunate enoug h t o obtai n a hol d o f th e rope . . .. A t last , wit h ou r knee s
forced devotionall y tw o o r thre e inche s i n th e soil , ou r shoulder s bearin g
the weight and press of three or four sweaty proximitants [sic], wit h the sun
pouring dow n hi s fierces t vertica l ray s upo n ou r uncovere d caput , an d
boiling th e effluvi a throw n of f fro m th e neighborin g bodie s int o a floatin g
lava o f mos t execrabl e odor , w e sa w th e gladiator s ente r th e ring. 9

Despite advantage s o f a n inch-and-a-hal f i n heigh t an d te n pound s i n

weight, th e courtl y Professo r Bel l lacke d prize-rin g experienc e an d wa s
no matc h fo r th e cleve r Sullivan . Yanke e feigne d fatigu e i n th e thir d
round, the n caugh t Bel l of f guar d wit h a shar p blo w t o th e eye . Hi s
countrymen shrieke d thei r delight . I n th e sixt h round , Bel l ha d Sulliva n
in troubl e o n th e ropes . " 'Le t m e go , Belly ' sai d Sullivan , faintly , a s h e
stood wit h Bell' s ar m aroun d hi s nec k . . . 'le t m e go , Belly ; I can stan d
it n o longer ; I' m a goin g t o giv e in. ' " Whe n Bel l relinquishe d hi s grip ,
Yankee punche d hi m i n th e ea r the n thre w hi m heavily . Bel l qui t afte r
twenty-four round s lastin g thirty-eigh t minutes . Conclude d on e reporter ,
the sparrin g maste r fough t defensively , bu t Sulliva n controlle d th e battl e
because h e ha d a n "instinctiv e lov e fo r strife, " wen t i n sur e o f victory ,
and abov e al l wa s a n "intellectua l fighter " wh o calculate d ever y
move. 10
Yankee wa s no w a t th e pea k o f hi s fightin g form , an d hi s Iris h
supporters spare d n o effort s t o remin d th e Englis h an d native-bor n
sporting crow d o f hi s dominance . Boxin g enthusias m reache d unprece -
dented heights . A ne w saloon , th e Arena , opene d o n Par k Row , an d th e
fancy packe d i t nightly . Th e priz e rin g attracte d growin g attentio n fro m
the urba n lowe r class , an d Sullivan' s prowes s gav e hi m th e centra l rol e
in boxing' s development . Hi s courag e an d guil e i n th e fac e o f large r
opponents evoke d grudgin g admiratio n i n some , adoratio n i n others ,
while hi s unfailin g shrewdnes s wa s deepl y admire d b y working-clas s
men. A Yanke e an d a Sullivan , a n America n an d a n Irishman , h e

7-'
 THE FIRS T AMERICA N C H A M P I O N S

personified th e possibilit y o f acquirin g ne w identitie s an d opportunitie s

without givin g u p ol d allegiances . Sulliva n wa s th e firs t i n a lon g lin e o f
fighters wh o symbolicall y mediate d th e conflic t betwee n America n
nationalism an d immigran t pride . I n thi s sense , fightin g style , ethni c
affiliation, an d persona l bravad o al l reinforce d eac h other. "
Of course , th e growin g popularit y o f th e ring , a s evidence d b y th e
Sullivan-Bell fight , elicite d renewe d criticism . Th e edito r o f th e New
World wondere d alou d i f Ne w Yor k Cit y stil l ha d an y law s i n forc e an d
called o n magistrate s t o arres t no t onl y th e principal s bu t als o newspape r
editors wh o covere d th e ring . Th e New York Morning Express marvele d
at th e number s o f "loafer s an d rowdies " wh o boarde d boat s fo r Hart' s
Island, th e eve n large r crowd s tha t assemble d a t th e landin g place s whe n
the vessel s returned , an d th e huge publi c exhibition s honorin g th e boxer s
after th e battle . Unde r th e headlin e "Demoralizatio n i n Ne w York, " th e
evening editio n o f th e sam e pape r condemne d th e steamshi p owner s wh o
aided an d abette d th e ban d o f "ruthles s vagabonds " i n violatin g th e law .
The onl y goo d t o come o f th e figh t wa s tha t mos t othe r crim e cease d fo r
a day ; felons , allegedly , wer e preoccupie d wit h Sulliva n an d Bell . Fo r
this editor, a t least , popula r recreatio n coul d b e explained simpl y enoug h
as th e wor k o f thugs. 12
But th e sportin g fraternit y wa s littl e disturbe d b y suc h moralizing . Jus t
two week s afte r hi s figh t wit h Bell , Sulliva n saile d nort h t o assis t a t a
fight i n Westcheste r County . H e arrange d thi s battl e fro m hi s saloo n an d
would ac t a s bottleholde r fo r hi s frien d Christophe r Lill y agains t Thoma s
McCoy. N o on e guesse d th e gri m resul t o f thei r encounter .

The Battl e o f Hasting s

Two thousan d me n cam e b y coac h an d steamboa t t o Hasting s t o

witness th e figh t betwee n Lill y an d McCoy . Mos t wer e Ne w Yorker s ou t
for a mid-wee k reve l o n Tuesday , Septembe r 13 , 1842 . N o doub t man y
of the m ha d attende d th e Sullivan-Bel l figh t o r sa t i n a t sparrin g
matches, almos t weekl y affair s no w i n Ne w Yor k saloons . Indeed , th e
Lilly-McCoy contes t gre w ou t o f a quarre l a t a n exhibition , heightenin g
interest i n th e bout. 13
The figh t attracte d a festiv e gatherin g o f th e fancy . Twelv e vessel s
sailed twenty-fiv e mile s u p th e Hudson , th e steamboa t Saratoga bearin g
McCoy's party , th e Indiana servin g a s Lilly' s flagship . I n additio n t o
Sullivan actin g a s bottleholde r fo r th e youn g Englishman , pugilist s
William For d an d Joh n "Country " McCleeste r seconde d Lilly . McCoy ,

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 THE MANL Y AR T

an Iris h boatman , ha d th e ai d o f tw o veterans , Jame s Sanfor d an d

George Kensett , a s wel l a s acto r Henr y Shanfroid . Al l th e rin g regular s
were o n hand , an d a t leas t te n thousan d dollar s wer e " u p , " mostl y a t
even odds . O n boar d th e Hastings-boun d steamers , McCleeste r helpe d
promote th e festiv e spiri t b y tendin g bar , Kenset t earne d a fe w extr a
dollars makin g an d sellin g ha m sandwiches , an d onc e o n th e battle -
ground saloo n keepe r Mann y Kell y lubricate d th e crow d wit h generou s
draughts o f whiskey. 14
The rin g wa s pitche d o n a smal l platea u commandin g a panorami c
view o f th e Hudso n Valley . Spectator s sa t o r stoo d behin d a second ring ,
thirty fee t fro m th e fightin g square , whil e club-bearin g friend s o f bot h
parties kep t the m ou t o f th e intervenin g n o man' s land . Shortl y befor e th e
battle began , a lon e magistrat e entere d th e ring . H e wa s Jaspa r J .
Golden, residen t o f Dobb s Ferr y an d a teache r i n th e Hasting s schoo l
district. Unabl e t o rais e a posse , h e nonetheles s lef t hi s classroom ,
walked t o th e figh t scene , boldl y strod e u p t o Sullivan , McCleester , an d
Lilly, an d state d hi s business . Sulliva n politel y tol d hi m t o proclai m hi s
desist-and-disperse order . Gulden' s littl e speec h me t wit h jeers , an d th e
teacher decided , amids t shout s o f "Hustl e hi m out, " an d "Kic k hi m
out," tha t h e ha d don e hi s bes t an d coul d leav e th e rin g wit h a clea r
conscience. Golde n staye d t o watc h th e fight , however , no t becaus e h e
wanted to , h e late r tol d a jury , bu t becaus e a s a potentia l prosecutio n
witness, h e wa s compelle d to. 15
With th e tim e approachin g on e o'clock , th e official s tosse d a coi n fo r
choice o f sides . McCo y won . Th e me n stripped—bot h wer e i n thei r earl y
twenties an d weighe d unde r on e hundred-fort y pounds—an d thei r phy -
siques reveale d th e fruit s o f a ful l month' s training :

|Lilly's] ski n wa s ver y clea r an d ligh t i n color , bu t fir m i n textur e an d

healthy i n tone. Hi s form i s round almost t o perfection; hi s sides, instea d of
branching from the waist, gradually outwards to the armpits, circle concavely
inwards lik e reverse d crescents ; hi s nec k i s stron g an d muscula r i n a high
degree; hi s head— a fightin g one , remarkabl y wel l set . . . .
If Lilly' s appearanc e wa s fine , McCoy' s wa s beautiful . Hi s ski n ha d a
warmer glow than th e former's; hi s form wa s more elegantly proportioned ,
and hi s air and style more graceful an d manlike. Hi s swelling breast curved
out lik e a cuirass: hi s shoulder s wer e deep , wit h a bold curve d blade , an d
the muscula r developmen t o f th e ar m larg e an d finel y brough t out . Hi s
head wa s rathe r larg e an d long , ye t i t indicate d courag e an d a lov e fo r
strife, an d th e manne r i n whic h i t wa s se t betokene d strength .

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 THE IIRS T AMERICA N CHAMPION S

The homoeroti c qualit y o f thi s passage , it s emphasi s o n manl y beauty ,

underscores th e exten t t o whic h priz e fightin g appeale d t o a distinctl y
male sensibility , a masculin e aestheti c share d b y man y working-clas s
men. 16
Like othe r recen t America n fights , thi s on e wa s hel d unde r th e ne w
1838 rule s o f th e Londo n priz e ring , a cod e tha t explicitl y forbad e th e
hair-pulling, head-butting , eye-gouging , gut-kneeing , an d neck-throttlin g
tactics to o ofte n winke d a t unde r Broughton' s rules . Equall y important ,
the figh t promise d a n importan t tes t o f competin g styles . McCo y repre -
sented th e "ol d school " o r bod y attac k method , Lill y th e "ne w school "
that stresse d punche s aime d a t th e hea d an d neck . Confiden t i n hi s
strategy an d abilities , McCo y tie d hi s color s t o th e ropes , a blac k
handkerchief signifyin g "victor y o r death. " H e the n pulle d tw o one -
hundred-dollar ban k note s fro m hi s pocket , crosse d ove r t o hi s antago -
nist's corner , an d wagere d i t wit h Lill y a t eve n odds . Principal s an d
seconds, bottleholder s an d umpire s no w shoo k hand s al l around , th e
parties returne d t o thei r corners , an d wit h th e cal l o f "time! " th e battl e
commenced.17
In a violen t spor t th e Lilly-McCo y figh t stand s out . Th e Iris h lad' s
strategy o f goin g fo r th e bod y pai d of f a t first . B y th e fourteent h roun d
his partisan s shoute d $10 0 t o $60 o n thei r ma n wit h n o takers . I n th e
fifteenth Lill y wa s accuse d o f a lo w blow . Th e refere e agreed , bu t
McCoy's backer s confidentl y wave d of f th e awarde d victor y an d le t th e
fight proceed . The y mad e a fata l mistake . Withi n anothe r fiftee n round s
it becam e clea r tha t Lill y wa s th e superio r hitter , tha t McCo y wa s
exhausting himsel f mor e quickl y tha n hi s opponent . "Ain' t Chri s a
portrait painter, " on e exuberan t fa n declare d i n th e thirty-nint h round ,
referring t o Lilly' s wor k o n McCoy' s face . Th e battl e wa s no t totall y
one-sided, fo r eac h ma n lande d heavily , an d bot h cam e gamel y u p t o
scratch, bu t a s th e figh t wor e o n th e ultimat e resul t gre w unmis -
takable:

Round 70th.—McCo y wa s no w indee d a most unseeml y object : bot h eyes

were black—th e lef t on e nearl y closed , an d indee d tha t whol e chee k
presented a shockin g appearance . Hi s ver y forehea d wa s blac k an d blue :
his lip s wer e swolle n t o a n incredibl e size , an d th e bloo d streame d
profusely dow n hi s chest . M y hear t sickene d a t th e sorr y sight . Whe n h e
came u p h e appeare d ver y weak , an d almos t gaspin g fo r breath , an d
endeavored, whil e squarin g away , t o ejec t th e clottin g flui d fro m hi s
throat.

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 THE MANL Y AR T

The scen e gre w uglier :

Round 76th.—Th e su n appeare d no w t o have a painful effec t o n McCoy' s

nearly closed optics. The eyelids were so swollen and stiff, wit h extravasated
blood, tha t h e wa s obliged t o throw hi s head back , an d expos e hi s neck t o
his enemy , t o enable hi m t o loo k throug h th e sligh t crevic e left . . . . I t wa s
now perfectl y apparen t t o ever y on e presen t tha t poo r McCo y ha d no t
the slightes t chanc e t o wors t hi s cunnin g an d activ e adversary . Blo w afte r
blow cam e rainin g i n upo n him , drawin g blood , o r threatenin g deat h a t
every stroke , an d whe n h e would see k t o return, hi s antagonist woul d ste p
lightly away , an d hi s blow , waste d upo n th e trenchan t air , ha d n o othe r
effect bu t tha t o f wastin g hi s strength.' "

Spectators calle d fo r a halt : "Tak e hi m away . Don' t le t hi m figh t an y

more"; "Fo r God' s sake , sav e hi s life" ; "It' s a d d sham e t o se e a
brave ma n use d so. " Bu t McCo y cam e u p fo r ever y round . Sulliva n an d
Ford i n Lilly' s corne r aske d McCoy' s second s t o conced e an d sav e thei r
man. The y refused . McCoy , chokin g o n hi s ow n bloo d an d spittin g
coagulated clots , insiste d o n continuing . Despit e bein g knocke d dow n
eighty times , h e tol d hi s second s a t th e en d o f on e hundre d an d eightee n
rounds, "Nurse—nurs e m e an d I'l l whi p hi m yet. " H e fough t on e mor e
round, collapsed , an d died . A coroner's inques t determine d tha t McCoy' s
wounds ha d draine d int o hi s lungs , drownin g hi m i n hi s ow n blood . Th e
battle a t Hasting s laste d tw o hour s an d forty-on e minutes . Newspaper s
reported tha t a second figh t wa s scheduled, an d as McCoy's body wa s borne
back t o th e river , on e ma n allegedl y calle d out . "Come , carr y of f you r
dead, an d produc e you r nex t man." 19
This firs t fatalit y i n th e America n rin g prompte d a n outburs t o f rage .
Lilly fled t o Canad a an d fro m ther e t o England . Other s wer e no t s o
lucky. A t Mayo r Rober t Morris' s request , th e Commo n Counci l o f Ne w
York Cit y authorize d bountie s fo r th e apprehensio n o f th e responsibl e
parties. Suspect s wer e rounde d up , an d shortl y thereafte r th e gran d jur y
sitting i n Westcheste r Count y indicte d eightee n accessories—ringkeeper s
bottleholders, seconds , backers , an d others—o n charge s rangin g fro m
riot t o manslaughter . Mos t escape d wit h fines , bu t Georg e Kensett , Joh n
McCleester, an d Yanke e Sulliva n wer e deal t wit h mor e severely . Th e
trial o f thes e thre e create d a sensation . Th e courthous e an d inn s a t Whit e
Plains overflowe d daily . Th e roug h urba n stree t fighter s an d flashily
dressed gambler s attendin g th e tria l seeme d no t onl y incongruou s bu t
menacing i n thi s tid y rura l township . Wrot e on e observer , "th e appear -
ance o f th e prisoners , an d indee d som e o f thei r associates , lurkin g i n th e
courtroom, o r loafin g abou t th e village , i s strongl y marke d wit h ruffian -

76
 THE FIRS T AMERICA N C H A M P I O N S

ism an d th e grosses t passions. " Ne w Yor k dailie s sen t specia l reporter s

to th e trial , dispatche d thei r storie s b y expres s rider, an d kep t th e publi c
informed wit h detaile d extr a editions. 20
Sullivan, McCleester , an d Kenset t wer e trie d befor e fiv e circui t cour t
judges—Justice Charle s R . Ruggle s presiding—an d a jury consistin g o f
eight Westcheste r farmers , tw o innkeepers , on e carpenter , an d a mer -
chant. Fo r a full wee k th e cour t hear d eyewitnes s testimon y b y reporters ,
spectators, an d loca l officials . Defens e attorney s minimize d thei r clients '
role i n th e fight , atteste d t o thei r goo d characters , an d note d thei r effort s
to sto p th e bou t befor e McCoy' s death . Bu t th e evidenc e wa s over -
whelming give n Judg e Ruggles ' charg e t o th e jury .
He pointe d ou t tha t a homicid e resultin g fro m an y felon y o r misde -
meanor constitute d manslaughter , tha t a priz e figh t wa s a n illega l
assembly, an d tha t al l presen t a t th e match , especiall y participants , wer e
therefore culpable . Th e ton e o f hi s instruction s wa s a s importan t a s th e
substance:

A prize figh t bring s togethe r a vast concourse o f people; and I believe i t is

not speaking improperly of such assemblages, to say that the gamblers, and
the bullies , an d th e swearers , an d th e blacklegs , an d th e pickpocket s an d
the thieves, and the burglars are there. It brings together a large assemblage
of th e idle , disorderly , vicious , dissolut e people—peopl e wh o liv e b y
violence—people wh o live by crime—their taste s run that way , and though
some respectabl e peopl e probabl y wer e ther e . . . you ca n readil y perceiv e
the influenc e whic h suc h assemblage s ar e likel y t o exercise o n th e publi c
peace, an d morals , an d taste ; and yo u ca n therefor e estimat e correctl y th e
propriety an d necessity of that law which forbid s thei r existence. Upo n that
spot, then , n o one ca n hesitat e t o say—even ha d n o fatal resul t ensued —
there wer e collecte d a bod y ferociou s an d demoralized . Th e assemblag e
was i n itsel f indictabl e a s a n unlawfu l one. 21

Gamblers, bullies , pickpockets , an d thieves ; th e idle , disorderly , an d

dissolute; al l cam e togethe r fo r a feas t o f bloo d whic h destroye d publi c
peace an d morality . "I f thes e b e acquitted, " Judg e Ruggle s concluded ,
"who ca n b e convicte d hereafter? " I n les s tha n fou r hour s th e jur y
returned thre e guilt y verdict s o f fourth-degre e manslaughter . Becaus e h e
organized th e fight , Sulliva n receive d th e maximu m sentence , tw o year s
in Ossinin g prison , bu t withi n a fe w month s h e obtaine d a governor' s
pardon. McCleeste r wa s sentence d t o eight month s i n th e count y jail an d
fined $500 , whil e Kenset t receive d a four-month , $20 0 sentence. 22
McCoy's deat h confirme d al l th e old criticism s o f boxin g an d gav e ne w
ammunition t o prize-rin g opponents . Georg e Templeto n Strong , scio n o f

77
 T H E M A N L Y AR T

a leadin g Ne w Yor k famil y an d a ma n devote d t o civi c betterment ,

fantasized abou t exterminatin g al l wh o attende d th e fight a s the y returne d
to th e city : " I onl y wis h I' d ha d th e ol d Fulto n wit h seve n Paixha n gun s
mounted, loade d wit h a bushe l o f grap e each , on e t o rak e eac h steame r
as i t cam e u p an d the n on e hollo w sho t fo r eac h gun , t o sin k the m on e
after another . I t woul d hav e bee n a grea t publi c benefit. " Forme r Ne w
York mayo r Phili p Hone , a patricia n ma n o f leisur e an d n o strange r t o
the racetrac k o r pedestria n matches , too k th e occasio n o f McCoy' s deat h
to condem n th e ring : "Th e amusemen t o f priz e fighting, th e disgrac e o f
which wa s formerl y confine d t o England . . . has becom e on e o f th e
fashionable abomination s o f ou r loafer-ridde n city. " I n hi s diar y Hon e
contrasted th e goo d citizen s wh o "wep t fo r th e sham e whic h the y coul d
not prevent " wit h th e "bruta l gan g o f spectators " wh o relishe d th e
fight. Th e forme r mayo r adde d tha t no w Lill y woul d b e all th e fashio n i n
decadent Ol d England , wher e h e migh t associat e wit h corrup t aristocrat s
and fin d hi s portrai t engrave d i n thei r elegan t boxin g tomes. 23
Hone accuse d th e New York Herald o f encouragin g suc h spectacles ,
but eve n th e Herald momentaril y repente d fo r supportin g th e ring . I t
circulated a petitio n o f clemenc y fo r th e convict s o n th e conditio n "tha t
no mor e suc h scene s ar e enacted—an d tha t Sulliva n an d al l shal l refor m
hereafter." Th e Spirit of the Times backpedale d faster . "I t i s wel l
known," Willia m T Porte r declare d i n th e issu e followin g McCoy' s
death, "tha t th e Edito r o f thi s pape r ha s eve r discountenance d Th e Rin g
and it s professors , a s such—tha t h e neve r ha s attende d a Prize Fight ; an d
he woul d add , moreover , tha t h e ha d n o acquaintanc e wit h no r knowl -
edge o f an y o f th e individual s referre d to , i n th e repor t which , wit h
infinite regret , h e no w subjoins. " A lon g an d ver y detaile d descriptio n o f
the figh t followed. 24
Beyond th e sportin g press , th e attac k o n th e ring becam e a mino r
crusade, an d th e reform-minde d New York Tribune le d th e way . A
contrived intervie w wit h McCoy' s mothe r bega n th e campaign : "O h
Sullivan! Sullivan ! Wha t hav e yo u done! " sh e sobbed . "Yo u hav e
robbed a poo r wido w o f he r darlin g boy . I told hi m no t t o go— I begge d
him—yes I go t dow n upo n m y knee s o n Sunda y nigh t befor e him , an d
pleaded, 'M y son ! M y son ! D o no t brea k th e hear t o f you r poo r
mother—do no t go. ' " 2 5 To m gav e hi s wor d tha t thi s wa s hi s las t fight.
When hi s coffi n wa s brough t home , Mrs . McCo y thre w hersel f o n it ,
frantic wit h grief : "Oh , Tommy—m y son—m y beautifu l boy—wher e
are you ? Bu t Sunda y nigh t yo u wa s befor e m e s o young an d beautiful —
and wher e ar e yo u now ? I n thi s coffin . Com e her e my childre n an d se e
your lovel y brother. " Th e Tribune conclude d tha t Mrs . McCo y hel d th e

78
 THE FIRS T AMERICA N C H A M P I O N S

rival Herald responsibl e fo r he r woes , a happ y blen d o f righteou s

indignation an d goo d business. 26
But th e traged y wen t beyon d a n ol d woma n lef t desolate . Th e deat h o f
Tom McCo y wa s n o chanc e event ; i t wa s inevitable , Tribune edito r
Horace Greele y implied , give n th e kind s o f me n responsibl e fo r th e ris e
of th e ring :

How shal l w e spea k o f th e getter s u p an d encourager s o f thi s fight?—th e

gamblers, brothel-master s an d keeper s o f flash groggeries, wh o wer e eve r
the chie f patron s o f "th e ring " an d wh o wer e th e choic e spirit s o f thi s
festival o f fiends ! The y wer e i n rapture s a s th e well-aimed , deadl y blow s
descended heavil y upo n the face an d neck of the doomed victim , transformin g
the imag e o f Go d int o a livid an d loathsom e ruin ; the y yelle d wit h deligh t
as th e combatant s wen t down—ofte n o n thei r heads—wit h a forc e tha t
made the earth tremble aroun d them—a s the blood spurte d i n rills from th e
fatal sacrifice . . . .

There i s a powerfu l sens e o f Satani c evi l here , o f utte r hellishness : a

"festival o f fiends " "yelle d wit h delight " a s th e "imag e o f God " wa s
battered int o a "loathsom e ruin." 27
Indeed, fro m a bourgeoi s o r evangelica l poin t o f vie w th e violence ,
revelry, an d debaucher y trul y represente d th e worl d turne d upsid e down .
The Tribune's rhetori c wa s fille d wit h a sens e o f fea r an d loathing . Priz e
fighting wa s bu t a symbo l o f "th e evil s whic h no w afflic t an d threate n
our City . . . . " Civi c institution s ha d faile d a s guardian s o f publi c
morality; th e press , th e police , th e steamshi p companies , al l facilitate d
rather tha n discourage d suc h immora l activities . Neithe r spectator s no r
participants demonstrate d an y sens e o f interna l restraint , an y outwar d
effort t o sto p th e evil . Persona l an d socia l control s ha d al l broke n down .
Grogshop owners , brothe l keepers , "kin g gamblers"—operator s o f far o
banks an d roulett e tables—th e ver y dreg s o f societ y finance d an d
organized th e fight , defyin g la w an d morality. 28 A onc e well-ordere d
city, weakene d b y corruption , ha d falle n t o barbaria n invaders . Boxer s
and thei r hangers-o n wer e no t rea l Americans , accordin g t o th e Tribune,
but foreigner s steepe d i n vice . Now , however , th e contagio n wa s startin g
to infec t America n youths , hardenin g the m int o idle , drunken , blood -
thirsty ruffians . I n a word , McCoy' s deat h kindle d ne w fear s o f a
permanent lowe r clas s i n th e America n Eden , o f a corrupt , aggressive ,
and alie n underworl d poisonin g th e wellspring s o f nationa l virtue . Th e
Lilly-McCoy figh t becam e a metapho r fo r th e degrade d mo b tha t
threatened t o destro y al l tha t virtuou s citizen s hel d dear. 29
The battl e o f Hasting s cappe d th e generatio n whic h bega n wit h To m

79
 THE MANL Y AR T

Molineaux's spectacula r ris e i n England . B y th e earl y 1840 s substantia l

numbers o f urba n working-clas s me n wer e familia r wit h boxin g customs ,
read th e newspape r coverag e o f upcomin g battles , attende d sparrin g
exhibitions an d priz e fights , discusse d th e rin g i n neighborhoo d saloons ,
and idolize d me n lik e Yanke e Sullivan . Bu t boxing' s youn g root s wer e
shallow an d easily severed , an d the Hastings tragedy temporarily destroye d
English-style pugilis m i n America . To m McCoy' s deat h mad e al l o f th e
old argument s agains t priz e fightin g palpabl e b y highlightin g th e ring' s
brutality. Renewe d constabulary efforts , stiffene d publi c opinion, chastene d
newspaper editors , an d perhap s feeling s o f remors e amon g th e fanc y
effectively destroye d boxin g fo r a fe w years .
The fat e o f Charle s Freema n testifie d t o pugilism' s decline . Th e
"American Giant"—Freema n wa s abou t si x feet , si x inche s tal l an d
weighed ove r tw o hundre d an d fift y pounds—ha d neve r entere d th e
regular priz e ring, ye t i n 184 1 h e challenge d th e Englis h champion ,
Benjamin Caunt , the n tourin g i n Philadelphia , t o a sparrin g match .
Before lon g th e tw o wer e exhibitin g togethe r i n America n cities , an d b y
the sprin g o f 184 2 Caunt ha d persuade d Freema n t o continue thei r tou r i n
Britain. Th e Englis h sportin g crow d wa s fascinate d wit h Freeman' s siz e
and strength . A s th e summe r waned , Caun t arrange d a regular rin g figh t
for Freema n agains t th e vetera n pugilis t Willia m Perry , th e "Tipto n
Slasher," fo r on e hundre d pound s a side. 30
The nationalisti c implication s o f th e battl e wer e los t o n neithe r side . A
correspondent fo r th e Spirit of the Times reminde d Freema n o f hi s
patriotic obligations : "Recollec t tha t i t i s t o vindicat e he r [America's ]
claims to , a t leas t a n equa l standin g i n th e sportin g worl d wit h he r grea t
mother, tha t yo u hav e lef t you r ow n fireside ; recollec t tha t ever y tim e
you strik e a blow , ever y tim e yo u tak e a position , i t i s t o th e credi t o r
dishonor o f you r nativ e land . Le t thi s mov e you r arm , an d le t every blo w
be emphaticall y th e blo w o f a Freema n fo r free-men! " Th e Englis h
sporting pres s sa w th e pendin g struggl e i n equall y nationalisti c terms. 31
Unfortunately, th e figh t faile d t o liv e u p t o thes e loft y expectations .
Freeman's awkwardness , inexperience , an d disinclinatio n t o figh t
aggressively, Perry' s constan t fallin g withou t receivin g a blo w t o com -
pensate fo r hi s lac k o f scientifi c skills , produce d a n uninspire d bout .
Ringside thug s exactin g tribut e fro m th e fanc y di d no t hel p matters . I n
addition, arrangement s wer e s o poorl y mad e tha t th e tw o bega n fightin g
just moment s befor e darkness , forcin g the m t o sto p the n resum e th e
following day . Afte r thirty-seve n slopp y round s i n thirty-nin e minutes —
fighting tim e average d hal f a minut e pe r round—th e refere e finall y
disqualified Perr y for fallin g withou t a blow, givin g Freema n th e victory. 32

80 .
 THE FIRS T AMERICA N C H A M P I O N S

The America n rin g community , thoug h stil l small , ha d anticipate d a

good fight ; a s th e Spirit of the Times pu t it , " a grea t degre e o f
excitement pervade s ou r sportin g circle s a s t o th e result. " Shortl y afte r
these word s wer e written , however , To m McCoy' s bod y wa s interre d i n
Potter's Field . A s a result , Charle s Freeman' s exploit s receive d littl e
coverage i n America n newspapers , an d priz e fightin g virtuall y ceased. 33
But eve n withou t th e Hasting s tragedy , Freeman' s fam e woul d hav e bee n
limited. Boxin g wa s stil l to o ne w an d to o controversia l t o appeal muc h
beyond a segmen t o f th e workin g class . Lik e To m Molineaux , th e
American Gian t remaine d largel y unknow n t o hi s countrymen . Als o lik e
Molineaux, Freema n neve r returne d t o America , dyin g i n Englan d o f
tuberculosis i n 1845. 34

"The Grea t $ 10,000 Matc h betwee n

Sullivan an d Hyer "

Five year s passe d befor e pugilis m recovere d fro m To m McCoy' s

death. Onl y a handfu l o f matche s occurred , mainl y aroun d Ne w Orlean s
and u p th e rive r i n th e notoriou s gamblin g tow n o f Natchez , Mississippi .
Many o f thos e no t imprisone d a s accessorie s t o McCoy' s death lef t Ne w
York an d staye d awa y fo r years. 35
Still, ther e wer e countertrends . Yanke e Sulliva n opene d a new Bower y
saloon i n 184 5 wher e me n coul d gathe r an d reminisce . A year late r Chri s
Lilly returne d t o th e America n ring . Th e Spirit of the Times showe d
some renewe d interest , indexin g figh t storie s fo r th e firs t tim e i n 184 6
and offerin g it s reader s a five-volum e editio n o f Pierc e Egan' s Boxiana
for fiftee n dollars . I n 184 7 Jo e Winro w o f Liverpoo l an d Irishma n To m
O'Donnell fough t a spectacula r battl e i n Natche z tha t laste d on e hundre d
nineteen rounds , sprea d ove r tw o hour s an d forty-fiv e minutes . Despit e
its brutality , reader s o f th e Spirit of the Times wer e assured , th e fight ,
which Winro w won , wa s greatl y preferabl e t o dueling , stil l i n flower i n
the South : " I hav e bee n mor e shocke d an d disgusted, " specia l corre -
spondent "Yazoo " wrote , "a t a meetin g o n th e 'fiel d o f honor, ' wher e
gentlemen hav e sho t dow n thei r ma n i n th e mos t gentlemanl y manne r
possible. I t woul d no t b e a bad chang e fo r ou r country, i f the influenc e o f
these meeting s shoul d s o diffus e itsel f a s t o foreve r supersed e th e bowi e
knife." W e canno t kno w ho w ofte n fist s replace d mor e deadl y weapons ,
but a s th e year s passed , increasin g number s o f me n considere d i t
honorable t o settl e thei r persona l dispute s wit h rin g fightin g fo r thei r
model. 36
81
 THE MANL Y AR T

As Tom McCoy' s nam e recede d fro m memory , a s immigrants, especiall y

the Irish , poure d int o America n cities , an d a s economic hardship s cause d
by th e maturin g capitalis t econom y merge d wit h ethni c conflicts , pugil -
ism foun d ne w life . Befor e th e Hasting s traged y roughl y half-a-doze n
matches wer e reporte d eac h year . B y th e mid-1850 s score s o f fight s wer e
taking plac e annually . Moreover , th e geographica l bas e o f boxin g ex -
panded. Rive r me n fro m th e Ohi o Valle y t o Ne w Orleans , miner s i n
California, Missouri , Pennsylvania , an d Tennessee , an d ne w immigrant s
in countles s town s an d cities , al l gre w familia r wit h boxin g a s a wa y t o
settle persona l quarrel s an d a s a for m o f entertainment . Abov e all , a
series of spectacula r championshi p fights—To m Hye r vs. Yanke e Sullivan ,
Yankee Sulliva n vs . Joh n Morrissey , Joh n Morrisse y vs . Joh n C . Heenan ,
John C . Heena n vs . To m Sayers—mad e boxin g America' s singl e mos t
important spectato r spor t fro m th e lat e 1840 s throug h th e Civi l War. 37
A fe w year s afte r th e Lilly-McCo y affai r th e resolv e o f Ne w Yor k
State t o kee p Yanke e Sulliva n ou t o f th e rin g weakened , an d Sully' s
desire t o figh t gre w commensurately . Eightee n forty-si x foun d hi m
behind th e counte r o f hi s publi c house , assurin g patron s i n newspape r
advertisements tha t h e woul d b e "happ y t o receiv e thei r call s an d will
endeavor t o pleas e an d amus e them. " Sullivan' s saloo n remaine d a
gathering spo t fo r thos e wh o enjoye d th e fanc y life : "Th e Ba r i s stocke d
with goo d liquors , Segars , etc . A Free-and-Eas y will b e hel d ever y
Saturday Evening . Th e Ar t of Self-Defens e taugh t i n a few lessons. " Bu t
Sullivan coul d no t remai n conten t wit h thi s lif e fo r long . B y earl y 184 7
he bega n sparrin g a t Johnn y Ling' s "Sportsman' s Hall " an d othe r
gathering place s o f th e fancy . H e itche d t o reente r th e priz e ring an d
finally foun d a n opportunity. 38
"Since m y arriva l i n thi s country, " Rober t Caunt , brothe r o f forme r
English champio n Benjami n Caunt , wrot e i n an open lette r to the Spirit of
the Times, " I hav e receive d numerou s challenge s fro m Yanke e Sullivan ,
but hav e neve r bee n abl e t o brin g hi m u p t o th e chalk . . . . I f h e mean s
business I a m alread y t o figh t hi m fo r on e thousan d dollars , an d i f h e
will no t accep t thi s challenge , I hope h e will no t anno y m e anymore wit h
his bounces. " Sullivan' s backer s arrange d th e fight , an d interes t boome d
in th e struggl e betwee n Anglo-Saxo n an d Celt . Englishme n embrace d
Caunt a s thei r nationa l representative , s o larg e sum s o f mone y wer e
wagered oversea s a s wel l a s i n the Unite d States . Native-bor n American s
had divide d loyalties . Fo r some , th e ver y nam e "Yankee " Sulliva n
offered a nationalisti c alternativ e t o th e hate d English , bu t other s
longed fo r anyon e t o defea t th e "Iris h braggart." 39
The tw o fough t nea r Harper' s Ferry , Virginia , befor e seve n hundre d

82
 THE FIRS T AMKRICA N CHAMPION S

men o n Ma y 11 , 1847 . Odd s o f 10 0 to 40 wer e offere d o n Sullivan , an d

by th e secon d roun d thes e wer e dow n t o 10 0 t o ıo . I t was , i n th e slan g
of th e day , a "ju g handl e fight, " wit h Caun t unabl e t o continu e afte r
twelve minutes . Bu t i f th e matc h wa s disappointin g i t reintroduce d larg e
stakes, charismati c personalities , an d symboli c ethni c conflic t t o th e
ring. Jame s Gordo n Bennet t o f th e Herald fel t publi c interes t warrante d
the us e o f expres s rider s betwee n Virgini a an d Ne w York . Citizen s a s fa r
away a s Milwauke e learne d o f th e outcom e i n thei r loca l papers. 40
Sullivan's reemergenc e gratifie d th e sportin g fraternity , bu t eve n th e
most arden t membe r o f th e fanc y coul d no t hav e predicte d th e comin g
explosion o f boxin g mania . "W e d o no t remember, " th e New York
Herald declare d onl y a yea r an d a hal f afte r th e Sullivan-Caun t fight ,
"ever t o hav e see n s o grea t a n excitemen t amon g certai n classe s o f
society, a s ha s bee n develope d durin g th e las t fe w day s i n relatio n t o th e
approaching priz e figh t betwee n Yanke e Sulliva n an d To m Hyer . I t i s
similar i n som e respect s t o th e agitatio n produce d i n th e publi c min d b y
the firs t account s o f th e Mexica n War . . . . " Eac h sid e raise d fiv e
thousand dollar s fo r th e "winne r tak e all " struggle . Th e National Police
Gazette estimate d tha t thre e hundre d thousan d dollar s i n wager s hinge d
on th e outcome , an d fo r hal f a yea r a ma n coul d scarcel y ente r a saloo n
without bein g aske d hi s opinio n o f th e tw o gladiators. 41 Moreover , th e
upcoming bou t arouse d interes t beyon d th e usua l sportin g crowd . On e
New Yor k pape r declared , "al l classe s o f society—th e ric h an d th e poor ,
the hig h an d th e low , th e elegantl y dresse d denizen s o f Wal l Stree t an d
Park Place—al l shade s o f ou r heterogeneou s society , wer e a s desirou s t o
know th e resul t a s th e loafer s o f Chatha m Squar e o r th e rowdie s o f th e
Bowery." Th e Police Gazette agree d tha t Hye r an d Sulliva n "occupie d a
large shar e o f th e attentio n o f refine d society. " Bot h paper s exaggerated ,
but a n increasin g numbe r o f well-of f me n di d tak e vicariou s pleasur e i n
the fight. 42
In a narro w sens e th e Hyer-Sulliva n battl e o f 184 9 merel y picke d u p
where boxin g ha d ende d i n 1842 , fo r eve n the n th e tw o wer e recognize d
as th e bes t o f thei r day . Th e socia l contex t o f America n cities , however ,
was considerably altered . Tension s betwee n immigrant s an d native s gre w
with th e unprecedente d influ x fro m abroad . Ove r on e hundre d thousan d
immigrants entere d th e countr y fo r th e firs t tim e i n 1845 , t w ¤ hundre d
thousand i n 1847 , thre e hundre d thousan d i n 1850 . Amon g thes e masse s
the poo r o f Irelan d wer e overrepresented , fo r th e potat o famin e an d th e
brutal policie s o f landlord s no w squeeze d the m of f th e lan d an d sen t a
wave o f unskille d peasant s towar d America . Durin g th e 1830s , tw o
hundred thousan d Iris h ha d lande d i n America ; fou r time s tha t numbe r

83
 THE MANLY ART

James "Yankee" Sullivan and Tom

Hyer dressed as urban dandies.
Both were idols to working-class
men, leaders of political factions,
and heroes of street comer gangs.
Sullivan (left) was an Irish
immigrant, Hyer a native-born
American.

. 84 .
 THE FIRS T AMERICA N C H A M P I O N S

emigrated i n eac h o f th e nex t tw o decades . Forty-fiv e thousan d Iris h

immigrants i n 184 5 gre w t o on e hundre d sixty-fou r thousan d i n 1850 ,
and the y settle d mainl y i n larg e Northeaster n cities . Mor e tha n an y
group, th e impoverishe d Iris h bor e th e wrat h o f th e nativ e born .
Terrifying image s abounde d o f laz y peasants , idolatrou s Catholi c parish -
ioners, an d servil e masse s swearin g allegianc e t o th e pope . Worse ,
nightmarish vision s o f ignoran t laborer s providin g busines s wit h a chea p
alternative t o America n worker s deepene d th e tension s betwee n native s
and immigrants. 43
Even Hyer' s occupation—h e wa s a butcher , a tas k tha t demande d a
powerful physiqu e an d a stron g stomach—contribute d t o th e intensit y o f
his rivalr y wit h Sullivan . Hyer' s trad e ha d bee n a prou d nativ e bastion ,
with it s ow n symbols , rituals , an d organizations . America n butchers ,
Hyer's fathe r Jaco b an d "Boss " Willia m Harringto n amon g them , ha d a
tradition o f enterin g th e rin g a s upholder s o f nativ e honor . Bu t i n recen t
years Tamman y (fo r whic h Sulliva n worked ) ha d begu n sellin g license s
to Iris h butchers , threatenin g th e nativ e monopoly . Thu s th e clas h
between th e tw o boxer s wa s no t jus t a tes t o f physica l superiorit y bu t a
playing ou t o f dee p social , cultural , an d economi c conflicts. 44
It too k Sullivan' s backer s severa l week s t o rais e th e fiv e thousan d
dollar stake s demande d b y "Youn g America. " I n th e meantim e almos t
daily fight s brok e ou t betwee n friend s o f th e tw o men , a s tal k o f thei r
respective merit s fille d working-clas s saloons . Becaus e o f hi s experienc e
and training , Sulliva n fel t h e coul d defea t Hye r easily , despit e larg e
disadvantages i n height , weight , an d age . Indeed , half-drun k on e Apri l
evening i n 1848 , h e tried . Yanke e entere d a n oyste r ba r o n th e corne r o f
Park Plac e an d Broadway . Whethe r h e kne w i n advanc e tha t Hye r wa s
inside i s unclear , bu t instantl y th e tw o wer e a t each other . A few minute s
later Hye r ha d Sulliva n i n a headlock , an d i n leisurel y fashio n h e
punched th e champio n insensible .
Now office r Georg e Walling , futur e Ne w Yor k Cit y chie f o f police ,
entered th e room :

There stoo d To m Hyer , who m I kne w wel l b y sigh t an d reputation ,

placing a percussion-ca p upo n th e nippl e o f a pistol whic h h e hel d i n hi s
hand. I n on e o f th e boxe s wa s Yanke e Sullivan , wh o looke d a s i f h e had
been roughl y handled . I took i n th e situatio n a t once.
"Put u p tha t pistol, " I sai d t o Hyer , wh o looke d cal m an d collecte d
enough an d wit h n o trace on his person o f havin g been engaged i n a fight.
"Who th e devi l ar e you? " h e asked , i n a gruff voice .
"I'm a n officer, " I replied, exhibitin g m y star .
"They're goin g t o brin g th e gan g here, " sai d Hyer , i n a cal m voice ;

«5
 T H E MANL Y AR T

"and I' m no t goin g t o le t the m murde r m e withou t a prett y toug h figh t fo r

my life. "
"Come, ge t out o f this . Com e alon g wit h me, " 1 said , an d Hyer , takin g
hold o f m y arm , w e lef t th e saloon . Jus t a s soo n a s w e reache d th e street ,
Hyer sai d h e though t h e woul d g o t o th e Empir e Club , an d biddin g m e
good-night, crosse d Broadway .
No soone r wa s h e out o f sigh t tha n a howlin g mo b o f Sullivan' s friend s
came rushin g towar d me . The y ha d hear d o f Sullivan' s discomfiture , an d
were i n searc h o f Hyer , who , i f the y ha d caugh t him , woul d mos t assuredl y
have bee n murdered . Som e o f th e crow d aske d m e wher e Sulliva n was , an d
when 1 tol d the m wher e I had las t see n him , the y mad e a rush fo r th e oyste r
saloon. I could plainl y hea r thei r yell s o f rag e whe n the y foun d thei r friend .
Hyer ha d no t lef t th e plac e a momen t to o early .

For nearl y a wee k littl e els e wa s spoke n o f i n Bower y taverns . Newspa -

pers teeme d wit h th e stor y o f Sullivan' s humiliation , an d crowd s roame d
the street s hopin g t o catc h a glimps e o f hi s conqueror. 4 5
Still, a matc h ha d no t bee n made . Newspaper s reporte d tha t Sullivan' s
and Hyer' s partisan s bega n armin g themselve s an d tha t gan g warfar e
between th e tw o side s threatened . Althoug h th e paper s exaggerated ,
street conflict s ha d intensified . T o avoi d bloodshed , som e claimed ,
Sullivan finall y issue d a persona l challeng e i n th e New York Herald o n
June I , 1848 :

A CAR D
About si x week s since , whil e i n th e saloo n o n th e corne r o f Par k Plac e
and Broadway , i n a condition renderin g m e unabl e t o defen d mysel f agains t
any attack , 1 was assaile d i n a mos t cowardl y manner , b y a ma n o f th e
name Hyer . . . . I f I knew I had bee n worste d i n a fair fight , an d b y a perso n
who kne w anythin g a t al l abou t fighting , o r ha d th e courag e t o figh t a s a
man, I shoul d hav e take n n o notic e o f it ; bu t I conside r i t du e t o m y
friends, t o infor m the m i n thi s wa y o f th e rea l characte r o f th e occurrence . I
am n o "Iris h braggart " o r "bully, " althoug h I am a n Irishma n an d believ e
I ca n sho w mysel f worth y o f m y countr y wheneve r I am required . I f ther e
are an y wh o thin k the y ca n mak e m e "cr y enoug h lik e a whipped child, " i f
No. 9 Chatha m Stree t i s no t to o fa r out o f th e way , I will b e happ y t o hav e
them cal l an d mak e th e experiment . A s fo r Hyer , I ca n "fla x hi m out "
without an y exertion .
46
JAMES SULLIVAN.

The ton e o f thi s challenge , n o doub t ghostwritten , contraste d sharpl y

with it s content . Eve n thoug h h e expresse d hi s thought s i n moderate ,
subdued language , Sulliva n accuse d Hye r o f lying , cowardice , an d

<S'6
 THE FIRS T AMERICA N C H A M P I O N S

attacking a defenseless man , no t t o mention fisti c incompetence . Th e nex t

day, Hye r responde d wit h a publi c advertisemen t declarin g tha t h e ha d
chastised Sulliva n fo r a n unprovoke d assaul t an d tha t h e woul d mee t hi s
enemy anywher e t o prov e agai n tha t h e wa s Sullivan' s master. 47
On Augus t 7 , 1848 , a t Ford' s Tavern , friend s o f th e fighter s initiale d a
formal documen t detailin g th e term s o f th e match :

ARTICLES OF AGREEMENT entered int o thi s sevent h da y o f August ,

1848, betwee n Jame s Sulliva n an d Thoma s Hyer . ...The sai d Jame s
Sullivan agree s t o figh t th e sai d Thoma s Hye r a fai r stan d u p fight , hal f
minute time, in a twenty-four fee t roped ring, according to the new rules as
laid cow n i n th e Fistiana for 1848 , b y whic h rule s th e sai d Sulliva n an d
Hyer hereby mutuall y agre e to be bound.. . . The said fight shal l be for the
sum of Fiv e Thousand Dollar s a side. The said fight shal l take place within
the state s o f Virgini a o r Maryland , o r som e othe r place , i f th e partie s can
mutually agre e upo n suc h othe r place . . ..

The article s stipulate d tha t th e me n figh t withi n si x months , tha t th e

referee arrang e a rematc h shoul d lega l authoritie s interven e durin g th e
battle, an d tha t eac h fighte r b e properl y attire d fo r fai r rin g combat . Bot h
sides agree d jointl y t o charte r steamboat s an d spli t th e proceed s fro m
ticket sales . Backer s o f th e me n woul d pu t u p th e fiv e thousan d dollar s
in seve n monthl y installments , alternatel y a t Sullivan' s an d Ford' s
taverns. Eac h sid e wa s t o choos e a n umpir e an d th e umpire s a referee ,
whose decision s wer e fina l an d binding. 48
"Every transactio n shal l tak e plac e i n a fai r business-lik e manner, " a
contemporary observe r declared , an d withou t an y tain t o f barroo m
brawling. Whethe r o r no t th e articles ' moderat e ton e actuall y calme d
churning urba n enmities , i t i s clea r tha t rin g ritual s sough t t o channe l
working-class rivalries , givin g the m clea r an d coheren t expression . "Th e
public dre w a lon g breat h o f relief, " on e commentato r concluded , "a t
having escape d th e dange r o f a stree t slaughte r whic h ha d s o lon g bee n
threatened." Th e factiona l hatred s betwee n neighborhoo d an d ethni c
cliques di d no t disappear , bu t a hiatus i n th e violenc e seeme d possibl e a s
the gang s turne d t o a symboli c expressio n o f thei r differences . Fo r a
moment, a t least , tw o me n i n th e ring woul d d o the work fo r man y i n th e
streets.
The figh t rule s wer e writte n i n the sam e precise , legalisti c languag e a s
the Article s o f Agreement , furthe r attemptin g t o alleviate angr y passions .
These regulation s codifie d practice s alread y acknowledge d thoug h no t
always honored . Fallin g withou t receivin g a blow , kicking , butting ,
gouging, hittin g belo w th e belt , strikin g a falle n man , usin g foreig n

87
 THE MANL Y AR T

substances, leavin g th e ring, al l wer e ground s fo r forfeitur e a t th e

referee's discretion . Ye t th e rule s wer e designe d no t just fo r safety' s sak e
but wit h a n ey e t o custo m an d protocol . Rul e numbe r one , fo r example ,
lavished grea t car e o n th e constructio n o f th e "sacre d inclosure" : "Tha t
the ring shal l b e mad e o n turf , an d shal l b e fou r an d twent y fee t square ,
formed o f eigh t stake s an d ropes , th e latte r extendin g i n double lines , th e
uppermost on e bein g fou r fee t fro m th e ground , an d th e lowe r tw o fee t
from th e ground . Tha t i n th e centr e o f th e rin g a mar k b e formed , t o b e
termed a scratch ; an d tha t a t tw o opposit e corner s . . . spaces b e inclose d
by othe r mark s sufficientl y larg e fo r th e receptio n o f th e second s an d
bottle-holders, t o b e entitle d 'th e corners. ' " 5 0
T e rule s furthe r specifie d tha t principal s an d second s al l shak e hands ;
that th e second s ti e fightin g color s t o th e corners , wher e thes e banner s
remained unti l th e winne r claime d th e loser' s a s a victor y trophy ; tha t
each umpir e protec t hi s party' s interes t bu t defe r t o al l decision s
rendered b y th e referee ; an d tha t n o on e excep t principals , seconds , an d
bottle-holders ente r th e ring . Finally , th e participant s mus t refrai n fro m
irritating o r offensiv e remarks , "i n al l respect s conductin g themselve s
with orde r an d decorum, " confinin g themselve s "t o th e diligen t an d
careful discharg e o f thei r duties. " Th e rule s wer e concerned , i n sum , no t
only wit h safet y an d fairnes s bu t wit h ritual. The y prescribe d stylize d
actions, demande d patterne d behavior , emphasize d ordere d procedures .
In thi s wa y the y mad e a figh t int o a specia l expressiv e event , a
dramatization o f large r socia l conflicts. 51
The half-yea r build-u p t o th e bou t wa s fille d wit h sparrin g exhibitions ,
saloon speculation , an d har d training . Sulliva n gav e hi s firs t benefi t o n
September 30 , 1848 , a t th e Shakespear e Hote l i n Ne w York . Patric k
Timony o f th e Police Gazette estimate d tha t eigh t hundre d people ,
including "editors , doctors , lawyers , brokers , clerks , exquisites , philos -
ophers (n o clergyme n wh o wer e identifie d a s such) , an d swarm s o f th e
boys an d 'hitter s out, ' " pai d fift y cent s eac h t o watc h th e heroe s o f th e
pugilistic fraternit y do n th e glove s an d battl e o n stage . Joh n McCleeste r
acted a s maste r o f ceremonies , geniall y introducin g eac h pai r of sparrers .
In th e fina l set-to , Yanke e Sulliva n "exhibite d hi s quality " agains t
George Thompson , Hyer' s trainer . Emotion s wer e clos e t o th e surface .
Thompson lande d severa l clea n blow s o n hi s antagonist , bu t i n th e thir d
round Sulliva n suddenl y close d an d thre w hi s opponen t hard . Yankee' s
friends rushe d th e stage , tosse d u p thei r hats , an d cheere d thei r man .
Order wa s restored , bu t exchange s betwee n th e tw o fighter s gre w
increasingly shar p unti l Thompso n thre w Sulliva n amon g th e spectators .

. 88
 THE FIRS T AMERICA N C H A M P I O N S

Now th e friend s o f bot h rushe d forward , eac h sid e menacin g th e other . A

brawl wa s narrowl y averted. 52
For enemie s o f th e ring , her e wa s proo f tha t boxin g encourage d
violence, bu t partisan s o f pugilis m dre w th e opposit e conclusion . "W e
are wel l convinced, " th e Police Gazette concluded , "tha t ha d no t th e
present matc h bee n made , th e larg e band s o f resolut e me n wh o adher e t o
each, woul d hav e met , Philadelphi a fashion , before now , an d cos t th e
census record s som e hal f a doze n lives . I n thi s view , th e presen t figh t
may b e considere d th e safet y valv e o f a muc h greate r danger. " Priz e
fighting wa s a too l o f peace :

The pugilisti c spiri t ha s le t of f th e feve r o f assassination , an d th e six -

barrelled pistol s an d th e murderou s bowi e knive s whic h a few week s ag o
were th e pe t weappon s [sic] o f every rake-hel l an d swas h buckle r i n town,
have give n plac e t o th e doctrin e o f th e knuckle s an d hittin g fro m th e
"shoulder." A peaceful ma n may. therefore, no w walk the street wher e the
fighting crowd s perambulate, withou t fear of being sped to his account by a
whiff fro m som e deadl y muzzle , o r b y a sliverin g strok e fro m som e
sweeping blade .

The clai m wa s no t onl y dubiou s but , fo r a newspaper tryin g t o justify it s

coverage o f illega l events , self-serving . Nevertheless , durin g th e comin g
decade th e borderlin e betwee n symboli c priz e fight s an d rea l persona l
violence woul d ofte n b e ambiguous . Mor e an d mor e me n retire d t o
secluded spot s wit h nothin g sav e fist s t o settl e thei r quarrels , whil e
others cam e alon g fo r th e spor t o f it . Boxin g accordin g t o priz e rin g
rules wa s becomin g a useful , i f no t strictl y legal , mean s o f regulatin g
relations betwee n men. 53
With tw o month s lef t befor e th e battl e Hye r an d Sulliva n wen t int o
intensive training . Thei r regimen s wer e surprisingl y strenuou s an d i n
some respect s see m ver y modern . Sulliva n an d hi s trainers , "Country "
McCleester an d To m O'Donnell , too k u p residenc e a t Shaw' s Taver n
near th e Unio n raceway , Jamaica , Lon g Island , whil e Hyer , supervise d
by Georg e Thompso n an d Jo e Winrow , retire d t o Dodge' s Publi c House ,
north o f Ne w Yor k City . Thei r trainin g technique s differe d slightl y i n
detail, bu t the y followe d essentiall y simila r programs .
Sullivan ros e a t dawn , ra n fiv e t o seve n mile s o n th e Unio n course ,
and returne d t o awake n hi s friends . Nex t h e worke d ou t wit h a pai r o f
light dumbbell s t o improv e hi s aim , reach , an d strength . The n h e sparre d
with on e o f hi s trainers—striking , dodging , feinting , wrestling—t o
sharpen hi s fightin g skills , followe d b y punchin g th e heav y ba g t o

89
 THE MANL Y AR T

improve hi s hittin g power . Washin g hi s uppe r bod y wit h col d wate r afte r
these exertions , Sulliva n an d friend s retire d t o breakfast . Fin e rar e bee f
or, occasionally , boile d chicke n wa s th e orde r o f th e day . Smal l amount s
of al e an d wate r wer e permitted , althoug h dietar y lor e demande d stric t
avoidance o f vegetable s an d starche s fo r me n i n strenuou s training . Afte r
breakfast Sulliva n repose d fo r a n hou r wit h Pierc e Egan' s Boxiana,
immersing himsel f i n th e grea t ring strategie s o f th e past . H e an d hi s
trainers the n se t ou t o n a n eight-to-ten-mil e cross-countr y circuit , alon g
the wa y performin g suc h exercise s a s pickin g u p larg e stone s a t a dea d
run. Thi s over , McCleeste r an d O'Donnel l agai n douse d Sulliva n wit h
cold water , the n towele d hi m of f unti l hi s ski n glowe d cranberr y red .
Dressed i n fres h flannel, Sulliva n an d compan y partoo k o f thei r secon d
and las t mea l o f th e day , a duplicat e o f th e first . Followin g a n hour-lon g
evening brea k o f mor e readin g o r figh t talk , Sulliva n conclude d wit h
another sessio n o f sparring , dumbbell s an d ba g punching , a five-mil e
moonlight walk , an d be d b y nin e o'clock . Wit h th e exceptio n o f a glas s
of win e instea d o f ale , mutto n rathe r tha n beef , an d mountai n climbin g
in lie u o f running , To m Hye r pursue d a simila r regimen. 54
There i s a peculia r iron y i n al l o f this . A s me n strippe d of f thei r
clothes fo r a priz e fight , symbolicall y the y als o strippe d of f layer s o f
civilization. Violence , prowess , th e ques t fo r physica l domination , al l
have a barbarou s quality . Boxin g wa s par t o f culture , a man-mad e
product, bu t i t evoked image s o f instinctua l life , o f animal s battlin g ove r
food, mates , an d territory . I t wa s precisel y thi s primitiv e atavism , thi s
lack o f restrain t an d self-control , tha t critic s condemne d i n boxin g an d
bloodsports. Yanke e Sullivan , whos e "bul l do g courage " mad e hi m
"cock o f th e walk, " reaffirme d th e animalit y o f priz e fightin g b y raisin g
a bul l terrie r an d a mai n o f fightin g bird s whil e h e trained. 55
But i n th e account s o f preparatio n fo r th e ring , opposit e image s
predominate. Trainin g require d hard , abov e al l regular , wor k t o expung e
"all th e refus e o f a lon g perio d o f ease. " Sullivan' s an d Hyer' s regimen s
taught lesson s o n "th e privations , th e hardships , an d th e self-denia l
which a ma n mus t practic e before h e ca n arriv e a t hi s physica l climax ,
and stan d a s natur e intende d him , fre e fro m al l vitiatio n o f perverte d
habits." Temperance , chasteness , self-restrain t wer e th e key s t o physica l
and menta l perfection :

Mr. Sulliva n live s i n al l respects , a virtuou s an d abstemiou s life . H e wil l

not touch liquor ; he will not smoke a cigar; nay, he will not stay i n a room
where on e i s smoked , an d abov e all , h e doe s no t se e Mrs . Sulliva n a t
all—except i n a Pickwickia n sense . On e derelictio n o f th e latte r kin d

go
 THE FIRS T AMERICA N CHAMPION S

would thro w hi m bac k whol e week s i n hi s training , an d pu t hi m ver y lo w

down i n th e betting . Th e resul t is , h e i s as stron g a s a lion , a s ga y a s a lark ,
with a fre e conscienc e an d a cheerful spirit , an d i n al l respect s i n tha t hig h
condition o f anima l perfectio n whic h enable s a ma n t o se t a t naugh t al l
manner o f diseas e o r ailment . . . .

Hyer equale d Sulliva n i n rectitude , leadin g a "perfectl y chast e an d

abstemious life, " offerin g " a patter n t o man y wh o clai m t o lea d u p
middle aisles , an d t o soun d th e ke y not e i n sacre d psalmistry." 56
The stead y habit s o f th e contender s mad e the m paragon s o f Victoria n
rectitude; self-indulgence , whethe r i n tobacco , liquor , o r sex , the y
shunned a s th e fon t o f corruption . Th e controlle d littl e worl d o f th e
training cam p countere d al l form s o f immoderatio n wit h lesson s i n
disciplining one' s impulse s fo r th e sak e o f futur e rewards . Suc h behav -
ior, however , wa s uphel d no t fo r th e sak e o f Christia n moralit y o r
capitalist productivit y bu t i n th e nam e o f violen t sport , successfu l
wagers, an d barroo m camaraderie . Her e agai n th e rin g reconcile d seem -
ingly contradictor y norms . Jus t a s priz e fight s create d a meritocrac y o f
violence, s o th e boxers ' trainin g regimen s turne d bourgeoi s an d evangel -
ical ideal s o n thei r heads , enlistin g abstemiousnes s i n th e caus e o f wil d
pleasures.
As 184 9 dawned , th e combatant s wer e wel l o n th e wa y t o physica l
perfection. I n mid-January , Sulliva n lef t Ne w Yor k t o selec t a locatio n
for th e fight . H e chos e Poole' s Island , a deserte d bi t o f lan d i n th e
Chesapeake Bay , claime d b y bot h th e federa l governmen t an d th e stat e of
Maryland. Th e Spirit of the Times directe d fan s t o b e i n Baltimor e o n
Tuesday, Februar y 6 , wher e the y coul d catc h steamer s fo r th e secre t
battleground. 5 7
As thousand s mad e thei r wa y t o Maryland , however , loca l official s
obtained writ s agains t th e vessels . O n th e ev e o f th e figh t the y impresse d
one ship , th e Boston, an d use d i t t o pursu e th e others . A t th e sam e tim e
a poss e unde r Hig h Constabl e Gilfor d o f Baltimor e Count y hunte d Hye r
and Sullivan , wh o wer e alread y billete d o n Poole' s Island . Awar e o f th e
danger, th e fighters ' friend s chartere d tw o craf t an d heade d fo r th e
island, hopin g t o pick u p th e principal s befor e th e magistrate s arrived .
They succeede d b y convincin g Giffor d tha t Georg e Thompso n an d To m
O'Donnell wer e reall y Hye r an d Sullivan . Th e tw o wer e arrested ,
allowing th e rea l combatant s t o escape . Bu t th e chas e wa s no t over .
Early th e nex t da y th e Boston sighte d th e boxer' s vessel , bor e dow n o n
them, an d prepare d t o arres t th e whol e party . B y a fina l strok e o f pur e
luck, however , th e magistrates ' boa t ra n aground . Hye r an d Sullivan ,

9'
 T H E M A N L Y AR T

with abou t a hundre d friend s each , glide d pas t th e Boston, gesturin g

their contemp t t o th e Marylan d officials . Al l itche d fo r a fight , an d the y
were read y t o ancho r a t th e firs t convenien t spot , "whethe r i t wa s i n
Maryland, o r Delaware , o r Virginia , o r hell." 58
They lande d a t Stil l Pon d Heights , Ken t County , Maryland . A rin g
was hastil y constructe d o f loca l pin e an d th e topgallan t halyard s o f on e o f
the boats . A ligh t blanke t o f sno w covere d th e ground . A t abou t te n
minutes pas t fou r Yanke e Sulliva n thre w hi s hat i n th e ring ; Tom Hyer' s
followed a fe w minute s later . Bot h wor e thei r lock s cut close , becaus e
long hai r gav e one' s opponen t a convenien t handle . Followin g custom ,
each ma n sa t o n hi s seconds ' knee , Sullivan' s fee t warme d b y som e ho t
bricks procure d fro m a nearby home . Th e seconds—To m Burn s an d Joh n
McCleester, substitutin g fo r th e arreste d Georg e Thompso n an d To m
O'Donnell—tossed a coi n fo r th e choic e o f ground . Sulliva n wo n an d
gave Hye r th e corne r facin g th e glarin g afternoo n sun . Onlooker s
considered thi s a significan t victor y fo r bare-knuckl e boxer s ofte n fough t
from se t positions . Th e me n tie d thei r color s t o th e ropes , th e star s an d
stripes fo r Hyer , emeral d gree n wit h whit e spot s fo r Sully . Finally , th e
two strippe d fo r battle . Th e disparit y i n siz e wa s striking , Sulliva n
giving awa y fou r inche s an d thirt y pounds . Bu t bot h looke d impressive ,
as the y expose d thei r bodie s t o th e col d Februar y air :

They wer e a s finel y develope d i n ever y muscl e a s thei r physica l capacit y

could reach , an d th e boundin g confidenc e whic h sparkle d fiercel y i n thei r
eyes, showe d tha t thei r spirit s an d courag e wer e a t thei r highes t mark .
Sullivan, wit h hi s roun d compac t chest , formidabl e head , shelvin g flinty
brows, fierc e glarin g eyes , an d clea n turne d shoulders , looke d th e ver y
incarnation o f the spirit of mischievou s genius; while Hyer, with hi s broad,
formidable chest , an d lon g muscula r limbs , seeme d a s i f h e coul d almos t
trample hi m ou t o f life , a t will .

One newspape r accoun t claime d tha t th e spectator s wer e s o absorbe d b y

the sigh t o f th e heroe s tha t onl y a fe w dollar s wer e bet o n th e ground ,
and thi s a t eve n money . Th e odd s gav e n o indicatio n o f wha t wa s i n
SQ

store.
They bega n a t twent y minute s afte r four , an d th e firs t round s tol d th e
story. Th e tw o exchange d cautiou s blows , bu t neithe r ma n di d an y
damage. Suddenly , Sulliva n rushe d i n an d clinche d Hye r wit h a n
underhold. Thi s wa s a crucia l moment , fo r Yankee' s friend s counte d o n
his wrestlin g abilit y t o counte r Hyer' s reac h an d strengt h advantages . A
few har d throw s woul d weake n Youn g Americ a fo r th e late r rounds , s o
Sullivan mus t tak e charg e early . Th e spectator s watche d wit h rap t
92
 THE FIRST AMERICAN CHAMPIONS

The great $10,000 match, February 7, 1849, at Still Pond Heights, Maryland.
After dodging legal authorities all night, Hyer and Sullivan fought sixteen short
but dramatic rounds. New York IlLustrated Times, February 1849.

attention a s Sully knotted his muscles to throw his man-but all in vain.
Hyer now grabbed Sullivan with an upperhold and wrenched him to the
ground. The betting swung in the Chief's favor.
For seventeen minutes, eighteen seconds, they fought a bitter, unre­
mitting battle, their efforts spurred by the desire for glory and revenge.
The sporting press described the scene: "Both men came up bloody to
the scratch; Sullivan being literally clotted with gore, while the clear
crimson smoked on Hyer's chest, from a lance wound which had been
made under his right eye to prevent it from closing out his sight." By the
sixteenth round, Yankee's fighting star had set:

Hyer ... let fly both right and left in Sullivan's face, who, though he could
not return it, took it without wincing in the least. Hyer then rushed him to
the ropes again, and after a short struggle there, threw him and fell heavily
upon him....When he was taken off, Sullivan was found to be entirely

. 93 .
 THE FIRS T AMERICA N C H A M P I O N S

transparency displayin g th e words "To m Hyer , th e Champion o f America. "

The phras e signifie d somethin g new , a single , unifie d titl e owne d b y th e
one ma n wh o unequivocall y coul d bes t al l others . A s befit s heroes , me n
celebrated th e gladiators ' exploit s wit h poetr y an d song . A Spirit of the
Times colum n reporte d th e battle , roun d b y round , i n moc k heroi c verse :

The me n bot h looke d well , i n excellent training ,

In capita l orde r fo r cuttin g an d maiming ,
The "Yankee ' 'ti s true , wa s a great dea l th e smaller ,
Tom Hye r bein g heavier , stoute r an d taller .
But stil l i t wa s thought , an d asserte d b y many.
The odd s wer e i n favo r o f "Yankee"—i f any ;
That wha t wit h hi s dodgin g an d practica l tricks .
His cunning an d funning , th e terribl e "licks, "
That he' d soo n whi p th e Gothamit e her o "lik e bricks. "
But—they ente r th e ring—fro m "th e boys " cam e a burst,
The me n the n shoo k daddies , an d then —
ROUND TH E FIRST . . . , 6 3

In saloon s me n harmonize d "Th e Pleasan t Balla d o f Tomm e Hye r an d Ye

Sullivan":
Ho, al l y e fanc y gentlemen ,
And patron s o f th e ring .
Give ea r unt o th e pleasan t song ,
I am abou t t o sing .

Tis no t o f merr y revellings .

Nor lov e an d ladies ' charms .
But o f tw o dought y champions .
And fearfu l feat s o f arms. 64

New chronicle s o f th e rin g recounte d th e pugilisti c genealog y o f th e

fight, whil e th e New York Sunday Mercury compare d th e bou t wit h th e
great battl e betwee n To m Hickma n an d Bil l Neat e whic h Willia m Hazlit t
had immortalize d almos t thirt y year s earlier . Suc h historica l allusion s
lent prestig e t o contemporar y boxing , linkin g i t t o a gloriou s past . Fo r
weeks, eve n month s afte r th e stak e mone y ha d bee n give n u p an d wager s
settled, th e sportin g fraternit y stil l celebrate d th e grea t event . Hyer' s
popularity mad e hi m a favorit e amon g politicians , actors , an d sho w
people, an d al l eye s followe d hi m a s h e strolle d alon g th e Bowery. 65
Others reacte d wit h les s enthusiasm . Forme r mayo r Philli p Hone ,
patron o f th e arts , a leade r o f Ne w Yor k socia l life , no w enjoyin g a n

95
 THE MANL Y AR T

elegant an d cultivate d retirement , note d wit h revulsio n tha t Jame s

Gordon Bennett' s Herald lavishe d attentio n o n th e fight : "Th e appropri -
ate orga n o f suc h disgracefu l recitals , i s fille d thi s mornin g wit h th e
disgusting details. " Th e Christian Advocate considere d th e mo b scene s
on th e street s o f Ne w Yor k t o b e "painfu l an d humiliating, " juxtaposin g
them wit h th e simultaneou s gatherin g o f a thousand children—al l "neat -
ly an d uniforml y attired"—i n th e Broadwa y Tabernacl e t o sin g hymn s
for thei r families . Her e wa s a tellin g contrast . Bower y depravit y versu s
uptown righteousness. 66
On th e othe r hand , a fe w editor s stoppe d apologizin g fo r thei r
coverage o f th e ring . Th e New York Evening Mirror declare d tha t "th e
laws forbi d priz e fighting , bu t i n spit e o f th e mawkis h twaddl e whic h w e
daily see i n th e newspaper s abou t th e affair , w e ar e incline d t o believ e
from othe r manifestations , tha t publi c feelin g i s decidedl y favorabl e t o
the fight . Ther e ar e certainl y muc h wors e vice s tolerate d an d encourage d
by societ y tha n priz e fighting.... " Th e edito r attacke d th e "squeamishnes s
of thos e effeminat e minds, " horrifie d b y " a set-t o betwee n tw o shirtles s
champions, who . . . meet together , fac e t o fac e an d han d t o han d i n a
trial o f persona l strength. " Wha t change d mos t radically , however , wa s
not editoria l attitude s bu t simpl y th e willingnes s o f journal s t o mentio n
the priz e ring a t all . Th e Sullivan-Hye r battl e generate d fa r mor e
comment i n th e popula r pres s tha n an y previou s fight , an d w e therefor e
know mor e abou t i t tha n an y othe r match. 67
The "Grea t $10,00 0 Fight " opene d th e floodgates . "Fro m th e tim e o f
the Hye r an d Sulliva n match, " on e sportin g edito r declare d wit h a
backward glance , "ma y b e date d th e actua l ris e o f pugilis m i n America ,
into anythin g lik e importance. " A s a grudg e fight , barel y sublimatin g
profound economi c an d ethni c tension s betwee n riva l urba n factions —
some observer s ha d eve n predicte d murder s a t ringside—th e contes t
focused amorphou s socia l conflict s int o th e crystal-clea r imag e o f tw o
great fighter s battlin g fo r a n enormou s amoun t o f money . I n notin g th e
schisms tha t divide d men , however , w e mus t no t los e sigh t o f th e large r
unities o f th e sportin g fraternity . Boxin g wa s primaril y a working-clas s
preserve, th e property , a s th e Herald s o elegantly pu t it , o f "th e lo w an d
the vulgar. " True , a smal l bu t growin g numbe r o f more-or-les s respect -
able me n no w attende d a n occasiona l sparrin g exhibition , an d a greate r
number rea d account s o f priz e battle s eve n a s the y condemne d th e ring .
But boxin g reall y belonge d t o working-clas s male s wh o rejecte d bour -
geois standard s o f value , laborer s dispossesse d b y ne w economi c align -
ments, an d me n wh o live d i n th e netherworl d o f gambling , bootlegging ,
and pett y crime . I t wa s t o thes e men—deepl y divide d b y cultura l an d

96
 THE FIRS T AMERICA N CHAMPION S

religious conflicts , b y competitio n fo r statu s an d power , an d abov e al l b y

a wrenchin g transformatio n o f America' s economy—tha t th e grea t cham -
pionship figh t spok e s o eloquently. 68
With th e Sullivan-Hye r matc h pavin g th e way , priz e fightin g becam e
one o f th e mos t importan t expressiv e form s o f a flourishing plebeia n
culture. Indeed , hal f a century afte r thei r epi c struggl e Hye r an d Sulliva n
continued t o squar e of f i n lithograph s tha t hun g fro m th e wall s o f
working-class taverns. 69

97
 3

The Ag e o f Heroe s

"The Goo d Tim e Coming "

'' Sparring became the fashionable amusement, the ladies complained of

the negligenc e o f thei r admirers , everyon e wh o mad e an y pretension s o f
being a 'knowin g one ' carrie d Fistiana i n hi s pocket , an d fro m tha t
wonderful boo k recounte d t o th e gree n 'un s th e heroi c exploit s o f To m
Spring, Bendig o an d a hos t o f others. " Th e excitemen t generate d b y th e
Sullivan-Hyer matc h continue d throug h th e 1850s : Professor Mann , Ne w
York's mos t eminen t sparrin g master , ha d mor e pupil s tha n h e coul d
handle; tal k o f "lightweights, " "uppercuts, " "claret, " "peepers, " an d
"fibbing" fille d th e air ; an d Pierc e Egan' s Life in London enjoye d a
successful reviva l a t th e Wal l Stree t Theater. ' Th e shee r numbe r o f bout s
increased markedly , wit h dozen s reporte d (an d n o doub t man y mor e
unreported) eac h yea r i n th e lat e 1850s . Moreover , "of f hand " o r "tur n
u p " affairs—informal matche s mergin g suc h trapping s o f th e priz e rin g
as stakes , seconds , rules , spectators , an d pres s coverag e wit h th e
spontaneity an d angr y passion s o f stree t brawling—wer e onl y sporadicall y
noted b y th e pres s bu t becomin g quit e common . Eve n sparrin g exhibi -
tions increase d i n frequency , an d Ne w Yor k Cit y newspaper s carrie d
advertisements fo r thre e o r fou r pe r week. 2
Prize fightin g new s proliferate d i n a n ora l culture , partl y becaus e o f
the ring' s outla w statu s bu t als o becaus e working-clas s lif e centere d o n
the spoke n word . I t wa s i n th e personalisti c worl d o f th e saloon , wher e
the merit s o f boxer s wer e discussed , thei r exploit s sung , an d thei r
chances i n upcomin g battle s assessed , tha t heroe s o f th e rin g acquire d
legendary status . Figh t connoisseurs , retire d pugs , an d activ e boxer s
opened man y ne w tavern s an d sportin g house s durin g th e 1850s . Th e

98
 THE AG E O F H E R O E S

New Yor k fanc y patronize d Ji m Giddings' s Ol d Crib , Harr y Jennings' s

Sporting Museum , an d Jame s Regan' s Clippe r Shades . Similarly , Jimm y
Hart i n Boston , Jac k Smit h i n Albany , Mat t Rus k an d Dominic k Bradle y
in Philadelphia , Harr y Gribbe n i n Brooklyn , Izz y Lazaru s i n Buffalo ,
Dick Hewi t i n Newark , Johnn y MacKe y an d Je m Parke r i n Chicago , al l
established ne w publi c house s tha t gav e focu s t o boxing activities . Thes e
publicans offere d me n a plac e t o rais e a glas s an d discus s th e ring. The y
arranged bouts , gav e odds , too k bets , chartere d steamboats , an d sol d
railroad tickets ; the y backe d fighters , sponsore d exhibitions , an d offere d
sparring lessons ; the y serve d a s stakeholders , seconds , referees , um -
pires, an d bottleholders ; the y eve n entere d th e rin g themselves. 3
Saloonkeepers als o engendere d a sens e o f continuit y acros s genera -
tions. Georg e Kensett , fo r example , retire d fro m th e ring i n 182 9 afte r
his secon d battl e wit h Ne d Hammond . Fo r thirty-seve n year s thereafte r
he kep t a Ne w Yor k tavern , firs t o n Walke r Street , tha n a t Fordham ,
where me n cam e t o arrange , trai n for , an d discus s fights . Whe n Kenset t
died i n 1856 , Willia m Fuller , To m Hyer , Willia m Tovee , Jame s Sanford ,
and othe r member s o f th e pugilisti c fraternit y mourne d a t hi s funeral .
Similarly, boxe r an d publica n Jimm y Har t passe d awa y i n Bosto n i n
1859, an d loca l fighter s E d Price , Barne y Ford , Johnn y Cosgrove , an d
Harry Finnega s serve d a s pallbearer s fo r thei r ol d friend . Saloonkeepers ,
then, wer e a t th e cente r o f a n informal , community-base d networ k o f
prize rin g activities. 4
Although face-to-fac e meeting s withi n th e drinkin g cultur e wer e th e
primary mean s o f spreadin g fisti c news , th e printe d wor d becam e
increasingly influential . Ora l an d writte n tradition s ar e no t necessaril y
antagonistic; indeed , her e th e tw o form s reinforce d eac h other . Reporter s
gathered intelligenc e a t th e sportin g fraternities ' waterin g holes , whil e
saloonkeepers kep t pres s file s fo r thei r patron s t o read alou d an d discuss .
Boxers use d th e newspapers , a s w e hav e seen , t o challeng e eac h othe r
through printe d advertisements , "cards " a s the y wer e called . Thi s
custom apparentl y wa s borrowe d fro m dueling' s cod e o f honor , wher e
an aggrieve d ma n wa s expecte d t o contro l hi s ange r an d writ e a
dispassionate not e expressin g hi s feelings . A n exchang e o f privat e
messages le d eithe r t o "satisfaction"—a n explanatio n o r apology—o r t o
a challenge , an d i f th e offendin g part y refuse d t o fight , hi s opponen t
"posted" him , tha t is , publicl y impugne d hi s courag e i n printe d adver -
tisements. B y 185 0 duelin g ha d die d ou t i n th e north , bu t vestige s o f it s
etiquette live d o n i n th e ring. O f course , card s wer e no t simpl y privat e
expressions o f wounde d hono r bu t publi c declarations , ghostwritte n i n
most cases , intende d t o promot e interes t i n upcomin g battles . Her e wa s a

99
 THE MANL Y AR T

hint o f a n importan t transformation . Publishe d challenge s wer e a n earl y

indication o f hono r becomin g marketabl e goods , a sympto m o f th e
commercialization o f America n leisure , a sig n tha t th e profi t motiv e no w
mixed wit h desire s fo r persona l vindication . Fight s stil l gre w ou t o f
genuine grudges , bu t editor s an d promoter s i n thi s ag e o f Bamu m kne w
how t o whi p u p excitement, an d boxer s recognize d th e valu e o f publicity .
Newspaper challenge s als o signifie d th e printe d media' s growin g
proficiency a t conveyin g sportin g information , especiall y a s th e tele -
graph connecte d editors ' office s wit h distan t athleti c activitie s an d a s
new technologie s facilitate d th e mas s distributio n o f news . Ol d workhorses ,
the New York Herald an d th e Spirit of the Times, continue d thei r efforts .
After mid-century , however , th e gentleman' s weeklie s an d workingman' s
dailies wer e joined b y som e o f th e respectabl e press , th e New York Times
and th e New York Tribune, far-flun g paper s suc h a s th e New Orleans
Daily Picayune, an d mor e obscur e loca l publication s lik e th e Milwaukee
Sentinel and Gazette an d th e Springfield Weekly Illinois State Journal.
The middl e clas s wa s no t ye t attendin g fights , bu t it s newspaper s wer e
gratifying a buddin g tast e fo r sportin g news. 5
American publisher s als o bega n supplementin g Englis h book s wit h
native ones . I n 182 9 Willia m Sharpie s o f Philadelphi a brough t ou t a
thirty-page trainin g manual , The Complete Art of Boxing, America' s firs t
pugilism text . Th e trickl e o f instructiona l work s continue d wit h Samue l
O'Rourke's The Art of Pugilism (1837) , th e anonymou s Whole Art of
Boxing with Instructions in the Manly Art of Self-Defense (1850) , an d
Owen Swift' s Boxing without a Master, whic h wen t throug h fiv e edition s
in th e 1840 s an d 1850s . Priz e rin g histor y als o receive d attentio n i n suc h
pamphlets a s the American Fistiana (1849 , i860 , an d 1873 ) an d The Life
and Battles of Yankee Sullivan (1854) . Significantly , thes e wer e al l chea p
editions designe d fo r working-clas s budgets , no t th e elegan t an d substan -
tial volume s tha t Englis h presse s produce d fo r th e rich. 6
Most important , th e proliferatio n o f prin t produce d th e firs t clea r an d
unequivocal voice s i n suppor t o f th e ring . O f these , edito r Fran k Queen' s
was th e loudest . Bor n o f working-clas s parent s i n Philadelphia , Quee n
worked hi s wa y u p fro m a printer' s devi l t o managin g editor , the n
established hi s ow n newspape r i n 1853 . Th e New York Clipper special -
ized i n coverin g th e theater , hors e an d yach t races , pedestrianism ,
cricket, baseball , an d rowing , a s wel l a s contest s o f skil l betwee n riva l
militia unit s an d voluntee r fir e companies . Elevatin g pugilism , however ,
was Queen' s specia l concern . Quee n no t onl y covere d th e lates t rin g
news, h e mad e hi s office s a clearinghous e fo r arrangin g matches .
Because sparrin g taugh t th e "grammar " o f priz e fighting , h e publicize d

100
 THE AG EO E HEROE S

upcoming exhibitions , calle d fo r a Ne w Yor k sparrin g associatio n t o

schedule an d regulat e matches , an d urged th e buildin g o f a larg e
"sportsman's hall " wit h ring , anima l pit , saloon , an d a clubhous e fo r
the fancy . I n additio n t o regula r new s reports , th e Clipper offere d it s
readers a sens e o f pugilisti c history , printin g article s o n earl y heroe s an d
excerpting chapter s fro m Pierc e Egan' s Boxiana. B y stimulatin g th e
sporting man' s interes t i n battle s past , th e Clipper create d a contex t o f
meaning fo r curren t news , engendere d a powerfu l consciousnes s o f fol k
history, an d thereb y dignifie d eac h bou t a s par t o f a tradition . Lik e
genealogy, account s o f earl y fights—o f ol d champion s begettin g ne w
champions—put working-clas s me n i n touc h wit h a gloriou s past. 7
Queen considere d pugilis m abov e al l a "professio n t o b e kep t manl y
and honorabl e b y it s friend s an d practitioners. " H e frequentl y quote d th e
duke o f Wellington' s celebrate d lette r o f 184 5 t o Genera l Burgoyne :

I regret t o observe th e decay o f the good old Englis h practic e o f boxing , as

I believ e tha t i t tend s t o produc e an d kee p u p tha t nationa l spiri t o f
undaunted braver y an d intrepidit y whic h ha s enabled ou r armies to conquer
in man y a hard-fough t battle . I thin k tha t i f th e physica l standin g an d
personal courag e o f th e Britis h soldie r hav e degenerate d durin g th e lon g
interval o f peac e whic h w e hav e enjoyed , suc h a result ma y b e fairl y an d
justly attribute d t o desuetude an d gradua l extinctio n o f this noble an d truly
natural ar t o f boxing .

The rin g wa s a n exempla r o f heroism , a teache r o f manliness , a schoo l

for patriotism. 8
Although Quee n stoo d t o profi t b y th e expansio n o f sport , hi s
advocacy o f boxin g wa s neithe r cynica l no r insincere ; th e Clipper?,
editor simpl y fille d th e vessel s o f Victoria n cultur e wit h hi s ow n elixir .
Like hi s contemporary , P . T . Barnum , whos e museu m wa s a s muc h a n
educational institutio n a s a frea k show . Quee n offere d mora l justifica -
tions fo r hi s actions , claimin g tha t boxin g taugh t usefu l lesson s i n health ,
discipline, an d self-defense . Surrounde d b y advertisement s fo r contra -
ceptives, venerea l diseas e cures , eve n a "marriag e guide " illustrate d
with seventy-fiv e colo r engraving s o f huma n genitals , Clipper editorial s
argued tha t manl y sport s "improved " America n society : " A knowledg e
of th e scienc e o f boxin g i s calculate d t o develo p an d encourag e feeling s
of manliness , confidence , courage , an d lov e o f fair-play , an d t o discour -
age an d chec k thos e appeal s t o th e knif e an d th e revolve r whic h ar e s o
common i n case s o f persona l quarrel s i n thi s country. " Quee n promul -
gated th e rule s o f th e rin g becaus e the y curbe d th e "wil d passions " o f
men. H e advocate d boxers ' trainin g regimen s a s a wa y t o buil d healt h

101
 THE MANL Y AR T

and courage . I n a word , h e believe d tha t pugilis m offere d bot h entertain -

ment an d mora l education. 9
In defendin g no t onl y boxin g bu t th e theater , cockfighting , an d othe r
suspect pastimes , Quee n rowe d agains t a stil l powerfu l current . Declare d
the Congregationalis t New Englander i n 1851 , "Let ou r readers, on e an d
all, remembe r tha t w e wer e sen t int o th e world , no t fo r spor t an d
amusement, bu t fo r labor ; no t t o enjoy an d pleas e ourselves , bu t t o serv e
and glorif y God , an d b e usefu l t o ou r fello w men . Tha t i s th e grea t
object an d en d o f life. " B y th e lat e antebellu m era , reformers , intellectu -
als, clergymen , doctors , an d journalists wer e growin g mor e amenabl e t o
wholesome an d innocen t recreation s tha t refreshe d bot h min d an d body .
Rational exercis e suc h a s calisthenic s foun d adherents , an d baseball ,
cricket, an d trottin g ha d thei r advocates . Althoug h th e boundarie s o f
propriety wer e expanding , however , the y neve r gre w t o includ e activitie s
that encouraged violence , revelry , or displays of man's "baser " passions. 10
While liberal s advocate d participator y sport s fo r th e sak e o f healt h an d
refreshment, Quee n covere d stage d events , titillatin g commercia l specta -
cles tha t gav e purel y vicariou s thrills . Mos t goo d Victorian s stil l believe d
that suc h wastefu l activitie s corrupte d th e lowe r classes. Reforme r Juniu s
Henri Brown e single d ou t th e Clipper a s a n "obscene " journal , par t o f a
cycle o f degradatio n fo r youn g urba n thugs :

They ar e fed tobacc o an d gin from childhood . Ribal d song s and the roar of
swinish carousals , i n plac e o f materna l lullabies , ech o i n their infan t ears .
Living much i n the open air, and fond o f rude physical sports, they grow up
stout an d hardy , i n spit e o f ba d habit s an d perniciou s natures . . .. I n thei r
early teens , the y fin d themselve s lew d an d lusty , thoroughl y selfis h an d
sensual, principle d agains t work , predetermine d t o dishonest y an d
tyranny. . .. To bar-rooms an d brothel s the y ten d b y a natural la w and soo n
come t o regar d ruffians , thieve s an d prizefighter s worth y example s o f
imitation an d objects o f envy. . . . Their firs t figh t an d first debauc h ar e like
the firs t honor s of a college; an d the y moun t highe r an d highe r b y sinkin g
deeper an d deepe r int o th e sloug h o f degradation . . . . They ar e water-rat s
and land-rats , rive r thieve s an d lan d thieves , pimps , confidenc e men ,
brawlers, burgler s an d assassins . . . .

Violent, lazy , impulsive , suc h me n violate d ever y principl e o f moralit y

held dea r b y th e middl e class . An d newspaper s lik e th e Clipper, Brown e
believed, nourishe d thei r depravity. "
Perhaps Fran k Queen' s greates t si n wa s invertin g th e Victoria n belie f
that ma n playe d s o tha t h e migh t work . Fo r th e Clipper editor , sport s
gave no t onl y strengt h an d healt h bu t pleasur e too , a valu e i n it s ow n

102
 THE AG E O F HEROE S

right. O f course , pleasur e cam e fro m dogfight s an d rattin g contests ,

whose bone-crunching , carpet-drenchin g bloodines s wer e describe d i n
the Clipper wit h surrealisti c intensity . Bu t Quee n als o wrot e i n th e idio m
of th e day , extollin g America n nationalis m an d th e spiri t o f improve -
ment. Piou s middle-clas s American s woul d hardl y agre e tha t boxin g wa s
a civilizin g force . Still , i n th e Victoria n vie w o f things , manliness ,
confidence, an d courage—i n a word , self-reliance—wer e hig h values .
Queen merge d a n earnes t Victoria n ton e wit h a celebratio n o f play , o f
release, o f "Th e Goo d Tim e Coming, " a s he put i t in a song dedicated t o
the Ne w Yor k fancy :

There's a goo d tim e coming , boys ,

A good tim e coming :
Men wh o mak e a match t o Fight ,
Will tak e goo d car e tha t al l i s right
In th e goo d tim e coming;
Shun al l trick s an d crosse s too,
For honest y i s stronger ,
And hold s al l rascal s u p t o view—
Wait a littl e longer . . .
There's a good tim e coming , boys ,
A good tim e coming :
Henceforth al l classe s wil l resor t
Where the y ca n se e th e bes t o f spor t
In th e goo d tim e coming ;
Treat al l alike—ac t "o n th e square, "
The caus e wil l soo n gro w stronger ,
In vie w o f thi s i t i s bu t fair —
To wai t a littl e longer .

Queen's "Goo d Tim e Coming " wa s a n adaptatio n o f a popula r lyri c

heralding millennia l huma n progress ; th e edito r simpl y appropriate d th e
rhetoric o f refor m t o th e caus e o f sport . Piou s saint s an d assiduou s
businessmen, needles s t o say , di d no t includ e priz e fight s i n thei r vision s
of th e goo d time s t o come. 12
Though Quee n articulate d a defense o f boxin g an d offere d a foru m fo r
ring news , h e coul d no t revers e lega l trends . A s w e hav e seen , statute s
against riot, mayhem , disorderl y conduct , assault , an d eve n manslaugh -
ter wer e stil l use d t o prosecut e priz e fighters , an d a fe w legislature s
added ne w enactment s i n th e wak e o f majo r bouts . Massachusett s
formally outlawe d priz e fightin g i n Marc h 1849 , jus t a mont h afte r th e
Sullivan-Hyer affair . T o arrang e o r engage i n a fight brough t a maximu m

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 THE MANL Y AR T

ten-year priso n ter m an d five-thousand-dolla r fine, whil e servin g a s a

second, surgeon , o r promote r carrie d a three-year , one-thousand-dolla r
sentence. Nevertheless , rin g activit y increase d markedl y i n th e Ba y Stat e
during th e nex t decade , an d asid e fro m a fe w arrests , mos t fight s
occurred withou t interference. 13
Ten year s afte r th e Massachusett s law , a n anti-priz e bil l emerge d
in Albany , Ne w York . Th e legislatio n cam e i n respons e t o a serie s o f
major bouts , th e Horrigan-Lazarus , Bradley-Ranking , an d Morrissey -
Heenan battle s o f 185 7 an d 1858 , al l o f whic h dre w thousand s o f
sporting me n t o Buffalo , wh o the n crosse d e n mass e t o Canad a fo r th e
fights. Th e Stat e Senat e passe d th e bil l withou t a dissenting vote , an d th e
Assembly followe d wit h overwhelmin g approval . Th e Ne w Yor k la w wa s
more comprehensiv e tha n th e on e fro m Massachusetts , providin g milde r
misdemeanor penalties—si x month s t o on e yea r i n jail , $20 0 t o $1,00 0
fines—yet authorizin g magistrate s t o prosecut e no t onl y participant s an d
fighters bu t eve n spectators . Indeed , th e legislatio n threatene d sparrin g
matches, previousl y considere d distinc t fro m priz e fightin g an d perfectl y
legal. 14
These law s gre w ou t o f th e bourgeoi s an d evangelica l assumption s o f
Victorian culture . The y indicate d no t a sudde n hardenin g o f previousl y
tolerant attitude s towar d th e ring but specifi c legislativ e actio n i n the fac e
of mor e pugilisti c "crimes. " Whil e th e ne w law s stiffene d th e ol d
anti-ring sentiment , the y faile d t o sto p priz e fighting' s spread . Mos t
boxers simpl y conducte d thei r busines s surreptitiously , i n isolate d rura l
areas o r i n saloo n bac k rooms . A s lon g a s th e belligeren t partie s wer e
discreet, magistrate s usuall y lef t the m alone . Whe n overzealou s polic e
did interfere , politica l influenc e an d bribe s ofte n go t fighter s ou t o f
trouble. 15
Laws o r n o laws , Ne w Yor k Cit y remaine d America' s undispute d
boxing capital ; meanwhile , othe r part s o f th e countr y enjoye d rin g
revivals. Ne w Orlean s wa s th e sit e o f severa l importan t matches ,
especially afte r Chri s Lill y settle d i n th e Crescen t City . H e no t onl y
fought, h e promote d bouts , importe d ne w talen t t o th e region , an d
organized hi s muscula r friend s int o a gan g o f Electio n Da y enforcers .
Later i n th e fifties , Ne w Orleans-base d Iris h sportsme n raise d stakes ,
arranged bouts , an d passe d th e hat fo r th e fightin g me n o f th e area. 16
Elsewhere, whe n gol d wa s discovere d i n California , th e violen t boom -
town psycholog y o f th e mal e minin g camp s offere d fertil e soi l fo r
raucous play . Lucr e an d adventur e beckone d horde s o f nativ e laborer s
and immigrants , whil e th e mora l laxity , free-flowin g money , an d roug h
masculine camaraderi e o f th e earl y year s lure d th e like s o f To m Hyer ,

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 T H E AG E O F H E R O E S

Yankee Sulliva n an d les s well-know n fighter s t o th e Golde n State. 17

Fed b y th e influ x o f talen t fro m abroad , th e ring prospere d i n othe r
regions a s well . Boston' s enormou s ne w Iris h populatio n generate d a
surge o f pugilisti c activity . No t onl y suc h resident s a s Jimm y Har t an d
Johnny Monegha n bu t boxer s comin g fro m outsid e th e Ba y Stat e sprea d
the fistic gospel . Thus , durin g th e mid-i85os , Johnn y Robert s o f
Chicago fough t Bosto n local s Harr y Finnega s an d Johnn y MacKey , a s
well a s Jac k Murph y o f Liverpoo l an d Jame s Laffert y o f St . Louis .
Meanwhile, E d Pric e o f Englan d an d Jo e Cobur n o f Irelan d renewe d
age-old Anglo-Saxo n versu s Celti c antagonism s i n Boston. 18 Similarly ,
St. Louis— a boo m tow n wit h a larg e immigran t populatio n includin g
hundreds o f rivermen , miners , an d doc k workers—provide d anothe r fin e
environment fo r th e ring. Durin g th e 1850s , easter n publican s wit h rin g
connections, amon g the m Willia m J . Claxto n o f Ne w Yor k an d Jimm y
Hart o f Boston , returne d t o th e Gatewa y Cit y an d promote d severa l
matches featurin g nativ e an d immigran t talent . Wit h purse s rangin g fro m
about fift y t o thre e hundre d dollars—roughl y th e averag e yearl y wage s
for a laborer—i t i s n o wonde r tha t working-clas s me n wer e willin g t o
risk thei r bodies . Smalle r citie s to o witnesse d a spat e o f battles , includ -
ing Waterbury , Toledo , Pawtucket , Trenton , Leave n worth, an d man y
others. Souther n towns—Savannah , Lexington , Charleston , an d Memphi s
also sa w occasiona l battles . Eve n sailor s aboar d U.S . ship s bega n settin g
up ring s t o settl e question s o f prowes s an d honor. 19
With boxing' s geographica l spread , fighter s bega n claimin g new ,
informal titles : "champio n o f th e priz e rin g i n th e Mississipp i Valley, "
or "champio n o f th e Gravoi s coa l digging s i n St . Louis, " o r "champio n
of Norfolk , Virginia, " o r "champio n o f Brooklyn' s 4t h ward. " Fol k
characters fough t unde r suc h colorfu l name s a s "Stee l Ribs, " "Sauc y
Aleck," "Youn g Duffy, " Rober t "Flyin g Dutchman " Rollins , "Shang -
hai" Connors , "Wil d Irishman " Welch , "Awful " Gardner , "Chip-hat "
Symms, "Re d Nick " Lockwood , "Bulldog " Chapman , an d "Chinky -
Pin" To m Jones . Ethni c affiliation s wer e ofte n expresse d i n monikers ,
such a s "Wil d Irishman " Welch , Youn g Molineau x th e Black , an d
Lazarus th e Jew , whil e othe r fighter s adopte d name s revealin g loca l
identities: "Buckeye" Smith , "Liverpoo l Tom," Willia m "Dubli n Tricks "
Hastings, "Mississippi " Bil l Ramsey, "Utica " Ji m Burns, and "Savanna h
Pet" Carlin. 20
Paradoxically, eve n a s boxer s emphasize d loca l an d ethni c identities ,
they wer e enterin g a nationa l marke t fo r commercialize d leisure . Man y
fighters travele d widely , seekin g always greener pastures. Johnny Moneghan ,
for example , emigrate d fro m Liverpoo l i n th e earl y 1850 s an d settle d i n

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 THE MANL Y AR T

Boston, wher e h e firs t fought . Late r h e battle d Londone r Barne y Aaro n

in Providence , Rhod e Island ; withi n a year Monegha n wa s i n Cincinnati ,
serving a s a secon d i n tha t city' s ver y firs t priz e fight ; fou r month s late r
he seconde d Mik e Traino r i n a battl e just outsid e St . Louis ; anothe r hal f
a yea r foun d hi m i n Ne w Orleans , secondin g Jac k Tooney , an d tw o
months later , h e aide d Ji m Phela n i n a St. Loui s fight . Joh n Montgomer y
was equall y wel l traveled , no t a s a fighte r o r secon d bu t a s a "commis -
sary," th e ma n wh o pitche d th e rin g an d prepare d th e turf. 21
Sparring exhibition s a s wel l a s priz e battle s wer e par t o f th e growin g
variety o f commercialize d urba n pastimes , o f repeatabl e an d profitabl e
spectacles. 22 E d Price , anothe r Englishma n wit h ne w root s i n Boston ,
enjoyed grea t succes s stagin g exhibition s throughou t Ne w England . Lat e
in 185 9 h e hel d a well-attende d tou r o f one-nigh t stand s i n Worcester ,
Springfield, Hartford , Ne w Haven , an d Bridgeport . A s h e move d fro m
town t o town , loca l sportin g men , sparrin g masters , an d thei r pupil s
smoothed Price' s path . H e describe d a typica l receptio n i n a lette r t o
Frank Queen :

Before yo u hav e lef t th e car s hal f a minut e yo u ar e take n i n charge , an d

your shoulder nearly dislocated b y shaking hands with men whom you have
no recollection o f ever having me t before. On e will say: "Are yo u going to
give u s a n exhibition?" "Yes. " "Good ! To m wil l ge t yo u a hall , Harr y
will giv e yo u a notice i n our paper , Georg e wil l pos t you r bills, an d I will
sell fo r yo u 10 0 tickets;" and they al l are as good as their words . Then you
adjourn t o a templ e o f Bacchus , where , throug h shakin g hands , an d
receiving compliments , an d bein g introduce d t o s o man y gentlemen , yo u
get so confused i n your ideas that you can hardly recollec t anything till you
find yoursel f i n th e cars , an d read y t o b e se t dow n a t anothe r city . Ah !
Frank, yo u hav e a dea l t o answe r for , t o se e wha t a chang e yo u hav e
wrought i n the steady, sober. Puritanical-minde d peopl e around here! Instead
of pinin g themselve s t o a skelton b y fastin g an d prayer , an d howlin g ove r
their wickedness , a s o f yore , the y no w quietl y mee t i n som e sportin g
house, an d discus s wit h thei r glass , th e respectiv e merit s o f thei r favorit e
milling coves ; and the styl e i n which each argue s for hi s favorite woul d do
justice t o a Philadelphi a lawyer .

Delighted wit h th e succes s o f hi s exhibitions , Pric e planne d anothe r

northern tou r a t year' s end , an d include d Bangor , Manchester , Quincy ,
Fitchburg, an d Lowel l o n th e itinerary . Her e wer e earl y sign s o f boxin g
becoming businesslike . I t wa s no t uprigh t shopkeeper s an d substantia l
entrepreneurs, however , bu t fighters , poo l sellers , professiona l gamblers ,

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 T H E AG E O F H E R O E S

saloon owners , an d othe r sportin g me n wh o wer e findin g way s t o profi t

within th e antibourgeoi s etho s o f th e fancy. 23
During th e 1850s , then , priz e fightin g experience d unprecedente d
growth. Stea m powe r facilitate d sparrin g tours , telegrap h line s connecte d
newspapers wit h matches , sportin g house s multiplied , a fe w fighter s
became nationall y known , an d th e New York Clipper offere d a centra l
location fo r arrangin g fight s an d disseminatin g reliabl e information . Th e
exploding urba n centers , wit h thei r vas t number s o f immigrants , provid -
ed unparallele d market s fo r th e consumptio n o f recreation , ne w outlet s
for commercialize d leisure . Boxin g wa s on e o f man y sport s tha t benefit -
ed fro m thes e developments , a s boatin g regattas , foo t races , baseball ,
cricket, an d hors e racin g al l enjoye d newfoun d popularity . Thoug h
anti-prize rin g legislatio n gre w sterner , law s ofte n wer e difficul t t o
enforce, loca l magistrate s bough t off , an d pugilist s circumspect . Fight -
ers, taver n keepers , gamblers , an d sparrin g master s slowl y create d
informal, undergroun d promotiona l networks . Thes e me n wer e a blen d
of smal l entrepreneu r an d buccaneer , o f socia l outcas t an d communit y
leader.
The profi t motive , th e commercializatio n o f leisure , an d th e growin g
importance o f ne w transportatio n an d communicatio n networks , al l
point t o th e embryoni c "modernization " o f th e ring—an d al l contribut -
ed t o severa l spectacula r matche s durin g th e 1850s . Bu t thoug h thes e
trends helpe d priz e fightin g spread , the y generall y di d no t alte r it s
character. Boxin g remaine d locall y based , loosel y organized , i n clos e
touch wit h it s working-clas s origins . Th e rin g continued t o be a stag e fo r
symbolically enactin g particularisti c tension s betwee n neighborhoods ,
gangs, an d ethni c groups . Tha t man y bout s stil l ende d wit h fou l blows ,
spectator interference , eve n attempte d gougings , attest s t o dee p schism s
in th e burgeonin g citie s whic h neithe r rule s no r custom s coul d full y
contain. Boxin g wa s primaril y th e propert y o f youn g me n o f th e urba n
streets, individual s victimize d b y a n econom y no w consolidatin g it s
transition fro m th e ancien t apprenticeshi p syste m t o sweate d labo r an d
modern capitalis t production . Thes e youn g me n mad e th e rin g a center -
piece o f mal e stree t life , fo r i t celebrate d a n etho s o f braggadocio ,
masculine prowess , an d violen t defens e o f honor , al l i n oppositio n t o
stable middle-clas s ways . Circumventin g th e la w t o stage a boxing matc h
became a n ac t o f cultura l independence . Priz e fightin g implicitl y rejecte d
the humanitarian , universalistic , an d progressiv e Victoria n worl d view. 24
Here, then , wa s a battl e fo r cultura l legitimacy . Whe n sportingme n
spoke o f th e "magi c circle " o r th e "sacre d enclosure, " the y implie d

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 THE MANL Y AR T

that th e rin g embodie d th e cor e o f thei r cultura l sensibility . The y neede d

the neutra l spac e denie d b y th e la w i n orde r t o resolv e thei r ow n
competing claim s t o achievemen t throug h test s o f virility . Th e piou s an d
productive ethi c rejecte d thei r righ t t o neighborhood , class , o r ethni c
honor base d o n succes s withi n th e ropes . Thu s th e lega l an d ideologica l
battle ove r th e rin g wa s a figh t fo r cultura l space , a contes t ove r socia l
legitimation. Th e stor y o f th e mos t famou s an d controversia l priz e
fighter o f th e 1850 s help s brin g thes e issue s int o shar p focus .

The Er a o f Joh n Morrisse y

Dreams o f th e poo r turne d ric h an d th e wea k grow n might y ar e a s

old a s folklor e itself . I n th e America n nineteent h century , however , suc h
dreams wer e converte d int o expectations . Mor e specifically , th e bour -
geois ethi c taugh t tha t har d work , determination , an d a littl e luc k
transformed an y poo r bo y int o a successfu l man . Bu t th e Victoria n
measure o f achievemen t include d fa r mor e tha n mer e materia l wealth .
Prosperity wa s a sig n o f success , bu t equall y important , me n ha d t o
cultivate characte r whil e makin g money . Goo d busines s an d goo d moral s
went han d i n hand , an d trul y virtuou s citizen s discovere d tha t eac h
reinforced th e other . Comparativel y fe w actuall y mad e th e lea p fro m
rags t o riches , an d mos t me n die d i n roughl y th e sam e socia l clas s a s
they wer e born . Moreover , man y individual s selectivel y adapte d th e
success ethic , acceptin g th e importanc e o f wealt h bu t rejectin g th e stric t
moral imperative s dictate d b y th e cul t o f respectability . I n John Morrisse y
we hav e a distinctl y working-clas s versio n o f th e America n dream. 25
John wa s bor n t o Timothy an d Juli a Morrisse y i n Templemore , count y
Tipperary, Ireland , o n Februar y 12 , 1831 . Thre e year s late r th e famil y
moved t o Troy, Ne w York , wher e Timoth y mad e a meager livin g a s a day
laborer. Povert y force d youn g John , lik e s o man y othe r immigran t
youths, ont o th e labo r marke t before h e reache d hi s teens . H e wen t
through a serie s o f jobs , buildin g hi s physiqu e wit h manua l labo r i n a
rolling mill , a cannonbal l moldin g foundry , a wallpape r factory , an d o n
river steamers . Wor k lef t Morrisse y littl e tim e fo r education , thoug h hi s
wife late r taugh t hi m th e rudiment s o f readin g an d writing . Anyway ,
young Morrissey' s temperamen t wa s fa r mor e pugnaciou s tha n contem -
plative. Durin g hi s teen s ferocit y an d gri t wo n hi m severa l neighborhoo d
brawls an d th e leadershi p o f a Tro y gang . B y th e tim e h e reache d hi s
twenties, Morrisse y ha d acquire d a checkere d wor k record , a reputatio n
for viciousness , an d sundr y indictment s fo r burglar y an d assault. 26

108 .
 THE AG E O F H E R O E S

There wa s a legendar y qualit y t o th e storie s tha t circulate d abou t

Morrissey. H e wa s employe d a s a bartende r fo r Alexande r Hamilton ,
owner o f a Troy saloo n an d a backer o f th e ring. Visitin g Ne w Yor k a t th e
end o f th e 1840s , Hamilto n entere d Isaia h Rynders' s Empir e Club . H e
got int o a n argumen t wit h "Dutch " Charli e Duane , a boxer an d frien d o f
Tom Hye r (i t wa s Duan e wh o hoiste d Hye r ont o hi s shoulder s an d
carried hi m int o th e rin g fo r th e Yanke e Sulliva n fight) . Hamilto n
boasted tha t h e ha d a barkeeper bac k i n Tro y wh o coul d "tak e th e Dutc h
courage" ou t o f Charlie , an d h e offere d t o arrang e a match . Whe n
Morrissey learne d tha t Duan e ha d scorne d hi s boss' s offer , h e heade d fo r
New York . Wit h characteristi c bravad o h e strod e int o Rynders' s saloo n
and, w e n h e foun d Dutc h Charli e wa s absent , offere d t o fight anyon e i n
the house . Severa l me n pounce d o n Morrisse y an d bea t hi m senseless .
Rynders, a riverboa t gambler , gan g leader , Tamman y Hal l chieftain , an d
Democratic politicia n i n Ne w York' s Sixt h Ward , admire d th e lad' s
courage. H e allegedl y nurse d hi m bac k t o health , thoug h th e Tro y yout h
retained a longstandin g hatre d o f th e Empir e Club . Morrisse y staye d i n
New Yor k afte r h e ha d recovered , workin g a s a n emigran t runne r (on e
who helpe d immigrant s settle , obtaine d thei r politica l loyalty , an d ofte n
fleeced them ) an d politica l shoulde r hitte r (on e wh o brok e u p opponent' s
rallies, bullie d thei r partisan s ou t o f voting , an d secure d a high turnou t o f
loyal repeater s a t th e polls) . Morrissey' s temperamen t serve d hi m wel l i n
both jobs .
Brutal stree t fight s enhance d hi s reputation . I n a battle ove r tur f o n th e
New Yor k docks , Morrisse y defeate d tw o othe r emigran t runners , on e o f
whom ha d ha d a hand i n hi s beating a t the Empir e Club. Th e combatant s
fought wit h belayin g pins—heav y bar s use d t o secure a ship's riggings —
instead o f fists . I n anothe r figh t a brawle r name d To m McCan n chal -
lenged Morrisse y whe n h e suspecte d th e Tro y yout h o f makin g advance s
toward hi s mistress . The y fough t insid e a saloon , McCan n quickl y
gaining th e advantage . H e thre w Morrissey , knocke d ove r a coa l stove ,
then pinne d th e youn g man' s bac k t o the burning embers . Friend s douse d
the coals , an d Morrisse y finall y bea t McCan n int o submission , bu t th e
fire, steam , an d burnin g flesh earne d Morrisse y hi s life-lon g moniker ,
"Old Smoke." 27
The wanderlus t s o commo n t o th e America n workin g clas s struc k
Morrissey i n 1851 . I n searc h o f gol d an d adventure , h e stowe d awa y o n
a California-boun d ship . Th e Sierr a foothill s di d no t yiel d thei r or e t o
him, bu t h e quickl y foun d othe r way s t o mak e money . Befor e leavin g
New York , Morrisse y ha d learne d ho w t o ru n a far o game , the n a n
immensely popula r for m o f gamblin g i n America . Bankrolle d b y Sa n

ioç
 THE M A N L Y AR T

Francisco friends , Morrisse y an d hi s partne r "Dad " Cunningha m enjoye d

moderate prosperity . Bu t alway s ambitious , h e wa s no t content . Georg e
Thompson, To m Hyer' s traine r fo r th e Sulliva n match , ha d just wo n th e
"Championship o f California. " Morrisse y challenge d him , an d th e
Western pres s hype d th e fight a s a n ethni c contest , Irish-America n versu s
Anglo-American. The y fough t fo r tw o thousan d dollar s a sid e on Augus t
31, 1852 , a t Mar e Island , California . Morrissey' s mai n asse t wa s a n
incredible abilit y t o tak e punishment , bu t Thompso n wa s a highly skille d
fighter, an d fo r severa l round s th e Englishma n gav e th e novic e a boxin g
lesson. Rathe r tha n se e thei r ma n lose , however , Morrissey' s partisan s s o
menaced Thompso n wit h a sho w o f weapon s tha t h e deliberatel y foule d
his pponen t afte r eleve n rounds . Forfeitin g th e matc h an d tw o thousan d
dollars probabl y seeme d a smal l pric e compare d t o losin g hi s life. 28
Old Smok e returne d t o Ne w York , hi s reputatio n enhance d an d hi s
pockets full . Severa l fighter s wer e willin g t o giv e th e newcome r a try .
Most important , To m Hye r wante d reveng e fo r th e wron g don e t o hi s
friend. Hye r openl y identifie d himsel f wit h nativis t faction s i n Ne w Yor k
City politics , s o persona l ambitio n onc e agai n merge d wit h dee p socia l
tensions. Offende d a t remark s mad e b y "Youn g America, " Morrisse y
challenged him ; eac h ma n pu t u p a one-hundred-dollar deposi t t o arrang e
a match . Hyer , however , insiste d o n fightin g fo r n o les s tha n te n
thousand dollar s a side . Whethe r becaus e o f lac k o f fund s o r lac k o f
confidence, Morrissey' s friend s foun d th e amoun t to o high , s o the y
forfeited thei r hundre d dollars , a seriou s los s o f face. 29 Th e Tro y ma n
and hi s backer s itche d fo r a bi g fight , an d th e nex t logica l opponen t i n
terms o f fam e an d abilit y wa s Yanke e Sullivan , wh o b y thi s tim e ha d
reconciled wit h Hyer . Althoug h bot h Morrisse y an d Sulliva n wer e
Irish-American champions , th e ethni c moti f wa s agai n playe d u p b y th e
newspapers. Ol d Smoke' s arrogance , youthfu l virility , an d enmit y wit h
Thompson an d Hye r mad e hi m see m th e mor e activ e threa t t o nativ e
Americanism, s o Sullivan becam e by default th e Anglo-American favorite. 30
After a n angr y meetin g i n a Ne w Yor k saloo n the y signe d article s o f
agreement o n Septembe r 1 , 1853 , pledgin g t o figh t fo r on e thousan d
dollars a sid e si x week s later . Morrisse y selecte d th e battleground :
Boston Corners , a tin y tow n on e hundre d mile s nort h o f Ne w Yor k Cit y
where Massachusetts , Connecticut , an d th e Empir e Stat e met . H e chos e
this spo t becaus e stat e jurisdictio n wa s unclear , confoundin g loca l
magistrates wh o migh t wan t t o interfere . Moreover , th e Harle m Railroa d
connected Ne w Yor k Cit y wit h Bosto n Corners , an d th e villag e wa s als o
near Alban y an d Troy , assurin g Morrisse y o f a larg e numbe r o f support -

110 .
 THE AG E O F HEROE S

ers. Th e figh t wa s schedule d fo r a Wednesda y afternoon , me n bega n

trickling int o Bosto n Corner s o n Monday , an d b y th e mornin g o f th e
bout extr a car s ha d t o b e adde d t o th e seve n o'cloc k trai n ou t o f Ne w
York. A t leas t thre e thousand , perhap s a s man y a s si x thousan d people ,
including rura l fol k fro m th e surroundin g countryside , cam e t o witnes s
the grea t event . Man y carrie d thei r ow n foo d an d slep t outdoors . B y
fight time , acre s o f spectator s crowde d th e ring. 31
The Clipper estimate d tha t tw o hundre d thousan d dollar s reste d o n th e
outcome. A t ringsid e th e bettin g wa s lively , wit h Morrisse y th e heav y
favorite. Neve r on e t o mis s a n opportunit y fo r bravado , h e strutte d
around th e ring , offerin g $ i ,ooo t o $8oo , o r $50 0 to $40 0 on himself . H e
found n o takers , fo r no t onl y wa s Sulliva n thre e inche s shorte r an d thirt y
pounds lighter , bu t a t ag e forty-on e h e looke d ol d enoug h t o b e
Morrissey's father . Appearance s prove d deceiving . Throug h thirty-seve n
rounds Sulliva n pummele d hi s opponen t a t will . A s earl y a s th e fourt h
round, "Morrissey' s fac e exhibite d th e mos t revoltin g appearanc e
imaginable—his ey e wa s dreadfull y swollen , an d th e bloo d wa s flowing
in a perfec t strea m fro m eac h nostril. " B y th e thirty-secon d roun d
Morrissey wa s a "sickenin g sight, " wit h "bloo d gushin g i n stream s
from nose , mout h an d hal f a dozen gashe s o n his face." Eve n Morrissey' s
endurance ha d it s limits. 32
But fiv e round s later , jus t whe n Sullivan' s scienc e an d speed seeme d
about t o carr y th e day , chao s brok e loose . Precisel y wha t happene d i s
unclear. Som e report s declare d tha t Morrisse y wa s chokin g Sulliva n o n
the rope s an d tha t Sully' s second s interfere d t o sav e thei r man . Friend s
of Sulliva n claime d tha t Ol d Smoke' s second s brok e th e rin g t o spar e
Morrissey furthe r humiliation . I n an y case , partisan s o f bot h me n wer e
instantly i n th e ring , engage d i n a free-for-al l brawl . Meanwhile , th e
timekeeper ordere d th e thirty-eight h roun d t o begin . Morrisse y cam e u p
to th e scratch , bu t Sullivan , bus y punchin g i t ou t wit h Morrissey' s
second, Orvill e "Awful " Gardner , faile d t o answer th e call . Ol d Smoke' s
umpire aske d fo r a judgment , an d th e refere e decide d i n hi s favor ,
awarding hi m th e matc h an d th e stak e mone y i n clea r violatio n o f th e
rule specifyin g tha t a figh t b e halte d unti l th e rin g wa s cleared . A wa r of
words rage d i n th e newspaper s fo r weeks . Yanke e Sulliva n demande d a
rematch an d advise d hi s follower s no t t o pa y thei r wagers . Bu t b y
custom an d regulatio n th e referee' s decisio n wa s final. 33
While sportin g me n san g th e heroes ' praise , other s responde d wit h
predictable scorn . Th e New York Tribune declare d tha t suc h inferna l
scenes degrade d al l o f humankind ; th e Evening Post suggeste d tha t

// /
 THE MANL Y AR T

Sullivan an d Morrisse y woul d hav e accomplishe d muc h goo d b y killin g

each other ; th e New York Times covere d th e even t bu t editorialize d
against it s barbarity :

With th e benefit s o f a diffused education ; wit h a press stron g i n upholdin g

the mora l amenitie s o f life ; wit h a clergy devout , sincer e an d energeti c i n
the discharg e o f thei r duties , an d a publi c sentimen t oppose d t o anima l
brutality i n an y shape ; wit h thes e an d simila r influence s a t work , i t i s
inexplicable, deplorable , humiliatin g tha t a n exhibitio n suc h a s the contest
between MORRISSE Y an d SULLIVA N coul d hav e occurred. I n any other light ,
from an y other point of view , it must be a subject of profound an d enduring
degradation tha t th e authoritie s permitte d i t t o occur .

Still, th e Times edito r too k hear t tha t a t th e sigh t o f blood , th e

"assembled ruffians " turne d o n eac h othe r lik e hungr y beast s o f prey .
Next time , h e hoped , th e sportin g fraternit y woul d eradicat e itsel f
completely.34
Two week s afte r th e fight , warrant s wer e issue d b y Massachusett s
officials agains t th e principals . Ne w Yor k Cit y authoritie s capture d th e
luckless Sulliva n an d boun d hi m ove r t o th e Ba y State , wher e h e wa s
jailed fo r a wee k i n Lenox , Berkshir e County . I n a displa y o f fraterna l
solidarity, To m Hye r cam e fort h an d raise d fiftee n hundre d dollar s bai l
from prize-rin g supporter s t o secur e th e releas e o f hi s ol d antagonist .
Eight month s afte r th e figh t Morrisse y to o stoo d before a Berkshir e
County gran d jur y an d pai d a twelve-hundred-dolla r fin e rathe r tha n
serve sixtee n month s i n jail . Sulliva n neve r entere d th e ring again , bu t
Old Smok e rod e th e cres t o f hi s newfoun d prestige . H e prospere d
during th e earl y fiftie s a s a keepe r o f a taproom , proprieto r o f a far o
parlor, an d promote r o f cockfights . Mor e important , hi s charism a an d
organizational abilitie s gav e hi m a leadin g rol e amon g gras s root s
Tammany loyalists. 35
Morrissey ha d foun d a n environmen t tha t rewarde d hi s talents . Still ,
his impulsivenes s continue d t o ge t hi m i n trouble . Fo r year s h e ha d
taunted To m Hyer , an d o n variou s occasion s the y wer e abou t t o fac e
each othe r wit h fist s o r duelin g pistols , onl y t o b e prevente d b y friend s
or th e authorities . Bu t Morrissey' s violen t temperamen t wa s no t confine d
to hi s fello w priz e fighters , an d th e assaul t indictment s begu n i n Tro y
continued. On e nigh t i n 185 6 h e pulle d a pisto l an d sho t a t tw o waiter s
during a drunke n spre e i n a Ne w Yor k saloon . Politica l influenc e kep t
him ou t o f prison . I n 185 7 h e face d thre e differen t charge s o f assaul t
with inten t t o kill , bu t agai n h e serve d n o tim e becaus e o f th e interven -
tion o f well-place d friends . Hi s mos t notoriou s brus h wit h th e la w cam e

112
 THE AG E O F HEROE S

in 1855 , wit h th e assassinatio n o f Willia m Poole . Pool e wa s a butcher b y

trade, a s wel l a s a n infamou s thug , gambler , an d rakehell . A loca l
political leade r wh o use d hi s muscl e t o gai n gras s root s support , h e wa s
a native-bo m American , a war d leade r fo r th e Kno w Nothin g party , an d
a frien d o f To m Hyer. 36
The tw o bruiser s ha d previousl y fough t a stree t battl e o n Poole' s turf ,
among th e Ne w Yor k docks , an d Ol d Smok e go t th e wors t o f it . Whil e
the butche r gouge d an d bi t Morrissey' s face , Poole' s gan g kicke d hi m
insensible. The y me t agai n o n Februar y 2 4 i n Stanwi x Hall , a Bower y
saloon. Thei r shoutin g matc h culminate d wit h bot h me n drawin g pistols ,
but polic e separate d th e tw o befor e an y damag e wa s done . Late r tha t
night orrisse y me t wit h severa l friends , the n wen t hom e t o bed . A fe w
hours late r hi s companion s returne d t o Stanwi x Hall , wher e Pool e
stood drinking . Word s quickl y le d t o gu n shots , an d i n a fe w second s
four me n la y wounded , Pool e mortally . Morrisse y wa s afterwar d impli -
cated a s th e "mastermind " o f th e murder , bu t n o evidenc e wa s eve r
produced an d charge s wer e quickl y dropped . Still , th e inciden t live d i n
public memory . Poole' s funera l wa s on e o f th e grandes t th e natio n eve r
witnessed, an d hi s killin g wa s interprete d b y nativis t American s a s a n
illustration o f thei r victimizatio n a t th e hand s o f th e bloodthirst y Irish. 37
Despite Morrissey' s persona l problems , priz e fightin g continue d t o
prosper. Th e summe r o f 1857 , for example , witnesse d thre e majo r bouts .
Izzy Lazarus— a Jew , a n Englis h immigrant , a forme r boxer , an d th e
father o f tw o fine lightweights—mad e hi s saloo n i n Buffal o th e head -
quarters fo r thes e battles . Th e firs t pitte d Dominic k Bradle y agains t S . S .
Rankin, bot h Irishmen , bot h Philadelphians , an d bot h saloonkeepers .
Bradley, however , wa s Catholic an d Ranki n Protestant , a fact tha t create d
intense interes t i n th e Iris h communit y an d cause d Philadelphia' s Iris h
Protestant Associatio n t o hel p rais e th e Orangeman' s thousand-dolla r
stake. Neithe r fighte r wa s ver y experienced , ye t si x thousan d member s
of the fancy cam e fro m Baltimore , Ne w York , Boston , Albany, Cleveland ,
Montreal, an d Philadelphi a fo r th e battle . Eve n a fe w me n o f statu s
quietly mad e thei r wa y t o ringside. "I n th e even t o f a n arrest, " th e
Buffalo Commercial Advertiser declared , "som e name s o f gentleme n
who woul d no t restrai n thei r curiosit y t o 'se e thi s sor t o f thin g just once '
would b e likel y t o figur e t o th e astonishmen t o f thos e outsid e th e circl e
of excitement. " Name s wer e neve r revealed. 38
The Buffal o wharve s o n figh t da y offere d a colorfu l spectacl e a s a
flotilla o f steamer s an d smal l craf t heade d int o Lak e Erie , boun d fo r
Point Albino , Canad a West . Ringsid e presente d a n equally strikin g sight .
Spectators perche d i n trees or on carriages , an d other s walke d aroun d th e
113
 T H E MANL Y AR T

ring callin g ou t wagers , a s a motle y cre w o f urba n sport s drank , argued ,

and jostle d on e anothe r befor e th e cal l o f "time. " Th e appearanc e o f
Hyer an d Morrisse y a t ringsid e sen t wave s o f excitemen t throug h th e
crowd. I n contras t t o th e America n constabulary , th e loca l Canadia n
sheriff, a Yorkshireman , ease d logistica l problem s an d mad e sur e th e
proceedings wen t smoothly. 39
Bradley an d Ranki n battle d fo r nearl y thre e hour s throug h on e hun -
dred fifty-tw o grueling , i f no t ver y artful , rounds . Passion s ra n s o hig h
during th e contes t tha t fight s brok e ou t amon g th e spectators . Eventually ,
however, Bradley' s edg e i n experienc e pai d off . "Ranki n ha s lost, " th e
Clipper declared , "bu t w e kno w tha t h e ha s gaine d man y a friend b y th e
gallantry an d indomitabl e enduranc e s o wel l displayed. " Me n a t ringsid e
contributed t o a consolatio n purs e fo r th e falle n warrior . Whe n result s
reached Philadelphia , th e sport s packe d int o Bradley' s taver n dance d
with joy , toaste d thei r man , an d counte d thei r winnings . Outside , th e
overflow crow d tha t ha d kep t a vigi l fo r day s i n th e swelterin g summe r
heat hel d thei r ow n victor y celebration s throug h th e night . I n th e
Moyamensing distric t Rankin' s hous e wa s als o packed , bu t her e th e
patrons share d mixe d feelings : sorrow , suspicio n o f fou l play , prid e i n
their man' s pluck , an d chagri n a t th e los s o f wagers .
Twice mor e i n th e nex t fe w month s th e Easter n sportin g crow d too k
the "specials " t o Buffalo . Thos e wh o coul d no t affor d eight-dolla r
tickets—the usua l far e fro m Ne w Yor k Cit y wa s fiv e dollars , bu t railroa d
companies an d promoter s kne w a good thin g whe n the y sa w it—gathere d
at wharves , newspape r offices , telegrap h terminals , trai n stations , an d
taverns awaitin g new s fro m Canada . Thoug h no t quit e o f th e magnitud e
of th e Bradley-Ranki n affair , th e "gam e an d manly " rematc h betwee n
lightweights Denn y Horriga n an d Harr y Lazarus , an d th e "gallan t
contest" betwee n Iris h immigrant s Jo e Cobur n an d Harr y Gribben , kep t
the sportin g po t boiling." 40
Many Philadelphian s believe d tha t Bradley' s victor y mad e hi m cham -
pion o f America , bu t mos t me n fel t tha t th e hono r stil l belonge d t o
Morrissey b y virtu e o f hi s victor y ove r Sulliva n an d Hyer' s refusa l t o
fight. Th e 185 7 matche s whette d appetite s fo r Ol d Smoke' s return . Hi s
opponent wa s Joh n C . Heenan , twenty-thre e year s old , bor n o f Iris h
immigrant parent s i n Morrissey' s hometow n o f Troy . Heenan' s back -
ground wa s working-class , bu t hi s famil y seeme d a bit mor e respectabl e
and prosperou s tha n th e champion's . Timoth y Heenan , John' s father ,
was a machinist an d forema n i n the ordnance departmen t o f th e Watervlei t
Arsenal nea r Troy . John , however , ha d spen t hi s earl y year s a s a n
unskilled laborer . I n 1852 , a t th e ag e o f seventeen , h e heade d wes t t o

114
 THE AGE OF HEROES

John Morrissey and John C. Heenan.

The two most celebrated fighters
of the 1850S were both born of Irish
immigrant parents, grew up in
Troy, New York, and were leaders in
the rough masculine subcultures
of San Francisco and New York City.

. 115 .
 THE MANL Y AR T

California, wher e h e swun g a hamme r i n th e Pacifi c Mai l Steamshi p

Company's workshop s i n Benicia . H e too k th e nicknam e "Benici a
Boy," fille d ou t hi s six-foot , two-inc h fram e wit h tw o hundre d pound s
of muscle , an d acquire d a word-of-mout h reputatio n fo r toughness .
Heenan soo n qui t hi s jo b t o tr y hi s luck a t mining , an d tha t failing , h e
became a politica l enforce r i n Sa n Francisco . Hi s electioneerin g activi -
ties go t hi m i n trouble , s o h e lef t th e Golde n Stat e before bein g throw n
out. 41
He returne d t o Ne w Yor k wher e hi s muscula r suppor t o f Tamman y
was rewarde d wit h a sinecur e i n th e custom s house . Lik e man y othe r
strong an d ambitiou s me n wit h limite d caree r horizons , Heenan' s thought s
turned t o th e ring . H e pai d a cal l a t th e New York Clipper offic e an d me t
Frank Queen . Whethe r a s a resul t o f genuin e enmity , instigatio n b y
friends, o r deliberat e promotio n b y th e press—mos t likel y i t wa s a
combination o f al l three—heate d charge s an d countercharge s betwee n
Old Smok e an d th e Benici a Bo y bega n appearin g i n th e Clipper an d th e
Herald. Morrissey , foreve r tauntin g hi s rivals , questione d Heenan' s
courage, belittle d hi s fightin g ability , an d tol d hi m t o "pu t u p o r shu t
up." Th e yout h publishe d a car d o n Jul y 3 challenging th e champio n t o
fight. Suddenly , heate d word s gav e wa y t o th e coo l languag e o f article s
of agreement : "Th e sai d Joh n Morrisse y agree s t o figh t th e sai d Joh n C .
Hennan a fai r stan d u p figh t accordin g t o th e ne w rule s o f th e Londo n
Prize Ring , b y whic h th e sai d Joh n Morrisse y an d Joh n C . Heena n agre e
to b e bound . . . . " I t i s testimon y t o th e fol k natur e o f priz e fighting , it s
rootedness i n stree t reputation , tha t Heena n wa s abou t t o conten d fo r th e
championship withou t eve r havin g entere d th e regula r priz e ring. 42
The fighter s wen t throug h severa l week s o f rigorou s training , includ -
ing purgativ e taking , induce d vomiting , an d th e usua l regime n o f
exercise an d diet . The y als o hel d severa l sparrin g exhibitions . Thes e
benefits no t onl y stirre d publi c excitement , the y wer e als o quit e lucra -
tive. Morrisse y gav e on e i n Buffalo , thre e i n Boston , an d severa l i n Ne w
York, on e o f whic h yielde d $2,500 . Althoug h bot h me n wer e o f Iris h
descent, ethni c rivalr y wa s projecte d ont o th e figh t a s i n th e Bosto n
Corners battle . Thi s wa s i n par t a journalistic devic e t o whi p u p interest ,
but th e plo y wa s grounde d i n a large r divergenc e o f th e tw o boxers '
public images. 43 Morrisse y wa s alway s th e outla w figure , a struttin g
braggart associate d wit h corrup t politics , gan g violence , an d urba n vice ,
while Heenan' s person a wa s a littl e mor e compatibl e wit h th e ideal s o f
the "respectable " workin g class . I n comin g year s th e Benici a Bo y
would marr y th e notoriou s "nake d lady, " Adah Isaac s Mencken , infa -
mous fo r he r seminake d stag e performance s an d ope n lov e affairs ; h e

116 .
 THE AG E O F HEROE S

would als o b e identifie d mor e closel y wit h urba n bullie s an d politica l

strong-arm men . Bu t fo r no w h e seeme d no t s o closel y tie d a s Ol d
Smoke di d t o gangs , groggeries , an d gamblin g dens . A bi t les s threaten -
ing tha n th e swaggerin g Morrissey , Heena n wa s tentativel y adopte d a s
the representativ e o f native-bor n American s battlin g a viciou s foreig n
foe. 44
Like othe r recen t bouts , thi s on e cam e of f i n Canad a t o avoi d polic e
interference. Wha t bega n a s necessit y ende d i n pleasure , fo r th e excur -
sion t o Buffalo , th e hospitalit y o f Izz y Lazarus , th e excitin g crossin g t o
Canada, al l helpe d expan d th e figh t fro m a brie f even t int o a pagean t
lasting severa l days . Gambler s an d saloonkeeper s worke d ou t profitabl e
arrang ment s wit h rai l an d steamshi p companies . B y mid-Octobe r sport -
ing me n wer e onc e agai n pourin g int o Buffalo, man y fro m a s fa r awa y a s
New Orleans . Th e New York Tribune's specia l corresponden t calle d th e
gathering, "th e mos t viciou s congregatio n o f rough s tha t wa s eve r
witnessed i n a Christia n City. " Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper
offered engraving s o f thes e "differen t varietie s o f America n ruffians, "
noting tha t man y wer e "alway s read y wit h th e pisto l o r th e knife , whic h
they d o no t scrupl e t o us e agains t an y opponen t wh o refuse s t o b e
converted t o their ow n wa y o f thinking. " Willia m Poole' s murderer , Le w
Baker, an d Morrissey' s ol d gamblin g partner , Da d Cunningha m (wh o
had kille d Paudee n MacLaughli n i n a saloo n brawl) , wer e amon g th e
more notoriou s character s i n attendance . Fo r al l th e righteou s fear s
expressed i n th e press , however , a littl e cursing , drinking , an d scufflin g
at Izz y Lazarus' s saloo n wa s abou t al l th e troubl e tha t occurred. 45
After dodgin g arres t b y th e lega l authorities , bot h principal s mad e i t t o
Buffalo. Th e stake s wer e fiv e thousan d dollar s a side ; Morrisse y backe d
himself wit h earning s fro m hi s far o business , whil e gamblers , emigran t
runners, grogsho p owners , an d sportin g me n supplie d th e res t o f th e
money. Thousand s purchase d ticket s marke d "excursion " o r "pic-nic, "
boarded steamer s docke d o n th e Buffal o wharves , an d se t out fo r Canad a
at 11:3 0 P.M . on Tuesday , Octobe r 19 . B y 8:0 0 A.M . th e followin g
morning, th e vessel s droppe d ancho r three-quarter s o f a mil e fro m Lon g
Point, a peninsula o f san d jutting int o Lak e Erie . Thre e mor e hour s wer e
consumed landin g th e passengers , wh o waded , rowed , o r wer e carrie d
ashore o n th e back s o f sailors . Lon g Poin t wa s s o barre n tha t t o satisf y
the rul e tha t th e rin g b e pitche d o n turf , a few stra y tuft s o f gras s ha d t o
be foun d the n transplante d withi n th e ropes. 46
Finally, a t ninetee n minute s pas t one , Heena n thre w hi s hat i n th e rin g
and i t wa s followe d moment s late r by Morrissey's . Eac h part y appointe d
twenty-five rin g keepers , bruiser s arme d wit h larg e club s wh o stoo d

"7
 THE MANL Y AR T

outside th e rope s an d maintaine d orde r b y keepin g spectator s beyon d a

large oute r ring . Reporter s estimate d tha t i n Ne w Yor k Stat e alon e a
quarter o f a millio n dollar s reste d o n th e outcome , an d bettin g i n far-of f
towns, St . Louis , Chicago , an d Ne w Orleans , wa s als o quit e heavy .
Morrissey's friend s offere d last-minut e wagers , walkin g aroun d th e ring
calling ou t $io o t o $7 5 o n Morrissey , the n $10 0 t o $70 an d $10 0 t o $60 ,
$50 o n firs t blood , $5 0 o n first knockdown , $5 0 on first fall , al l wit h fe w
takers. Morrisse y himsel f offere d Heena n a $ 1,000-to-$600 sid e bet , bu t
the Benici a Bo y declined , pleadin g lac k o f funds . Al l o f thi s wa s
designed a s muc h t o intimidat e th e smaller , poore r Heena n part y a s t o
secure rea l wagers . I n th e meantim e th e second s prepare d thei r men ,
helping the m stri p t o thei r fightin g drawer s an d lac e u p thei r spike d
shoes. B y th e tim e th e color s wer e tie d t o th e stakes—th e star s an d
stripes fo r Heenan , blu e wit h whit e spot s fo r Morrissey—gambler s wer e
shouting $10 0 t o $5 0 o n Morrisse y wit h littl e luck , an d Ol d Smok e
himself foun d n o taker s a t $50 0 t o $30 0 fo r firs t knockdown . Morrissey' s
friends wer e s o sur e o f themselve s an d Heenan' s s o diffiden t no t onl y
because o f th e champion' s prowes s bu t als o becaus e th e Bo y ha d
developed a seriou s absces s o n hi s leg . Unabl e t o trai n fo r a wee k a s a
result o f hi s painfull y swolle n limb , feveris h an d bedridde n th e whol e
time, Heena n looke d t o have sli m chance s despit e hi s three-inch, twenty -
pound advantage. 47
After tw o hour s o f wranglin g ove r choic e o f referee , a n importan t
question give n th e powe r o f tha t position , th e partie s compromise d b y
appointing tw o men . Finally , sixtee n hour s afte r leavin g Buffalo , th e
crowd's patienc e wor n thin , th e me n cam e u p t o th e scratc h a t th e firs t
call o f "Time! " Roun d on e laste d four-and-one-hal f minute s an d astonishe d
even Heenan' s mos t loya l friends . Followin g som e cautiou s sparring ,
feinting, an d parrying , th e Bo y caugh t Morrisse y wit h a viciou s right t o
the ey e an d a lef t t o th e nos e (firs t blood) , the n pinne d Ol d Smok e
against th e rope s an d pummele d hi m a t will . Science , speed , an d powe r
were al l wit h Benicia . Som e observer s late r claime d tha t onl y whe n
Heenan smashe d hi s hand agains t a corner stake , damagin g tw o knuckles ,
was Morrisse y save d fro m eliminatio n i n th e firs t round . A s i n previou s
fights, however , Ol d Smoke' s endurance—"bottom " a s th e fanc y calle d
it, borrowin g a racetrac k term—amaze d everyone . "Joh n neve r seeme d
to kno w whe n h e wa s licked, " a contemporar y observed , "an d jus t a s
you go t tire d o f thumpin g him , h e kin d o ' go t hi s secon d wind , an d the n
you migh t a s wel l tackl e th e devi l a s tr y t o mak e an y headwa y agains t
him." Fo r severa l round s Heena n dominate d th e fight , punchin g an d
throwing Morrisse y a t leisure . However , th e Boy' s illnes s finall y sappe d

118
 THE AGE OF HEROES

Morrissey battles Heenan, October 20, 1858, at Long Point, Canada West.
Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper, October 30, 1858, railed against the
"depraved" sports at ringside and then printed several engravings of the action.

his strength. By the eleventh round both men had to be led to the
scratch, but Morrissey could still stand and hit, while Heenan was
defenseless. The Boy finished ingloriously, swinging wildly, overreaching
himself, and collapsing insensible.48
Old Smoke's friends were beside themselves with joy. When Heenan
recovered his strength, the sporting fraternity procured a carriage, seated
the two heroes side by side, and paraded them around the ground. After
copious drinking, backslapping, whooping and hollering, the ring keeper
pulled up stakes, and the multitude headed back to Buffalo. They
steamed in at 2:30 A.M., Morrissey's boat firing rockets to announce
their arrival as crowds cheered at the wharves. Back in New York City,
taverns and newspaper and telegraph offices were in a virtual state of
siege. Thousands clamored for news of the results, and street fights
threatened the public peace.49

. 119 .
 THE MANL Y AR T

"Probably n o huma n eye, " th e New York Tribune declare d solemnly ,

will eve r loo k upo n s o muc h rowdyism , villainy , scoundrelism , an d

boiled-down viciousness , concentrated upo n so small a space.... Scoundrels
of ever y imaginabl e genus , ever y variet y o f ever y species , wer e ther e
assembled; th e characteristi c rascalitie s o f eac h wer e develope d an d dis -
played i n al l thei r devilis h perfection . Th e tal k o f establishin g th e Priz e
Ring i n America , unde r a n orderl y supervision , i s simpl y nonsense ,
judging fro m th e peopl e presen t a t Lon g Poin t o n Wednesda y last . A t
present it s patron s see m t o b e me n wh o see k no t t o encourag e a perfec t
development o f physica l strengt h an d beauty , an d a n occasiona l good -
tempered contes t fo r mastery , bu t wh o only desir e t o gamble o n th e resul t
of a figh t betwee n tw o fine animals .

The Tribune corresponden t conclude d tha t manlines s an d fai r pla y wer e

nowhere t o b e see n amids t th e barbaris m a t Lon g Point . Frank Leslie's
Illustrated Newspaper concurred : " a wors e se t o f scapegalloweses. . .coul d
scarcely b e collected ; low , filthy , brutal , bludgeo n bearin g scoundrels —
the ver y clas s o f me n wh o hav e buil t u p th e Tammany Hal l part y i n Ne w
York. . . ," 5 0
However, i t wa s lef t t o Harper s New Monthly Magazine t o bes t
capture th e contras t betwee n gentee l ideal s an d th e lates t pugilisti c
outrage. Sentimenta l verse , packe d wit h romanti c cliches , describe d th e
undefiled norther n landscap e o n th e da y o f th e fight :

. . . Grandly th e autum n forest s shine ,

Red a s th e gol d i n a n India n mine !
A dream y mist , a vapory smok e
Hangs roun d th e patche s o f evergree n oak . . . .
Nature i s tracin g wit h langui d han d
Lessons o f Peac e ove r lak e an d land . . . .

But th e mos t brutal , dreg s o f societ y pollute d God' s tabernacle :

. .. Round abou t i s a bestia l crowd .

Heavily-jawed an d beetle-browed ;
Concave face s trample d in ,
As i f wit h th e iro n hoo f o f Sin !
Blasphemies drippin g fro m of f thei r lips ,
Pistols bulgin g behin d thei r hips ;
Hands accustome d t o dea l th e cards ,
Or strik e wit h th e cowardl y knuckle-guards . .. .

/2O
 THE AG E O F HEROE S

Criminal, foul-mouthed , sin-stained , th e fanc y live d o n blood , an d al l o f

humankind wa s degrade d b y thei r acts . Fin e youn g specimen s o f God' s
highest creation , Morrisse y an d Heena n betraye d thei r Maker' s work :

. . . I t i s a pleasur e thei r limb s t o scan ,

Splendid type s o f anima l man ;
Splendid type s o f tha t huma n grace .
The nobles t tha t Go d ha s wille d t o trace.
Brought t o thi s b y scienc e an d art ,
Trained, an d nourished , an d kep t apart ;
Cunningly fe d o n th e wholesomes t food .
Carefully watche d i n ever y mood ;
Brought t o thi s state , s o nobl e an d proud ,
To savagel y tussl e befor e a crowd—
To dim th e ligh t o f th e eye s s o clear ,
To mas h th e fac e t o a blood y smear ,
To maim , deface , an d kill , i f the y can ,
The glor y o f al l creation—Man! . . .

Once agai n th e rin g inverte d pious , humanitaria n way s an d uphel d th e

impulsive value s o f th e urba n underworld . Mor e tha n merel y brutal , th e
fight overturne d th e cherishe d Victoria n idea l o f universa l benevolenc e
suffusing th e natura l world . Unreasoning , savage , depraved , th e sportin g
fraternity implicitl y denie d th e optimisti c fait h o f reformer s i n th e
perfectability o f ma n an d society. 51
Worse still , th e cance r wa s spreading . Dail y paper s wer e fille d wit h
news o f th e figh t because , Harper's editor s admitted , growin g number s
of peopl e wante d it . Twenty-fiv e year s earlie r th e concer n amon g
journalists fo r publi c moral s an d th e "goo d sens e an d feelin g o f th e
readers" ha d prevente d suc h shameles s reporting . Now , however , Amer -
ica sli d dow n a mora l spiral , pushe d alon g b y unscrupulou s me n wh o
lined thei r pocket s b y gratifyin g deprave d tastes . On e expecte d th e rin g
to attrac t attentio n i n Ne w York' s Fiv e Points , wher e "al l th e haunt s o f
Dead Rabbits , gamblers , an d thieve s wer e crowde d wit h th e scu m o f a
festering metropolis , eagerl y gapin g a t ever y rumor , an d a s promptl y
consoling thei r disappointmen t wit h chea p whiskey. " Bu t i t wa s surpris -
ing tha t Heenan' s autograp h ha d becom e a valuabl e commodit y o n Wal l
Street.52
Declared th e Troy Evening Times, "th e mani a create d i n anticipatio n
of thi s figh t exceed s an y before eve r known. " Th e arrangement s wer e
more open , th e pres s coverag e mor e detailed , an d excitemen t deepe r
than fo r an y previou s battle . Loca l politician s an d official s freel y currie d

121
 THE MANL Y AR T

the fighters ' favor . "Souther n planter s an d dr y good s merchant s be t o n

the result s o f th e conflict, " th e New York Times lamented ; " a mighty ,
populous an d refine d metropoli s wait s wit h hushe d anxiet y t o kno w
which o f th e tw o ruffian s ha d hi s pat e firs t broken , o r hi s ches t stov e i n
by th e other. " Harper's Weekly declare d tha t Morrisse y an d Heena n
preempted discussio n o f al l othe r publi c issues : "O n Thursday , especial -
ly ther e wa s nothin g hear d of—uptown , downtow n an d i n th e country —
but th e grea t priz e fight . . . . [It ] was , w e ventur e t o assert, th e onl y topi c
discussed tha t mornin g i n ban k parlors , countin g room s an d office s
generally throughou t th e city—t o sa y nothin g o f barroom s an d place s o f
like character. " Priz e fightin g migh t remai n indelibl y corrupt , bu t
increasingly i t wa s bein g "countenance d b y a kin d an d indulgen t
public." 53
The celebration s i n Ne w Yor k Cit y toppe d al l before . Morrissey' s
friends rejoice d i n victory , whil e th e Benici a Boy' s partisan s console d
themselves tha t thei r ma n mus t soo n b e champion . Heena n wa s read y t o
sign ne w article s immediately , bu t Ol d Smok e refused , declarin g tha t
win o r lose , h e ha d intende d th e Lon g Poin t figh t t o b e hi s last . Th e tw o
men publicl y boasted , goaded , an d belittle d eac h othe r durin g th e nex t
several months , yet n o rematc h wa s arranged , an d Ol d Smok e neve r
fought i n th e rin g again . H e engage d i n a few sparrin g exhibition s durin g
the 1860s , bu t a s Morrisse y entere d hi s thirties , h e spen t mor e o f hi s
time wit h hi s family , hi s gamblin g establishments , an d politics . Th e
burning youn g Iris h brawle r ha d settle d int o a comparativel y quie t an d
prosperous manhood . Decade s later , however , tavern s stil l resounde d
with hi s praise . Befor e long , th e sportin g crow d san g o f "Johnn y
Morrissey" o r "Jac k Morrisy, " th e her o o f a traditional broadsid e balla d
that combine d rea l an d fictiv e events . Challenge d b y a Russia n sailo r i n
Tierra De l Fuego , th e champio n defiantl y picke d u p th e gauntlet :

Then u p spok e Jac k Morrisy , wit h a hear t s o stou t an d true ,

Saying, " I a m a gallant Irishma n tha t neve r wa s subdued ;
Oh I can whal e a Yankee , a Saxo n Bul l o r Bear ,
And i n hono r o f ol d Paddy' s lan d I'l l stil l thos e laurel s wear. "

Morrissey of course, defeated th e Russian, an d the song closed triumphantly ,

recalling th e champion' s victories :

Our her o conquere d Thompson , th e Yanke e Clippe r too ,

The Benici a Bo y an d Sheppar d h e nobl y di d subdue ;
So le t u s fil l a flowing bow l an d drin k a healt h galor e
To brave Jac k Morris y an d Paddie s evermore .

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 THE AG E O E HEROE S

A centur y afte r hi s fightin g caree r ended , Iris h pub s stil l ran g wit h th e
saga o f bol d Joh n Morrissey. 55

The Fat e o f Champion s

The thre e grea t champion s o f th e antebellu m era—Sullivan , Hyer ,

and Morrissey—reveale d i n exaggerate d term s th e opportunitie s an d
limitations o f thei r socia l background . Afte r losin g t o Morrissey , Sulliva n
sought greene r pasture s i n California . Well-verse d i n unorthodo x meth -
ods o f securin g politica l majorities , h e pu t hi s skill s t o wor k i n th e
Golden State . Ne w York' s ethni c factions , stree t gangs , an d gras s root s
political organization s ha d equivalents , wri t small , i n California . B y th e
mid-fifties Sulliva n wa s allegedl y on e o f th e West' s mos t successfu l
ballot bo x stuffers , sellin g majoritie s fo r a fe w hundre d dollar s each .
In 1856 , however , a grou p o f "th e mos t respecte d merchant s i n Sa n
Francisco," a s som e newspaper s calle d them , decide d tha t me n lik e
Sullivan wer e destroyin g goo d orde r i n thei r city . Imbue d wit h a brittl e
sense o f morality , a stric t wor k ethic , an d a stron g strea k o f anti-Iris h
nativism, th e vigilante s move d agains t thei r politica l an d cultura l ene -
mies wit h Draconia n zeal . I n th e nam e o f democrati c governmen t the y
deposed electe d official s an d suspende d th e rul e o f law . Chri s Lilly , stil l
remembered fo r th e fata l battl e wit h To m McCoy , Dutc h Charli e Duane ,
a bruise r wit h long-standin g tie s to bot h pugilis m an d politics , an d Jame s
Cusick, wh o helpe d arrang e an d promot e fight s bac k East , alon g wit h
dozens o f others , wer e rounde d u p an d deporte d fo r variou s crimes .
The "popula r tribunal " o f businessme n nex t charge d tw o citizen s
with murde r an d hange d them . Sullivan' s nam e appeare d o n thei r blac k
list o f Ma y 25 , 1856 . H e wa s capture d o n th e twenty-sixt h an d immedi -
ately trie d wit h tw o other s a s "disturber s o f th e peac e o f ou r city ,
destroyers o f th e purit y o f ou r elections , activ e member s an d leader s o f
the organize d gan g wh o hav e invade d th e sanctit y o f ou r ballot-boxes ,
and perfec t pest s t o society. " Al l wer e convicte d withi n twenty-fou r
hours. Fou r day s afte r sentencin g th e forme r champio n t o deportation ,
members o f th e committe e foun d hi m dea d i n hi s cell , th e bloo d draine d
out o f a gash i n hi s righ t forearm . Th e Californi a vigilante s claime d tha t
Sullivan committe d suicide , bu t th e Clipper an d othe r newspaper s
believed tha t h e wa s eithe r murdere d o r deliberatel y drive n t o tak e hi s
own life. 56
Tom Hyer' s en d wa s mor e prosaic . Afte r defeatin g Sullivan , h e
operated a Ne w Yor k saloo n an d cultivate d tie s t o th e Bower y B'hoy s

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 THE MANL Y AR T

and nativis t politics . Thoug h h e neve r entere d th e priz e rin g again , h e

was involve d i n severa l viciou s brawls . Alway s associate d wit h th e
netherworld o f gang s an d violence , h e an d Willia m Pool e ha d stoo d a t
the gallow s i n th e earl y fiftie s t o shak e hand s wit h tw o youn g harbo r
thieves abou t t o b e hange d fo r murder . Fightin g wa s Hyer' s onl y rea l
talent, an d hi s postchampionshi p busines s effort s i n gamblin g an d
saloonkeeping ende d i n failure . Lik e s o man y othe r boxers , hi s healt h
broke dow n early . B y th e earl y 1860 s thi s parago n o f manl y perfectio n
could b e see n crossin g Broadway , "leanin g o n crutches , almos t double d
up, a s helples s a s a child, ragged , ill-clad , an d neve r fre e fro m pain. " I n
October 186 3 friend s gav e a benefi t t o ai d th e destitut e ex-champion .
Nine month s late r h e expire d fro m hear t failure , hi s onc e magnificen t
frame broke n b y a disease d live r an d a n enlarge d spleen . Lik e Yanke e
Sullivan, th e Chie f wa s forty-fiv e year s ol d whe n h e died , th e averag e
lifespan fo r me n wh o becam e bare-knuckl e fighters . Onl y a handfu l o f
people attende d Hyer' s funeral , afte r whic h Joh n Morrisse y contribute d
two hundre d an d fift y dollar s t o hi s wido w an d mother . Fo r a generation ,
sporting journalists an d barroo m raconteurs , especiall y native-bor n ones ,
remembered Hye r a s America' s greates t champion. 57
John Morrissey' s fat e wa s muc h les s grim , an d i t i s illustrate d b y a n
event h e organize d jus t si x month s afte r th e Heena n fight . " B o s s "
William Harringto n ha d falle n o n har d times , an d Ol d Smok e cam e fort h
to aid hi s family . Harringto n wa s a butcher, pugilist , nativis t gan g leader ,
and politica l organize r durin g th e 1830s . "Wha t a flutte r hi s presenc e
used t o creat e aroun d Ne w Yor k abou t th e ol d tim e electio n days, "
American Fistiana recalled . Th e bos s wa s s o successfu l i n busines s tha t
he purchase d th e premiu m stal l i n th e ne w Washingto n Market , an d
some estimate s claime d tha t hi s trad e generate d $25,00 0 pe r year . A s
time passed , however , Harrington' s business , health , an d sanit y al l
failed him . Earl y i n 1859 , a t ag e fifty-five , h e simpl y disappeared , an d
for th e famil y h e lef t behind , Morrisse y arrange d a benefit . To m Hye r
helped promot e th e affair , Joh n C . Heena n pu t o n th e gloves an d sparre d
with Ol d Smoke , an d othe r famou s ring me n exhibite d thei r skills . Ove r
two thousan d ticket s wer e sold , an d th e fanc y packe d Hoyim' s Hal l t o
aid th e wido w Harrington. 58
In vintag e Victoria n prose , doubtles s ghostwritte n fo r th e Clipper,
Morrissey offere d hi s thank s fo r th e "manl y an d sel f sacrificin g spirit "
demonstrated b y th e fighter s wh o volunteere d thei r services , addin g tha t
"next t o th e satisfactio n attendin g th e fruitio n o f a protracte d an d
somewhat delicat e transaction , i s th e pleasur e o f bein g aide d b y suc h
noble an d disintereste d coadjutors... . But , abov e al l i s th e conscious -

124
 T H E AG E O F H E R O E S

ness tha t w e hav e don e ou r duty , whil e abl e t o congratulat e th e publi c

that 'th e hear t o ť the wido w ha s bee n mad e glad. 1 " Fran k Quee n neve r
missed a n opportunit y t o poin t ou t suc h display s o f generosity , bu t wit h
the Harringto n benefi t hi s prais e soared : "Ther e i s n o clas s o f me n wh o
are mor e promp t an d willin g t o assis t other s tha n th e pugilisti c profes -
sion, an d non e wh o ar e mor e grossl y misrepresented . Th e admirabl e
manner i n whic h th e proceeding s o f thi s entertainmen t wer e conducted ,
and th e grea t decoru m an d propriet y o ť conduct manifested , wa s a sourc e
of satisfactio n an d gratificatio n t o th e promoter s o f thi s nobl e wor k o f
charity." 59
For once , som e o f th e Ne w Yor k dailie s agreed . Th e Times, referrin g
to th e recen t canin g o f Massachusett s senato r Charle s Sumne r b y
Congressman Presto n Brook s o f South Carolina , advise d politician s t o
learn fro m th e pugilists . Th e benefi t fo r Harrington' s wido w reveale d
that i n additio n t o "mer e bruisin g an d battering , har d drinkin g an d
swearing," th e boxin g fraternit y coul d als o displa y generosity , goo d
manners, an d brotherhood . Th e Herald agreed , praisin g th e fac t tha t
Morrissey an d hi s fello w priz e fighters—me n wit h "sinfu l heart s an d
bloodstained hands"—joine d i n th e spiri t o f friendshi p fo r a charitabl e
cause. Unlik e th e "Wal l Stree t o r Fift h Avenu e Christian , wh o give s
alms a s a n advertisemen t her e an d a n investmen t i n th e worl d t o come, "
these roug h pugilist s ennoble d thei r effor t wit h sincere , unselfis h gener -
osity. Here , i n sum , wa s a spiri t o f mutualit y momentaril y transcendin g
the dee p schism s o f th e streets. w
The Harringto n benefi t wa s th e sor t o f ac t tha t secure d Morrissey' s
role a s a community leader , a symbolic gestur e that helpe d ingratiat e hi m
with a broa d bas e o f working-clas s people . Eve n before Ol d Smok e
retired fro m th e ring , h e employe d hi s influenc e a s a n Irish-America n
hero an d leade r o f politica l gang s t o help Fernand o Woo d wi n electio n a s
mayor o f Ne w York . Graduall y Morrisse y ros e throug h th e machin e
ranks, cultivatin g tie s t o Tamman y Hal l an d becomin g on e o f Ne w Yor k
City's mos t powerfu l politicians. 61
Old Smok e use d hi s clou t t o expan d an d protec t hi s gamblin g
interests. H e wa s on e o ť a smal l grou p o f Irish-American s wh o too k
gaming ou t o ť the hand s o ť footloose conťidenc e me n an d reorganize d i t
into a complex, stabl e business. The new gambler-businessme n maintaine d
close tie s t o respectabl e backer s for investmen t capital , t o loca l politi -
cians for protection , an d t o saloons , brothels , hotels , an d restaurant s for
support services . B y 187 0 roughl y thre e thousan d Ne w Yorker s wer e
employed i n gaming , an d thei r effort s brough t seventy-ťiv e thousan d
dollars int o th e loca l econom y ever y week . Wit h mos t avenue s o ť socia l

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 THE MANL Y AR T

mobility close d t o th e Irish , organize d gamblin g offere d unusua l finan -

cial opportunities , protecte d b y othe r ethni c enclave s i n politics , th e
courts, an d polic e departments . A cultural traditio n mor e forgivin g o f th e
sins o f th e fles h merge d wit h th e America n succes s ethic , makin g
"vice"—especially drinking , prostitution , an d gambling , thre e o f th e
most heinou s activitie s i n th e Victoria n canon—int o lucrativ e businesse s
for a t leas t a fe w Irishmen .
By the mid-i86os Morrisse y wa s perhaps America' s wealthiest gambler -
businessman. Politica l connection s helpe d hi m expan d hi s interest s fro m
a singl e far o partnershi p i n 185 9 t o sixtee n jus t fiv e year s later . H e als o
became th e larges t shareholde r i n a million-dolla r compan y tha t monopo -
lized "policy, " a ver y popula r an d lucrativ e for m o f lottery . Bu t th e
former pugilis t sough t prestig e a s wel l a s wealth . Afte r th e Civi l Wa r
horse racin g entere d a golde n age ; rich patron s sponsore d grea t ne w
tracks a t Saratog a (1864) , Jerom e Par k (1866) , Monmout h Par k (1870) ,
Pimlico (1870) , an d Churchil l Down s (1875) . Soo n a n umbrell a organi -
zation, th e America n Jocke y Club , le d b y me n suc h a s Augus t Belmont ,
was helpin g regulat e schedule s an d rule s o f entry . Morrisse y recognize d
an opportunity . I n 186 1 h e opene d a gamblin g hous e i n Saratog a
Springs, Ne w York . Impresse d wit h th e potentia l o f th e locale , h e bega n
cultivating loca l elite s an d wealth y visitors . B y 186 4 h e ha d buil t
Saratoga rac e trac k but , mor e important , behin d th e scene s h e orga -
nized an d finance d a prestigiou s sponsorin g society . Incorporate d i n
1865, th e Saratog a Associatio n fo r th e Improvemen t o f th e Bree d o f
Horses ha d sociall y prominen t men , Willia m R . Travers , Joh n R .
Hunter, an d Leonar d W . Jerom e amon g them , o n it s board . Morrisse y
was th e largest , albei t anonymous , stockholder . I n th e nex t decad e h e
helped substitut e th e cumbersome , face-to-fac e syste m o f pool-sellin g
for mor e rationalize d form s o f gambling , includin g pari-mutue l ticke t
sales, English-styl e bookmaking , an d off-trac k betting . Simultaneousl y
he an d hi s partner s opene d th e greates t gamblin g parlo r o f it s day , a
magnificent hous e ru n o n stric t busines s principles . Morrissey' s financia l
acumen, then , helpe d mak e Saratog a int o on e o f America' s mos t elegan t
resorts. 62
As a politician , Morrisse y maintaine d arms-lengt h contac t wit h th e
gangs, brothels , an d saloon s o f hi s youth , thoug h hi s persona l manne r
had becom e quiet , eve n genteel . Seekin g no t onl y powe r bu t respectabil -
ity, h e merge d hono r wit h expediency : Ol d Smok e opposed Bos s Willia m
Tweed i n 1868 , an d hi s testimon y o n corruptio n withi n Tamman y
contributed t o th e downfal l o f th e machine . Morrisse y rod e th e rolle r

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 THE AG E O F H E R O E S

coaster o f Ne w Yor k politic s unti l h e die d i n 1878 , servin g tw o term s i n

the U.S . Congres s an d tw o i n th e Stat e Senate . Mor e important , hi s
popularity wit h workin g me n an d hi s organizationa l skill s mad e hi m a
power broke r i n Ne w Yor k Cit y politics . Fiftee n thousan d mourners ,
including th e lieutenan t governo r o f Ne w Yor k an d mos t o f th e stat e
legislature, cam e t o Tro y t o pa y thei r las t respect s t o th e ex-champion. 63
Little mor e tha n a decad e separate d Morrissey' s allege d complicit y i n
the murde r o f Willia m Pool e an d hi s electio n t o Congress . Amids t th e
ethical laxit y o f Gilde d Ag e busines s an d politics , th e elevatio n o f a
former bruise r seeme d t o guardians o f propriet y a n especiall y tellin g sig n
of mora l decline . "Idea s o f respectabilit y differ, " th e New York Tribune
editorialized o n hi s death :

Mr. Morrissey' s schem e consiste d i n wearin g a goo d coat . I t implie d n o

particular chang e i n hi s morals , an d onl y a little variatio n i n hi s manners .
Prize-fighting woul d no t d o an y longer ; s o h e reforme d himsel f int o a
gambler, an d se t u p a first-class hell ; and inasmuc h a s his patron s spen t a
great dea l o f money , an d di d no t cu t on e another' s throat s fo r th e sak e of
the stakes, h e made no doubt tha t h e was now entitled t o the consideratio n
of a n honest hard-workin g citizen . . . . Having opened a gilded an d allurin g
pest hous e fo r th e corruption o f goo d society , h e asked th e applaus e o f the
virtuous o n th e groun d tha t h e n o longe r mad e i t a busines s t o exchang e
blows wit h a half nake d ruffia n fo r th e amusemen t o f th e mob .

The righteou s dismisse d hi m a s a n ex-pugilist , a gambler , an d a politica l

street fighter ; th e piou s coul d no t forgiv e hi s sins. 64
But thi s wa s a n extrem e view . B y th e 1870 s th e anti-Iris h sentimen t
had abate d somewhat , a ful l generatio n ha d passe d sinc e th e grea t
migration, an d th e childre n o f immigrant s wer e findin g a littl e mor e
acceptance i n America . Besides , Victoria n mora l stricture s wer e slowl y
loosening, an d a s a politicia n Morrisse y ha d bee n b y Gilde d Ag e
standards hones t an d conscientious . Indeed , compare d t o suc h business -
men an d publi c servant s a s Ja y Goul d an d Bos s Tweed , Morrisse y
seemed a mode l o f probity . Thu s mos t newspaper s praise d th e forme r
pugilist o n hi s death , observin g tha t h e ha d transcende d hi s rowd y yout h
to become a useful citizen , a man of shrewdness, rectitude, and generosity. 65
The fat e o f thes e mid-nineteenth-centur y champion s help s illuminat e
prize fighting' s socia l an d cultura l environment . Sullivan' s violen t en d i n
the fac e o f a striden t assertio n o f nativis t morality , Hyer' s patheti c laps e
into impoverishmen t an d disease , Morrissey' s gidd y ris e t o wealt h an d
power throug h war d politic s an d organize d gambling—al l revea l th e

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 THE M A N L Y AR T

potentials, th e dangers , an d th e turbulenc e o f urba n stree t life . Th e thre e

men wer e fa r fro m "typical, " bu t thei r live s wer e structure d b y th e
opportunities an d limitation s o f working-clas s experience . I t i s t o th e
larger question s o f cultur e an d societ y i n antebellu m citie s tha t w e mus t
now tur n i n orde r t o understan d th e golde n ag e o f bare-knuckl e fighting .

128
 4

The Meanings o f Priz e Fightin g

Working-Class Cultur e i n Antebellu m Citie s

The ris e o f th e rin g wa s a comple x phenomenon , a n integra l par t o f

American socia l an d cultura l development . O n on e level , th e grea t
champions wer e no t jus t heroe s bu t celebritie s i n th e sens e tha t thei r
fame depende d a t leas t partl y o n commercialize d media . Newspape r
stories, chea p biographies , lithographs , an d photograph s al l helpe d rais e
public interes t an d disseminat e th e name s an d deed s o f fisti c heroes . Th e
public persona s o f th e champion s wer e no w marketabl e goods , givin g
them fam e beyon d thei r clas s an d community . However , commercialize d
cultural productio n wa s i n it s embryoni c stages . Eve n th e grea t champi -
ons, Sullivan , Hyer , an d Morrissey , wer e no t alienate d fro m thei r
origins; the y remaine d well-know n figure s o n th e urba n streets , influen -
tial yet approachabl e me n wit h who m on e migh t shar e a bottl e o r pla y a
hand o f cards . Fam e wa s no t merel y a produc t o f impersona l medi a bu t
was base d o n intimat e knowledg e o f loca l custom s an d institutions .
Heroic deed s o f prowes s an d bravad o wer e know n a t firs t hand. '
By th e 1850 s boxin g wa s arguabl y America' s preeminen t sport —
certainly th e championshi p fight s wer e amon g th e greates t spectacle s o f
the decade—bu t it s popularit y wa s no t uniforml y sprea d throughou t th e
population. Despit e th e effort s o f Fran k Quee n an d hi s like s t o argu e th e
utility o f th e rin g i n Victoria n terms , respectabl e native-bor n Ameri -
cans rejecte d suc h claims . Pugilis m i n othe r words , di d no t simpl y
"mirror" America n culture . Althoug h i t coul d b e argue d tha t boxin g
reflected suc h mainstrea m value s a s individualism , th e wil l t o succeed ,
and materialism , th e rin g remaine d primaril y a working-clas s preserv e
and conveye d a working-clas s sensibility .

I 2Ç
 THE MANL Y AR T

The ring' s socia l isolatio n occurre d durin g a perio d whe n Americans '
interest i n sport s wa s expanding . Certainl y influentia l citizen s wer e mor e
accepting o f leisur e an d recreatio n o n th e ev e o f th e Civi l Wa r tha n the y
had bee n twent y year s earlier . Th e har d shel l o f Victoria n moralit y
remained intact , bu t b y th e lat e antebellu m er a smal l crack s wer e
appearing o n it s brittl e surface . Reformer s suc h a s Thoma s Wentwort h
Higginson, Willia m Eller y Channing , an d eve n Henr y War d Beeche r
believed tha t ma n coul d improv e himsel f i n bod y a s well a s spirit , s o the y
advocated fres h ai r an d exercis e a s antidote s t o the ill s o f crampe d urba n
life. Spectato r sport s enjoye d newfoun d popularit y a s rowin g regattas ,
trotting matches , an d pedestria n race s becam e ver y popula r amon g
diverse Americans . A fe w well-of f me n displaye d thei r statu s i n base -
ball, cricket , an d yachtin g clubs , pastime s tha t require d larg e amount s o f
leisure time . A n occasiona l youn g rakehell , fo r instanc e Frederic k Va n
Wyck, so n o f a wealth y mercantil e family , eve n showe d u p a t urba n
dives suc h a s Tomm y Norris' s Liver y Stable : "Whe n yo u star t wit h a
dog figh t a s a curtai n raiser, " Va n Wyc k reminisced , "continu e wit h a
cock fight , the n ra t baiting , nex t a priz e fight, the n a battl e o f bill y
goats, an d the n a boxin g matc h betwee n tw o ladies , wit h nothin g bu t
trunks on—afte r tha t I thin k yo u hav e a night' s entertainmen t tha t ha s
enough spice—no t t o sa y tabasc o sauce—t o fil l th e mos t rapaciou s
needs." 2
Perhaps experience s lik e thos e o f th e youn g Va n Wyc k wer e mor e
common tha n th e survivin g evidenc e indicates . Bu t fo r mos t o f th e
middle an d uppe r classes , Victoria n propriet y stil l hedge d recreation s
onto narro w ground , an d eve n leisure d bon s vivant s usuall y shunne d th e
more raucou s pastime s o f th e Englis h sportin g gentry , confinin g them -
selves t o suc h activitie s a s yachtin g an d hors e racing . Muc h o f th e
liberalization tha t occurre d before th e Civi l Wa r gaine d impetu s fro m a
handful o f reformer s wh o argue d fo r rationa l amusement s t o develo p
character an d refres h me n fo r labor . Parks , readin g rooms , an d gymnasi -
ums, i t wa s said , le d worker s awa y fro m suc h riotou s activitie s a s priz e
fighting. A fe w bol d individuals , amon g the m Olive r Wendel l Holmes ,
Sr., migh t openl y atten d sparrin g matches , writ e i n prais e o f champions '
physical excellence , eve n speculat e o n th e outcom e o f a bout . Judgin g
by th e coverag e i n th e "respectable " press , growin g number s o f me n
were a t leas t willin g t o vie w th e rin g fro m afar . N o doub t man y i n th e
bourgeoisie envie d wha t the y perceive d a s th e uninhibitednes s o f th e
working clas s an d itche d t o brea k ou t o f thei r ow n cultura l confinement .
But i n public , a t least , Victoria n stricture s wer e stil l to o stron g an d th e
desire openl y t o violat e the m to o wea k t o allo w muc h deviation . Th e

Uo
 THE MEANING S O F PRIZ E FIGHTIN G

ring remaine d a symbo l o f urba n depravity , proo f tha t th e lowe r classe s

wallowed i n dissipation. 3
Despite bourgeoi s injunctions , working-clas s men—includin g one s i n
old-established trades , unskille d laborers , th e chronicall y underemployed ,
and thos e i n th e shadow s o f urba n vic e suc h a s gamblers , pimps , an d
unlicensed liquo r dealers—continue d t o stag e thei r ow n recreations .
Urban growt h helpe d provid e potentia l audience s fo r commercia l specta -
cles. I n 182 0 onl y Ne w Yor k Cit y an d Philadelphi a containe d on e
hundred thousan d people ; b y mid-century , Boston , Baltimore , Cincin -
nati, an d Ne w Orlean s wer e ove r th e mark . Ne w York' s 183 0 populatio n
of tw o hundred thousan d woul d increas e fourfol d i n a mer e thirty year s a s
rural π igrants an d foreig n immigrant s cam e i n searc h o f work . B y 185 5
over hal f o f al l Ne w Yorker s ha d bee n bor n abroad , an d thre e ou t o f te n
had draw n thei r firs t breat h i n Ireland . Thi s larg e an d heterogeneou s
population neede d leisur e a s wel l a s job s and , Victoria n repression s
notwithstanding, th e urban working class pursued boisterous amusements. 4
But th e mer e growt h o f citie s an d influ x o f immigrant s d o no t wholl y
explain boxing' s appeal . Betwee n roughl y 182 0 an d i86 0 th e economi c
life o f urba n area s wa s transformed . Certainl y b y mid-centur y th e ol d
apprenticeship system , i n whic h a bo y learne d a trade, the n worke d a s a
journeyman an d acquire d th e skills , property , an d independenc e o f a
master, wa s moribund . Unde r th e old order , shopkeeper s an d apprentice s
held mutua l right s an d obligations ; the y worke d an d eve n live d unde r
the sam e roof , an d thei r relationshi p wa s i n th e natur e o f a patriarcha l
family. Bu t no w th e venerabl e idea l inheren t i n small-scal e shops—tha t a
craftsman wa s a s muc h a fathe r t o hi s worker s a s a businessman—ha d
dissolved. Gon e to o wa s th e househol d economy , wher e labo r wa s ofte n
performed i n th e hom e b y al l famil y members . Thi s ol d socia l organiza -
tion o f wor k ha d no t bee n withou t tensions ; apprentices , wives , an d
children ha d ofte n chafe d unde r domineerin g masters . Bu t i t offere d a n
ideal o f mutuality , fait h i n th e honorabilit y o f labor , an d a pat h towar d
modest mobilit y fo r youn g men. 5
Replacing artisa n tradition s i n man y trade s wa s a moder n syste m o f
capitalist productio n whic h tende d t o reduc e relationship s betwee n em -
ployers an d employee s t o question s o f wage s o r piec e rates . Mos t youn g
workers n o longe r live d i n surrogat e familie s base d o n craf t bu t i n
boardinghouses, seedbed s o f "immoral " influences . Althoug h man y
native-born tradesme n stil l calle d themselve s journeyme n an d clun g t o
craft traditions , mos t ha d i n fac t becom e employees , "wag e slaves " i n
the parlanc e o f th e day . Moreover , ne w immigrant s wer e fillin g unskille d
positions i n suc h volum e tha t b y 1850 , hal f o f al l Iris h male s wer e eithe r

131
 THE MANL Y AR T

day laborer s o r cartmen . Wome n too , bot h nativ e an d immigrant , no w

occupied larg e number s o f unskille d jobs , a s di d th e masse s o f native -
born rura l migrant s pourin g int o th e cities. 6
This ne w socia l organizatio n o f wor k aske d bot h employer s an d
employees to exercise internalize d self-restraint , t o subdue their impulses
and disciplin e thei r passions , i f the y wer e t o accumulat e wealt h i n
increasingly competitiv e markets . Th e ol d republica n ideolog y ha d
demanded simila r behavior , bu t th e heightened importanc e o f profi t an d
the fea r o f financia l failur e no w elevate d assertiv e individualis m ove r
communal welfare , givin g th e emergent capitalis t etho s a n unmistakabl e
harshness. Th e increasin g emphasi s o n productivit y brough t employer s
to deman d rigi d self-contro l fro m themselve s an d thei r workers ;
industriousness an d frugalit y becom e litmu s test s o f persona l worth. 7
Workers responde d i n a variet y o f ways , bu t i t i s probabl y bes t t o
think o f thei r reaction s a s point s alon g a continuum . A t on e extrem e
were thos e wh o accepte d totall y th e stiffene d ethi c o f abstemiousness .
Like thei r bosses , man y joined evangelica l sect s an d temperanc e socie -
ties, mergin g piet y an d stric t moralit y wit h industria l values . A s thei r
employers ha d promised , som e ros e throug h har d wor k t o bourgeoi s
prosperity and independence. On the opposite end of the continuum were
those wh o rejecte d th e saf e an d sobe r ethic , workin g s o that the y migh t
play. Fo r suc h lover s o f stree t life , leisur e mor e tha n labo r forme d th e
core of persona l identit y an d cultural values . Raucou s play offered thes e
men a temporary escape from a n oppressive working environment. I n the
middle wer e worker s wh o adopte d self-contro l a s a n implemen t o f
radical reform , a too l fo r buildin g a revitalize d producers ' cultur e
centered o n th e value s o f mutualit y an d communa l improvement . Suc h
men wer e the spiritual heir s of William Cobbett, an d their assiduousness
was aimed a t collective improvement rathe r than purely individua l gain. 8
These categorie s ar e idea l types , o f course , an d fe w individual s
matched the m perfectly . Th e radica l edito r Mik e Walsh , fo r example ,
wrote in the workingman's language , mixin g admonitions fo r labo r unity
with endorsements of Yankee Sullivan's saloon, praise for jovial "Boss "
Harrington, wit h announcements o f rat-killing contests. Similarly , one as
impulsive as John Morrisse y offere d hi s name and money to shipbuilders
striking fo r a n eight-hou r wor k day . Bu t o n balance , activitie s suc h a s
prize fightin g appeale d t o thos e i n th e workin g clas s incline d mor e
toward self-indulgenc e tha n towar d constan t diligence , conviviality rath -
er tha n abstemiousness , "th e goo d tim e coming " instea d o f sobe r
self-control.9
The decline of the old apprenticeship system and the new emphasis on

'32
 THE MEANING S O F PRIZ E F I G H T I N G

wages gav e worker s reaso n t o valu e wil d recreation s an d scop e t o

indulge thei r tastes . Th e capitalis t econom y create d a shar p separatio n o f
work tim e fro m leisur e time , freein g a t leas t a fe w discretionar y hour s
and dollars . Moreover , mos t laborer s wer e no t becomin g bosse s an d fe w
journeymen woul d eve r b e masters . Fo r man y men , th e real m o f pla y
more tha n wor k no w hel d ou t th e bes t chanc e fo r findin g a sens e o f
challenge an d fulfillment . Place s suc h a s Ne w York' s Bower y offere d a
kaleidoscope o f plebeia n pleasures . Working-clas s male s revitalize d suc h
ancient pastime s a s theate r going , drinking , gambling , an d bloodsports .
They als o frequente d house s o f prostitution , danc e halls , oyste r bars ,
minstrel shows , an d circuses . Me n reasserte d mutualit y amon g thei r
compatriots i n countles s clique s an d barrooms ; the y uphel d a masculin e
honor tha t brooke d n o slightin g o f one' s statu s amon g peers ; an d the y
demonstrated physica l prowes s i n act s o f strengt h an d daring. 10 I f no t o n
the job, the n i n thei r fre e tim e individual s too k contro l ove r thei r lives ,
found refug e fro m bosses , an d inverte d th e bourgeoi s etho s wit h a n
antithetical assertio n o f roug h mal e conviviality . Awa y fro m th e imper -
sonal workplace , wher e thei r powe r wa s ebbing , journeymen , mechan -
ics, an d laborer s foun d alternativ e source s o f valu e an d esteem. "
Within thi s blossomin g stree t culture , th e ne w workin g clas s create d a
plethora o f voluntar y association s tha t engendere d a sens e o f grou p
autonomy. Labo r unions , craf t organizations , an d mutua l ai d societie s
offered hop e fo r rea l socia l an d economi c change . Bu t les s respectabl e
institutions als o embodie d th e sensibilitie s o f man y men . Saloons , fir e
companies, stree t gangs , an d politica l organization s al l ha d overlappin g
memberships, al l wer e deepl y roote d i n th e socia l structur e o f mid -
nineteenth-century cities , an d al l ha d tie s t o th e priz e ring. 12
Saloons wer e a t th e hear t o f working-clas s life . Clique s o f me n
created informa l bu t stabl e brotherhood s i n particula r bars , wher e poli -
tics wer e argued , grievance s aired , heroe s toasted , sport s discussed ,
legends told , song s sung , an d friendship s cemented . Th e taver n keepe r
was a businessman , bu t h e wa s als o th e caretake r o f a cultura l styl e tha t
emphasized camaraderi e an d reciprocit y amon g peers . Th e lin e separat -
ing bar s fro m billiar d halls , gamblin g houses , eve n brothel s wa s no t
always clear , becaus e i n al l o f thes e establishments , entertainmen t wa s
the orde r o f th e day. Saloonkeeper s promote d variou s recreations , includ -
ing dogfights , rat-baitin g contests , an d boxin g matches , partl y t o sel l
more liquo r an d arrang e profitabl e bettin g pools , bu t als o t o fulfil l thei r
role a s leader s o f working-clas s culture . Foo t o n th e rai l an d glas s i n
hand, a ma n coul d momentaril y fee l i n contro l o f hi s life , fo r her e
amidst friend s th e harshnes s o f labo r an d th e mora l arroganc e o f th e

'33
 THE MANL Y AR T

middle clas s wer e lef t behind . Fro m th e 1840 s o n countles s boxer s mad e
particular bar s thei r headquarters , an d th e saloon s tha t priz e fighter s
owned, managed , o r frequente d wer e mad e doubl y popula r b y thei r
presence, becaus e boxer s symbolize d th e successfu l flauntin g o f oppres -
sive socia l an d cultura l norms. 13
Volunteer fir e brigade s als o becam e foca l institution s o f th e workin g
class. Me n spen t thei r leisur e hour s i n th e pum p house s playin g cards ,
drinking, an d maintainin g th e equipment . Onc e th e cal l fo r a fir e wen t
out, the y rushe d fro m thei r home s o r shops , gathere d a t th e statio n
house, the n dragge d thei r gea r t o th e blaze . Fo r me n whos e workin g
lives wer e prosai c an d unchallenging , fightin g fire s offere d a chanc e fo r
heroic communit y service , a rea l sens e o f adventure , an d a n outle t fo r
competitive self-assertion . Becaus e neighborhoo d an d ethni c conflict s
often mad e rival s o f differen t companies , al l sough t toug h me n wh o wer e
willing t o battl e i t ou t wit h opposin g brigades , sometime s whil e a
building burne d t o th e ground . Boxers ' fightin g skill s an d courag e wer e
real asset s t o th e fir e companies , s o Yanke e Sulliva n wa s recruite d a s a
member o f th e Sparta n ban d company , name d fo r Mik e Walsh' s cliqu e o f
radical workers , whil e To m Hyer , Ji m Jerolomon , Willia m Poole , an d
John McCleeste r joine d othe r brigades . Simila r chance s fo r heroic s an d
display wer e offere d b y ubiquitou s voluntee r militi a companies. 14
Urban stree t gang s suc h a s Ne w York' s mostl y Iris h "Dea d Rabbits "
and thei r arc h rivals , th e nativis t "Bower y B'hoys"—mad e u p mainl y o f
journeymen an d apprentices—overlappe d th e fir e companies ' constituen -
cies, an d agai n boxer s wer e prominen t members . Middle-clas s commen -
tators feare d tha t Ne w York , Philadelphia , an d Baltimor e wer e no w
overrun wit h gangs that wer e committing heinous attacks on the innocent. ' 5
But thoug h som e o f th e gang s attracte d socia l misfit s wh o revele d i n
violence, mos t member s wer e worker s rangin g i n ag e fro m thei r teen s
through thei r thirties . Th e gang s wer e surrogat e families , base d o n
neighborhood, occupational , an d ethni c affiliation . Here , a s i n th e
volunteer fir e companies , laborer s an d apprentice s turne d loos e afte r
work sough t adventur e wit h thei r comrades . Drinking , fighting , gam -
bling, playin g sports , attendin g th e theater , an d especiall y promenadin g
in distinctiv e dres s fille d thei r leisur e hours . Becaus e th e gang s wer e
intent o n settlin g score s an d intimidatin g rivals , priz e fighter s ofte n
became thei r leaders , an d th e Bower y B'hoy s eve n wor e "To m Hye r
hats" a s par t o f thei r garb . Undomesticate d b y women , lovin g drink , an d
seeking distinctio n amon g peers , member s value d strength , indepen -
dence, an d devil-may-car e audacity . Thoug h thei r violenc e wa s directe d
mainly agains t on e anothe r an d wa s muc h les s sociall y disruptiv e tha n

•34
 THE MEANING S O F PRIZ E FIGHTIN G

the middle-clas s pres s feared , th e gang s wer e perceive d a s deepl y

threatening t o urba n peace. 16
Politics wa s als o a crucia l par t o f working-clas s life , an d politica l
organizations ofte n blende d almos t imperceptibl y int o gangs, fir e compa -
nies, an d saloons . I n Ne w Yor k an d othe r burgeonin g citie s a fierc e
competition fo r plac e an d powe r characterize d th e antebellu m era .
Lacking th e stabilit y o f th e moder n two-part y system , faction s cam e an d
went, an d n o group dominate d fo r long . Fo r th e workin g clas s i n genera l
and ethni c American s i n particular , politica l lif e ha d littl e t o d o wit h
reformers' dream s o f clea n an d efficien t government . Job s fo r th e
unemployed, powe r t o th e ambitious , protectio n fo r thos e involve d i n
vice, licensin g o f trades , an d naturalizatio n fo r th e immigrant—thes e
were th e lifebloo d o f urba n politics . Wit h s o muc h a t stake , unorthodo x
electioneering method s thrived . Nomination s fo r cit y offic e wer e hel d i n
open meetings , ofte n taverns , an d anyon e wh o coul d pac k th e hal l wit h
loyal supporter s an d menacin g tough s migh t carr y th e day . Me n a s
diverse a s Mik e Walsh , th e radica l leade r o f "subterranean " laborites ,
and Isaia h Rynders , hea d o f th e Empir e Club , whic h ben t wit h an y
political wind , pioneere d suc h methods , an d befor e mid-centur y th e
regular partie s retaine d th e service s o f politica l "shoulde r hitters. " O n
election day , repeater s a t th e polls , ballot-bo x stuffers , an d strong-ar m
boys al l ha d thei r usefulness , especiall y i n hotl y conteste d wards. 17
These condition s allowe d politician s an d pugilist s t o for m shiftin g bu t
mutually beneficia l alliances . A t variou s time s Joh n Morrisse y worke d
for Mayo r Fernand o Wood , Willia m Pool e an d To m Hye r fo r th e Kno w
Nothings, Joh n C . Heena n fo r regula r Tammany , Yanke e Sulliva n fo r th e
Empire Club . Countles s lesse r fighter s wer e employe d b y variou s partie s
and factions . Mik e Wals h mad e politica l ha y wit h hi s tie s t o Hye r an d
the Bower y B'hoys , whil e Pool e an d Morrisse y use d thei r charism a an d
organizational abilit y t o rais e gang s o f shoulde r hitter s whos e motive s
were usuall y a mixtur e o f ethni c prid e an d self-interest . Th e usefulnes s
of priz e fighter s t o urba n politician s gav e th e rin g protectio n i t ha d no t
enjoyed sinc e th e day s o f Regenc y England , fo r i n case o f arrest , boxer s
knew tha t me n i n position s o f powe r coul d get the m ou t o f trouble . I n
New York , pugilism' s mecca , alderme n regularl y ha d thei r friend s
released fro m polic e custody , especiall y muscula r supporter s wh o coul d
be counte d o n nex t electio n day. 18
Political factions , yout h gangs , voluntee r fir e companies , saloons ,
ethnic brotherhoods , an d nativis t club s adde d u p t o mor e tha n jus t a
handful o f adho c organizations . Thes e wer e interlockin g institution s wit h
shared memberships , foca l point s o f a distinc t working-clas s culture .

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Changes i n th e natur e o f dail y labo r an d i n th e relationship s betwee n

employers an d employee s elicite d creativ e cultura l responses . I t i s onl y
in thi s ful l contex t o f wor k an d leisure , economic s an d politics , tha t w e
can begi n t o understan d wha t priz e fightin g mean t t o th e ten s o f
thousands o f working-clas s me n wh o followe d th e careers o f th e champi -
ons o r eve n entere d th e rin g themselves .

Meaning i n Mayhe m

On th e simples t level , boxin g gav e elementa l expressio n t o dee p

social conflicts , t o the pervasiv e parochialis m dividin g th e workin g class .
Intense devotio n t o one' s neighbors , shopmates , an d drinkin g partner s
engendered suspicio n o f outsider s an d th e nee d t o defen d turf . Ethni c
rivalries, o f course , cause d th e deepes t divisions . Boxers , saloonkeeper -
promoters, poo l sellers , an d editor s al l recognize d tha t a battl e betwee n
an Iris h an d a n America n fighte r wa s goo d fo r business . Bu t th e enmit y
of th e native-bor n an d th e Iris h fo r eac h othe r wa s grounde d i n mor e
than th e mer e manipulatio n o f ethni c hatreds . Cultura l an d religiou s
schisms ran deep , an d the y wer e exacerbate d b y paralle l fissure s i n th e
social structure .
American-born worker s bor e th e brun t o f economi c change s tha t
destroyed ol d skill s an d crushe d thei r autonomy . Man y seize d o n th e
presence o f foreigner s a s a n explanatio n fo r thei r pligh t an d accuse d th e
Irish o f immiseratin g al l laborers . Simpl y put , i t wa s easie r t o blam e
one's problem s o n a rapaciou s an d ruthles s foreig n enem y tha n o n
impersonal marke t force s ove r whic h on e ha d n o control . Lendin g
credibility t o nativis t fear s wa s th e fac t tha t i n th e competitio n fo r
political power , th e Iris h wer e no t passiv e victim s bu t activ e organizer s
who use d blo c votin g a s a wa y t o secur e office s an d patronage . Th e
suspicions, naturally , wer e reciprocal , an d th e Iris h interprete d nativis t
prejudice a s th e sourc e o f thei r ow n specia l plight . Priz e fightin g wa s a
means fo r bot h side s t o dramatize an d thereb y understan d thes e ver y rea l
tensions ove r wealt h an d power . A goo d matc h focuse d thei r conflict s
through th e transparen t symbolis m o f tw o heroe s meetin g unde r equa l
terms an d orderl y conditions . Wherea s th e division s o f th e street s wer e
shifting an d chaotic , th e rin g create d meanin g fro m th e chao s o f
existence, an d th e outcom e o f a figh t offere d catharti c i f temporar y
resolution o f dee p socia l problems. 19
Below th e surfac e o f ethni c turbulenc e wa s a les s obviou s battl e ove r
the natur e o f labor , fo r workplac e affiliation s als o entere d int o rin g

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 THE MEANING S O F PRIZ E FIGHTIN G

loyalties. I t wa s sai d o f Harr y Gribben , a sawyer , fo r example , tha t h e

had "man y friend s amon g th e workin g classes , mor e especiall y thos e o f
his craft. " Numerou s native-bor n boxer s practice d skille d trades , espe -
cially butchering . To m Hyer , Bil l Harrington , an d Willia m Pool e wer e
all member s o f this , on e o f th e las t bastion s o f th e ol d artisa n system .
For youn g apprentic e an d journeyme n butchers , boxin g an d othe r tradi -
tional recreation s evoke d th e free r moralit y an d les s structure d workin g
rhythms o f th e preindustria l city . Bette r tha n mos t othe r tradesmen , th e
butchers retaine d thei r ol d cultura l pattern s centere d aroun d drinkin g an d
carousing afte r th e market s closed. 20 Bu t eve n th e nativ e monopol y o n
butchering wa s threatene d i n th e 1840s , whe n Tamman y politician s
began sellin g license s t o Irish-bor n tradesmen . I n thi s an d othe r craft s
the Iris h wer e accuse d no t simpl y o f takin g natives ' job s bu t o f sellin g
their labo r fo r a pittance, aidin g th e extrem e specializatio n o f tas k whic h
was destroyin g th e artisa n system . An d indeed , impoverished , reviled ,
and largel y unskilled , th e Iris h wer e providin g chea p manpowe r fo r
capitalist expansion . I n thi s sens e a figh t betwee n a n America n butche r
and a n Iris h da y labore r dramatize d no t onl y ethni c conflic t bu t tension s
over th e natur e o f wor k a s well , especiall y th e artisan' s fea r o f losin g hi s
trade an d th e laborer' s env y o f th e craftsman' s privileges. 21
But w e mus t no t dwel l exclusivel y o n thes e schisms , fo r th e rin g als o
unified me n i n a n expressio n o f thei r lives ' contradictions , momentaril y
resolving throug h a share d se t o f symbol s th e intractabl e conflict s o f
daily life . Eve n a s i t gav e voic e t o tensions betwee n skille d an d unskille d
labor, fo r example , priz e fightin g uphel d th e idea l o f craf t a s a tran -
scendent value , fo r pugilist s demonstrate d super b skil l i n a worl d tha t
threatened labor' s competence . Here , a t th e ver y beginning s o f commer -
cialized leisure , sport s offere d a chanc e fo r cartmen , doc k workers ,
miners, coa l stokers , an d othe r me n engage d i n exhaustin g an d danger -
ous job s t o supplemen t thei r meage r incomes .
Equally important , spectatorshi p provide d vicariou s compensatio n fo r
the destructio n o f traditiona l skill s i n th e workplace . Thi s ca n b e see n i n
the ver y languag e o f th e ring . Boxin g wa s a "profession, " an d pugilist s
were "trained " i n variou s "schools " o f fighting . Newspape r report s
regularly use d suc h phrase s a s "the y wen t t o work, " o r "h e di d goo d
work," i n thei r round-by-roun d coverage . "Art, " "science, " "craft, "
such word s wer e constantl y invoke d t o describ e boxers ' abilities . Sym -
bolically, th e rin g wa s a surrogat e workplace . I n a n environmen t tha t
rapidly erode d th e skill s o f man y laborers , priz e fighter s retaine d thei r
autonomy an d traditions , thei r sens e o f craftsmanship . Sullivan , Hyer ,
Heenan, an d Morrisse y di d no t submi t t o the rigid regularit y o f industria l

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 T H E M A N L Y AR T

working rhythms ; the y migh t trai n diligentl y fo r a fight , bu t onc e i t wa s

over, the y returne d t o thei r old , free-and-eas y ways . I n othe r words ,
prize fighter s controlle d th e rhythm s o f thei r "work, " enjoyin g precisel y
that independenc e whic h wa s sorely lackin g i n most men's lives . An d eve n
for less-than-famou s boxers , th e ring offered no t only a chance t o mak e a
few extr a dollar s bu t a compensator y sens e o f accomplishment , o f prid e
in one' s ow n courage , grace , an d skil l whic h th e wor k worl d denied. 22
This share d sens e o f craf t highlight s th e fac t tha t eve n whil e priz e
fighting dramatize d th e parochia l socia l conflict s o f th e streets , i t als o
bound me n togethe r wit h thei r ow n cultura l style . Despit e political ,
ethnic, an d occupationa l schisms , despit e th e intens e rivalrie s o f urba n
cliq es , boxer s an d thei r fan s share d value s an d behaviors . To m Hye r
helping rais e Yanke e Sullivan' s bail , Joh n Morrisse y givin g a benefi t fo r
Bill Harrington' s widow , pugilist s actin g a s pallbearer s a t thei r com -
rades' funerals , al l revea l tha t a sens e o f unit y ofte n transcende d th e
volatility o f working-clas s culture . Boardin g th e train s o r steamboat s fo r
a fight , th e sportin g crow d sough t a neutra l spac e wher e it s socia l
divisions coul d b e dramatize d eve n a s th e rite s o f th e rin g brough t i t
together int o a large r whole. 23
The overarchin g unitie s o f pugilis m derive d fro m th e share d etho s o f a
large segmen t o f th e workin g class , an d boxing' s symbolism , i n turn ,
reinforced tha t ethos . Priz e fightin g inverte d Victoria n norms , no t
necessarily rejectin g the m bu t adapting , transformin g eve n parodyin g
them. Boxer s an d thei r backer s wer e al l ambitiou s men , seekin g t o mak e
money wit h thei r skills . Saloonkeeper-promoter s prospere d whe n ne w
patrons flocked t o thei r drinkin g establishments , an d gambler s thrive d
when fan s bough t int o thei r bettin g pools . Pugilist s no t onl y profite d
from takin g a shar e o f th e stake s plu s sid e bets , bu t th e glory the y gaine d
in th e rin g als o opene d u p ne w opportunities . Lik e Joh n Morrissey ,
Irish-born Mik e Norto n parlaye d hi s priz e rin g fam e int o loca l politica l
power, becomin g a Tamman y distric t leader , stat e assemblyma n an d
senator, an d municipa l cour t judge. Whe n h e die d i n 188 9 h e lef t twent y
thousand dollars ' wort h o f rea l estat e t o hi s family , propert y purchase d
with profit s fro m hi s liquo r an d hote l businesses . Me n suc h a s Norto n
attained wealt h an d respect , bu t the y di d s o o n term s acceptabl e t o th e
culture the y cam e from . B y thei r exampl e the y prove d tha t bourgeoi s
propriety an d evangelica l piet y wer e no t th e onl y route s t o success. 24
Boxers, then , embodie d a distinctl y working-clas s versio n o f th e
American dream , providin g model s o f upwar d mobilit y withi n bound s
acceptable t o th e stree t culture . Alon e i n th e rin g wit h onl y hi s ow n
skills, th e priz e fighte r refracte d th e America n cul t o f individualis m

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 THE MEANING S O F PRIZ E FIGHTIN G

through th e norm s o f hi s peers . A s w e hav e seen , trainin g regimens ,

with thei r temperance , chastity , an d self-discipline , rea d lik e Victoria n
manuals o n uprigh t behavior . Boxer s wh o underwen t suc h preparatio n
temporarily accepte d a kin d o f middle-class , goal-oriente d behavior , a
version o f th e delaye d gratificatio n tha t i s th e hallmar k o f th e moder n
personality i n industria l society . I n thi s narro w sense , plebeia n cultur e
incorporated element s o f bourgeoi s culture. 25
But n o on e claimed , a s observer s woul d i n th e twentiet h century , tha t
the success o f oppressed people s i n sports was evidence that social mobilit y
was availabl e t o all wh o sough t it , proo f tha t an y poo r bo y migh t "mak e
it" i n America . Quit e th e contrary, th e ver y wor d "sport " implie d socia l
deviance. Th e gambler' s bol d wager , th e drinker' s revelry , th e gan g
leader's profan e boast , thes e wer e centra l t o rin g culture , an d the y
offended middle-clas s sensibilitie s profoundly . A boxe r wh o traine d
assiduously i n orde r t o mutilat e anothe r ma n mocke d th e goal s o f a
society tha t deeme d itsel f earnest , productive , an d humane . Larg e
crowds wh o se t of f o n riotou s excursion s i n th e middl e o f th e wee k
implicitly denie d th e sanctit y o f th e wor k ethic . Sinfu l excess , vulga r
conviviality, ope n dissipation , fancifu l pageantry , an d unvarnishe d vio -
lence al l sharpl y contradicte d th e way s goo d me n wer e suppose d t o
behave. An d th e fac t tha t steamboat s an d railroads—charge d symbol s o f
social progress—carrie d th e rowdie s t o thei r destination s stoke d highe r
the flame s o f middle-clas s resentment. 26
The centralit y o f mone y t o priz e fightin g give s furthe r evidenc e o f th e
ring's inversio n o f evangelica l an d bourgeoi s ways . Whe n a prize fighte r
or gambler flaunted his earnings, h e was inherentl y attackin g th e cherishe d
hope o f th e middl e clas s tha t prosperity , piety , an d har d wor k flowed
together. Working-clas s me n wh o marvele d a t th e te n thousan d dollar s
Tom Hye r an d hi s backer s wo n agains t Yanke e Sulliva n accepte d th e
importance o f wealt h a s a sig n o f success . Bu t the y value d mone y a s a
means t o convivialit y mor e tha n a s a rewar d fo r sobe r self-control , o r a
sign o f God' s grace , o r a vehicl e o f progress . Liquo r sellers , gamblers ,
politicians, an d boxer s wer e no t just pett y entrepreneur s who , give n th e
chance, woul d hav e chose n mor e respectabl e occupations . Thes e me n
were successfu l b y th e standard s o f thei r communities , an d the y wer e
leaders an d heroe s becaus e thei r live s expresse d th e value s o f a larg e
segment o f th e workin g class. 27
Indeed, th e revenue s fro m liquo r sale s an d gamblin g wer e th e engine s
driving th e sport s boo m o f th e 1850s . I t woul d b e a n exaggeration t o sa y
that priz e fightin g existe d solel y s o me n coul d gamble , bu t withou t
betting th e rin g woul d hav e stirre d fa r les s excitement . Whe n a ma n

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wagered o n a boxer—perhap s i n a seemingl y irrationa l amount—h e

risked no t onl y hi s mone y bu t als o hi s self-esteem . Choosin g t o bet o n a
particular fighte r wa s a statemen t o f ethnic , neighborhood , o r occupa -
tional pride . Gamblin g brough t excitemen t t o a prosai c world , an d
shrewd wagerin g offere d a n alternativ e displa y o f skil l fo r me n whos e
working live s to o ofte n denie d the m a sens e o f craft. 28
Above all , bot h th e smal l betto r an d th e professiona l gamble r reverse d
the Victoria n meanin g o f money . Rathe r tha n sanctifyin g wealt h b y
putting i t to pruden t use , thos e wh o riske d a high-stakes los s foun d i n th e
risk itsel f wha t mad e gamblin g attractive . A ma n wh o pu t hi s mone y o n
a fighte r gaine d statu s amon g hi s peer s becaus e h e reveale d hi s willing -
ness t o los e al l i n a n effor t t o wi n big ; gamblin g wa s a mar k o f courage .
Of course , me n wagerin g o n a priz e figh t di d no t wan t t o lose .
Businessmen an d gambler s bot h sough t t o increas e thei r resources , an d
both assume d tha t agreement s mus t b e binding . Bu t whil e th e business -
man argue d tha t persona l enrichmen t wen t hand-in-glov e wit h materia l
betterment fo r all , th e gamble r mad e n o clai m tha t hi s deed s brough t
social improvement . H e wa s conten t t o enjo y th e thril l o f th e moment ,
thereby mockin g middle-clas s ideal s o f thrif t an d progress . I n thi s wa y
the successfu l betto r wa s mor e dangerou s tha n th e faile d one , fo r th e
latter merel y jeopardize d hi s ow n an d hi s family' s security , wher e th e
former wa s rewarded , encouragin g hi m an d other s t o continu e thei r
immoral behavior . A s a stimulan t t o gambling , then , priz e fightin g
undermined th e Victoria n meanin g o f wealth , transformin g i t fro m a sig n
of virtu e int o a sourc e o f corruption. 29
Within th e magi c circl e o f th e ring , no t onl y wer e concept s o f wealt h
altered, bu t gende r to o becam e inverted . Wit h th e breakdow n o f th e
household-based artisa n economy , sexua l identit y gre w increasingl y
bifurcated. Moreover , me n an d wome n wer e encourage d t o moderat e
their passion s an d kee p the m fro m interferin g wit h th e goa l o f economi c
success. I n th e bourgeoi s canon , masculinit y meant , abov e all , takin g
responsibility, controllin g one' s impulses , an d workin g har d i n orde r t o
support a family . Bein g a goo d provide r wa s th e touchston e o f bein g a
man, s o probity , dependability , an d resistanc e t o temptatio n define d a
middle-class mal e ideal . Th e ver y wor d manl y wa s usuall y conjoine d
with "independence " o r "self-reliance, " thu s linkin g th e bourgeoi s
concept o f masculinit y wit h autonom y an d self-possession , ke y element s
of Victoria n characte r whic h flowed fro m diligen t labor . No t al l Victoria n
men fulfille d th e role ; man y sli d bac k int o les s morall y rigid ways . Th e
sporting underworl d coul d sti r th e env y o f thos e wh o fel t themselve s
deprived o f th e freedo m an d opennes s the y perceive d i n working-clas s

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 THE MEANING S O F PRIZ E FIGHTIN G

culture. Despit e thes e dee p feeling s o f ambivalence , however , th e

bourgeois mal e idea l remaine d compelling , an d i t wa s reinforce d b y a
new femal e role . Fo r middle-clas s women , th e hom e becam e a separat e
sphere, no t a plac e o f productio n bu t a have n wher e thei r superio r
morality refine d men , nurture d children , an d inculcate d tende r emotions .
This domesti c idea l place d wome n a t th e cente r o f mora l life , freein g
men t o g o ou t int o th e corruptin g world , the n retur n t o a purifyin g
sanctuary.30
If the fundamenta l tes t of masculinit y was , b y Victoria n lights , being a
good breadwinner , i f wor k wa s a man's primar y sourc e o f self-definition ,
the measur e o f hi s worth , an d proo f o f hi s manhood , the n man y
working-class me n i n industrializin g citie s wer e doome d t o failure . O f
course, thos e wh o performe d heav y o r dangerou s task s coul d tak e prid e
in thei r strengt h an d stamina . Bu t father s no w ha d diminishin g legacie s
of wealt h o r skil l t o pas s o n t o sons , an d fo r mos t men , earning s wer e
small an d opportunitie s limited . Pu t simply , dail y labo r undermine d
rather tha n buttresse d masculinity . I t mad e sense , then , tha t man y
workers turne d t o a mor e elementa l concep t o f manhood , on e the y coul d
demonstrate durin g leisur e hours . Toughness , ferocity , prowess , honor ,
these becam e th e touchstone s o f maleness , an d boxin g alon g wit h othe r
sports uphel d thi s alternativ e definitio n o f manhood . Th e manly ar t
defined masculinit y no t b y ho w responsibl e o r uprigh t a n individua l wa s
but b y hi s sensitivit y t o insult , hi s coolness i n the face o f danger , an d hi s
ability t o giv e an d tak e punishment. 31
Sociologists hav e talke d o f a "bachelo r subculture " t o captur e a
phenomenon s o commo n t o nineteenth - an d earl y twentieth-centur y
cities: larg e number s o f unmarrie d male s findin g thei r primar y huma n
contact i n on e another' s company . I n som e larg e citie s unweddednes s
was s o commo n tha t a t mid-century , 4 0 percen t o f th e me n betwee n
twenty-five an d thirty-fiv e year s o f ag e wer e single . Iris h immigrant s
contributed t o thi s tendency , bringin g a traditio n o f lat e marriag e an d
high rate s o f bachelorhoo d t o America , bu t eve n amon g th e native-born ,
working me n i n th e nineteent h centur y tende d no t t o marr y unti l thei r lat e
twenties. Th e bachelo r subculture , however , include d betrothe d me n a s
well a s unattache d ones . Sullivan , Hyer , an d Morrissey , fo r example ,
were al l married , bu t thei r wive s seeme d almos t tangentia l t o thei r live s
as th e champion s passe d thei r night s drinkin g an d carousin g amon g
friends. Wit h th e breakdow n o f th e househol d economy , me n an d wome n
spent diminishin g amount s o f thei r wor k tim e together , an d man y chos e
to tak e thei r leisur e to o i n gender-segregate d realms . I n saloons , poo l
halls, an d lodge s a s wel l a s i n gangs , firehouses , an d politica l clubs ,

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 THE MANL Y AR T

men gathere d t o see k companionship , game r on e another' s esteem , an d

compete fo r status. 32
Here, implicitly , wa s a rejectio n o f th e cul t o f domesticit y s o charac -
teristic o f bourgeoi s Victoria n life . Member s o f th e bachelo r subcultur e
expected wome n t o b e submissive ; the y als o tende d t o vie w the m a s
either pur e an d virgina l o r excitin g an d whorish . Wome n wer e bot h
exploitable an d les s tha n centra l t o men' s affectiv e lives . Rathe r tha n
spend thei r nonworkin g hour s withi n th e confine s o f th e famil y circle —
where women' s allegedl y superio r mora l natur e an d "instinctive " sens e
of self-sacrific e tame d me n an d elevate d children—member s o f th e
sporting fraternit y chos e t o see k roug h mal e companionship . I t wa s no t
only men , however , wh o fel t stifle d b y th e domesti c ideal . Th e Victoria n
home emotionall y suffocate d man y middle-clas s wome n a s well , an d t o
compensate fo r th e deprivation s cause d b y thei r gender-base d role , the y
sought on e another' s company . Th e homoeroti c ton e o f letter s wome n
wrote t o each othe r an d th e sensua l description s o f thei r meeting s a t spa s
where the y wen t fo r physica l an d emotiona l therap y ha d les s t o d o wit h
simple homosexualit y (thoug h n o doub t homosexua l act s an d relation -
ships occurred ) tha n wit h wome n reachin g ou t fo r th e warmth , love , an d
emotional contac t tha t homelif e denied. 33
There wa s a parallel i n th e bachelo r subcultur e tha t supporte d th e ring .
Of cours e heterosexua l prowes s wa s a n importan t elemen t o f masculini -
ty; fatherin g a family , pickin g u p unattache d women , an d frequentin g
prostitutes al l demonstrated virility . Bu t malenes s seeme d mos t emphaticall y
confirmed i n th e compan y no t o f women , bu t o f othe r men . Th e lovin g
descriptions o f boxers ' bodie s s o commo n i n antebellu m figh t report s
grew les s fro m narrowl y define d homosexualit y tha n fro m a commo n
male aesthetic . Me n perceive d me n a s creature s o f beaut y becaus e the y
focused s o muc h emotiona l attentio n o n on e another . I n th e saloon , th e
firehouse, o r th e gang , man y working-clas s male s foun d thei r deepes t
sense o f companionshi p an d huma n connectedness . Th e boxer' s phy -
sique wa s a palpabl e expressio n o f suc h masculin e value s a s strength ,
power, an d stamina . Wit h hi s bod y alon e th e priz e fighte r attaine d
financial autonomy . Conversely , wome n wer e associate d wit h thos e
family responsibilitie s mad e s o onerous b y lo w pa y an d lac k o f economi c
opportunity. Rathe r tha n accep t domesticit y a s th e highes t good—an d
domesticity, afte r all , wa s a bourgeoi s luxury ; working-clas s wome n
often toile d i n factorie s o r a s laundresse s o r maids—man y laborin g me n
sought refug e fro m th e famil y i n all-mal e pee r group s wher e heroi c priz e
fighters symbolize d independenc e throug h physica l prowess. 34
Here th e concep t o f mal e hono r help s u s understan d th e cultur e o f th e

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 THE MEANING S O F PRIZ E FIGHTIN G

ring. Honor , a s historian s hav e recentl y applie d th e term, i s distinct fro m

the mor e moder n ideal s o f conscienc e an d dignity . Th e Victoria n ma n o f
character possesse d a particularl y well-develope d conscienc e (a n inter -
nalized sens e o f moralit y stressin g stric t self-control ) an d a profoun d
belief i n huma n dignit y (especiall y fait h i n th e fundamenta l equalit y o f
all men) . Thu s eac h Christia n face d Go d alone , businessme n wer e
responsible fo r th e fulfillmen t o f thei r contracts , an d goo d citizen s acte d
on inviolabl e principle s t o perfec t society . Althoug h th e approbatio n o f
others wa s gratifyin g fo r suc h men , goo d deed s brough t thei r ow n
internal satisfaction s an d immora l act s evoke d a sens e o f guilt. 35
But hono r mor e tha n conscienc e o r dignit y depende d o n externa l
ratification. I t wa s conferre d whe n me n acknowledge d on e anothe r a s
peers, ofte n i n symboli c act s suc h a s buyin g drinks , spendin g mone y
lavishly, o r toastin g on e another' s accomplishments . Hono r ha d n o
existence outsid e grou p life , fo r onl y reputatio n an d th e estee m o f other s
conferred it . Honorifi c societie s hav e tende d t o b e tightl y kni t an d
nonbureaucratic, placin g specia l emphasi s no t o n inwar d virtue s bu t o n
outward sign s tha t mus t b e approve d o r rejecte d b y one' s statu s equals .
The object s o f hono r hav e varie d acros s tim e an d cultures . The y hav e
included th e protectio n o f th e chastit y o f wive s an d daughters , gran d
displays o f hospitality , an d test s o f mal e prowess . Bu t regardles s o f th e
specifics, a n individua l ha d hono r onl y whe n hi s ki n o r hi s fellow s sai d
he did . Hono r wa s denie d hi m whe n hi s peer s refuse d t o acknowledg e
his statu s a s a n equal , an d n o amoun t o f arguin g coul d restor e it . Onl y
acts o f valor , especiall y violen t retribution , expunge d th e sens e o f
shame, prove d one' s mettle , an d reasserte d one' s clai m t o honor. 36
The fight s betwee n boxer s an d th e collectivities the y belonge d to—fir e
brigades, gangs , politica l factions , saloo n cliques , militi a companies ,
and s o forth—wer e ofte n animate d b y a sens e o f los t honor , o f havin g
had one' s statu s impugned . Stak e mone y fo r fighters , tur f betwee n
gangs, an d electe d offic e fo r politica l parties , thes e wer e tangibl e object s
to conten d over , bu t th e rea l battl e wa s fo r pee r recognition , fo r a sens e
of distinctio n tha t mad e a ma n firs t amon g equal s i n th e smal l mal e
cliques o f working-clas s society . Saloon s wer e s o centra l t o th e cultur e
of th e rin g i n par t becaus e here , wit h alcoho l lowerin g inhibitions , me n
affirmed thei r righ t t o drin k togethe r or , alternatively , t o cas t aspersion s
that onl y bloo d coul d redeem . Th e ethi c o f hono r ha d root s i n th e Ol d
World, bu t i t continue d t o thriv e wher e individual s wer e concerne d les s
with moralit y o r piety , mor e wit h flauntin g thei r statu s amon g peer s
through act s o f masculin e prowess . I n mid-nineteenth-centur y America ,
then, character , conscience , an d dignit y wer e hallmark s o f middle-clas s

'43
 THE MANL Y AR T

culture, whil e hono r remaine d centra l t o th e live s o f th e poo r an d

marginal, th e aci d tes t o f persona l wort h i n th e mal e pee r society .

The Rite s o f Violenc e

Perhaps mos t important , th e bloodines s displaye d i n th e rin g wa s

symptomatic o f th e violenc e endemi c t o urban working-clas s life . Unem -
ployment an d povert y wer e constan t threats , an d a cycl e o f alternatin g
depression an d inflatio n mad e th e antebellu m year s particularl y unstable .
New Yor k City' s pe r capit a wage s fel l b y roughl y 2 5 percen t i n th e
decade befor e mid-century . Moreover , th e New York Times estimate d i n
the middl e o f th e 1850 s tha t a famil y o f fou r neede d a minimu m yearl y
income o f si x hundre d dollars , doubl e th e salar y o f man y laborer s an d
well ove r wha t th e majorit y o f working-clas s me n earned . I n th e
impersonal marke t economy , lac k o f jo b securit y an d inequalitie s o f
wealth an d powe r wer e becomin g intractabl e problems . An d i t wa s no t
only underemployment , poverty , an d powerlessness , bu t occupationa l
hazards tha t hi t th e workin g clas s wit h unrelieve d force . Staggerin g
numbers o f me n wer e kille d o r maime d o n th e job . Indeed , b y i86 0
there wer e fou r Irishwome n fo r ever y thre e Irishme n i n Ne w Yor k City ,
partly becaus e o f desertions , partl y becaus e o f breadwinners ' nee d t o
travel i n searc h o f work , bu t als o a s a resul t o f brutall y hig h job-relate d
mortality rates . I n addition , poo r diet , overcrowding , an d lac k o f moder n
sanitation contribute d t o wave s o f deadl y epidemics . Betwee n 184 0 an d
1855 th e city' s mortalit y rate s ros e fro m on e i n fort y t o on e i n
twenty-seven, an d nearl y hal f o f al l Ne w Yor k childre n die d befor e
reaching ag e six. 37
The deat h sound s o f livestoc k slaughtere d i n publi c markets , th e smel l
of ope n sewers , th e feveris h crie s o f childre n durin g choler a season , th e
sight o f countles s me n maime d o n th e job , al l wer e par t o f day-to-da y
street life . Th e poo r live d a s thei r ancestor s had , i n a world tha t di d littl e
to shiel d the m fro m pain . Me n tolerate d violence—create d violence —
because hig h deat h rates , horribl e accidents , an d senseles s act s o f
brutality wer e a psychologica l burde n tha t onl y stoicis m o r bravad o
helped lighten. 38
This contex t make s sens e o f th e ring' s violence . Boxing , a s wel l a s
cockfighting, bullbaiting , an d ratting , di d no t jus t reflec t th e bloodines s
of life . Rather , thes e an d simila r sport s shape d violenc e int o art , pare d
away it s maddening arbitrariness , an d thereb y gav e i t order an d meaning .

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 THE MEANING S O F PRIZ E FIGHTIN G

Here, ideally , wa s tru e equalit y o f opportunity , a pure meritocrac y fre e o f

favoritism an d specia l influence . A t thei r best , th e rin g an d th e pi t
rendered mayhe m rule-boun d instea d o f anarchic , voluntar y rathe r tha n
random. Boxers , lik e fightin g cock s an d traine d bulldogs , mad e blood -
shed comprehensibl e an d thu s offere d model s o f honorabl e conduct .
They taugh t me n t o fac e dange r wit h courage , t o be imperviou s t o pain ,
and t o retur n violenc e rathe r tha n passivel y accep t it. 39
As member s o f mal e pee r societie s steepe d i n th e conflicts o f thei r day,
prize fighter s embodie d communit y values , givin g the m concentrate d
symbolic expression . Ofte n harsh an d brutal , working-clas s lif e require d
a dramati c for m t o expres s it s reality . Boxin g acknowledged , rathe r tha n
denied life' s cruelty , eve n celebrate d it . I n th e mids t o f naggin g hatred s
and festerin g rivalries , ofte n unleashe d b y flowing alcoho l an d blusterin g
attacks o n masculin e honor , th e coo l restrain t neede d t o sig n articles ,
train, organiz e excursions , an d brin g of f matche s mad e bloodlettin g
comprehensible. A properl y carrie d ou t figh t wa s a performance , a
pageant, a ritual, tha t momentaril y impose d meanin g o n th e savag e
irrationalities o f life . Ou t o f chao s th e rin g create d a n aestheti c o f
violence based o n bodil y development , fightin g skills , an d controlle d
brutality.
This i s not t o argue tha t boxin g an d simila r sport s supplante d rea l wit h
vicarious brutality . O n th e contrary , a s recen t researc h reveals , symboli c
displays o f violenc e ten d t o promote furthe r violence. 40 Eve n a s pugilis m
brought orde r t o bloodiness , mad e i t comprehensibl e b y confinin g i t t o
two me n wh o represente d large r collectivitie s an d fough t b y rules , th e
ring als o upheld , indee d glorie d i n th e fac t tha t brutishnes s wa s par t o f
man's fate . No t th e piou s homilie s o f evangelicals , th e sentimenta l
humanitarianism o f reformers , no r th e optimisti c progressivis m o f th e
middle class , priz e fightin g a s a metaphor declare d tha t there was limite d
good i n thi s world , tha t ever y man' s victor y implie d another' s loss , tha t
the wa y wa s hars h an d blood y fo r all , an d tha t hardship , eve n death ,
were th e soulmate s o f life . Th e rin g thu s expresse d a n outloo k i n
which pai n an d defea t wer e ineluctabl e part s o f living , a notio n almos t
heretical i n thi s rationalisti c age. 41
Despite th e division s amon g sportingmen , then , al l wer e unite d b y
disruptive chang e i n thei r pattern s o f work , alienatio n fro m bourgeoi s o r
evangelical ways , an d share d attitude s towar d wealth , labor , leisure ,
masculinity, an d honor . Working-clas s me n adopte d thei r ow n form s o f
expressive culture , an d priz e fighting symbolicall y affirme d thei r distinc t
ethos. I f no t a politica l threa t t o ne w alignment s o f socia l an d economi c

'45
 THE M A N L Y AR T

power, th e ring a t leas t offere d cultura l opposition ; i f no t a challeng e t o

evangelical o r bourgeoi s authority , her e a t leas t wa s a denia l o f th e
values tha t undergirde d oppressiv e socia l relationships .
Above all , th e manl y ar t gav e me n a wa y t o get a symbolic gri p o n th e
contradictions i n thei r lives , t o se e thes e conflicts neatl y arrange d an d
played out . I t offere d a n alternativ e t o th e Victoria n visio n o f a n
ever-improving world , stressin g instea d a constan t balanc e betwee n
victory an d defeat . A s drama , th e priz e fight depicte d pai n a s th e portio n
for bot h winne r an d loser , violenc e a s a necessar y mean s t o human ends ,
and loyalt y t o one' s communa l grou p alon g wit h hono r i n defendin g
one's goo d nam e a s th e ver y highes t huma n ideals . Th e ring celebrate d
the high-stake s gamble , th e outrageou s boast , th e lov e o f strife . Priz e
fighting mad e Ol d Worl d virtue s suc h a s prowess , courage , an d virilit y
the essenc e o f manhood , whil e lovin g description s o f muscle s an d
sinews gav e palpabl e expressio n t o nake d physica l beaut y a s a sourc e o f
masculine pride .
Of cours e th e cultur e o f th e ring ha d a n ugly , disturbin g side .
Bare-knuckle fightin g attracte d som e socia l misfit s wh o revele d i n
brutality. Boxin g coul d becom e a n outle t fo r bull y boy s wh o enjoye d
inflicting pain , sociopath s wh o responde d onl y t o thei r ow n pleasur e a t
other's suffering . Th e specia l orde r o f th e ring , moreover , sometime s
broke dow n unde r th e tension s i t symbolicall y reconciled , unleashin g
further violence . Priz e fightin g als o define d masculinit y i n a narrow wa y
that encourage d mal e exploitatio n o f wome n an d alienate d me n fro m a
whole rang e o f softe r emotion s withi n themselves . Bu t a t it s best th e ring
dramatized a worl d o f victor y fo r th e sociall y downtrodden , realisticall y
counterposed t o defea t an d bloodshed . I t offere d colorful , satisfyin g
rituals tha t embodie d th e mos t profoun d huma n striving s bu t alway s
presented the m i n mercilessl y unsentimenta l terms . Boxer s responde d t o
a violen t worl d b y embracin g violence , b y acceptin g brutalit y an d
returning i t wit h interest , b y bein g a s toug h an d savag e a s lif e itself .
In al l o f thes e way s bare-knuckl e priz e fighting wa s wove n int o th e
texture o f working-clas s cultur e durin g th e antebellu m era . A plethor a o f
urban stree t institution s supporte d th e ring, a s boxin g helpe d crystalliz e
the etho s o f laborin g men . Pugilis m gav e controlle d expressio n t o th e
schisms o f working-clas s life , no t i n order t o drain awa y violen t passion s
but t o mak e thos e division s comprehensibl e an d thereb y transfor m chao s
into meaning . Divide d b y neighborhood , ethnic , an d workplac e tensions ,
large segment s o f th e lowe r classe s wer e nonetheles s unite d i n oppositio n
to ke y Victoria n values , value s o n whic h a n onerou s ne w socia l syste m
was built . Ever y bou t inverte d bourgeoi s an d evangelica l assumption s

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about suc h fundamenta l socia l phenomen a a s money , gender , an d vio -

lence. More , th e priz e rin g conveye d it s ow n alternativ e outlook .
Pugilism wa s a n autonomou s expressiv e for m tha t symbolicall y oppose d
the drif t o f moder n society . I n crucia l ways , then , boxin g durin g th e ag e
of heroe s capture d th e values , th e ethos , th e distinc t cultur e o f countles s
working me n wh o fel t dispossesse d amids t th e Victoria n era' s head y
optimism.

'47
 5

Triumph an d Declin e

"The Grea t Contes t fo r th e

Championship o f th e World "

" I , Joh n C . Heenan , o f th e Cit y o f Wes t Troy , Unite d State s o f

America, hereb y challeng e Thoma s Sayers , th e Champion o f England , t o
fight m e i n si x month s fro m th e tim e o f hi s receptio n o f thi s challenge ,
or fro m th e dat e o f th e firs t deposi t unde r it , fo r £20 0 a sid e an d th e
champion's belt ; th e figh t t o tak e plac e nea r Londo n (England) , an d t o
be governe d b y th e rule s o f th e Londo n Priz e Ring. " Thu s th e Benici a
Boy, no w self-style d champio n o f America , sough t t o becom e kin g o f al l
pugilism wit h on e bol d stroke. '
For th e thir d tim e i n hal f a centur y a n America n crosse d th e Atlanti c
seeking supremac y o f th e boxin g world . Thi s tim e no t apath y bu t a n
explosion o f excitemen t accompanie d th e event . Stayin g on e ste p ahea d
of authorities , wh o sough t hi s arres t fo r secondin g a recent fight , Heena n
and hi s trainer , Jame s Cusick— a sometim e priz e fighte r expelle d fro m
California b y th e vigilantes—boarde d th e Liverpool-boun d steame r Asia
on Januar y 4 , i860 , protecte d b y a multitud e o f burl y friends . After
countless farewel l exhibitions , benefits , an d toast s i n hi s honor , th e
Benicia Bo y lef t wit h song s o f prais e ringin g i n hi s ears :

Come friends , a drink, an d le t n o fea r

For m e your s heart s annoy ,
But le t you r bet s an d hope s b e buoye d
By you r Benici a Boy .

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 TRIUMPH AN D DECLIN E

I g o t o striv e i n hones t figh t

For dea r Columbia' s pride ;
Nor shall , I swear, m y courag e ebb,
Whatever ma y betide .

So gras p agai n b y bunc h o f fives ,

My shoulder-hittin g hearties ,
Of al l th e arts , th e manl y ar t
The highes t styl e o f Ar t i s . . .

I'll win d ou r color s roun d m y loins—

The blu e an d crimso n bars ,
And i f To m doe s no t fee l th e stripes ,
I'll mak e hi m se e th e stars ! . . .

So here' s on e toas t befor e I go.

The Yanke e land , Go d bles s it .
And fo r he r sake , th e Champion' s bel t
I hope I may posses s it. 2

For th e sportin g fraternity , th e upcomin g battl e overshadowe d al l othe r

issues, includin g th e crisi s ove r slavery . Th e Sayers-Heena n bou t
infected countles s ne w fan s wit h fisti c fever , fo r th e figh t seeme d a
genuine tes t o f nationa l supremacy . Thus , Olive r Wendel l Holmes , Sr. ,
one o f America' s mos t distinguishe d medica l researchers , me n o f letters ,
and essayists , openl y attende d Heenan' s prefigh t exhibition s an d visite d
the Bo y t o measur e hi s muscles. 3
Popular interes t i n th e rin g surpasse d th e pea k attaine d a t Lon g Point ,
Canada West , tw o year s before whe n Heena n fough t Morrissey ; indeed ,
the upcomin g contes t dre w mor e publi c attentio n tha n an y othe r athleti c
event durin g th e fift y year s straddlin g mid-century. 4 Journal s sen t specia l
correspondents oversea s t o writ e abou t everythin g fro m th e trainin g o f
the champion s t o th e sentiment s o f th e Englis h public . Th e Clipper eve n
published a serie s o f letters , allegedl y writte n b y Heenan , detailin g th e
drama a s i t unfolded . I n Ne w York , Adah Isaac s Mencken , th e estrange d
wife o f th e Benici a Boy , becam e a n instan t hi t i n Broadwa y melodramas .
Night afte r nigh t sh e brough t dow n th e house , testimon y bot h t o he r
name, Mrs . Joh n C . Heenan , an d t o he r scantil y cla d body. 5
The iconograph y o f th e rin g als o gre w mor e prominent . Harper's
Weekly condemne d th e "bloody , bruta l an d blackguar d priz e fight " bu t
reproduced a full-page etchin g of the ringside scene. Vanity Fair published a

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 THE MANL Y AR T

satirical engraving , "Th e Two Champions, " depictin g Georg e Washing -

ton o n th e left , leadin g hi s me n agains t th e English , an d th e Benici a Bo y
on th e right , grippin g Sayer s i n a headlock , whil e Libert y stand s aside ,
sighing fo r he r country . Miniatur e statuar y froz e th e tw o fighter s a s the y
toed th e scratch , o n drinkin g mug s Heena n drov e Sayer s t o th e turf , an d
Currier an d Ives—tha t bastio n o f Victoria n taste , a firm tha t helpe d mak e
the middle-clas s etho s palpabl e t o million s o f American s wit h countles s
mass-produced image s o f idealize d bourgeoi s life—rushe d t o pres s wit h
cheap lithograph s o f bot h heroes. 6
No matte r ho w muc h the y publishe d o n th e preliminaries , editor s
found th e publi c thirs t insatiable . Th e standar d sources , especiall y th e
Herald an d th e Clipper, wer e cramme d wit h news , an d countles s dailie s
throughout th e countr y kep t thei r column s ful l o f second - an d third-han d
stories. Georg e Wilkes , wh o acquire d th e Spirit of the Times i n 1856 ,
went eve n further . H e saile d t o London , negotiate d o n Heenan' s behalf ,
and, alon g wit h edito r Franci s Dowlin g o f Bell's Life in London, helpe d
organize th e match . Small-tow n newspaper s migh t rai l agains t th e
coverage, upholdin g rura l virtu e i n th e fac e o f urba n depravity , bu t mor e
than eve r th e rin g generate d excitemen t beyon d it s traditiona l constituen -
cy. "Al l classe s o f people, " th e New York Times observed , "shar e thi s
anxiety t o hea r th e results—no t al l i n th e sam e degre e o r th e sam e
extent, bu t wit h th e masse s o f th e peopl e i t i s just no w th e grea t topi c o f
speculation . . . throwing completel y int o shad e al l politica l theme s an d
everything els e whic h ca n affor d t o wait." 7 Interes t i n th e bou t s o
overwhelmed th e usua l expression s o f outrag e that , Harper's Weekly
complained, "moralist s mus t b e writin g an d clergyme n mus t b e preach -
ing t o ver y littl e purpose , sinc e th e bul k o f th e peopl e i n Englan d an d
America ar e hear t an d sou l engrosse d i n a figh t compare d t o whic h
a Spanis h bull-bai t i s a mil d an d divertin g pastime." 8
Editors wer e caugh t betwee n moral s an d balanc e sheets . Shortl y
before Heena n saile d fo r England , Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper
condemned th e rin g fo r encouragin g "al l th e coarsest , lowes t vic e o f ou r
cities." Boxing , Leslie's declared , "i s s o mingle d wit h th e association s
of th e groggery , w e ar e s o accustome d t o hea r o f it s heroe s a s habitue s
and bullie s o f lo w gamblin g house s an d brothels , tha t rightl y o r wrongly ,
and despit e th e man y exception s whic h ma y b e urged , n o one pretend s t o
deny tha t 'th e ring ' i s th e ver y las t subjec t whic h shoul d b e mentione d i n
a pape r whic h find s it s wa y int o decen t families. " Th e edito r conclude d
that panderin g t o publi c tast e b y reportin g th e upcomin g contes t wa s no t
only immora l but , fro m a busines s poin t o f view , short-sighted . Ye t a s
the da y o f battl e dre w near , Leslie's engage d i n fierc e competitio n fo r

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 TRIUMPH AN D DECLIN E

sales wit h th e New York Illustrated News. Eac h promise d th e fullest cover -
age, eac h mad e celebritie s o f it s artist s an d correspondent s i n London ,
and eac h ballyhooe d th e importanc e o f thi s figh t fo r th e "CHAMPION -
SHIP O F TH E WORLD." 9 I f th e editor s a t Leslie's fel t morall y
compromised, the y burie d thei r qualm s unde r th e revenue s tha t accrue d
from sellin g ten s o f thousand s o f extr a edition s i n Englan d an d America .
A littl e short-sighte d profi t taking , eve n a t th e ris k o f offendin g publi c
decency, wa s no t s o ba d afte r all. 10
Excitement als o rage d i n Grea t Britain , followin g decade s o f har d
times fo r th e ring . Th e generatio n afte r th e Regenc y Er a produce d
notable men , amon g the m "Deaf " Burke , Willia m "Bol d Bendigo "
Thompson, an d Be n Caunt . Englis h newspaper s regularl y pronounce d
prize fighting' s fina l demise , onl y t o repor t th e corpse' s reviva l a fe w
years later . Nevertheless , thoug h working-clas s interes t kep t boxin g an d
other fanc y sport s alive , th e ol d cultur e o f th e Regenc y Er a ha d bee n
shattered. Th e da y wa s lon g passe d whe n pugilist s ha d serve d a s usher s
at roya l coronations , whe n ga y youn g gentleme n dran k wit h thei r
favorite pugs , o r whe n th e like s o f Lor d Byro n an d Si r Rober t Pee l
sparred together . Bourgeoi s earnestnes s gav e n o quarter t o th e aristocrat -
ic lov e o f pageantry . Gentleme n an d noble s remaine d intereste d i n
"manly" sports , an d the y eve n attende d a n occasiona l match , bu t the y
kept a lo w profil e an d newspaper s respecte d thei r wis h fo r anonymity .
And althoug h grea t champion s stil l toe d th e scratch , thei r exploit s
were tainte d b y declinin g purses , crosse d matches , an d increase d rowdy -
ism a t ringside. "
Under thes e les s tha n optima l conditions , To m Sayers— a Londo n
bricklayer an d th e so n o f a Brighto n cobbler—bega n supplementin g hi s
income wit h rin g combat . Sayer s stoo d fiv e feet , eigh t inche s tall ,
usually fightin g a t a mer e eleve n ston e (on e hundre d fifty-fou r pounds) .
Yet b y 185 9 h e ha d beate n ever y conceivabl e opponent , includin g Aaro n
Jones, Willia m Perry , To m Paddock , an d Bil l Benjamin . A doze n fight s
behind hi m an d th e championshi p bel t roun d hi s waist , Sayer s lacke d a
worthy opponen t unti l Heenan' s challeng e arrived. 12
As a contras t i n styles , th e tw o boxer s embodie d qualitie s tha t toda y
still arous e th e deepes t interes t o f th e fans : experienc e versu s youth ,
cunning agains t strength , rin g scienc e opposin g brut e power . Althoug h
Heenan wa s fiv e inche s taller , tw o ston e heavier , an d eigh t year s
younger, ringsid e odd s favore d Sayer s b y a s muc h a s thre e t o one, partl y
because o f Englis h chauvinis m bu t mainl y becaus e th e Bo y lacke d
experience. Afte r all , hi s caree r consiste d o f onl y on e regula r rin g fight ,
a battl e h e ha d lost . A fina l facto r weighin g i n Sayers' s favo r wa s th e

151
 THE MANL Y AR T

presence o f Joh n Morrisse y i n London . Allegedly , Ol d Smok e wa s s o

angry wit h Heenan' s presumptuousnes s i n claimin g th e titl e tha t h e
counseled th e Londo n bricklaye r o n ho w t o fight th e youn g upstart ,
predicted Sayers' s victory , an d backe d hi s opinio n wit h a thousan d
pounds i n wagers. 13
Long odd s notwithstanding , i t ha d bee n decade s sinc e a priz e figh t s o
aroused Britons . Parliamen t debate d th e moralit y o f th e match , lord s an d
peers mad e surreptitiou s plan s t o attend , an d a s muc h a s a hundre d
thousand pound s wer e wagere d o n th e contest . O n figh t day , rumor s
circulated tha t Prim e Ministe r Palmersto n stoo d a t ringside an d tha t
Queen Victori a demande d immediat e notificatio n o f th e outcome. 14
Ciauvinism, o f course , contribute d t o the trans-Atlanti c interes t i n th e
contest. Fightin g color s mad e th e battle' s large r meanin g clear—re d an d
buff wit h th e Britis h lio n an d sea l fo r Sayers , red , white , an d blu e wit h
an America n eagl e an d th e mott o "Ma y th e Bes t Ma n Win " fo r Heenan .
"Thus, yo u will perceive, " th e Benici a Bo y wrot e i n a lette r t o the New
York Clipper, "Sayer s ha s fo r hi s emble m th e Kin g Beas t o f th e forest ,
while min e i s the Kin g Bir d o f th e air ; an d i f h e doe s no t cli p my wings ,
I wil l cu t hi s tail. " Moc k warfar e unde r condition s o f perfec t equality ,
boxing wa s a n idea l vehicl e fo r exploitin g suc h nationalisti c symbolism .
In th e sharp-focuse d imager y o f th e ring , Sayer s an d Heenan , wearin g
their countries ' color s roun d thei r waists , stoo d fo r Englan d an d Americ a
toe-to-toe. "Th e ordinar y objection s t o vulga r pugilism " Wilkes' Spirit
of the Times solemnl y declared , "ar e waive d i n th e rea l importanc e o f
this first-clas s struggle , an d ther e i s scarcel y a min d tha t i s amenabl e t o
the nationa l pride , whic h doe s no t fo r onc e la y asid e it s prejudic e agains t
fighting i n th e hop e t o se e th e America n champio n win." 15
Sayers an d Heenan' s battl e resonate d wit h America n charge s o f Joh n
Bull's effet e decadenc e an d Englis h contention s tha t Anglo-Saxo n stoc k
degenerated i n th e Yanke e Republic . Becaus e th e symboli c stake s wer e
so high, me n talke d obsessivel y abou t th e impendin g conflict : "I f yo u g o
to th e market , th e odd s ar e you r butche r ask s yo u whic h ma n yo u fancy ,
and i f yo u wan t t o bet o n it . You r newsman smile s a s h e hand s yo u you r
daily paper , an d inform s yo u tha t 'ther e i s somethin g ne w abou t th e grea t
fight i n i t thi s morning. ' I f yo u dro p int o Bryant' s o r Christy' s i n a n
evening, yo u ar e certai n t o hea r som e allusio n t o th e Benici a Bo y o r Si r
Thomas d e Sayer s tha t neve r fail s t o bring dow n th e house. " Eve n a s th e
clouds o f civi l wa r gathered , Georg e Templeto n Stron g confide d t o hi s
diary tha t th e fight totall y absorbe d men' s attention , tha t the symboli c ring
combat eclipse d al l interes t i n th e painfu l realitie s o f sectiona l conflict. 16
The fight prove d worth y o f th e build-up , momentaril y bringin g bac k

152 .
 TRIUMPH AND DECLINE

John C. Heenan and Tom Sayers square off, April 17, 1860. Currier and Ives
produced this popular lithograph, which glossed the ringside scene in England
with a thick coat of gentility. Courtesy of the the Print Collection, The New
York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations.

the glory that William Hazlitt and Pierce Egan had so brilliantly captured
decades earlier. Railroad tickets went on sale just hours before chartered
trains rumbled out of London at d awn on April 17, 1860. Waiting to
board the cars at first light were "statesmen, peers of every grade,
legislators, judges, great physicians and surgeons, royal academicians,
famous novelists, dramatists and professors of literature of every kind,
journalists, draughtsmen, engineers, soldiers and sailors of every
grade, ...publicans, pugilists, bookmakers, masters of foxhounds; in
short, every class of society.... " The fancy had been up all night,
carousing and reveling into the wee hours. Bleary-eyed, they jammed
themselves into luxury coaches, cattle cars, and all variety of rolling
stock, bound for the tiny hamlet of Famborough on the heaths of
Hampshire. The South Eastern Railroad and the publiqms who sold
tickets grossed four to five thousand pounds for their night's labor. 17
Farnborough awoke to find town toughs, laborers, sporting gentlemen,
and a scattering of noblemen making their way from the railroad station

. 153 .
 THE MANLY ART

Climax of the Heenan-Sayers fight, which lasted forty-two rounds spread over
two hours and twenty minutes. Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper of May 12,
186o, captured the chaotic finish--constables pushed forward to stop the fight,
driving fans into the ring.

to an open field with a roped ring in the middle. By 7:30 Sayers and
Heenan threw their hats into the sacred circle. After the usual ring
rituals-introductions of the supporting cast, referee selection, stripping,
18
handshaking, and final wagering-the men toed the scratch and began.
For over two hours Sayers and Heenan mutilated each other. Probably
the American had a slight edge in the fighting, winning the majority of
rounds by knocking or throwing his opponent down. But Sayers's
indomitable will, his ability to endure punishment and finish strong,
made Heenan's advantage dubious. The tempo of the fight shifted back
and forth, Heenan using his power to maul his opponent, Sayers
returning with quick but debilitating blows to the body, neck, and head.
In the sixth round the bricklayer deflected a Heenan punch with his right
arm, sustaining a fracture that grew worse with repeated pounding. In

. 154 .
 TRIUMPH AN D DECLIN E

exchange fo r hi s nearl y useles s limb , Sayer s slowl y bea t Heenan' s hand -

some fac e int o a n ugl y mask , an d th e swellin g cause d b y well-place d
blows t o th e eye s lef t th e Benici a Bo y nearl y blind . Afte r tw o hour s th e
only questio n wa s wh o woul d giv e ou t first. Th e issu e was never decided .
In th e thirty-sevent h roun d a contingen t o f Hampshir e constable s
battled thei r wa y throug h th e crow d t o sto p th e fight , an d a s they pushe d
forward, spectator s wer e force d int o th e ring . No w Heena n grope d fo r
Sayer's neck , allegedl y forcin g th e Englishman' s throa t agains t th e
ropes. Her e th e recor d become s murky . Som e source s clai m tha t th e
cords wer e cut t o en d th e bou t an d preven t a n America n victory ; other s
report tha t Sayers' s second s legall y lowere d the m t o sav e thei r ma n fro m
strangulation. On e rumo r eve n ha d Joh n Morrisse y himsel f slashin g th e
ropes. Wit h outsider s no w pourin g int o th e ring , refere e Franci s Dowlin g
declared th e figh t drawn , bu t a n uncomprehendin g timekeepe r calle d th e
men bac k fo r fiv e mor e shor t an d confuse d rounds . Finally , afte r tw o
hours an d twent y minutes , sprea d ove r forty-tw o rounds , th e chaos i n th e
ring mad e mor e fightin g impossible . Wit h th e battl e terminated , th e
constables fel l bac k t o lic k thei r wound s an d th e crow d returne d t o th e
railroad cars , thenc e t o London .
At the end o f May , Hancoc k Silversmith s complete d duplicat e champi -
onship belt s tha t wer e presente d t o th e fighter s b y editor s Franci s
Dowling an d Georg e Wilke s a t a gran d benefit . Th e join t champion s
then toure d th e lan d together , givin g exhibition s throughou t th e summer .
Sayers wa s th e toas t o f al l England : "Neve r i n th e annal s o f th e ring, "
Frederick Locker-Lampso n declared , "wer e courage , science , temper ,
judgement an d stayin g qualitie s combine d an d displaye d i n suc h marvellou s
measure a s b y To m Sayer s o n thi s memorabl e day." 19 Willia m Make -
peace Thackera y witnesse d th e figh t first-han d and , assumin g th e person a
of a n ancien t pugilist , memorialize d i t i n verse :

Two hour s an d mor e th e figh t ha d sped .

Near unt o te n i t drew.
But stil l oppose d one-arme d t o blind ,
They stoo d thos e dauntles s two .
Ah, me ! that I have live d t o hea r
Such me n a s ruffian s scorned .
Such deed s o f valou r "brutal " called ,
Canted, preache d dow n an d mourned !
Ah! that thes e ol d eye s ne'e r agai n
A gallant mil l shal l see !
No mor e behol d th e rope s an d stake s
With colour s flying free . . .

'55
 THE MANL Y AR T

To hi s youn g heir s th e ol d fighte r lament s tha t Sayer s an d Heena n

were th e las t o f a dyin g breed ;

And no w m y fist s ar e feeble ,

And m y bloo d i s thi n an d cold .
But 'ti s bette r tha n Ol d To m t o me .
To recall thos e day s o f old .
And ma y you , m y grea t grandchildren .
That gathe r roun d m y knee ,
Ne'er se e wors e me n no r ille r time s
Than 1 and min e migh t be ,
Though Englan d the n ha d prize-fighters —
Even reprobate s lik e me. 20

While Sayers' s skil l an d gri t wo n th e heart s o f hi s countrymen , man y

in Irelan d remembere d Heenan' s ancestr y an d embrace d hi m a s thei r
representative agains t th e Englis h oppressors . Fo r decades afte r th e battl e
at Farnborough , pub s throughou t th e Unite d Kingdo m ran g wit h song s o f
praise fo r th e tw o champions. 21
America's enthusias m fo r it s youn g her o reache d equa l heights . Ther e
were, o f course , th e usua l stree t ballads , wit h Irish-American s singin g
loudest:

Attend yo u son s o f Erin , an d liste n wit h delight ,

To a ditty , 'ti s concernin g th e grea t an d gloriou s fight ,
On th e seventeent h o f April , whe n thousand s wen t wit h joy,
To see th e Englis h Champio n an d th e bol d Benici a boy... .

When Heena n cam e t o England , fa r fro m a distant land .

They sai d h e wa s a foo l t o com e t o fac e a n Englishman ,
But the y wer e al l mistake n whe n the y sa w th e gloriou s battle ,
Heenan cooke d th e Champion' s bacon , an d mad e hi s daylight s rattle .

As man y a s fift y thousan d peopl e cam e t o Jone s Wood , a Ne w Yor k

City park , t o gree t th e returnin g conquero r an d witnes s a benefi t
exhibition i n hi s honor . Later , twelv e thousan d Bostonian s fete d th e Boy ,
and othe r citie s arrange d simila r greetings. 22
After th e initia l euphori a ha d wor n off , man y American s bega n t o
grumble abou t th e join t championship , an d som e editor s suggeste d tha t
the Englis h cheate d th e Bo y ou t o f hi s rightfu l title . Tha t Sayer s traine d
unmolested whil e constable s chase d Heena n fro m cam p t o camp— a fac t
publicly deplore d b y Sayers—wa s no w reinterprete d a s th e firs t sign s o f
a large r pattern . Th e Herald insiste d o n Heenan' s superiority , claimin g

'56
 TRIUMPH AN D DECLIN E

that me n brok e th e rin g t o sav e their wagers . Th e New York Times agreed ,
adding tha t England' s declinin g internationa l prestig e cause d i t t o stoo p
so low . Wilkes' Spirit of the Times, whic h originall y assure d it s reader s
that Heena n woul d b e treate d wit h even-handedness , no w implicate d He r
Majesty's governmen t i n th e conspiracy , agreein g wit h th e othe r paper s
that th e Bo y ha d bee n swindle d becaus e th e Britis h feare d humiliatio n i n
the eye s o f th e Europea n community . Al l fel t tha t England' s vaunte d
sense o f fai r pla y stoo d reveale d a s a sham . Th e issu e fade d i n intensit y
as th e sectiona l conflic t galvanize d th e nation' s attention , bu t whe n
Anglo-American relation s deteriorate d durin g th e Civi l War , man y woul d
recall th e Farnboroug h figh t a s a n earl y sig n o f Englis h treachery. 23
In sportin g hous e legend , o n th e popula r stage , an d i n barroo m song ,
however, member s o f th e fanc y mad e righ t th e wron g don e t o America .
A balla d entitle d "Heena n an d Sayers " conflate d eac h boxe r wit h a
cherished nationa l symbol .

It wa s i n merr y England , th e hom e o f Johnni e Bull ,

Where Briton s fil l thei r glasses , the y fil l the m brimmin g full ,
And o f th e toas t the y drank , i t wa s t o Briton s brave ,
And i t i s lon g ma y ou r champio n brin g victorie s o'e r th e waves .

Then u p jumps Uncl e Sammy , an d h e look s acros s th e main .

Saying, "I s tha t you r Englis h bull y I hear bellowin g again ?
Oh, ha s h e no t forgotte n th e gian t o'e r th e pond ,
Who use d t o juggle canno n ball s whe n hi s day' s wor k wa s done ?

"Remember, Uncl e Johnnie , th e gian t stronge r grows ,

He i s alway s o n hi s muscl e an d read y fo r hi s foes ;
When bu t a bo y a t Yorktow n I caused yo u fo r t o sigh ,
So whe n e'e r yo u boas t o f fighting , Johnni e Bull , min d you r eye " . . .

Come, al l yo u sportin g Americans , whereve r yo u hav e strayed ,

Look o n thi s gloriou s eagl e an d neve r b e afraid ;
May ou r Unio n las t foreve r an d ou r flag the worl d defy ,
So wheneve r yo u boas t o f fighting , Johnni e Bull , min d you r eye .

The identificatio n o f th e champio n boxe r wit h nationa l virilit y coul d

not hav e bee n clearer . Momentarily , pugilis m droppe d th e distinctiv e
garb o f working-clas s stree t gangs , donne d th e star s an d stripes , an d
paraded boldl y u p Mai n Street. 24
Twice befor e American s ha d venture d t o Englan d seekin g th e champi -
onship, an d hardl y anyon e ha d noticed . Now , however , increasin g

i57
 THE MANLY ART

/flA'6 N.,B",�n.,
_ftI I'., tAur

...Ii\........ ..
•

"'Yankee Doodle' on his muscle." A Currier and Ives lithograph reveals

Americans' belief that Heenan had been swindled. Here the Benicia Boy takes on
the crowd after disposing of Sayers. Courtesy of the Print Collection, The New
York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations.

numbers of men could imagine prize fighters as representative Ameri­

cans, symbols of national prowess, defenders of the Union against
foreign foes. Boxing matches hardly offered a model of Victorian
decorum, but Heenan seemed a comparatively respectable champion.
Although the Benicia Boy loved the free-and-easy life of saloons, so far
he had avoided the public association with gang violence and political
corruption-"open ruffianism," as the Times put it-which made Sullivan,
Hyer, and Morrissey notorious.25 The timing of the Sayers-Heenan fight
was also important, for a subtle shift was just beginning in the bourgeois
view of the world. That view still insisted upon morally rigid and
self-controlled behavior, but latent values, competitiveness, the will to
win, and masculine toughness, also were beginning to emerge. These
ideals took on new meaning as class tensions deepened and capitalist

. 158 .
 TRIUMPH AN D DECLIN E

competition gre w eve r mor e intense . Boxin g an d othe r violen t sport s

would b e embrace d i n comin g year s b y man y respectabl e American s a s
confirmation o f personal an d national virility , metaphors fo r the rough-and -
tumble struggle s o f business , politics , an d diplomacy. Bu t thi s shift , a s w e
shall see , wa s primaril y a developmen t o f th e lat e nineteent h century .
The mos t obviou s an d mos t importan t reaso n wh y th e Sayers-Heena n
fight attracte d suc h broad-base d attentio n wa s it s nationalisti c overtones .
Ambivalent a s som e me n migh t b e abou t th e ring , her e wa s a chanc e t o
twist th e Britis h lion' s tai l a t a time whe n symboli c internationa l contest s
at pedestria n tracks , cricke t fields , racecourses , an d boatin g regatta s
were a n establishe d phenomenon . B y i86 0 sport s an d chauvinis m wer e
intertwined tightly , an d Joh n C . Heenan , bor n i n Americ a o f Iris h
parents, unite d native s an d immigrant s an d thereb y becam e a symbo l o f
opposition t o a commo n enemy .
Above all, the fight occurred whe n America n nationhoo d wa s disturbingl y
tenuous. Wit h th e sectiona l conflic t openl y threatenin g th e Union ,
cravings fo r emblem s o f solidarit y wer e particularl y acute . England , a
traditional antagonis t mad e doubl y menacin g b y it s nee d fo r Souther n
cotton, prove d a convenien t foil . Deflectin g interna l division s ont o a n
outside enemy , th e figh t allowe d me n t o experienc e a rus h o f patrioti c
fervor precisel y whe n thing s wer e fallin g apart . Jus t a s Secretary o f Stat e
William Sewar d late r predicte d tha t a wa r agains t Englan d woul d patc h
up sectiona l divisions , s o th e Farnboroug h figh t temporaril y drowne d
American differences i n a wav e o f nationa l unity . Al l o f thes e factor s
came togethe r t o mak e th e Sayers-Heena n figh t on e of th e mos t dramati c
sporting event s o f th e nineteent h century .

Civil War s

One nee d onl y visualiz e Englis h soldier s durin g Worl d Wa r I kicking

a socce r bal l a s the y charge d th e enem y trenche s t o appreciat e th e tie s
between spor t an d moder n warfare , especiall y durin g th e twentiet h cen -
tury. Gen e Tunney , fo r example , receive d hi s rin g trainin g a s a membe r
of th e America n Expeditionar y Force , fightin g hi s wa y t o th e ligh t
heavyweight championshi p o f th e aime d services . Durin g Worl d Wa r I I
the agin g Jac k Dempse y an d champio n Jo e Loui s eac h stage d count -
less exhibition s t o entertai n troops ; bot h wer e therefor e haile d a s mode l
fighting men . Image s o f warfar e an d th e priz e rin g hav e grow n s o clos e
that man y American s sa w onl y hypocris y i n Muhamma d Ali' s coura -
geous an d costl y decisio n t o resist th e draft durin g th e Vietna m wa r era. 26

'59
 THE MANL Y AR T

During th e Civi l War , however , ther e wa s nothin g automati c abou t th e

association o f boxin g wit h warfare . Joh n C . Heena n wa s criticize d fo r
returning t o Englan d an d failin g t o serv e i n th e Unio n Army , bu t fe w
people seeme d surprise d b y hi s action , an d h e receive d littl e o f th e
opprobrium heape d o n Al i a centur y late r (or , fo r tha t matter , o n
Dempsey, wh o avoide d servic e i n Worl d Wa r I) . Afte r all , boxin g an d
warfare bot h demande d bruta l behavior , bu t layin g dow n one' s lif e fo r
love o f countr y wa s fundamentall y differen t fro m thumpin g anothe r ma n
for money . A s w e hav e seen , som e o f th e earlies t criticism s o f priz e
fighting i n Americ a asserte d tha t ancien t Gree k boxer s mad e th e leas t
reliable soldier s becaus e the y cam e fro m th e "viles t classes " o f society .
Union Genera l Thoma s Wentwort h Higginso n revive d thi s notion , de -
claring tha t th e bookis h youn g schola r migh t posses s selfles s idealis m
while th e barroo m brawler' s courag e extende d n o furthe r tha n hi s
egotistical interests. 27
Still, a tenuou s logi c connect s boxin g an d warfare . O n th e simples t
level, th e goo d boxer , lik e th e goo d soldier , i s a violen t man , dolin g ou t
more punishmen t tha n h e receives . Bot h liv e i n a worl d wher e physica l
conflict i s th e norm . Durin g th e Mexica n War , fo r example , i t wa s
assumed tha t Joh n McCleester' s pugnaciousnes s transferre d t o th e fiel d
of battle ; h e boaste d tha t h e kille d twelv e Mexican s on e da y befor e
breakfast. Mor e important , boxin g an d moder n warfar e share d a preoc -
cupation wit h th e technique s o f violence . Boxer s di d no t simpl y poun d
each othe r an y mor e tha n general s simpl y overwhelme d opposin g ar -
mies. Disciplin e an d scienc e wer e centra l t o bot h occupations . No t mer e
destructiveness bu t destructiv e techniques—bringin g skill , finesse , an d
intellect t o th e caus e o f violence—wer e hallmark s o f bot h boxin g an d
warfare. Eve n th e languag e o f th e rin g an d tha t o f th e battlefiel d bega n
to interpenetrate . Thu s officer s allude d t o boxin g whe n the y spok e o f
"feinting" an d "parrying " wit h th e enemy—term s borrowe d fro m
fencing—while priz e fighter s bega n receivin g prais e fo r thei r "general -
ship" o n th e "fiel d o f battle." 28
Americans ha d just starte d t o mak e thes e connection s durin g th e Civi l
War, an d th e proces s wa s mor e haphazar d tha n planned , mor e uncon -
scious tha n deliberate . A fe w individual s argued , a s Englishmen ha d tw o
generations earlier , tha t boxin g taugh t courag e b y example . Mor e impor -
tant, th e Civi l Wa r duplicate d o n a massiv e scal e som e o f th e cultura l
qualities o n whic h th e rin g thrived , especiall y th e all-mal e pee r groups .
Camp an d fiel d rewarde d toughness , punishe d squeamishness , an d
created "working " condition s tha t free d u p distinc t period s o f leisur e

160
 TRIUMPH AN D DECLIN E

time. Als o significant , America n me n rushe d t o wa r i n 186 1 an d 186 2

with Sayer s an d Heena n stil l fres h i n thei r memories. 29
The efflorescenc e o f sport s i n th e 1850 s offere d ready-mad e model s o f
recreation fo r th e soldier s o f th e 1860s . Baseball , runnin g an d leapin g
contests, wrestling , hors e racing , an d football , obstacle-cours e runs ,
sharpshooting, an d eve n cockfightin g becam e standar d entertainment s i n
camp an d field . Th e wa r sprea d knowledg e o f ne w style s o f pla y t o
individuals fro m ever y corne r o f th e country . Soldier s organize d thei r
own game s fo r entertainmen t an d t o alleviat e boredom , bu t athletic s
were als o encourage d b y officers . Som e battalion s hel d gal a sport s days ,
erecting grandstands , invitin g loca l ladie s an d politicians , an d awardin g
prizes. Leader s o f a fe w regiments , Berdan' s Sharpshooters , fo r exam -
ple, deliberatel y promote d sports , believin g tha t the y enhance d endur -
ance an d comba t readines s whil e fosterin g espri t d e corps . Thu s boxin g
proliferated as , increasingly , test s o f physica l skil l becam e a part o f arm y
routine. 30
The Civi l Wa r no t onl y encourage d sports , i t lef t unusuall y detaile d
evidence abou t them . Th e conflic t wa s life' s singl e greates t even t fo r
many men , s o officer s an d soldier s alik e fel t compelle d t o writ e thei r
memoirs. I n s o doing , the y recorde d som e o f th e bes t evidenc e o f
boxing's penetratio n int o America n cultur e b y th e 1860s . Th e ring' s
unsavory an d shor t histor y i n Americ a make s it s familiarit y t o soldier s
seem surprising . Bu t i t wa s mostl y th e poo r an d th e workin g class , ofte n
from immigran t backgrounds , wh o serve d i n combat , s o th e conflic t
brought togethe r i n massiv e number s precisel y thos e sort s o f me n wh o
had contribute d t o pugilism' s recen t popularity .
Several Unio n an d Confederat e soldier s recalle d sparrin g matche s a s
part o f thei r regula r cam p entertainments . Member s o f th e 37t h Massa -
chusetts Volunteers , fo r example , warme d thei r bloo d o n col d day s wit h
brisk exhibitions . Phili p Creek , o f Wisconsin' s Sau k Count y Riflemen ,
noted tha t boxin g wa s i n grea t vogu e i n hi s camp . Alons o F . Hill , o f
Pennsylvania's 8t h Regiment , remembere d crowd s gatherin g aroun d
gloved soldier s wh o wer e "battin g awa y a t eac h other' s head s mos t
delightfully." Virginian s N . W . Woo d an d W . M . Dam e describe d
regimental bouts , an d Delava n S . Miller , wh o serve d i n Ne w York' s
Second Heav y Artillery , wrot e year s afte r th e wa r o f Bower y newsbo y
Pete Boyl e enlivenin g th e cam p wit h hi s sparrin g exhibitions. 3 '
The Arm y o f th e Potomac' s Sixt h Corp s wa s especiall y renowne d fo r
its pugnacity , a trai t encourage d b y commander s an d relishe d b y th e
men. Jus t befor e th e Battl e o f Fredericksburg , officer s se t u p sparrin g

161
 T H E M A N L Y AR T

matches a s regula r exercise , an d a doze n accomplishe d pugilist s helpe d

teach th e novices . Th e Iris h regiment s wer e particularl y note d fo r thei r
skill wit h th e gloves , i n par t becaus e man y professiona l boxer s o f Iris h
extraction wer e drafte d int o th e service . Occasionall y th e me n eve n
staged regula r prize fights , a t which officer s wer e "unofficially " present. 32
The "Blood y Ol d Sixth " als o containe d plent y o f raw-bone d Gree n
Mountain bruisers , Lackawann a miners , Alleghen y ironworkers , an d
strapping lumberme n fro m Wisconsi n an d Maine . I n on e o f thei r priz e
fights, soldier s subscribe d a purs e o f fiv e hundre d dollars , mad e a ring
from spar e picke t rope , an d be t heavil y o n a Vermon t whalema n an d a
Pittsburgh ironmolder . A sergean t referee d th e battle , som e corporal s
acted a s seconds , an d a thousan d Unio n soldiers—includin g officer s
ranking a s hig h a s brigadie r general—watche d th e tw o heroe s stri p t o
their drawer s o n a blisterin g Sunda y mornin g i n Jul y 1864 . Augustu s
Buelľs descriptio n o f th e battl e read s lik e th e sportin g journalism o f hi s
day. Th e iron-heade d Pennsylvanian , hi s fac e resemblin g " a badly -
carved join t o f roas t beef, " kep t comin g bac k smilin g fo r more ,
unnerving th e cleve r Vermonte r wh o expecte d t o wi n o n hi s "cat-lik e
activity an d sailo r tricks. " Enduranc e triumphe d ove r craf t i n thi s fight ,
and everyon e wa s delighte d wit h th e battle . Ne w matche s wer e arranged ,
but the y faile d t o come of f whe n th e Sixt h Corp s move d dow n th e valle y
of Virgini a an d bac k int o th e rea l battle. 33
The draf t reduce d th e number s o f regula r matche s i n th e bi g citie s
during th e war , bu t boxers-turned-soldier s carrie d o n th e manl y art . O n
New Year' s Da y 1862 , fo r example , Jimmi e Lavill e an d M . O'Rourke ,
both o f Compan y A , Firs t Fir e Zouaves , repaire d t o th e beac h a t
Newport News , Virginia , t o settl e a dispute . Rin g veteran s Denn y
Horrigan an d Mik e Traino r serve d a s seconds , an d lightweigh t Harr y
Lazarus acte d a s referee . Ye t th e mos t surprisin g manifestation s o f
boxing durin g th e wa r wer e no t regimenta l sparrin g matche s o r regula r
prize fights , bu t th e persona l quarrel s settle d accordin g t o priz e figh t
rules. Pugilisti c custom s wer e sufficientl y wel l know n tha t man y me n
resorted t o the m t o resolv e thei r differences . On e soldie r insulte d
another, arm y an d cavalr y me n disagree d ove r wh o ha d priorit y acces s t o
a road , tw o me n argue d abou t whic h shoul d fil l hi s mes s pai l first—al l
offered potentia l reason s fo r fisticuffs. 34
These an d th e countles s othe r grievance s tha t aros e amon g me n tryin g
to cop e wit h unfamilia r an d uncomfortabl e surroundings , livin g cheek-by -
jowl, eatin g ba d food , sleepin g o n th e ground , sufferin g throug h hea t
and cold , sharin g intens e boredo m punctuate d b y profoun d dange r an d
sickening brutality , le d t o countles s informa l bu t rule-boun d matches .
162
 TRIUMPH AN D DECLIN E

Colonel Warre n o f th e Fift h Ne w Yor k Volunteer s preferre d rin g comba t

to festerin g quarrels , s o h e ha d hi s me n retir e t o a seclude d spo t wher e
they engage d "i n a fai r stand-u p fight , t o settl e som e rivalr y o r grudg e
that ha d bee n engendere d i n camp. " Amon g th e 27t h Indian a Voluntee r
Infantry, fistfight s ofte n gre w ou t o f persona l quarrels , an d prope r
etiquette demande d tha t th e combatant s figh t unti l on e crie d "enough. "
"In fact, " Edmun d Randolp h Brow n recalled , "i t wa s no t saf e t o
quarrel unles s on e wante d t o fight . A ring wa s often forme d wit h th e tw o
quarreling fellow s inside , an d the y wer e almos t compelle d t o knoc k i t
out o r ceas e quarreling." 35
The close-kni t lif e o f th e cam p an d th e dependenc e o f me n i n wa r o n
one anothe r require d tha t dispute s b e resolve d expeditiousl y an d wit h
finality. Individual s release d thei r rancor s i n th e rin g an d lef t th e magi c
circle wit h socia l equilibriu m restored . I n thi s sense , boxin g provide d fo r
foot soldier s a saf e equivalen t t o th e duel s tha t militar y officer s ha d
favored a fe w decade s earlier . Bot h form s o f comba t wer e highl y publi c
dramas, mergin g violenc e wit h restraint . Boxin g matche s wer e no t se t
off sharpl y fro m "rea l life, " moreover , becaus e on e man' s persona l battl e
was another' s entertainment , an d th e role s o f pugilis t an d spectato r
shifted wit h dail y circumstances . Eac h match , then , wa s a mode l fo r
future conduct . Th e lac k o f rigi d barrier s betwee n observer s an d partici -
pants underscore d th e necessit y o f fai r pla y an d demonstrate d ho w
emotions mus t b e release d unde r condition s tha t wer e rule-boun d an d
even-handed, s o tha t lif e i n cam p an d fiel d coul d retur n quickl y t o
normal. 36
Most important , ami d th e mos t bruta l an d deadl y conflic t betwee n th e
Napoleonic Er a an d Worl d Wa r I , pugilis m offere d a glimme r o f
idealized, restraine d combat . Durin g th e Battl e o f th e Wilderness , a
singularly hideou s episod e i n a wa r o f unprecedente d ugliness , a Unio n
and a Confederat e soldie r foun d themselve s trappe d i n a dee p gull y
midway betwee n opposin g lines . Eac h claime d th e othe r a s prisone r o f
war, an d the y decide d t o settl e th e issu e wit h a regula r fistfight . A s th e
two aros e an d strippe d of f thei r coats , a yel l wen t u p fro m th e lines .
Troops o n bot h side s cease d fir e an d surge d forwar d t o watc h th e battle .
Before lon g th e Rebe l beste d th e Yank . The y bot h rolle d bac k int o th e
gully an d shootin g resume d unti l nightfall , whe n captiv e an d prisone r
emerged. 37
In a simila r inciden t nea r Fredericksburg , i n 1862 , th e 24t h Michiga n
Regiment relieve d th e Secon d Wisconsi n o n picke t dut y bu t wa s no t tol d
of a n informa l truc e wit h th e enemy. Whe n th e Michiga n me n sho t dow n
several unwar y Confederates , a bitte r skirmis h ensued . Lat e i n th e day ,
• 163 .
 THE MANL Y AR T

however, a rebe l soldie r shoute d a challeng e t o a Yankee , an d th e tw o

walked t o a turnpik e an d bega n exchangin g punches . Th e boxer s dre w
the attentio n o f bot h picke t lines , an d befor e lon g Unio n an d Confederat e
troops stoppe d shootin g an d gathere d t o watc h th e mill . Afte r a lon g
battle th e spectator s intervene d an d calle d th e fight a draw, ratifyin g thei r
decision b y shakin g hand s al l around , tradin g coffe e an d tobacco , an d
agreeing t o reinstat e th e truce. 38
In th e mids t o f intens e an d bitte r struggle , then , th e ideal s o f fai r
stand-up comba t momentaril y overshadowe d th e surroundin g carnage .
Guns an d bayonet s wer e availabl e t o th e tw o me n i n th e gully—indeed ,
to al l soldier s wh o poure d ou t thei r enmitie s i n th e ring—bu t th e
opponents rejecte d the m an d chos e instea d a culturall y sanctione d
method o f settlin g disputes . Fo r a brie f momen t th e limited , rule-bound ,
and les s letha l technique s o f boxin g wer e sufficientl y compellin g tha t
men stoppe d killin g on e anothe r t o watc h th e symboli c drama . Her e wa s
an archetypica l exampl e o f th e pla y elemen t i n culture, o f man' s nee d fo r
ordered, regulate d competition , ofte n deadl y seriou s yet circumscribe d
by tacitl y agree d upo n rules. 39
It i s significan t tha t suc h incident s occurre d no t i n th e mids t o f regula r
battles bu t durin g th e chao s o f outpos t skirmishes , wher e th e enem y wa s
often hidde n an d deat h lurke d nea r bu t unseen . Jus t a s th e rin g brough t
momentary symboli c orde r t o th e chao s o f working-clas s streets , s o th e
drama o f fistfightin g betwee n equal s presente d a poignan t i f fleeting
alternative t o the ghastlines s o f battle . Spor t becam e muc h mor e tha n th e
moral equivalen t o f war . I t supplante d wa r because , unde r th e circum -
stances, i t wa s a n authenti c expressio n o f men' s needs . Th e finitud e an d
limited violenc e o f a fistfigh t wer e mor e compelling , mor e understand -
able tha n th e dail y carnage . I n th e crus h o f war' s mora l horror , her e wa s
limited comba t fille d wit h significance , a palpabl e exampl e bot h o f
human aggressio n an d o f huma n abilit y t o contro l it . Fo r th e me n wh o
temporarily lai d dow n thei r arm s an d swappe d tobacco , th e symboli c
violence o f pla y offere d meanin g denie d b y th e anarch y o f war .

"... The Gang s Wh o Rag e an d How l a t th e Ropes "

By th e earl y 1860 s priz e fightin g ha d reache d a highwate r mark .

Sports i n genera l wer e gainin g acceptance , th e Sayers-Heena n battl e
identified th e ring wit h America n patriotism , th e Civi l Wa r helpe d
familiarize countles s me n wit h pugilism , an d eve n th e middl e an d uppe r
classes showe d sign s o f interest . Th e shee r volum e o f rin g activitie s

164
 TRIUMPH AN D DECLIN E

continued t o increase . Larg e norther n citie s sa w numerou s exhibitions ,

some o f whic h resemble d priz e fights mor e tha n eve r before . Th e spiri t
of mutualit y als o continue d when , i n th e sprin g o f 1862 , severa l rin g
men stage d a benefit fo r Yanke e Sullivan' s destitut e mother . A yea r late r
John Morrisse y an d Bil l "Dubli n Tricks " Hasting s organize d a gran d
sparring benefi t fo r th e starvin g poo r o f Ireland. 40
Boxing's cente r o f gravit y bega n shiftin g wes t durin g thes e years . Co n
Orem, a n excellen t fighte r fro m th e Colorad o Territory , becam e th e
unofficial "Champio n o f th e West " an d displaye d hi s talent s before a s
many a s twenty-fiv e hundre d spectator s i n th e ne w mecc a o f frontie r
pugilism, th e minin g tow n o f Virgini a City , Nevad a Territory . Her e th e
specuF tive scrambl e fo r wealt h withi n a n all-mal e wor k cultur e encour -
aged a relatively fre e mora l atmosphere . Saloonkeepe r J . A . Nelso n buil t
Leviathan Hall—a n aren a attache d t o hi s taver n wit h grade d seat s
descending towar d a ring—an d openl y arranged , promoted , an d referee d
bouts. Virgini a City' s fines t hou r cam e i n Januar y 1865 , whe n Ore m
fought Hug h O'Nea l t o a one-hundred-eighty-five roun d dra w fo r a purse
of on e thousan d dollar s i n gol d plu s th e gat e receipts . Othe r wester n
promoters followe d Nelson' s lead , buildin g amphitheaters , chargin g
admission, distributin g th e gat e receipt s amon g th e principals , an d
selling liquo r an d gamblin g pool s t o entertainment-starve d men. 41
For th e nex t tw o decade s saloonkeeper s i n th e wester n minin g territo -
ries o f Nevada , Idaho , Montana , Dakota , an d Colorad o wer e priz e
fighting's primar y commercia l innovators . Eve n i n th e lan d o f gu n fight s
and six-shooters , boxin g mad e headwa y a s a means o f settlin g disputes .
On severa l occasion s th e youn g marsha l Wyat t Ear p o f Dodg e Cit y too k
off hi s gu n bel t an d fough t outlaw s wit h "nature' s weapons. " Cowboy s
with a grudg e agains t Ear p ofte n believe d the y ha d a bette r chanc e wit h
fists tha n pistols , thoug h th e marsha l usuall y prove d the m wrong . Takin g
no chances, however , Earp' s frien d Ba t Masterso n cam e t o these contest s
armed, t o assur e fai r play . Lat e i n th e centur y th e lawme n officiate d a t
regular priz e fights , an d Masterso n finishe d hi s day s a s a Ne w Yor k Cit y
boxing reporter. 42
Far fro m satiatin g th e country' s tast e fo r violence , th e Civi l Wa r
seemed t o whe t appetite s fo r ring combat . Severa l priz e fight s attracte d
national attention , thoug h non e prove d a s spectacula r a s the - grea t
championship bout s o f th e previou s decade . Lat e i n 186 3 Heenan , wh o
now live d overseas , ende d hi s pugilisti c caree r agains t Britis h champio n
Tom King . The y fough t i n Wadhurst , Sussex , fo r tw o thousan d dollar s a
side, an d th e battl e stirre d grea t excitemen t i n th e America n press .
Convinced tha t th e Englis h ha d cheate d th e Bo y i n i86 0 an d angr y ove r

165
 THE M A N L Y AR T

surreptitious Britis h ai d t o th e Confederacy , American s sa w a chance fo r

vindication. Unfortunately , Heena n wa s no t th e fighte r o f thre e year s
earlier, an d althoug h h e did wel l a t first, Kin g finall y knocke d hi m ou t o f
time afte r twenty-fiv e round s lastin g thirty-fiv e minutes . Lik e th e
Farnborough battle , th e Heenan-Kin g figh t remaine d a controversia l
topic fo r decades . Th e Londo n Sportsman claime d tha t th e Benici a Boy' s
second, Jac k Ma c Donald, accepte d a pay-of f t o dru g hi s man , bu t
MacDonald charge d i n retur n tha t Heena n himsel f sol d th e fight .
American writer s late r claime d tha t th e Bo y ha d th e battl e i n han d an d
knocked hi s opponen t unconsciou s i n th e nineteent h round , bu t tha t
King's " m o b " brok e th e ring , givin g th e Englishma n full y tw o minute s
to c ear hi s head . Thoroughl y dispirited , Heena n an d hi s backer s los t
their wil l t o continue. 43
All o f thes e charge s an d countercharge s wer e symptom s o f th e lowes t
decline yet o f th e Englis h ring . B y th e en d o f th e decad e a ras h o f fixe d
matches, riot s a t ringside , an d magistrates ' interferenc e discourage d
men fro m attendin g o r wagerin g o n fights . Lat e i n th e decade , a t th e
urging o f a fe w ke y boxer s an d noblemen , th e marqui s o f Queensberr y
rules—a modifie d versio n o f th e cod e governin g amateu r sparrin g amon g
gentlemen—were adopte d fo r professiona l priz e fighting , i n th e hop e
that the y woul d hel p giv e th e rin g a mor e respectabl e image . I n th e
meantime England' s fines t fighter s bega n a ne w exodu s t o th e Unite d
States. A s fo r Heenan , America' s mos t celebrate d pugilis t (thoug h a ma n
who neve r wo n a majo r fight ) finishe d hi s caree r sprawle d i n hi s corner ,
vomiting uncontrollably . H e returne d home , di d som e politica l strong -
arm work , gav e a fe w exhibitions , faile d a s a far o parlo r operator , an d
headed bac k wes t t o California . H e die d o n th e wa y an d wa s burie d i n
Green River , Wyomin g Territory . Lik e hi s ol d antagonis t To m Sayers , h e
failed t o reac h th e ag e o f forty. 44
Despite Heenan' s patheti c collapse , importan t fight s wer e stage d o n
American soi l durin g thi s era . Co n Fitzgeral d an d E d Wilso n fough t a n
excellent ten-rounde r a t Por t Penn , Delaware , i n 1863 , a figh t remark -
able becaus e bot h me n eschewe d clinche s an d wrestlin g holds , preferrin g
to stan d an d slu g ou t th e entir e match . Bu t mos t spectacula r wa s the Ma y
5, 1863 , battl e betwee n Josep h Cobur n an d Mik e McCool e fo r on e
thousand dollar s eac h an d a sid e be t o f seve n hundre d dollars . Wit h
Morrissey's retiremen t an d Heenan' s absenc e i n England , newspaper s
declared thi s a championshi p fight. 45
Both combatant s wer e naturalize d Americans , son s o f th e Emeral d
Isle, yet th e matc h wa s portraye d a s a microcos m o f th e Civi l War . A
New Yor k stonemason , small , muscular , abou t Yanke e Sullivan' s siz e

166 .
 TRIUMPH AN D DECLIN E

American Fistiana, cove r o f th e 187 3 edition . Firs t publishe d i n 184 9 an d

enlarged i n i86 0 an d 1873 , this work claimed t o be the definitive histor y o f the
American ring. Much of its text reprinted old fight storie s from the sporting press.

167
 THE MANL Y AR T

and ver y scientific , Cobur n wa s stil l remembere d fo r hi s thre e hour ,

twenty minut e battl e wit h E d Pric e nea r Bosto n ove r a decad e earlier .
McCoole, i n contrast , wa s a St . Loui s deckhan d wh o roughe d i t u p
among tha t "har d an d quarrelsom e se t o f fellow s mannin g th e steamers ,
flatboats, an d floating palace s fro m St . Loui s t o Ne w Orleans. " Th e
press evoke d th e rough-and-tumbl e heritag e o f th e Southwes t t o describ e
his fightin g style : "Rope s an d stake s ar e no t alway s t o b e foun d i n th e
valley o f th e Southwest , an d gentleme n wh o extrac t eac h others ' eye s
and mutuall y masticat e nose s ca n scarcel y b e expecte d t o discriminat e
between wha t Bell's Life in London call s 'fair ' an d 'foul ' blows. " I f no t
exactly Bill y Yan k an d Johnn y Reb , Cobur n an d McCool e woul d do. 4 6
The Nort h versu s Sout h symbolism , however , wa s a mixe d blessing ,
as som e journalist s too k th e opportunit y t o contras t th e selflessnes s o f
young soldier s dyin g fo r a nobl e caus e wit h th e lo w cunnin g o f th e
gamblers wh o arrange d th e priz e fight . Stil l th e battl e cam e of f tru e t o
form, wit h article s o f agreement , stak e mone y deposite d i n Fran k
Queen's hands , regula r training , an d plent y o f wagering . Th e pres s size d
up th e fighter s wit h th e usua l lovin g care : "Ther e wa s no t a n ounc e o f
superfluous flesh o n an y par t [o f Coburn] ; th e muscle s o f hi s arm s an d
shoulders. . . showed lik e bundle s o f cor d unde r hi s fair , almos t transpar -
ent skin . Hi s loins , also , an d leg s wer e strong , fir m an d muscular , an d
his entir e appearanc e tha t o f a ma n o f th e highes t for m o f physica l
development an d i n th e perfectio n o f condition . Nothin g coul d b e mor e
beautifully artisti c tha n hi s position , equall y read y fo r offensiv e o r
defensive operations." 47
At leas t thre e thousan d people , includin g sportin g me n fro m majo r
East Coas t citie s an d rive r town s suc h a s Cincinnat i an d St . Louis ,
boarded train s fo r th e tin y statio n a t Charlestown , Maryland . Man y Ne w
Yorkers lef t tw o day s befor e th e fight , stoppin g t o enjo y th e hospitalit y
of Philadelphia' s saloon s an d brothels . B y 6:o o A.M . o n Ma y 5 the rope s
were pitche d i n a n ope n field , an d rin g keeper s bega n chargin g specta -
tors on e dolla r each— a crud e commercia l innovation . Loca l townsfol k
rented ou t thei r cart s t o thos e wh o wante d a n elevate d view , enterprisin g
housewives di d a brisk busines s i n coffee , pancakes , an d frie d pork , an d
one ma n se t u p a n imprompt u ba r wit h a barre l o f whiskey , tw o bottles ,
and a glass . Aroun d noo n th e principal s appeared , an d th e usua l
formalities followed . Last-minut e wager s a t abou t 10 0 t o 9 0 fo r Cobur n
were lai d an d deposite d i n th e hand s o f refere e E d Price . Finally , th e
men cam e u p fo r th e firs t cal l o f time. 48
As man y ha d predicted , th e figh t wa s comparabl e t o th e Sullivan -
Morrissey affai r o f a decad e before , coo l judgment , experience , an d

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 TRIUMPH AN D DECLIN E

science dominatin g youth , power , an d grit . Afte r sixty-seve n round s

lasting on e hou r an d te n minutes—a n averag e fightin g tim e o f hal f a
minute pe r round , no t unusua l durin g th e bare-knuckl e era—McCoole' s
corner thre w u p th e sponge , thei r ma n terribl y punishe d an d Cobur n
showing barel y a scratch . Th e lose r returne d t o St . Loui s t o nurs e hi s
wounds, whil e th e ne w champio n stage d severa l lucrativ e benefits . Fo r
weeks afte r th e figh t th e New York Mercury an d Wilkes' Spirit of the
Times fough t a protracte d wa r o f word s ove r wh o bes t covere d th e
match, unti l th e battle s o f Gettysbur g an d Vicksbur g overshadowe d th e
skirmish a t Charlestown .
For th e fancy , th e Coburn-McCool e figh t wa s a homecoming . Puttin g
up th e fina l stake s evoke d memorie s o f ol d times , an d th e presenc e o f
such venerabl e ring me n an d gambler s a s Izz y Lazaru s an d Jak e
Somerendyke serve d a s " a reminde r o f th e time whe n me n lik e Hye r an d
Sullivan an d Sulliva n an d Morrissey , wer e o n th e road t o a fight, an d th e
money newl y up. " N o soone r wa s th e champio n crowne d tha n rumor s
spread o f a new internationa l bout , pittin g Cobur n agains t Je m Mace , th e
English titleholder. 49
At firs t glance , then , priz e fightin g seeme d t o prospe r lik e othe r
posťbellum sports . Skillfu l fighter s migrate d t o America , To m Allen ,
Jem Mace , Jo e Goss , Ne d O'Baldwin , Jo e Wormald , an d Bo b Brettl e
among them . Th e infusio n o f ne w talen t le d t o som e fin e matches , suc h
as th e 187 0 bou t betwee n Mac e an d Alle n fo r $2,50 0 a sid e i n Ne w
Orleans. 'A s the y stoo d there , o n guard, " th e Clipper observed , "thei r
flesh glowing i n th e war m sunligh t lik e polishe d bronze , a s yet unspoile d
and undefiled , a n almos t unconsciou s murmu r o f admiratio n ra n throug h
the anxiousl y awaitin g crowd. " Afte r te n intens e round s lastin g forty -
four minutes , Mac e emerge d a s th e unquestione d victor. 50 Fighter s a t
lighter weight s als o ha d thei r day , th e mos t noteworth y matc h bein g th e
five-thousand-dollar "middl e weight " championshi p bou t betwee n Tom -
my Chandle r an d Doone y Harris , hel d a t Poin t Isabel , California , i n
April 1867 . Becaus e o f hi s experienc e an d ring skills , London-bor n
Harris wa s th e bettin g favorit e b y 10 0 t o 75 . Bu t a s th e Clipper sai d o f
Chandler, "n o fine r specime n o f a man ha s ever figure d i n th e prize rin g
on th e Pacifi c Coast . Hi s appearanc e an d expressio n ar e eminentl y
pleasing an d gentlemanly . N o one seein g hi m o n Montgomer y Stree t (th e
Broadway o f Sa n Francisco ) woul d drea m tha t h e wa s a professiona l
pugilist." Chandle r won , an d suc h clean-cu t ne w champion s seeme d t o
fulfill th e ring' s promis e a s envisione d b y Fran k Queen. 51
Boxing's health y exterior , however , belie d interna l corruption . Amids t
the complexitie s o f dail y life , sport s creat e a n idealize d worl d i n whic h

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men bin d themselve s t o specia l rule s an d rituals . Player s an d spectator s

must believ e tha t sportin g code s o f conduc t ar e consistent , no t capri -
cious. Fa r fro m bein g th e cesspoo l o f disorde r critic s charged , th e rin g
demanded equalit y o f opportunit y an d fai r pla y fo r all . Bu t ho w coul d
men hav e fait h i n th e "sacre d circle " i f violence , polic e interference ,
and dishonest y gre w s o commo n tha t n o matc h wa s immune ? Wh y
should the y ris k bein g arrested , cheate d ou t o f thei r wagers , o r roughe d
up t o see a figh t tha t migh t b e fixed ? Despit e th e fin e bout s o f th e
sixties, thes e problem s bega n t o overwhelm th e ring' s tenuou s order , an d
the accumulatio n o f offense s nearl y destroye d priz e fighting. 52
With th e mora l zea l o f th e wa r a s a backdrop, loca l official s redouble d
their effort s t o brea k u p meeting s o f th e fancy , especiall y i n Eas t Coas t
cities. Thei r effort s accounte d i n par t fo r th e ris e t o pugilisti c preemi -
nence o f St . Louis , Ne w Orleans , an d th e wester n territories . Bill y
Donnelly, fo r example , ha d tw o fight s prevente d b y Ne w Yor k Cit y
police. I n 186 3 a well-publicize d bou t o n State n Islan d betwee n Jimm y
Elliott an d Ji m Dun n wa s stoppe d b y harbo r police . Backer s o f Dun n
and Elliot t decide d t o reconven e th e figh t tw o day s later , o n th e Jerse y
shore. Whe n th e sherif f o f Hudso n Count y arrive d jus t befor e th e battl e
and ordere d a n en d t o th e festivities , th e crow d hustle d hi m away . H e
later ha d hi s revenge : polic e arreste d seventy-fiv e spectator s an d hel d
them o n fiv e hundre d dollar s bai l apiece. 53
This patter n o f lega l interferenc e continue d afte r 1865 , indicatin g tha t
more wa s involve d tha n th e mora l strenuosit y engendere d b y war . On e
major reaso n fo r priz e fighting' s lega l difficultie s wa s th e changin g
nature o f urba n politics , especiall y i n Ne w Yor k City . Befor e th e Civi l
War a welte r o f shiftin g faction s an d tenuou s alliance s ha d place d a
premium o n extralega l electora l methods . Bu t part y realignment s an d th e
rise o f th e urba n machin e centralize d power , tempere d loca l conflicts ,
and rationalize d th e distributio n o f patronage . Th e countles s faction s tha t
had fough t eac h othe r s o bitterl y los t influence . Wit h suc h me n a s Bos s
Tweed i n control , th e nee d wa s diminishe d fo r th e ol d shoulde r hitter s t o
pack nominatin g convention s an d secur e th e pollin g places . Urba n
politicians gre w les s dependen t o n th e gang s tha t Hyer , Sullivan , Poole ,
Heenan, an d Morrisse y ha d led , s o boxer s los t thei r shiel d fro m th e law .
Without protection , increasin g number s o f bout s wer e broke n up , an d
more an d mor e fighter s lande d i n jail. 54 I n 186 8 Jo e Cobur n an d Mik e
McCoole spen t fort y day s behin d bar s fo r thei r renewe d attemp t t o settl e
the championshi p o f America , a t Col d Spring s Station , Indiana . Tha t
same yea r Ne d O'Baldwi n an d Jo e Wormal d wer e prevente d fro m con -
summating thei r championshi p figh t thre e times , O'Baldwi n eventuall y

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 TRIUMPH AN D DECLIN E

fleeing t o Canad a an d Wormal d findin g himsel f incarcerated . Althoug h

police brok e u p onl y a smal l fractio n o f th e era' s matches , the y wer e
effective enoug h t o mak e stagin g fight s difficult , puttin g a damper o n al l
pugilistic activities. 55
The ring' s interna l problems , however , wer e muc h mor e debilitatin g
than it s externa l ones . Boxing' s appea l alway s reste d o n a creativ e
dualism betwee n violenc e an d order , impulsivenes s an d self-control ,
brutality an d restraint . A s fa r bac k a s th e legendar y Hyer-Beasle y fight ,
in 1816 , emotion s brok e throug h th e ritual s o f th e ring . Sometime s th e
rules o f stand-u p priz e fightin g wer e n o matc h fo r th e hatred s o f th e
streets, a s th e Dea f Burke-Sa m O'Rourk e bou t an d th e Joh n Morrissey -
Willian Pool e affai r illustrated . Becaus e th e ring wa s a symboli c metho d
of dealin g wit h large r schism s betwee n individuals , ethni c groups , an d
gangs, controllin g violenc e alway s presente d problems . Afte r th e war ,
however, th e balanc e tippe d towar d th e ring' s anarchi c qualities . A s i n
so man y othe r corner s o f Gilde d Ag e America—politics , business ,
personal life—corruptio n becam e th e rule. 56
As earl y a s 185 9 a figh t betwee n Ji m "Ne w Orleans " Burn s an d
Michael "Shanghai " Connor s fo r th e "Championshi p o f th e Mississipp i
Valley" ha d ende d i n a near-riot . Al l wen t wel l enoug h a t first , wit h
everyone enjoyin g th e prefight revelr y an d th e firs t fe w rounds . Ye t i t
soon becam e apparen t tha t Connor s intende d t o dro p rathe r tha n fight ,
and refere e Sand y Morelan d refuse d t o d o anythin g abou t it . I n hi s
frustration, Burn s hi t hi s opponen t afte r h e ha d falle n i n th e fourteent h
round; Morelan d immediatel y awarde d th e figh t t o Connors , givin g
Burns's friend s th e distinc t impressio n tha t th e figh t ha d bee n fixed .
Bums turne d an d struc k Moreland , an d wit h this , spectator s brok e th e
ring, brandishin g knives , clubs , an d revolvers . Fran k Queen' s Clipper
commented o n ho w suc h incident s violate d priz e fighting' s "fai r an d
manly" ethos : "severa l me n wer e shot , on e o r tw o fatally , a fe w nearl y
drowned, an d quit e a numbe r wounded . An d thi s too amon g me n callin g
themselves pugilist s an d lover s o f boxing , etc . Ou t upo n suc h creature s
—they ar e not pugilists , bu t assassin s i n disguis e an d th e la w shoul d
punish ever y on e o f the m tha t engage d i n th e murderou s affray. " I n
coming year s Quee n woul d hav e plent y o f occasion s t o condem n suc h
"mob fights." 57
The precariou s orde r establishe d durin g th e day s o f Sullivan , Hyer ,
and Morrissey , th e poeti c tensio n betwee n bloodlus t an d self-restraint ,
lasted barel y a decade . Boxing' s outla w statu s exacerbate d th e situation .
Unlike hors e racing , wit h it s ne w jocke y club s arrangin g an d handicap -
ping heats , o r earl y baseball , wit h league s tha t worke d ou t unifor m rule s

'7'
 T H E M A N L Y AR T

of competition , priz e fightin g wa s allowe d n o association s tha t migh t

assure adherenc e t o fixe d rules . Th e ring's illegalit y mad e i t possibl e fo r
the mos t violen t an d unscrupulou s individual s t o infiltrat e a spor t alread y
flirting wit h underworl d corruption . I n a n institutiona l sense , eac h priz e
fight wa s a n isolate d event , fo r n o club o r regulatory bod y ha d th e powe r
to standardiz e procedure s an d enforc e rules ; greed , ethni c hatreds , o r
gang rivalries coul d overwhel m ring custom s an d rituals withou t restraint .
These tension s ha d alway s existed , an d i t i s no t possibl e t o sa y
precisely wh y boxin g wa s s o vulnerabl e i n th e posťbellu m era . Perhap s
the ring' s succes s durin g th e fiftie s attracte d to o man y unscrupulou s me n
who care d mor e fo r th e opportunit y t o mak e mone y tha n fo r test s o f
personal an d grou p honor . Surel y th e stoc k swindles , electio n frauds ,
and persona l scandal s o f th e Gilde d Ag e offere d objec t lesson s i n
corruption b y socia l elites . Also , th e industrial-capitalis t socia l orde r ha d
by no w brough t i n it s wak e a permanen t underclass , me n wit h n o
memories o f artisa n lif e an d littl e prospec t fo r decen t employment , a tru e
lumpenproletariat a t th e merc y o f wil d fluctuations i n th e busines s
cycle. B y th e postwa r era , al l o f thes e factor s bega n t o tak e thei r tol l o n
the ring. "Thing s wasn' t a s the y use d t o b e , " th e 187 3 editio n o f
American Fistiana declared , "an d th e day s o f pugilis m seeme d t o b e
drawing t o a close." 58
Charges tha t matche s wer e fixed , fighter s bough t off , an d referee s
dishonest becam e epidemic . I n 1863 , for example , a San Francisc o battl e
between Johnn y Lazaru s an d Pet e Daile y ende d i n chaos . Daile y refuse d
to figh t becaus e Lazaru s fel l withou t a blow, afte r whic h th e crowd brok e
the ring an d th e refere e declare d Daile y th e winner . Th e umpire s an d
second rejecte d thi s decisio n an d ordere d a rematch , bu t i t neve r
occurred. Tha t sam e yea r refere e Michae l Norto n rendere d a ver y
dubious judgmen t i n th e Dunn-Ellio t fight , an d th e fanc y grumble d tha t
the matc h ha d bee n fixed. I n 186 5 a refere e deprive d Mik e For d o f hi s
victory ove r Johnn y Hickey ; i n 186 7 a hostil e mo b o n Fishers ' Island ,
New York , force d a decisio n i n favo r o f a badl y beate n Charli e Collins ;
and i n 1868 , nea r St . Louis , crow d intimidatio n cheate d To m Alle n o f
victory ove r Charles Gallagher . Jo e Wormal d an d Ne d O'Baldwin' s thre e
aborted attempt s a t championshi p fight s i n th e lat e sixtie s wer e widel y
regarded a s swindles , designe d t o chea t fan s ou t o f ticke t mone y an d
gamblers ou t o f thei r wagers. 59 B y 187 0 ring patron s wer e s o suspiciou s
of fixe d battle s tha t eve n th e Mace-Alle n fight , th e bes t contes t o f th e
era, wa s no t immun e t o charge s o f fraud . I n Allen' s adopte d hom e tow n
of St . Louis , som e observer s allege d tha t th e figh t wa s a "sham, " tha t
Mace's victor y wa s a "pu t u p j o b ," tha t Alle n ha d "sol d out." 60

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One yea r late r Mace' s tw o championshi p fight s wit h Jo e Cobur n

appeared ful l o f chicanery . Bot h me n wer e renowne d fighters , bot h ha d
been champions , an d Anglo-Iris h rivalr y promise d vintag e pugilism .
Their firs t fight , o n Ma y 11 , 1871 , wa s wel l promote d wit h sparrin g
tours, printe d attack s o n bot h fighters ' courage , eve n a n allege d assaul t
by Cobur n i n Mace' s Ne w Yor k saloon . Al l o f thi s an d a four-thousand -
dollar stak e notwithstanding , whe n th e tw o finall y entere d th e ring, the y
simply refuse d t o fight . Fo r on e hou r an d seventee n minute s th e
champions circled , feinted , rested , dran k water , an d eye d eac h other ,
striking no t a singl e blo w befor e th e sherif f an d militi a o f Por t Dover ,
Canada West , intervened . Fo r th e "rematch " i n Ba y St . Louis , Missis -
sippi, eac h sid e raise d th e ant e b y fiftee n hundre d dollars , bu t becaus e o f
exorbitant excursio n price s an d declinin g interes t i n th e ring , no t man y
people came . Accordin g t o on e observer , everyon e trie d t o profitee r
from th e fight . Th e railroa d compan y receive d $60 0 fo r a da y trip , loca l
police demande d $30 0 befor e the y woul d le t th e trai n depart , variou s
officials an d journalist s use d threat s t o obtai n fre e tickets . Fewe r tha n a
thousand me n sa w th e contest , an d onl y abou t thre e hundre d an d fift y o f
them pai d thei r way . Cobur n go t th e bette r o f Mac e fo r eleve n mediocr e
rounds, the n bot h reverte d t o stalling , whic h brough t jeer s fro m th e
crowd. Th e refere e finall y entere d th e rin g an d declare d th e figh t a draw,
though som e claime d h e di d s o onl y afte r a prearrange d signa l fro m
Mace's second , To m Allen . Coburn' s refusa l t o follo w u p a n earl y
advantage elicite d th e charg e o f fraud , an d th e sportin g crow d lef t
thoroughly disgusted. 61
By th e seventies , then , th e idea l o f a fai r figh t t o th e finis h ha d give n
way t o a presumptio n o f corruption . Ho w man y me n coul d repea t
without hesitatio n th e boas t o f Yanke e Sullivan' s ol d partisans , tha t thei r
man alway s gav e hi s bes t an d neve r sol d out ? No t just gree d bu t violenc e
threatened th e ring . Beneat h th e humo r i n th e oft-repeate d phras e "th e
referee faile d t o b e killed " la y th e expectatio n o f bloodshe d before ,
during, o r afte r a match . Man y priz e fighter s die d violentl y i n th e 1860 s
and 1870s . Da n Bendig o Smit h wa s kille d i n a knife figh t i n St . Loui s i n
1862, an d Barne y Ford , wh o fough t E d Pric e an d Joh n Taylor , wa s
stabbed t o deat h i n hi s ow n ba r b y hi s brother-in-law . Thre e year s late r
Harry Lazaru s me t th e sam e fat e a t th e hand s o f Barne y Friery , hi s
next-door neighbor . Earl y on e mornin g Frier y entere d Lazarus' s taver n
with som e friends , ostensibl y t o reconcil e a n ol d feud . H e offere d hi s
hand i n friendshi p and , whe n Lazaru s too k it . Frier y pulle d a knif e an d
stabbed hi m i n th e throat . Th e youn g lightweigh t ble d t o deat h wher e h e
fell. I n 187 5 Ne d O'Baldwin' s busines s partne r sho t hi m i n thei r saloon ,

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 T H E MANL Y AR T

and i n 1879 , nin e tough s se t upo n Padd y Rya n an d stabbe d him ,

apparently fo r failin g t o perfor m a t a schedule d sparrin g exhibition .
Fighters wer e perpetrator s a s wel l a s victims . Jo e Cobur n wa s sentence d
to te n year s i n priso n fo r assaul t wit h inten t t o kil l a Ne w Yor k Cit y
police officer , whil e Jimm y Elliot t receive d a sixteen-yea r ter m afte r h e
robbed an d mercilessl y bea t th e well-know n minstre l singe r Hug h
Dougherty.62
Such incident s darkene d pugilism' s alread y tarnishe d image , bu t i t
was th e increase d violenc e aroun d th e ring itsel f tha t mos t harme d th e
sport. I n a n 186 3 figh t betwee n Co n Ore m an d Owne y Geoghegan ,
partisans o f th e latte r mad e i t clea r the y intende d thei r ma n t o win .
Surrounded b y toughs , Orem' s second s deserted , bu t h e remaine d game ,
fearlessly carryin g th e figh t t o hi s opponent . Whe n Ore m hi t Geoghega n
as h e wa s goin g dow n i n th e eighteenth , th e latter' s gan g brok e th e ring
and demande d a forfeit . A pisto l pointe d a t th e referee' s hea d secure d
Geoghegan's victor y o n a cal l o f "foul " agains t Orem . Tough s a t a n
1873 figh t betwee n Jac k Conwa y an d Bill y Costell o nea r Scranton ,
Pennsylvania, anticipatin g a call unfavorabl e t o Conway, simpl y bea t th e
referee senseless . Harr y Hicke n an d hi s second s wer e luckier , outrunnin g
an enrage d mo b afte r onl y thre e rounds . Eve n whe n th e crowd s staye d
calm, boxer s an d thei r second s turne d agains t eac h other , kicking ,
biting, gouging , blindin g wit h chemicals , eve n pisto l whipping , i n thei r
efforts t o carr y th e day. 63
In 1863 , fiv e me n wer e shot , on e fatally , durin g a matc h o n th e
Washoe Trac k a t Virgini a City , Nevad a Territory . A thousan d individu -
als, mostl y loca l miners , pai d tw o dollar s an d fift y cent s eac h t o watc h
Thomas Dal y battl e Willia m McGrath . I n the fourteent h roun d a dispute d
call o f "foul " occurred . Harr y Lazarus , wh o be t heavil y o n McGrath ,
claimed n o foul ha d bee n given , whil e Epitaci s "Muchach " Muldonado ,
wagering o n Daly , insiste d hi s ma n ha d bee n wronged . Lazaru s calle d
Muchach a liar , pistol s flashed, th e crow d panicked , an d i n a fe w
seconds fiv e me n la y wounded . Muchac h die d o f hi s injurie s tha t day ,
and Harr y Lazaru s survive d onl y t o mee t a violen t en d tw o year s later .
Displays o f pistol s an d knive s t o intimidat e th e oppositio n an d wi n bet s
happened wit h alarmin g frequenc y eve n whe n n o killing s occurred .
Tom Alle n wa s victimize d thi s wa y i n thre e championshi p matches ,
against Mik e McCool e i n 1870 , Be n Hoga n i n 1873 , an d Jo e Gos s i n
1876. 64
Fixed bouts , gratuitou s violence , th e unwillingnes s o f boxer s t o figh t
hard, matche s tha t faile d t o com e off , disruptio n b y loca l officials ,

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"The Sluggers of Nebraska: A prize fight brought to an end at Nebraska City after on e round by
a genera l resor t t o deadl y weapons. " Th e National Police Gazette of Februar y 188 3 her e
parodied th e corruptio n o f priz e fightin g afte r th e Civi l War .

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 THE MANL Y AR T

attempts t o defrau d bettors , al l slowl y strippe d suppor t fro m th e ring .

Before long , well-behave d audience s wer e s o rar e a s t o b e worth y o f
comment. I n 186 5 th e American Fistiana note d th e "disgus t beginnin g
to b e fel t b y thos e wh o formerl y wer e war m advocate s an d defender s o f
the institution. " B y 186 8 Wilkes' Spirit of the Times opene d a prize-figh t
report b y referrin g t o "th e ring , o r rathe r wha t i s lef t o f it. " Late r tha t
same yea r Porter's Spirit of the Times sadl y observed ,

That portio n o f th e publi c whic h delight s i n manl y sport s had see n the ring
fall unde r th e control o f notoriou s thieves , an d forthwit h sportsme n cease d
to care anythin g abou t it . . . . There i s now a thorough determinatio n t o put
down prize-fightin g i n thi s country. . . . The fightin g me n hav e themselve s
been muc h t o blame , bu t the y ar e no t t o b e hel d individuall y responsibl e
for thes e assemblages , an d th e variou s communitie s hav e decide d tha t i t
shall cease . Henc e th e proceeding s i n Indian a an d Ohi o [ne w anti-rin g
laws], th e arrest s i n Ne w York , Ne w Jerse y an d Massachusetts .

The edito r wen t o n t o impl y tha t th e Iris h wer e behin d th e ris e o f mo b

rule. 65
Although th e New York Clipper refraine d fro m ethni c aspersions ,
Queen's weekl y agree d wit h th e others ' assessments . Th e ver y sam e
boxers accuse d o f crosse s an d doubl e crosse s i n Britai n no w plie d thei r
trade i n America , an d gang s drov e awa y hones t friend s o f th e ring .
Queen wa s probabl y referrin g t o himsel f whe n h e declared , "exponent s
of th e manl y ar t ca n n o longe r fin d th e influentia l backer s an d patron s
who formerl y too k a n interes t i n thi s sport , fo r the y hav e becom e
disgusted wit h mo b rule , an d leav e th e pug s t o ge t alon g a s bes t the y
can; an d unti l thi s mo b spiri t i s eradicate d roo t an d branch , 'manl y
artists' ca n expec t t o mee t wit h littl e encouragemen t o r favor. " Th e
"mob spirit " gre w worse . Wit h a dwindling numbe r o f legitimat e battle s
to report , American Fistiana unceremoniousl y ende d it s histor y o f
pugilism wit h th e "pu t u p j o b " betwee n Harr y Hicke n an d Brya n
Campbell i n 1873 , a bou t tha t sa w Hicken' s secon d beaten , kicked , an d
pistol whippe d b y Campbell' s corne r men . Th e repor t conclude d tha t thi s
fight simpl y "drov e anothe r nai l i n th e coffi n o f pugilism." 66
Perhaps journalist s exaggerated . Afte r all , th e ring ha d alway s bee n
plagued b y violenc e an d corruption . I t i s certainl y possibl e tha t priz e
fighting jus t seemed mor e trouble d alongsid e comparativel y clea n sports .
As bourgeoi s participatio n i n leisur e expanded , al l pastime s wer e mea -
sured agains t middle-clas s standard s o f value . Th e growin g interes t o f
polite societ y i n athleti c new s mus t hav e mad e editor s acutel y awar e o f

•76
 TRIUMPH AN D DECLIN E

boxing's unsavor y associations , an d perhap s a potentia l ne w readershi p

rendered the m mor e willin g tha n eve r t o criticiz e an d jettiso n pugilis m
rather tha n jeopardiz e sales .
But priz e fighting' s trouble s wer e no t merel y matter s o f perception .
Threats, suspicions , an d recrimination s kep t mounting . Ne w technologie s
exacerbated problems . Colt' s revolver s bega n t o appea r i n th e antebel -
lum era , an d b y th e Civi l War' s en d ha d grow n ubiquitou s o n cit y
streets. Conceale d weapon s an d chea p alcoho l wer e a volatil e combina -
tion. N o longe r wa s a burly physiqu e an d a willingness t o us e one' s fist s
the onl y wa y t o displa y prowess . Still , th e increase d incidenc e o f
gunplay a t ringside , i n stree t fights , an d i n gan g brawl s wa s a sig n o f
change a s muc h a s a cause . Th e grea t champion s o f th e pas t wer e al l
tough men , bu t ther e wa s a pervasiv e ton e o f ruthlessnes s i n th e
postbellum era , a willingnes s t o g o t o ne w extremes . Boxer s wer e mor e
disposed t o sel l ou t thei r peers , gang s refuse d t o abid e b y th e ol d rules .
The corrosive assumptio n tha t winning wa s more importan t tha n honor —
boxing's ow n versio n o f Gilde d Ag e corruption—no w overwhelme d th e
prize ring' s abilit y t o expres s dee p socia l schism s i n symboli c terms , t o
create meanin g ou t o f mayhem . On e detect s a not e o f desperatio n i n th e
urban underworl d an d a sens e o f mercilessnes s bor n o f debasement . Th e
most violen t character s a t ringsid e wer e n o longe r displace d journeyme n
and immigrant s o f th e bachelo r subculture , wh o ha d seize d o n boxin g a s
a dramatizatio n o f thei r enmities , bu t somethin g close r t o the "dangerou s
classes," th e trul y dispossesse d masses , tha t reformer s feared . I n thi s
environment th e implici t cod e o f sportin g conduct , alway s delicate ,
broke down. 67
Symptomatic o f pugilism' s conditio n wa s a ne w typ e o f boxin g
literature whic h emerge d aroun d 1880 . Backward-lookin g an d nostalgic ,
it emphasized th e battle s an d deed s o f early fisti c heroes . E d James, lon g
a write r fo r th e Clipper, an d Willia m Edga r Harding , th e ne w sportin g
editor o f th e National Police Gazette, le d th e way . They publishe d ove r a
dozen boxin g biographie s betwee n 187 9 an d 1882 . Bot h writer s lament -
ed th e tricker y an d dishonest y tha t ha d cause d th e ring's deca y an d mad e
great fight s rar e occurrences . Fo r now , thei r solutio n wa s t o tur n bac k t o
the pre-Civi l Wa r days , exal t th e ol d heroe s wit h almos t childlik e
adulation, an d awai t th e restoratio n o f fade d glory. 68
Ironically, th e ver y ac t o f rejectin g th e presen t an d lookin g t o th e
past—of reinforcin g th e fancy' s recollection s o f a golde n ag e a genera -
tion back—helpe d la y th e groun d fo r a ne w heroi c era . Whe n youn g
lions emerged , the y woul d b e see n a s par t o f a grand historica l tradition .

177
 THE MANL Y AR T

New me n wer e canonize d alongsid e thei r spiritua l ancestors , th e Yanke e

Sullivans, To m Hyers , Joh n Morrisseys , an d Joh n C . Heenan s o f old .
Meanwhile, large r development s i n Gilde d Ag e cultur e an d societ y wer e
preparing th e wa y fo r th e ring' s revival .

178
 6
"Fight Lik e a Gentleman , Yo u So n
of a Bitch , I f You Can"

The Ris e o f Sport s

While th e priz e rin g lapse d int o corruption , othe r America n sport s

enjoyed a n unprecedente d boom . A s w e hav e seen , th e Civi l Wa r gav e
general impetu s t o athletics , an d postbellu m societ y encourage d a leisur e
explosion tha t touche d al l socia l classes . Th e wa r expande d markets ,
unleashed productiv e capacity , promote d urbanization , an d stimulate d
the expansio n o f communication s an d transportatio n networks , whil e
creating massiv e concentration s o f corporat e an d bureaucrati c power .
These changes , i n turn , altere d value s an d ideologies . Befor e th e centur y
was over , sport s an d recreation s flowed i n th e mainstrea m o f America n
life. Eve n tha t ol d socia l outlaw , priz e fighting , foun d itsel f becomin g
part o f a nationa l culture. '
The ris e o f sport s t o a prominent plac e i n American consciousnes s wa s
an exceedingly comple x process . A growing fait h i n scienc e an d technol -
ogy durin g th e las t thir d o f th e nineteent h centur y turne d doctor s int o
prominent advic e givers , an d increasingl y the y recommende d healthfu l
exercise t o thei r flabby an d overwrough t patients . Minister s to o advocat -
ed vigorou s play . Th e Victoria n preoccupatio n wit h har d wor k an d
steady habit s di d no t evaporate , bu t man y wh o previousl y ha d oppose d
popular recreations—an d clergyme n ha d bee n amon g th e loudes t critics —
now embrace d sport s a s a mean s o f teachin g "Christian " principles .
Conducted unde r wholesom e auspices , athletic s buil t character . Thus , i n
a book pithil y entitle d Sports That Kill, th e Reveren d T . DeWit t Talmag e
condemned pastime s tha t distracte d me n fro m Go d o r work ; bu t h e als o
bemoaned th e fac t tha t theolog y student s di d no t spen d enoug h tim e i n

9
 THE MANL Y AR T

gymnasiums o r bowlin g alleys , an d h e pointe d ou t tha t Christian s to o

often confuse d sicklines s wit h sanctity . Talmag e wa s merel y on e o f th e
more prominen t reformer s t o joi n th e health-and-fitnes s chorus . Super -
vised leisure , the y argued , expunge d wil d ol d recreation s suc h a s anima l
fighting, discourage d drun k an d disorderl y conduct , an d inculcate d th e
lessons o f leadership , cooperation , an d fai r play. 2
Some reformer s almos t equate d athleti c developmen t wit h godlines s
and goo d character . "Muscula r Christianity " becam e a catchal l fo r th e
association o f piet y no t onl y wit h sports , bu t wit h activ e participatio n i n
the affair s o f th e world , includin g socia l reform , foreig n adventurism ,
and urba n settlemen t work . Th e mos t prominen t institutiona l embodi -
men o f Muscula r Christianit y wa s th e Youn g Men' s Christia n Associa -
tion. Founde d i n Englan d aroun d mid-century , th e YMC A establishe d
gymnasiums, readin g rooms , an d lectur e hall s i n score s o f America n
cities durin g th e Gilde d Age . Fo r man y evangelica l liberals , then ,
self-culture o n th e on e han d an d socia l consciousnes s o n th e othe r
became mor e importan t tha n strictl y theologica l issues . Religiou s mis -
sion wa s no w define d i n broadl y secula r terms , an d thi s shif t opene d th e
way fo r a ne w emphasi s o n sport s an d leisure. 3
But wit h o r withou t th e blessing s o f reformers , organize d athletic s
grew a t a n unprecedente d rate . B y th e 1880 s footbal l wa s a colleg e
mania; professiona l basebal l team s playe d i n ever y majo r cit y an d
hundreds o f amateu r nine s gav e workingme n a chanc e t o sho w thei r
skills; athleti c association s rangin g fro m exclusiv e gentlemen' s organiza -
tions t o neighborhoo d an d ethni c club s proliferate d a s neve r before ;
racing, rowing , golf , tennis , croquet , an d a variet y o f othe r activitie s
flourished. Despit e chroni c depression s tha t ravage d incomes , i n the lon g
run mos t familie s mad e modes t financia l progress . No t onl y di d man y
workers hav e a fe w mor e disposabl e dollar s an d hour s b y lat e i n th e
century, bu t th e fina l destructio n o f th e ol d artisa n econom y underscore d
the disjunctio n betwee n worktim e an d leisur e time . Indeed , ther e wer e
few displace d artisan s stil l i n th e labo r force , s o mos t worker s kne w
nothing bu t wag e employment . Fo r thi s moder n workin g class , leisur e
to a degre e becam e a matte r o f selecting , purchasing , an d consumin g
goods an d services ; commercialize d amusement s fille d mor e an d mor e
free time. 4
At th e to p o f th e organize d sport s pyramid , basebal l an d footbal l wer e
being integrate d int o th e America n busines s structure . The y develope d
their ow n organizationa l hierarchies , promotiona l techniques , an d nation -
al rules . Suc h sport s reflecte d importan t modernizin g tendencie s i n
American life . A s a smal l bu t growin g par t o f th e busines s world , sport s
180 .
 " F I G H T LIK EA GENTLEMA N

were developin g regulator y bureaucracies , marketin g strategies , a mana -

gerial ethos , profi t orientation , a n obsessio n wit h victory , specializatio n
of function , a n emphasi s o n statistics , an d a n insistenc e o n meritocrati c
values. 5
Working-class recreation s nevertheles s stil l ha d roo m fo r backward -
looking tendencies . Saloon-centere d bloodsport s continue d t o thrive , fo r
example, an d wit h the m th e ol d value s o f mutuality , reciprocity , loyalt y
to ki n an d community , bloodlust , prowess , an d honor . Fo r man y men ,
the saloon-base d bachelo r subculture , wit h it s drinking , gambling , an d
easy camaraderie , remaine d a t th e cente r o f life . Working-clas s peopl e
were no t merel y passiv e consumer s o f commercialize d leisure . The y
were highl y selectiv e abou t thei r pastimes , ofte n resistin g th e effort s o f
businessmen t o sel l entertainmen t an d o f reformer s t o impos e "whole -
some" form s o f leisure . Man y poo r an d middlin g peopl e stuc k b y thei r
old, participator y fol k recreations , thei r ethnic an d neighborhood-centere d
traditions, preferrin g the m t o glitterin g spectacles. 6
The mixtur e o f "modem " an d "premodem " element s i n thi s transitiona l
era i s clearl y visibl e i n th e developmen t o f sport s journalism . Richar d
Kyle Fox' s National Police Gazette wa s th e mos t importan t sportin g
newspaper o f th e lat e nineteent h century . Fox' s weekl y containe d plent y
of record s an d statistics , i t wa s produce d wit h th e mos t advance d
printing techniques , an d i t wa s markete d aggressivel y al l ove r th e
country. Ye t th e Police Gazette ofte n seeme d a throwbac k t o th e ol d
fancy lif e o f theaters , sportin g houses , an d bordellos . Th e pape r wa s
filled wit h engraving s o f scantil y cla d sho w girls , account s o f recen t
scandals an d atrocities , advertisement s fo r contraceptives , report s o f
bloody anima l fights , an d promotion s o f suc h bizarr e "sports " a s
water-drinking contest s an d hair-cuttin g championships . Th e Gazette's
success wa s testimon y t o th e public' s growin g appetit e fo r amusement .
More important , larg e metropolita n dailie s i n Ne w York , Chicago , Sa n
Francisco, an d othe r citie s learne d fro m Fox' s success , incorporatin g
sensational reportin g int o th e mainstrea m pres s an d bringin g regula r
sports coverage—i n specia l section s wit h thei r ow n uniqu e reportoria l
styles—to th e newspapers . Ironically , then , Richar d Kyl e Fox , promote r
of dogfight s an d rat-killin g contests , wa s a s responsibl e a s an y ma n fo r
the developmen t o f th e moder n sport s page. 7
New stadiums , mor e an d mor e teams , an d lengthenin g column s o f
newsprint wer e symptoms , no t underlyin g causes , o f th e recreationa l
boom i n th e Gilde d Age . Th e reason s fo r th e ris e o f sport s wer e man y
and complex . B y th e lat e 1800 s America' s economi c capacit y ha d grow n
so rapidl y tha t surplu s productio n becam e a problem. A s outpu t expand -

181
 THE MANL Y AR T

ed, a growin g segmen t o f th e wor k forc e produce d luxur y item s o r

labored i n white-colla r jobs , performin g service s rathe r tha n creatin g
products. T o kee p th e econom y growin g an d t o mitigat e th e volatil e
boom-and-bust gyration s o f th e economy , deman d fo r ne w good s an d
services—not necessitie s bu t "th e goo d thing s i n life"—ha d t o kee p
expanding. Th e ancien t assumptio n o f chroni c scarcit y wa s challenge d
by th e revolutionar y possibilit y o f ever-growin g abundance . Stimulate d
by advertisin g an d ne w marketin g techniques , a cycl e o f mas s produc -
tion an d consumptio n ha d begun . Desire s t o spen d freel y an d hav e fu n
ran u p agains t Victoria n austerity , bu t th e gri p o f th e ol d value s wa s
already loosening . Th e tw o grea t bulwark s o f bourgeoi s characte r n o
longer hel d firm : Go d seeme d eve r mor e distan t i n a n er a o f technolog y
and scientifi c rationalism , an d economi c autonom y wa s threatene d b y
large ne w corporations . A s th e consume r ag e dawned , ol d Victoria n
ideals an d new , pleasure-centere d one s coexiste d uneasily , ofte n bein g
split int o separat e realm s o f wor k an d leisure . But , slowly , th e consume r
ethic encompasse d increasin g number s o f Americans. 8
New Yor k Cit y nightlif e a t th e tur n o f th e centur y offer s a fin e cas e
study o f thi s process . Befor e an d soo n afte r th e Civi l Wa r cabare t
entertainments, includin g variet y an d burlesqu e shows , wer e considere d
lower-class dissipations , inextricabl y tie d t o saloons an d whorehouses . I n
the las t fe w decade s o f th e century , however , severa l owner s o f nigh t
clubs bega n t o tid y u p thei r raucous , crudel y sexua l establishment s i n
order t o ta p th e marke t o f bore d bourgeoi s Americans . Thei r effort s
coincided wit h th e desir e o f man y Victorian s t o brea k ou t o f ol d cultura l
constraints. Unde r th e cove r o f darkness , nigh t club s offere d a sanitize d
version o f th e "lascivious " pleasure-seekin g tha t th e middl e clas s bot h
feared an d envie d i n it s "inferiors." 9
Urban sportin g lif e no w ha d a growin g appea l amon g otherwis e
respectable people . Jaco b Riis , Anthon y Comstock , T DeWit t Talmage ,
and thei r lik e entere d dar k alley s t o revea l filt h an d sin , ye t th e
middle clas s rea d th e reformers ' expose s wit h mixe d feeling s o f mora l
outrage an d vicariou s excitement . O n thi s voyeuris m a cottag e industr y
was built , devote d t o condemnin g haunt s o f dissipation . A handfu l o f
tracts appeare d i n th e 1850s , bu t b y th e Gilde d Ag e score s o f work s
were bein g publishe d t o titillat e Victorians . Th e urba n underground , wit h
its roug h me n an d loos e women , a t onc e fascinate d an d appalle d soli d
bourgeois citizens . Increasin g number s o f American s longe d t o be wher e
the priz e fighters , gangsters , an d harlot s wer e o n display . Fo r man y
otherwise prope r individuals , no t merel y readin g abou t urba n dive s bu t
actual slummin g offere d a chance t o break throug h suffocatin g restraints. 10

182
 " F I G H T LIK EA GENTLEMA N

Probably th e best-known establishmen t wa s Harry Hill' s saloon , calle d

by reformer s "th e mos t dangerou s an d demoralizing " plac e i n Ne w
York, "th e resor t o f a lo w clas s o f prostitutes , an d o f th e ruffian s an d
idlers wh o suppor t th e priz e ring." Ther e wer e othe r famou s hangouts .
Billy McGlory' s Armor y Hal l allegedl y catere d t o a variet y o f criminals ,
streetwalkers, transvestites , an d homosexuals; former priz e fighter Owne y
Geogheghan's Bastill e o n th e Bower y acquire d a reputation fo r toughnes s
from it s pugnaciou s owner ; an d " T h e " Allen' s Ba l Mabell e attracte d
throngs o f dissipate d youn g me n an d wome n wit h it s gawd y decorations ,
flowing drink , an d canca n dancing . Bu t Hill' s establishmen t wa s th e
prototype. I t wa s bot h deliciousl y devian t an d relativel y safe , attractin g a
clientele tha t cut acros s clas s line s an d include d judges , editors , an d
lawyers a s wel l a s laborers , sailors , an d clerks. "
Painted choru s girl s i n tights , minstre l shows , sparrin g matches ,
female boxers , suggestiv e dancing , an d th e fines t liquors , al l coul d b e
enjoyed wit h littl e fea r o f assaul t o r arrest . Hil l an d othe r proprietor s
worked t o expan d thei r clientel e b y cleanin g u p th e mos t offensiv e
instances o f drunkenness , profanity , an d prostitution . A combinatio n o f
bribes an d cooperatio n brough t polic e protection , an d a s a resul t suc h
men a s Jame s Gordo n Bennett , Jr. , Thoma s A . Edison , Richar d Kyl e
Fox, P . T Barnum , an d Osca r Wild e coul d b e see n a t Harr y Hill's .
During th e 1870 s an d '80s , thi s wa s America' s sportin g center , wher e
illicit events , especiall y priz e fights , wer e arranged , stake s deposited ,
and wager s laid . Her e on e lef t behin d mora l restraint s t o choos e fro m a
variety o f decaden t activitie s an d indulg e i n a littl e hedonism . Th e
righteous stil l considere d suc h place s den s o f iniquity , an d th e middle -
class peopl e wh o actuall y frequente d the m maintaine d a rigi d barrie r
between dayligh t wor k value s an d nighttim e leisur e ones . Bu t man y
Americans no w sa w acceptabl e entertainmen t wher e a fe w year s earlie r
they woul d hav e see n onl y sin. 12
If establishment s lik e Harr y Hill' s wer e o n th e fring e o f th e leisur e
revolution, th e concep t o f recreatio n ha d move d t o th e cente r o f atten -
tion. Man y advance d thinker s considere d pla y a s a positiv e good , no t
merely a counteractiv e t o overwor k bu t creativ e an d therapeuti c i n it s
own right. Supervise d recreatio n socialize d children , taugh t lesson s i n
cooperation, renewe d people' s vitality , an d provide d the m wit h a sens e
of wholenes s denie d o n th e job . Youth s wer e raise d o n book s abou t
athletic heroe s suc h a s Frank Merriwell at Yale (1896), whic h uphel d th e
old mora l veritie s o f honesty , sobriety , an d diligenc e bu t gav e the m thei r
highest expressio n i n pla y rathe r tha n i n work . Pu t simply , austerit y wa s
not s o compellin g i n thi s dawnin g ag e o f abundance , especiall y becaus e

183
 THE MANLY ART

Harry Hill's New York City Sporting House. By the last quarter of the
nineteenth century, such establishments attracted not just the usual sporting
crowd but also members of "polite" society. From the National Police Gazette,
November 22, 1879.
 " F I G H T E1K EA GENTLEMA N

both economi c autonom y an d intens e stirring s o f religiou s faith—th e

core o f bourgeoi s Victoria n ideology—seeme d eve r mor e fragile. 13
Whole ne w group s o f Americans , then , mad e pla y a centra l par t o f
their lives . Therapeuti c repos e and , paradoxically , man' s perceive d nee d
for exuberan t recreatio n foun d powerfu l champion s amon g professiona l
advice givers . Doctors , ministers , an d physica l educator s al l advocate d
leisure t o counte r th e killin g pac e o f work . Bot h passiv e an d strenuou s
activities becam e par t o f a n arsena l o f "cures " fo r socia l maladies . Thi s
therapeutic ethic , whereb y pleasur e an d self-cultivatio n wer e prescribe d
as antidote s t o th e tension s o f dail y life , wa s especially stron g amon g th e
middle an d uppe r classes , whic h ha d th e powe r an d prestig e t o mak e
their ne w outloo k hegemonic . T o understan d th e reviva l o f th e ring , w e
must explor e mor e closel y th e reason s fo r th e emergenc e o f sport s an d
sporting ideologie s i n respectabl e society .

The Strenuou s Lif e

Although th e entir e postbellu m generatio n participate d mor e tha n

ever befor e i n leisur e an d recreations , th e middl e an d uppe r classe s
especially wer e swep t u p b y th e athleti c impulse . The y wer e mos t
influential i n legitimatin g th e ne w sportin g boom . A s th e son s o f
America's newl y wealth y industrialist s an d financier s bega n enterin g
college, baseball , football , an d rowin g becam e centra l t o studen t life .
Athletics wer e par t o f th e transformatio n o f college s fro m institution s
devoted t o educatin g teachers , ministers , an d me n o f letter s t o training -
grounds fo r futur e leader s o f ne w corporat e an d governmenta l bureaucra -
cies. A s th e ol d curriculu m shifte d awa y fro m it s classica l emphasis , a n
"extra-curriculum" als o evolved , wit h sport s a t it s center . Educators ,
alumni, an d administrator s becam e concerne d les s wit h impartin g a
particular bod y o f knowledge , mor e wit h renderin g profi t makin g fi t fo r
gentlemen. College s sough t way s t o inculat e th e manageria l ethi c o f
efficiency an d cooperation , an d sport s serve d thi s en d well . Athletic s no t
only kep t th e son s o f th e newl y ric h intereste d i n college , the y socialize d
young me n int o th e value s o f teamwor k an d aggressiv e competition . I n
sporting contest s ol d wealt h an d new , Brahmin s an d parvenus , mingle d o n
terms o f relativ e equality.' 4
Fathers o f colleg e boy s als o becam e infecte d wit h th e sportin g fever .
New athleti c club s fo r th e socia l elite s uphel d a n amateu r idea l t o assur e
the purit y o f sportsmen' s motive s an d t o buil d hig h wall s o f exclusivit y
around yach t races , pol o matches , trac k meets , an d simila r events . Th e

185
 THE MANLY ART

"Education: Is there no middle course?" A growing number of Victorians

sought a path between airy intellection and worship of brute force; a sound mind
in a sound body became the new ideal. From Harper's Weekly, November 30,
1879·

athletic club movement was part of a larger trend toward open displays
of wealth by the upper class. Resorts, such as Newport, Rhode Island,
lavish annual balls given by the Astors, the Vanderbilts, and other rich
families, and cliquish urban organizations, prime among them the Union
and Century clubs, allowed wealthy individuals to mingle and affirm one
another's social status. The exclusive New York Athletic Club was the
prototype for elite sporting organizations, setting an example by building
elaborate facilities and sponsoring amateur championships in a variety of
events.15
In addition to these institutional manifestations of upper-class sports,

. 186 .
 " F I G H T LIK EA GENTLEMA N

there wa s a powerfu l upsurg e o f interes t i n mal e physicality . A s i f i n

reaction t o th e ne w emphasi s o n th e consumptio n o f leisur e an d sensua l
pleasure, a cul t o f muscularit y arose , emphasizin g virilit y a s a counter t o
sloth an d ease . Youn g me n especiall y becam e concerne d wit h th e shap e
of thei r bodies , an d postbellu m advic e literatur e tol d the m tha t physiqu e
and characte r wer e linked . Competitiv e athletics , i t wa s said , develope d
the capacit y fo r forcefu l actio n an d wer e therefor e instrumenta l t o
success i n business . A s a result , countles s me n an d boy s fro m goo d
families bega n exercisin g a s neve r before , measurin g an d recordin g thei r
muscular development . Althoug h elit e interes t i n masculin e strengt h an d
beauty aros e ou t o f socia l origin s differen t fro m th e ol d working-clas s
bachelor subculture , bot h share d a n aestheti c o f har d mal e physicality .
More tha n ever , image s o f bulgin g muscle s an d nake d virilit y appeale d
across socia l chasms. 16
Upper-class fascinatio n wit h prowes s wa s stimulate d i n par t b y fear s
that moder n livin g rendere d male s intellectuall y an d emotionall y impo -
tent; me n emphasize d th e importanc e o f vigo r because , rathe r suddenly ,
they wer e terrifie d o f losin g it . I t wa s no t simpl y a matte r o f bein g
cloyed wit h materia l goods . Larg e number s o f men , especiall y member s
of th e ol d Easter n elite , dwelle d o n thei r ow n ineffectualit y an d
"overcivilization" i n th e fac e o f poten t ne w captain s o f industria l wealth .
Nervous breakdown s occurre d wit h alarmin g frequency , an d som e doc -
tors eve n argue d tha t work-relate d stres s gav e ris e t o a ne w disease ,
"neurasthenia," th e los s o f vita l "nerv e force. " Sports , however ,
offered a cure . Th e champio n athlet e ha d unusua l reserve s o f magneti c
energy, o f wil l power , whic h allowe d hi m t o dominat e othe r men .
Physical exercise , therefore , wa s medicin e fo r thi s epidemic no w spread -
ing through th e manageria l an d professiona l ranks . Sport s heroe s becam e
models o f actio n becaus e the y seeme d t o ta p limitles s reserve s o f energ y
within themselves . A s th e sociologis t Franklin Gidding s observe d a t th e
turn o f th e century , th e "struggl e fo r existence " wa s "fraugh t wit h
peril," givin g me n a n "unusua l adoratio n o f power. " Priz e fighters ,
cowboys, an d comba t soldier s wer e heroes , accordin g t o Giddings ,
because the y wer e paragon s o f virilit y wh o refuse d t o giv e i n t o th e
forces tha t bese t them. 17
By th e las t decad e o f th e nineteent h centur y powe r obsesse d man y
American males . Half-nake d strongme n suc h a s Eugen e Sandow , flexing
his bicep s a t th e 189 3 Chicag o World' s Fair , beguile d them , becaus e
they no w viewe d physica l strength a s a n emblem o f forc e an d energ y
in th e large r socia l world . No t onl y athleticis m bu t upbea t music ,
imperialist adventures , realisti c literature , th e allur e o f th e wilderness ,

187
 T H E MANL Y AR T

and a cult o f Napoleon , al l manifeste d th e desir e t o brea k throug h gentee l

constraints an d pursue , i n Theodor e Roosevelt' s words , "th e strenuou s
life." Thi s ne w ques t fo r vigo r aros e a t leas t partl y ou t o f dee p spiritua l
longings, becaus e a thoroughl y corporate , bureaucratize d societ y wa s
also a dull an d soulles s one. Countles s me n of mean s sough t rugge d actio n
to compensat e fo r thei r saf e an d overstuffe d lives. 18
Amateur sport s wer e particularl y well-suite d t o th e task . I n colleg e
stadiums an d gentlemen' s athleti c club s th e idea l o f ster n self-testin g fo r
its ow n sake , o f pur e competitio n withou t corruptin g materialism ,
reached it s fulles t expression . Indeed , man y leader s o f colleg e athletics —
for example , Dudle y A . Sargent , directo r o f Harvard' s Hemenwa y
Gymnasium—condemned professionalis m an d passiv e spectatorshi p a s
destroyers o f th e harmon y betwee n a health y min d an d a health y body .
Collegiate sports , Sargen t argued , restore d th e balance . Amateu r game s
were especiall y importan t t o thos e comin g o f ag e afte r th e Civi l War , fo r
violent contest s o n athleti c "field s o f battle " allowe d youn g me n t o
replicate th e herois m o f father s wh o ha d sacrifice d s o muc h i n thei r
selfless commitmen t t o savin g th e Union . Her e th e martia l value s o f
hardiness, courage , an d enduranc e too k thei r plac e besid e th e olde r
Victorian ideal s o f piet y an d earnes t har d work. 19
Late nineteenth-centur y member s o f th e Easter n Brahmi n caste—th e
spiritual an d linea l descendant s o f Thoma s Wentwort h Higginso n an d
Oliver Wendel l Holmes , Sr.—turne d t o violen t sport s a s a mora l equiva -
lent o f war , a symboli c fiel d o n whic h pain , sacrifice , duty , an d glor y
were stil l attainable . Athleti c strif e gre w especiall y importan t t o a societ y
that wa s renderin g lif e sof t wit h materia l comfort s an d empt y wit h
religious skepticism . Sport s taugh t valuabl e lesson s t o youn g me n fro m
prosperous families , showin g the m ho w t o suppres s thei r socia l an d
spiritual doubt s wit h burst s o f vigorou s energy . A s Henr y Cabo t Lodg e
told a meetin g o f Harvar d alumni , th e injurie s incurre d a t athleti c
contests wer e "par t o f th e pric e whic h th e Englis h speakin g rac e ha s
paid fo r bein g worl d conquerors." 20
Also contributin g t o th e ris e o f elit e sport s wa s th e fac t tha t Ameri -
cans ha d alway s worshipe d succes s whil e fearin g th e corruptin g effect s
of prosperity . A s fa r bac k a s th e Purita n fathers , materia l wealt h coul d
signify eithe r God' s grac e o r th e declin e o f tru e fait h amids t worldl y
pleasures. Decade s later , republica n thinker s als o viewe d th e pilin g u p o f
luxuries a s a threa t t o virtue , leadin g ultimatel y t o decadenc e an d
tyranny. Shaper s o f Victoria n cultur e to o value d th e process o f wealt h
creation fo r it s socia l usefulnes s an d test s o f characters , bu t feare d th e
corrosive effect s o f inherite d riches , mone y gotte n b y chance , no t work .

188
 " F I G H T LIK EA GENTLEMA N

Success thu s containe d th e seed s o f it s ow n alienation . Onc e fortune s

were amassed , corporation s built , an d frontier s closed , individual s wer e
tempted t o ceas e drivin g themselve s an d t o laps e int o slothfu l consump -
tion o f life' s fruits . Violen t sport s an d rugge d stres s seeking , however ,
allowed me n suc h a s Theodor e Roosevel t t o hav e i t bot h ways , t o enjo y
their legac y o f materia l comfor t whil e denyin g tha t the y ha d los t an y o f
the masculin e selflessnes s o f pioneer s an d soldiers. 21
Coexisting wit h th e ethi c o f pleasure , then , wer e sociall y create d
anxieties tha t carried implication s fo r th e development o f sports . Abundanc e
had bee n purchase d wit h bruta l labo r policies , cutthroa t competition , an d
robber-baron disregar d fo r huma n suffering . Indeed , on e man' s prosperi -
ty ofte n seeme d t o sprin g fro m another' s poverty . Bitte r strike s hi t majo r
industries, an d whol e companie s wer e gobble d u p b y competitors ; th e
capriciousness o f th e economi c cycl e mad e a mocker y o f th e ol d belie f
in self-hel p throug h har d work . I n thi s er a o f corporat e consolidatio n a
new ideolog y emerged , on e les s concerne d wit h character , autonomy , o r
control o f th e passion s an d mor e wit h power , money , an d success . Life ,
it wa s said , wa s a jungle , an d Charle s Darwin' s finding s o n natura l
selection provide d a compelling metapho r fo r a society a t wa r with itself .
Survival o f th e fittest , killin g competition , deat h t o th e weak—thes e
phrases seeme d t o describ e th e real-lif e comba t betwee n socia l groups .
Here again , sport s fulfille d ideologica l assumptions . Har d an d violen t
games no t onl y toughene d me n fo r th e battle s o f life , the y rendere d th e
Darwinian metapho r litera l fact , makin g th e dog-eat-dog , victory-or -
death, give-the-enemy-no-quarte r mentalit y appea r inescapabl y real. 22
Prominent me n no w declare d tha t th e entir e Anglo-Saxo n "race " wa s
endangered, a t hom e b y radica l worker s an d immigran t horde s an d
abroad b y inferio r bu t viril e peoples . Moreover , man y native - an d
well-born citizen s sa w America' s futur e threatene d b y othe r imperialisti c
countries. Th e Unite d State s mus t gir d itsel f t o compet e wit h belligeren t
nations o r fal l subjec t t o them . I n larg e measure , then , Darwinis m
became th e ideolog y o f a particula r class , an d sport s helpe d giv e tha t
ideology vivi d expression . Military , political , an d busines s leaders ,
especially thos e fro m ol d wealth y families , encourage d athletic s i n orde r
to prepar e me n fo r th e hars h struggle s ahead , t o foste r combativenes s
and th e habi t o f command . Sport s taugh t manlines s i n a violen t world .
All tha t wa s feminine , sentimental , o r romantic—an d man y lat e nineteenth -
century writer s worrie d alou d tha t Americ a ha d becom e "womanized "
—was expunge d o n athleti c field s o f battle. 23
The historia n Jackso n Lear s ha s observe d tha t a s Victoria n ideal s
began t o dissolv e i n th e acid s o f modernity , a s creepin g secularizatio n

189
 THE MANL Y AR T

THIS SOTl€ E SUl'ļvRSKPE S AL L OTHERS .

NEW YOR K ATHLETI C CLUB ,

„
104 W E S T 55T p STREET .

SECOND A! É TEÜ R BOXIN G CONTEST ,

Saturday Evening , Marc h 8 , 1890 .

Handsome and costly prizes will be given to First

and Second in each of the following events.
110 pound Boxing.
120 pound Boxing.
I3O pound Boxing.
135 pound Boxing.
140 poun d Boxing.
145 pound Boxing.
160 poun d Boxing.
A handsome J3auner •will be given ío the Club
scoring the greatest number of points.
A prise will be given to the winner of rack bout in
the 120 lb. class

Entrance Fee nf %\.oo must accompany all entries.

Entries clos e Marc h first. 1800 , wit h

B. C . WILLIAMS ,
104 W E S T 55 ™ STREET ,
NEW YORK .

HRRHBH
Amateur boxing, Ne w Yor k Athletic Club, 1890 . Some of America's wealthies t
and mos t powerfu l me n belonge d t o th e N.Y.A.C . Colleg e sport s an d athleti c
clubs helpe d forg e th e socia l identit y o f corporat e America' s uppe r class .

190 .
 " F I G H T LIK E A GENTLEMA N

undermined piety , relativism sappe d mora l certitude, an d bureaucratizatio n

destroyed autonomy , American s fro m ol d elit e familie s responde d i n
deeply persona l ways . Thei r sens e o f bein g "weightless " an d "over -
civilized," eve n superfluou s i n an industria l society , gav e ris e to craving s
for intens e experience . Variou s form s o f antimodernism , includin g orien -
tal mysticism , a fascinatio n wit h organi c medieva l communities , an d th e
worship o f militar y values , wer e al l symptom s o f thei r ques t fo r a sens e
of purpose , fo r connectednes s t o "rea l life. " Vigorou s sport s wer e
another wa y ou t o f th e trap , no t onl y offerin g model s of actio n i n a world
of doub t bu t als o servin g a s a rallyin g poin t fo r a n entir e clas s tha t
sought it s own revitalization . Throug h th e metapho r o f hars h competitio n
on at h eti c playin g fields , youn g gentleme n learne d t o thro w of f thei r
uncertainties, charg e int o th e fray , an d tak e command. 24
The resul t fo r th e ol d Victoria n etho s wa s no t destructio n bu t it s
reshaping. Th e idea l o f characte r no w too k o n a strenuou s qualit y tha t
rejected piou s sermonizin g o r air y intellectio n an d substitute d a vigorou s
application o f mora l principle s a t hom e an d abroad . A s Franci s Walke r
told th e Cambridg e Ph i Bet a Kapp a Societ y i n a n 189 3 address ,
"College Athletics, " sport s taugh t youn g me n fro m goo d familie s tha t
they mus t no t withdra w a s a leisur e clas s bu t mus t participat e i n th e
nitty-gritty wor k o f dail y life : "Ma n i s no t a pilgrim bu t a citizen. H e i s
going t o tarr y night s enoug h t o mak e i t worthwhil e t o patc h u p th e
tenement an d eve n t o loo k int o th e drainage . Thi s worl d i s a plac e t o
work in ; activit y an d development , no t sufferin g o r self-repressio n it s
law." Participatin g i n roug h sports , Walke r argued , gav e courag e t o
college youth s an d prepare d the m t o see thei r live s a s a struggl e towar d
clearly define d goals . O n athleti c playin g fields , youn g me n learne d tha t
acts mattere d mor e tha n words. 25
Similarly, Olive r Wendel l Holmes , Jr. , believe d tha t sports , lik e war ,
revealed strif e t o b e th e essenc e o f life . Violen t athleti c encounter s
reminded American s tha t prosperou s commercia l lif e wa s "merel y a
little spac e o f cal m i n the mids t o f th e tempestuous untame d streamin g o f
the world. " Sport s traine d leaders , an d th e occasiona l broke n neck—n o
rarity i n collegiate football—wa s " a pric e wel l pai d fo r th e breeding o f a
race fi t fo r headshi p an d command. " Lik e war , athleti c game s cause d
men t o strai n ever y nerv e an d muscle , t o fee l "th e passio n o f lif e a t it s
top." Here , then , wa s Holmes' s creed : "T o rid e boldl y a t wha t i s i n
front o f you , b e i t fenc e o r enemy ; t o pra y no t fo r comfor t bu t fo r
combat; t o kee p th e soldier' s fait h agains t th e doubt s o f civi l life , mor e
besetting an d harde r t o overcom e tha n al l th e misgiving s o f th e
battlefields... t o lov e glor y mor e tha n th e temptation s o f wallowin g i n

191
 THE MANL Y AR T

ease, bu t t o kno w tha t one' s fina l judg e an d onl y rival i s oneself . . . . "
Through rugge d self-testing , me n bea t bac k mora l anarch y an d foun d
renewed purpose. 26
But i t wa s no t onl y th e ol d Brahmi n cast e tha t becam e intereste d i n
sports. Th e lat e nineteent h centur y witnesse d th e unprecedente d growt h
of a salarie d white-colla r class , includin g clerks , professionals , salespeo -
ple, engineers , an d manager s o f ne w corporat e bureaucracies . A produc t
of th e extrem e specializatio n o f labo r i n a n advance d economy , thei r
work wa s ofte n sedentar y an d highl y routinized , givin g littl e inheren t
sense o f satisfaction . Indeed , suc h job s violate d importan t tenet s o f th e
entrepreneurial ethic , fo r white-colla r occupation s offere d neithe r autono -
my no r ownershi p o f productiv e property . Eve n thos e wh o earne d larg e
salaries faile d t o attai n th e ultimat e drea m o f independence . Lik e th e ol d
artisans-turned-laborers earlie r i n th e century , th e ne w manager s an d
technicians wer e employees , dependen t o n th e whim s o f others . Imbue d
with th e succes s ethic , wit h th e belie f tha t ma n make s hi s ow n fate , the y
strove mightil y fo r self-advancemen t onl y t o b e stymie d b y a socia l
system wit h littl e roo m fo r autonomou s individualism. 27
Here wa s a sourc e o f crisi s fo r masculin e identity : Wher e woul d a
sense o f malenes s com e fro m fo r th e worke r wh o sa t a t a des k al l day ?
How coul d on e b e manl y withou t independence ? Wher e wa s virilit y t o
be foun d i n increasingl y faceles s bureaucracies ? Ho w migh t clerk s o r
salesmen fee l masculin e doin g "women' s work" ? Wha t becam e o f
rugged individualis m insid e intensivel y rationalize d corporations ? Ho w
could a ma n b e a patriarc h whe n hi s jo b kep t hi m awa y fro m hom e fo r
most o f hi s wakin g hours? 2 8
It wa s precisel y i n thi s contex t tha t fear s o f feminize d male s an d
domineering wome n emerged . I n Henr y James' s The Bostonians, publishe d
in 1886 , Basi l Ranso m spok e fo r countles s America n me n whe n h e
condemned th e "damnabl e feminization " pervadin g society . "Th e whol e
generation i s womanized, " Ranso m wailed . "Th e masculin e ton e i s
passing ou t o f th e world ; it' s a feminine, a nervous, hysterical , chattering ,
canting age , a n ag e o f hollo w phrase s an d fals e delicac y an d exaggerate d
solicitudes an d coddle d sensibilities , whic h i f w e don' t soo n loo k out ,
will ushe r i n th e reig n o f mediocrity . . . . " Ranso m wishe d t o restor e
masculine character , whic h h e define d a s "th e abilit y t o dar e an d
endure, t o know an d yet no t fea r reality , t o loo k th e worl d i n the fac e an d
take i t fo r wha t i t is. " Concern s tha t femal e sentimentalit y threatene d t o
overwhelm har d masculin e realis m pervade d th e age ; suc h phrase s a s
"over-civilization" an d "over-refinement " conveye d mal e anxietie s
about effeminization . Som e me n therefor e bega n t o wonde r alou d i f th e

IÇ2
 " F I G H T LIK E A GENTLEMA N

pious an d gentl e value s tha t infuse d thei r mothers ' home s ha d no t

unnerved the m fo r th e worl d o f work . Thu s Ernes t Thompso n Seton ,
founder o f th e Bo y Scout s o f America , feare d fo r "th e bo y wh o ha d
been coddle d al l hi s lif e an d kep t s o carefull y wrappe d u p o n th e 'pin k
cotton wool ' o f a n over-indulgen t home , til l h e i s mor e effeminat e tha n
his sister , an d hi s flabby muscle s ar e les s flabby tha n hi s character. "
Simply put , i t wa s easie r fo r man y me n t o rai l agains t emasculatio n
than t o com e t o term s wit h th e profoun d socia l an d cultura l change s o f
their era. 29
If mother s threatene d t o suffocat e manliness , paradoxically , wives ,
sisters, an d lover s assaulte d i t a s th e "ne w women " o f th e middl e an d
upper classe s attende d college , sough t wor k (sometime s i n competitio n
with men) , campaigne d fo r votin g rights , an d expecte d a n equa l shar e o f
America's opportunities . Wome n wer e als o bein g mor e demandin g
sexually; som e eve n rejected th e cul t o f domesticit y t o see k sensua l
fulfillment a t th e expens e o f thei r ow n "purity. " Wher e wer e me n t o
turn a s their gender-base d dominanc e eroded ? A s wel l a s seekin g t o kee p
women ou t o f colleges , votin g booths , an d careers , man y retreate d t o
bastions o f mal e exclusivity . Jus t a s working-clas s me n ha d learne d
earlier t o fin d affirmatio n o f thei r manlines s outsid e th e hom e an d
workplace i n th e saloon-centere d bachelo r subculture , no w th e middl e
and uppe r classe s increasingl y turne d t o leisur e a s a sourc e o f masculin e
identity. Sport s fo r bot h participant s an d spectator s becam e a real m o f
manly self-assertion , a closed mal e worl d tha t initiate d the m int o th e lif e
of action , a plac e t o escap e fro m demandin g women. 30
"Sissy," "molly-coddle, " "pussy-foot " no w becam e popula r term s o f
derision. Concer n ove r feminize d me n an d masculinize d wome n coul d
be see n als o i n mor e subtl y altere d language , a s word s wer e enliste d t o
shore u p th e saggin g barrier s betwee n th e sexes . Th e ol d bourgeoi s
meaning o f "manly"—t o b e adult , responsible , mature , self-possessed ,
independent, no t childlike—wa s transforme d int o a negatio n o f al l tha t
was soft , feminine , o r sentimental . Bein g manl y no w mean t bein g no t
womanly. Whethe r i t involve d fightin g i n a foreig n jungle , battlin g i n
urban politics , o r gettin g ahea d o n th e job, th e strenuou s lif e taugh t me n
to purg e longing s fo r eas e an d t o see k strif e rathe r tha n comfort . T o
wage war , direc t corporations , outsel l competitor s or manag e othe r me n
required a bol d assertio n o f sel f an d a dominatin g physica l presence .
Virile, darin g males—hunters , detectives , cowboys , adventurers—wer e
now fantas y heroe s becaus e the y projecte d hairy-cheste d image s o f
manliness i n a worl d tha t deepl y threatene d masculinity . Similarly , whe n
men playe d roug h sport s o r cheere d thei r favorit e athletes , the y foun d

193
 THE MANL Y AR T

temporary refug e fro m thos e force s whic h challenge d thei r manhood ,

whether routinize d work , soulles s corporations , aggressiv e women ,
smothering mothers , ric h ne w industrialists , radica l laborers , o r swarth y
foreigners.31
Even a s professiona l priz e fightin g languishe d an d nearl y die d durin g
the 1860 s an d 1870s , therefore , a socia l an d ideologica l environmen t
was developin g whic h woul d encourag e it s rejuvenation . Th e commer -
cialization o f leisure , th e beginning s o f a consume r ethic , th e develop -
ment o f middle - an d upper-clas s interes t i n rugge d sports , th e increasin g
hollowness o f Victoria n ideal s i n a corporat e age , changin g gende r
relationships, an d mal e fear s o f "feminization"—al l provide d a back -
drop fo r th e transformatio n o f th e priz e ring , fo r th e integratio n o f th e
outlaw spor t int o a nationwid e mas s culture . Grea t championshi p fight s
of th e pas t ha d transcende d pugilism' s provincia l boundarie s onl y tempo -
rarily; no w th e altere d socia l an d cultura l climat e woul d mak e priz e
fighting a n acceptabl e spectato r spor t fo r whol e ne w group s o f Ameri -
cans. Pu t simply , a burs t o f upper - an d middle-clas s interes t i n boxing' s
elemental qualities , it s glorificatio n o f mal e prowess , powere d th e ring's
renewal. Equall y important , priz e fightin g itsel f change d t o mee t th e
altered socia l conditions . Thes e tw o factors , eac h reinforcin g th e other ,
became th e basi s fo r pugilism' s dramati c reviva l i n th e las t tw o decade s
of th e century .

Fighting Clerks , Boxin g Brahmins ,

Vigorous Victorian s

Prize fightin g ha s alway s spoke n mos t eloquentl y t o America' s

lower classes , especiall y t o member s o f ethni c groups . Symbolically , th e
ring merge d th e America n drea m wit h Ol d Worl d memories , th e cul t o f
success wit h ancestra l ties , individua l opportunit y wit h grou p loyalties .
Even toda y working-clas s an d ethni c people s ten d t o fin d specia l mean -
ing i n th e spor t an d suppl y mos t o f it s practitioner s an d fans . N o
equivalent o f th e Englis h aristocrac y eve r supporte d th e America n priz e
ring. But , slowly , boxin g bega n t o resonat e fo r me n outsid e th e lowe r
class. 32
Just befor e th e Civi l War , Olive r Wendel l Holmes , Sr. , anticipate d
this trend . I kno w o f n o evidenc e tha t Holme s eve r attende d a priz e
fight, bu t h e di d appea r a t exhibition s an d recommende d friendl y bout s
to hi s peers . Holme s love d watchin g youth s attac k an d defen d them -
selves a t sparrin g matches , an d h e wa s exhilarate d whe n a gentlema n

'94
 " F I G H T LIK E A GENTLEMA N

displayed hi s "primitiv e nature. " "Boxin g i s roug h play, " Holme s

conceded, "bu t no t to o roug h fo r a heart y youn g fellow . Anythin g i s
better tha n thi s white-bloode d degeneratio n t o whic h w e al l tend." 33
Holmes glorie d i n th e muscula r developmen t o f boxer s lik e Joh n C .
Heenan, attende d th e Benici a Bo y a t his trainin g camp , an d surveye d hi s
remarkable physique . Indeed , Holme s openl y fantasize d abou t th e ring :

Here is a delicate young man now with an intellectual countenance, a slight

figure, a sub-palli d complexion , a mos t unassumin g deportment , a mil d
adolescent face , tha t an y Hira m o r Jonatha n fro m betwee n th e ploughtail s
would of course expect t o handle with perfect ease . Oh, he is taking off his
gold-bowed spectacles ! Ah, h e i s divesting himsel f o f hi s cravat! Why, he
is stripping off hi s coat. Well , her e he is, sure enough, i n a tight sil k shirt ,
and wit h tw o things tha t loo k lik e batter pudding s i n the place of hi s fists .
Now see that other fellow wit h another pair of batter puddings—the big one
with the broad shoulders; he will certainly knoc k the little man's head off if
he strike s him .

Yet th e delicat e intellectua l prove d hi s mettle :

Feinting, dodging , stopping , hitting , countering—littl e man' s hea d no t off

yet. Yo u might as well try to jump upon your own shadow as to hit the little
man's intellectua l features . H e needn' t hav e take n of f th e gold-bowe d
spectacles a t all . Quick , cautious , shifty , nimble , cool , h e catche s al l th e
fierce lunge s or gets out of their reach, till his turn comes, an d then whack
goes on e o f th e batte r pudding s agains t th e bi g one's ribs , an d ban g goe s
the othe r int o th e bi g one' s face , and , staggering , shuffling , slipping ,
tripping, collapsing , sprawling , dow n goe s th e bi g on e i n a miscellaneou s
bundle.

Here wa s a perfec t metapho r fo r a beleaguere d socia l clas s seekin g it s

own revitalization . Seizin g th e moment , th e youn g man' s courag e an d
coolness overcam e externa l threat s an d interna l fears . H e wa s i n com -
plete control. 34
Pallid, scrawny , bespectacled , Holmes' s littl e her o foun d hi s apotheo -
sis les s tha n a generatio n late r whe n youn g Theodor e Roosevel t bega n
boxing a t Harvar d College . I n 189 0 Roosevel t looke d bac k o n hi s yout h
and sa w i n sport s a necessar y correctiv e t o th e sof t lif e o f turn-of-the -
century America : "Ther e i s a certai n tendenc y t o underestimat e o r
overlook th e nee d o f th e virile , masterfu l qualitie s o f th e hear t an d
mind. . . . There i s n o bette r wa y o f counteractin g thi s tendenc y tha n b y
encouraging bodil y exercis e an d especiall y th e sport s whic h develo p
such qualitie s a s courage , resolutio n an d endurance. " I n Holmes' s da y

'95
 THE MANL Y AR T

the associatio n o f socia l elite s wit h th e strenuou s lif e wa s half-forme d

and barel y conscious . Bu t th e youn g ma n wh o strippe d of f th e trapping s
of hi s comfortable bourgeoi s lif e an d whippe d th e clumsy ploughbo y wa s
an archetyp e fo r Roosevelt' s generation. 35
As th e nineteent h centur y bega n it s las t quarter , however , priz e
fighting remaine d mire d i n it s ow n versio n o f Gilde d Ag e corruption .
Not sinc e th e Lilly-McCo y affai r ha d boxin g bee n hel d i n suc h lo w
esteem. O f course , sportin g house s i n majo r citie s stil l offere d frequen t
exhibitions o f th e manl y ar t o f self-defense . Bu t withou t muc h hop e o f
good championshi p fight s i n th e nea r future , sparrin g matche s wer e flat
affairs, arousin g littl e passion . Seed s o f revival , however , wer e abou t t o
germinate. I f th e seventie s prove d disastrou s t o th e manl y art , th e
eighties sa w boxin g becom e on e o f America' s mos t popula r spectato r
sports. Unti l th e racis m o f th e Progressiv e Er a temporaril y blighte d
boxing whe n th e grea t blac k fighte r Jac k Johnso n ascende d th e thron e i n
1908, interes t i n pugilis m leape d th e ol d barrier s o f clas s an d ethnicity .
Not coincidentally , boxing' s triump h accompanie d th e en d o f bare -
knuckle priz e fighting. 36
The Gilde d Age , a s w e hav e seen , encourage d a n enormou s variet y o f
recreations, encompassin g ne w group s o f peopl e an d fosterin g powerfu l
institutions. Th e rin g benefite d fro m thi s genera l ris e o f sports , baskin g
in th e glow o f baseball , rowing , an d footbal l whil e reflectin g bac k a ne w
luster o f it s own . Bu t boxing' s histor y wa s alway s distinctive , followin g
only approximatel y th e cours e take n b y othe r athleti c activities . Afte r
all, priz e fightin g languishe d durin g th e 1870 s whil e mos t sport s prospered .
Theodore Roosevel t offer s a fin e exampl e o f th e ambivalenc e man y
men fel t abou t th e ring . " A prize-fight, " Civi l Servic e Commissione r
Roosevelt declare d i n 1890 , "i s simpl y bruta l an d degrading. "
The peopl e wh o atten d i t an d mak e a her o o f th e priz e fighter , are ,
—excepting boy s wh o g o fo r fu n an d don' t kno w an y better—t o a ver y
great extent , me n wh o hove r o n th e borderline s o f criminality ; an d thos e
who ar e no t ar e speedil y brutalized , an d ar e neve r rendere d mor e manly .
They for m a s ignobl e a bod y a s do th e hundre d frequenter s o f rat-pi t an d
cock-pit. Th e prize fighters an d his fellow professiona l athlete s of the same
ilk are, together with their patrons i n every ran k of life, th e very wors t foe s
with who m th e caus e o f genera l athleti c developmen t ha s t o contend. 37

Yet Roosevel t love d boxing . Fro m hi s earl y teen s throug h hi s Whit e

House years , h e regularl y pu t o n th e glove s t o battle a n arra y o f sparrin g
masters an d forme r professionals . A s president , Roosevel t receive d
former champio n Joh n L . Sulliva n i n th e Whit e House , an d h e visite d

ig6
 " F I G H T LIK EA GENTLEMA N

Jim Jeffries' s trainin g cam p a s the "Grea t Whit e Hope " prepare d t o figh t
Jack Johnson . Mik e Donovan , onc e bare-knuckl e middleweigh t champi -
on o f th e world , late r boxin g instructo r fo r th e exclusiv e Ne w Yor k
Athletic Club , becam e goo d friend s wit h Roosevelt , an d th e tw o enjoye d
sparring durin g th e latter' s term s a s governor o f Ne w Yor k an d president .
Roosevelt eve n describe d affair s o f stat e wit h boxin g metaphors , an d th e
near los s o f a n ey e i n on e o f hi s Whit e Hous e set-to s faile d t o dampe n
his enthusias m fo r th e manl y art. 38
Roosevelt's ambivalenc e wa s no t uncommon . Priz e fightin g continue d
to elici t th e ol d criticism s agains t immora l an d rowd y behavior , bu t th e
fascination tha t ha d starte d t o cree p i n durin g th e antebellu m er a no w
became mor e open. 39 A s earl y a s mid-century , newspaper s hinte d tha t
some surprisingl y respectabl e peopl e showe d u p a t sparrin g matches ,
even priz e fights . Althoug h thi s ma y wel l hav e bee n true , th e fac t tha t
names neve r cam e t o ligh t make s i t see m unlikel y tha t th e practic e wa s
common. B y th e 1880s , however , name s o f individual s wer e appearing ,
some frequently . Edito r Charle s A . Dana , Senato r Rosco e Conkling ,
Reverend Henr y War d Beecher , al l allegedl y wer e see n a t on e o r mor e
matches. Grea t tycoon s suc h a s William K . Vanderbilt , Lawrenc e Jerome ,
and Herma n Oelrick s als o attende d indoo r bout s a t Madiso n Squar e
Garden, intensel y fough t glov e contest s fo r larg e stakes. 40
Some me n eve n wrot e openl y abou t thei r beguilemen t wit h th e sportin g
underworld. G . Stanle y Hall , a founde r o f th e scienc e o f psycholog y i n
America, wa s captivate d b y th e "ra w sid e o f huma n life, " an d unknow n
to hi s friend s an d colleagues , h e venture d int o urba n backstreet s whenev -
er h e go t th e chance . Hall' s slummin g le d hi m t o th e fancy' s pe t sport :
"I hav e neve r misse d a n opportunit y t o atten d a priz e fight, " h e
confessed i n hi s autobiography , "i f I coul d d o s o unknow n an d awa y
from home , s o tha t I hav e see n mos t o f th e note d pugilist s o f my
generation i n actio n an d fel t th e uniqu e thril l a t thes e encounters." 41
The fin e art s als o revele d i n th e gutter . Aspirin g youn g painter s an d
writers wer e jus t beginnin g t o discove r previousl y tabo o subject s a s
sources o f art , an d lat e i n th e nineteent h centur y boxin g prove d especial -
ly attractive . Fran k Norri s an d Richar d Hardin g Davi s manage d t o
varnish th e rin g wit h a coat o f sentimentality , writin g o f thei r pugilist s a s
noble heroes . Th e artis t Thoma s Eakins , o n th e othe r hand , cut throug h
romantic convention s t o pain t anatomicall y impeccabl e forms , me n o f
dignified strengt h i n a violen t an d painfu l world . Eakin s wa s familia r
with boxin g b y th e lat e 1860s , bu t a quarte r centur y passe d before h e
painted th e passions—no t t o mentio n th e seminudity—o f th e ring . H e
was th e firs t America n artis t t o us e priz e fightin g a s a symbo l o f

'97
 THE M A N L Y AR T

rebellion agains t gentee l conventions . Jus t afte r th e tur n o f th e centur y

painter Georg e Bellow s an d novelis t Jac k Londo n interprete d th e rin g
much mor e griml y tha n Eakins , depictin g i t a s a microcosm o f merciles s
competition wher e pain , loneliness , an d betraya l wer e th e orde r o f th e
day. Violenc e wa s th e mean s an d surviva l th e en d o f life , an d ofte n th e
best tha t me n coul d hop e fo r wa s t o suffe r defea t wit h thei r courag e an d
integrity intact . Fo r Londo n an d Bellows , th e shee r physica l beaut y tha t
Eakins sa w i n athleti c competitio n wa s overshadowe d b y grim , work -
manlike determination. 42
Artists an d writer s implicitl y rejecte d gentee l propriet y whe n the y too k
prize fightin g a s thei r subject . Th e purpos e o f ar t o r literature , a s mos t
bour eoi s Victorian s sa w it , wa s t o instruct , t o elevate ; America n
intellectuals mus t neve r us e thei r talent s t o dignif y wickedness . Eve n
nineteenth-century Englan d coul d tolerat e a n occasiona l boxin g engrav -
ing b y Cruikshank , a poe m b y Thackeray , a sketc h b y Dickens . Ne w
World canons , however , brooke d n o deviation . After Charle s Cromwel l
Ingham painte d Willia m Fulle r i n 1824 , I kno w o f n o distinguishe d
American write r o r artis t depictin g th e ring unti l nearl y th e en d o f th e
century. Bu t as Victoria n absolutis m crumbled , th e socia l rol e of intellec -
tual elite s changed . The y bega n viewin g themselve s les s a s upholder s o f
high culture , mor e a s adventurer s o n th e frontier s o f experience . Fo r
some o f thes e ne w me n an d women , writin g an d th e plasti c art s becam e
a foru m fo r th e expressio n o f persona l feelin g an d emotio n rathe r tha n
for declarin g fixe d publi c values . Other s wh o fel t stifle d b y ol d bour -
geois veritie s turne d outwar d instea d o f inwar d an d embrace d th e
teeming lif e o f th e streets , revelin g i n scene s o f immigrants , th e workin g
class, an d th e urba n underworld . Victoria n restrain t loosene d slowly , bu t
the impuls e t o tes t persona l limit s an d explor e uncharte d realm s o f
experience logicall y le d t o strenuous , o r violent , o r devian t activities .
Prize fightin g wa s al l o f these . Th e ful l flowering o f artisti c depiction s o f
the ring cam e a s th e centur y turned , bu t th e ne w intellectual s wh o
painted an d wrot e abou t boxin g ofte n reache d bac k t o their ow n youthfu l
sporting experiences durin g th e eighteen sixties , seventie s an d eighties. 43
Indeed, b y lat e i n th e centur y countles s America n me n o f goo d
families wer e personall y familia r wit h boxing . Th e smal l number s wh o
had attende d sparrin g classe s give n b y th e ol d professor s o f pugilis m
before th e Civi l Wa r no w becam e a multitude . Youn g me n fro m th e
wealthiest backgrounds , suc h a s Theodor e Roosevel t a t Harvar d an d
William C . Whitne y a t Yale , fough t wit h glove s i n colleg e durin g th e
1870s. B y th e 1880 s cabine t secretarie s suc h a s Jame s G . Blain e an d
Zackary Chandler , forme r governo r Flowe r an d ex-senato r Conklin g o f

198 .
 " F I G H T LIK EA GENTLEMA N.

New York , al l too k sparrin g lessons . Exclusiv e athleti c club s hire d

boxing coaches , YMCA s offere d instruction , an d self-defens e manual s
proliferated. Th e Ne w Yor k Athleti c Clu b eve n sponsore d th e firs t
national amateu r boxin g championship , i n 1878 . Frank Leslie's Magazine
acknowledged pugilism' s recen t popularit y whe n i t bewailed th e worshi p
of brut e forc e whic h fille d Ne w Yor k Cit y sparrin g room s an d urge d tha t
"prize-fighters b e onc e mor e regarde d a s outlaw s an d no t a s publi c
entertainers." 44
Quite the opposite occurred , fo r amateu r sparring' s newfoun d popular -
ity helpe d redee m professiona l ring fighting . Th e Ne w Yor k Athleti c
Club, fo r example , retaine d middleweigh t champio n Mik e Donova n t o
teach "gentleme n eminen t i n science , literature , art , socia l an d commer -
cial life. " Unlik e hi s professiona l ancestor , Willia m Fuller , Donova n di d
not hesitat e t o assis t a t an d arrang e regula r priz e battles , apparentl y
offending non e o f hi s elit e clientele . Othe r citie s followe d Ne w York' s
lead. Th e gentleme n o f Sa n Francisco' s Olympi c Clu b wer e s o please d
with thei r sparrin g master , priz e fighte r Jame s J . Corbett , tha t the y pai d
him $2,50 0 pe r year . Bosto n elite s als o teame d th e fisti c art s i n thei r
own privat e institutions . Th e Crib b Club , fo r example , wher e rin g
fighter Jak e Kilrai n gav e lessons , ha d ove r on e hundre d enrollee s b y th e
mid-eighties, amon g the m businessmen , lawyers , physicians , an d jour -
nalists. Nominatio n b y tw o member s an d th e approva l o f a n electio n
committee wer e require d fo r admission . Similarly , th e Commercia l
Athletic Clu b charge d a n initiatio n fe e an d monthl y due s t o discourag e
all "unrul y an d turbulen t spirits." 45
Even a n occasiona l Christia n voic e no w spok e u p fo r th e priz e ring .
Reverend Brobs t o f Chicago' s Westminste r Presbyteria n Churc h believe d
the Sullivan-Kilrai n figh t i n 188 9 containe d importan t lesson s fo r th e
faithful. Befor e goin g int o training , th e principal s wer e "drinkers ,
sensual, beastly " men . Bu t onc e article s ha d bee n signed , Brobs t noted ,
the opponent s resiste d al l temptation : "Tal k abou t takin g u p you r cross ,
Christians! Yo u ough t t o b e ashame d o f yourselves . Tak e a lesso n i n
hardship an d denia l fro m thes e pugilists! " Th e end s o f priz e fightin g
might b e corrupt , bu t th e mean s wer e divine , fo r har d trainin g brough t
boxers t o physica l an d menta l perfection . Her e wa s a n importan t chang e
from earlie r decades . Althoug h a fe w writer s ha d praise d th e abstemi -
ousness o f boxer s i n training , n o ministe r i n th e er a o f Heenan , Hyer ,
and Morrisse y woul d hav e dare d refe r t o priz e fighters a s paragon s o f
Christian virtue . Bu t Brobs t argue d tha t me n i n th e rin g offere d model s
of will power , fortitude , an d enduranc e t o th e faithful . Boxin g wa s a
metaphor fo r a gri m worl d o f ster n competition , wher e toughnes s wa s

199
 THE MANLY ART

"Prize fight after a banquet: Society bloods of Rochester, New York enjoy a
rattling six-round bout at a fashionable hotel." From the National Police
Gazette, February 2, 1895.

both a religious and a secular duty. "Take a lesson," Brobst admonished

his congregation, and no doubt many did, seeking spiritual enlighten­
ment at the next convenient bout.46
In one fonn or another, then, boxing became familiar to men of solid
social standing. Courage and confidence, self-command and graceful
bearing, vigor and decisiveness, pugilism fostered all of these traits. The
animal world, psychologist G. Stanley Hall declared, was filled with the
struggle for survival. Man's aggressive "instinct" sometimes embroiled
him in senseless combat, yet anger was a valuable trait and real men
rejoiced in noble strife. Hall-who championed the concept of a distinct
adolescent stage of life, with its own psychology-believed that boys
must learn to fight, lest they grow up to be unmanly and craven
milksops. Boxing lessons were the perfect means to channel aggression,
tempering adolescent violence yet engendering courage, force of will,
and self-assertion.47
Soon respectable journals advocated pugilism. Daniel L. Dawson,
writing in Lippincott's Monthly, argued that sparring was among the very
best fonns of exercise, encouraging not only muscular development but

. 200 .
 " F I G H T LIK E A GENTLEMA N

also courage , temperance , an d quicknes s o f thought . Outing, whic h

claimed t o b e the gentleman' s magazin e o f sport , travel , an d outdoo r
life, becam e a repositor y o f informatio n fo r gentee l boxers . Essay s no t
only discusse d leverage , mechanics , an d physiology ; the y uphel d th e
moral wort h o f pugilism . Amateu r bouts , A . Austi n declare d i n "Th e
Theory an d Practic e o f Boxing, " wer e test s o f character , forcin g me n t o
confront thei r mora l strength s an d weaknesses. 48
Some writer s no w calle d fo r th e refor m o f priz e fighting . Charle s E .
Clay, wh o wrot e abou t yachtin g an d exoti c trave l fo r Outing, di d a serie s
of article s base d o n hi s persona l boxin g experiences . Th e gentlemanl y
fighter, lik e Eakins' s me n i n th e ring, wa s beautiful : "Hi s shoulder s ar e
broad, bu t gracefu l an d sloping , an d fro m the m th e arms , wit h ful l an d
rounded biceps , fal l s o easil y an d naturall y t o their prope r positio n a t th e
sides!. . . The ches t expansive , an d wel l fille d out , show s plent y o f roo m
for th e lung s t o work . Th e deltoi d an d shoulde r muscle s ar e al l
thoroughly developed , an d g o t o for m a stron g an d shapel y back. " Bu t
the benefit s wer e mor e tha n merel y physical , fo r boxin g taugh t pluc k an d
endurance. Thos e wh o entere d th e ring develope d th e resourcefulness ,
the confidence , an d th e comman d t o overcom e life' s dail y obstacle s an d
become leader s amon g men . However , Cla y added , onl y th e rule s o f
glove fightin g mad e boxin g s o excellen t fo r mora l an d physica l training ;
the ol d bare-knuckl e way s mus t go. 49
Duffield Osbor n concurred . Hi s "Defens e o f Pugilism, " publishe d i n
the North American Review i n 1888 , argue d tha t a s civilizatio n gre w
overrefined, i t degenerate d int o "mer e womanishness. " Th e rigorous
self-denial o f boxer s i n training , thei r unflinchin g courag e i n th e fac e o f
pain an d fatigue , helpe d counte r thes e perniciou s tendencies . Thos e wh o
valued "hig h manl y qualities " ough t therefor e t o arra y themselve s
against th e "mawkis h sentimentality " tha t threatene d t o transform Ameri -
cans int o " a rac e o f eminentl y respectabl e femal e saints. " Boxing ,
Osborn concluded , mus t b e reforme d an d supported. 50
John Boyl e O'Reilly , poet , edito r o f th e Boston Pilot, an d a n ac -
knowledged leade r o f th e Irish-America n middl e class , becam e th e ring' s
most articulat e champion . Priz e fightin g wa s to o valuabl e t o b e sullie d
by gangster s an d criminals . "Le t i t stan d alone, " O'Reill y argued , "a n
athletic practice , o n th e sam e footin g a s boatin g o r football. " Sparrin g
was th e perfec t recreatio n fo r businessme n whos e nerve s wer e fraye d b y
competition an d energie s deplete d b y th e freneti c pac e o f life . N o othe r
sport exercise d th e trunk , limbs , eyes , an d min d s o well . Th e intensit y
of sparrin g mad e i t idea l trainin g fo r th e young : "Th e boxe r i n actio n
has no t a loos e muscl e o r a sleep y brai n cell . Hi s min d i s quicke r an d
2OI
 THE MANL Y AR T

more watchfu l tha n a ches s player's . H e ha s t o gathe r hi s impulse s an d

hurl them , straigh t an d purposeful , wit h ever y momen t an d motion. "
Watching hones t professional s figh t wit h glove s als o taugh t valuabl e
lessons i n manl y fortitud e an d confidence . "Wher e els e i n on e com -
pressed hour, " O'Reill y asked , "ca n b e witnesse d th e suprem e tes t an d
tension o f suc h preciou s livin g qualitie s a s courage , temper , endurance ,
bodily strength , clear-mindednes s i n excite d action , an d abov e all , tha t
heroic spiri t tha t put s asid e th e cloa k o f defea t thoug h i t fal l ane w a
hundred an d a thousan d times , an d i n th e end , reache s ou t an d grasp s
the silve r mantl e o f success? " Idea l trainin g fo r al l citizens , boxin g
must b e rescue d fro m gambler s an d thug s an d restore d t o gentlemanl y
luster.51
Pugilism, then , wa s filled wit h meanin g fo r turn-of-the-centur y America .
Bloodletting, merciles s competition , an d ste m self-testin g i n th e ring
addressed th e newl y perceive d nee d o f middle - an d upper-clas s me n fo r
more activ e life . Aliv e i n every nerve , th e boxe r wa s i n complete contro l
of hi s body , negatin g b y exampl e th e pervasiv e fear s o f overcivilization ,
nervous breakdowns , an d neurasthenia . Th e ring countere d effeminizin g
tendencies, preparin g me n fo r th e lif e o f strife. 52
The physica l an d menta l acutenes s o f tw o fighters i n comba t offere d
an intriguin g symbo l fo r a societ y extollin g "manl y competition " i n th e
market plac e an d a cultur e beginnin g t o substitut e a cul t o f persona l
experience fo r tigh t self-control . Pugilist s wer e model s o f pois e an d
courage fo r a n ol d uppe r clas s tha t fel t threatene d fro m abov e b y ne w
industrial wealt h an d belo w b y immigran t horde s an d labo r radicals .
Prize fighting uphel d fantasie s o f untrammele d masculinit y fo r a ne w
white-collar clas s locke d int o distinctl y unvirile , corporat e jobs . A s a
spectator sport , boxin g symbolicall y reconcile d contradictor y cultura l
imperatives. Pugilist s wer e model s o f aggressivenes s bu t als o o f self -
discipline an d self-control . Moreover , th e fans , b y passivel y imbibin g
images o f ultramasculin e action , b y sittin g bac k an d watchin g other s
bleed, coul d hav e i t both ways , extolling prowes s whil e filling th e role of
consumer.
And her e wa s th e problem . Upper - an d middle-clas s me n wer e
enthralled b y th e drama , th e violence , th e pageantr y o f th e ring , bu t fe w
were willin g t o accep t priz e fighting becaus e o f it s association s wit h
gangs, criminality , an d th e urba n underworld . Chang e wa s needed , t o
purge th e spor t o f it s rowdy , eve n crimina l element s ye t retai n th e ol d
vibrancy. Fo r suc h me n a s Roosevel t an d O'Reilly , th e solutio n wa s t o
assimilate professiona l boxin g t o amateu r rules .
Variations o n th e marqui s o f Queensberr y cod e governe d gentlemen' s

202
 " F I G H T LIK EA GENTLEMA N

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President Theodor e Roosevel t spar s wit h forme r middleweigh t champio n Mik e

Donovan. Youn g Roosevel t als o boxe d whil e a studen t a t Harvar d an d late r
befriended suc h champion s a s John L . Sullivan . Fro m Donovan, The Roosevelt
That I Know (1909).

203
 THE MANL Y AR T

contests durin g th e seventie s an d eighties . Firs t compile d i n Englan d i n

1866 by a n old-styl e patro n o f pugilism , alon g wit h Lor d Lonsdal e an d
lightweight boxer Arthur Chambers, th e Queensberry rule s were designed
to reform th e ring. Th e new code borrowed freel y fro m th e convention s
that regulate d sparring ; i t disallowe d al l th e ol d wrestlin g throw s an d
holds an d encourage d me n t o stan d an d slu g i t out . Punchin g wit h th e
fists wa s no w th e onl y lega l wa y t o attac k a n opponent . Combatant s
wore gloves , thoug h usuall y thes e wer e muc h les s heavil y padde d tha n
the "pillows " use d in sparring. Boxers faced eac h other for three-minut e
rounds alternatin g wit h one-minut e res t periods , unti l on e ma n wa s
knocked dow n an d unabl e t o ris e withi n te n seconds . Unde r th e ol d
rules, round s average d onl y hal f a s long , sometime s muc h less , an d a
fallen ma n ha d thirt y second s t o recover . Lik e th e Londo n Priz e Rin g
rules an d Broughton' s code , th e Queensberr y rule s se t n o limi t o n th e
number o f rounds . Finally , th e ne w regulation s allowe d th e rin g t o b e
built indoor s o n a stage, supplantin g th e long-standin g dictu m tha t i t be
pitched o n turf. 53
The marqui s o f Queensberr y rule s drasticall y change d boxing' s styl e
and tempo. For decades popular histories have claimed that the new rules
made th e spor t les s dangerous , ye t description s o f bout s unde r th e cod e
reveal n o diminution o f violence . Consider , fo r example , th e followin g
account o f th e 189 2 featherweigh t championshi p figh t betwee n Georg e
Dixon an d Jac k Skelly ;

What wit h bruises , lacerations , an d coagulated blood , Skelly' s nose , mout h

and ey e presente d a horribl e spectacle , an d a s th e poo r fello w staggere d
about almos t helpless , eve n som e o f th e mos t blas e fan s a t th e ringsid e
were hear d t o shudder , an d som e eve n turne d thei r head s i n disgus t a s the y
saw Dixo n savagel y choppin g awa y a t tha t fac e alread y disfigure d pas t
recognition, an d hear d th e ugl y half-splashin g soun d a s hi s blood-soake d
glove agai n an d agai n revisite d th e bleedin g wound s tha t drenche d them. 54

Gloves protecte d fighters ' hand s mor e than thei r heads , adde d weigh t to
each punch , an d allowe d me n t o thro w innumerabl e blow s t o suc h
hard-but-vulnerable spot s a s the temple s an d jaw. I n bare-knuckle fight -
ing, punche s tended t o be straight an d cutting . A man wh o threw man y
hooks o r roundhouse-styl e shot s t o th e sid e o r bac k o f hi s opponent' s
head risked breaking his fingers. Bu t with gloves, boxers could use these
more dangerous punche s wit h impunity . I n addition, th e new ten-secon d
knockout rul e furthe r encourage d clubbin g blows , becaus e i t wa s muc h
easier t o punc h a ma n int o te n second s tha n int o thirt y second s o f

204
 ' ' F I G H T LIK EA GENTLEMA N

unconsciousness. Unfortunately , glove d fist s an d a n emphasi s o n knock -

outs increase d th e likelihoo d tha t fighter s woul d becom e brain-damage d
over a lon g career , fo r th e traum a o f repeate d concussion s ha d a
cumulative effect , producin g lesion s tha t resulte d i n th e "punch-drunk "
syndrome. I n a word , boxin g migh t loo k a bi t les s bruta l bu t becam e
more dangerous. 55
Equally important , th e Queensberr y rule s too k contro l ove r th e pac e of
action awa y fro m th e fighters . Lik e factor y whistles , boxing' s ne w
rhythms mandate d regula r period s o f wor k an d rest . Wit h a refere e no w
inside th e rin g urgin g the m t o fight , boxer s coul d n o longe r stea l a fe w
minutes t o glar e a t eac h other , tacitl y agreein g t o slo w down , retur n t o
their corner s fo r a drink , an d regai n thei r strength . Moreover , th e ne w
order banne d wrestling , a skil l o n whic h man y fighter s depended . Abov e
all, th e Queensberr y rule s emphasize d quick , dramati c blows . I n impor -
tant respects , boxin g becam e simple r an d faster-paced , essentia l quali -
ties i f i t wa s t o appea l t o a wid e i f no t particularl y knowledgeabl e
audience. Th e ne w regimentatio n an d violen t actio n wer e par t o f th e
larger patter n whereb y player s i n variou s sport s wer e losin g day-to-da y
control ove r them . Increasingly , athlete s wer e becomin g subjec t t o th e
dictates o f owner s an d managers . Thu s th e mos t importan t resul t o f th e
Queensberry rule s wa s no t t o mak e th e rin g les s violen t bu t t o mak e i t
more assimilabl e t o th e entertainmen t industr y an d t o mas s commercia l
spectacles.56
Perhaps th e absenc e o f grappling, th e time d interval s o f wor k an d rest ,
and th e muffle d fist s mad e boxin g see m mor e scientifi c an d antisepti c
than i t ha d before . A s th e ne w cod e derive d fro m gentlemen' s rules ,
some reasoned , boxin g mus t no w b e gentlemanly . Bu t th e Queensberr y
rules merel y paste d a thin venee r o f respectabilit y ove r th e brutality; the y
did no t obviat e th e bloody , confrontationa l natur e o f boxing . Equall y
important, th e ne w fightin g styl e itsel f di d nothin g t o sto p th e gambling ,
drinking, an d rowdiness that boxing's opponents condemned s o vociferously .
What change d wa s th e relationshi p betwee n commerc e an d th e ring . B y
facilitating bout s o n th e indoo r stag e rathe r tha n turf , th e Queensbur y
rules allowe d promoter-entrepreneur s t o charge admission , thereb y open -
ing th e wa y fo r crow d contro l b y polic e an d privat e securit y officers .
Prize fightin g acquire d a glos s o f gentilit y tha t legitimate d th e violenc e
and free d respectabl e me n t o enjo y previousl y forbidde n fruit s wit h
safety an d goo d conscience .
Thus th e Queensberr y cod e accommodate d th e large r socia l an d
cultural need s o f well-of f Americans . Th e ne w rules , however , wer e no t
simply impose d o n boxin g b y th e middl e an d uppe r class . Oldtimer s

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 THE MANL Y AR T

might fee l tha t championship s shoul d b e wo n wit h bar e knuckles , bu t

boxers themselve s an d th e ne w sport s entrepreneur s ha d goo d reasons ,
both lega l an d financial , t o favor th e Queensberry rules . The expandin g
interest tha t respectabl e American s showe d i n all form s o f pugilis m wa s
an importan t facto r i n revivin g th e manl y art . S o lon g a s importan t
persons migh t b e i n attendanc e a t Madiso n Squar e Garde n fo r a match ,
police ha d t o mov e cautiously . Bu t eve n befor e bourgeoi s interes t
peaked, th e ring's renewa l unde r th e Queensberr y rule s ha d begun .
Change fro m withi n th e pugilisti c professio n merge d wit h interes t i n
prize fightin g b y ne w an d influentia l groups , transformin g boxin g int o
one of America's mos t importan t spectato r sports . Breaking through ol d
barriers o f clas s an d ethnicity , th e rin g becam e a central symbo l fo r a n
energetic age . Pugilism , thoug h stil l primaril y a mal e passion , joine d
high-stepping dances , wil d amusemen t parks , a rage for bicycling , an d
other intensel y kineti c activitie s a s manifestation s o f a n expansiv e ne w
tone i n American culture . N o individual bette r captured th e spiri t o f th e
age o r receive d wide r acclai m tha n a strappin g youn g Irish-America n
boxer from Boston . To him we must turn to understand the rebirth of the
ring and it s meanin g fo r America .

. 206 .
 7
The En d o f th e Bare-Knuckl e Er a

"My Name' s ļoh n L . Sulliva n an d I Can Lic k

Any Son-of-a-Bitc h Alive "

"Sullivan i s a s fierce , relentless , tireles s a s a cataract . Th e figh t i s

wholly t o g o i n his way-—no t a t al l i n th e othe r man's . Hi s opponen t
wants t o spar ; h e leap s o n hi m wit h a straight blow . H e want s t o breathe ;
he dashe s hi m int o th e corne r wit h a driv e i n th e stomach . H e doe s no t
waste te n second s o f th e thre e minute s o f eac h round. " Joh n Lawrenc e
Sullivan's tota l mastery , hi s complet e dominatio n o f th e ring, captivate d
men's imaginations . H e wa s mor e tha n jus t stron g an d skillful ; h e
possessed "extraordinar y nervou s force, " superhuma n energ y tha t
overwhelmed othe r fighters . Havin g measure d an d evaluate d ever y inc h
of Sullivan' s body , describe d hi m i n th e mos t scientifi c prose , quantifie d
his physiqu e i n a n "anthropometrical " profile , an d provide d nud e
photographs (take n fro m th e rear) , Dr . Dudle y Sargen t o f Harvar d
concluded tha t th e champio n wa s a mode l o f "th e braw n an d sine w tha t
conquers bot h opponent s an d environment s an d sustain s th e race." 1
Sullivan wa s equall y imposin g outsid e th e ring ; everythin g abou t th e
man wa s larger-than-life . A s champio n o f th e world , h e occupie d cente r
stage fo r a ful l decade , longe r tha n an y previou s fighter . "Exceptin g
General Grant, " on e newspape r reported , "n o America n ha s receive d
such ovation s a s Sullivan. " B y th e en d o f th e nineteent h centur y h e wa s
certainly America' s best-know n sport s celebrity , an d perhap s th e nation' s
most famou s citizen. 2
Sullivan wa s bor n i n Roxbury , a subur b o f Boston , o n Octobe r 15 ,
1858. Hi s father , Mik e Sullivan , a short , wir y man , wa s a ho d carrie r
from th e count y Kerry . Eve n afte r hi s so n becam e champion , th e fier y

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 THE MANL Y AR T

immigrant frequentl y reminde d th e la d tha t ther e wer e dozen s o f toughe r

men bac k i n th e ol d country . I f feistines s cam e fro m hi s father , Sulliva n
inherited grea t siz e fro m hi s mother , Catherine , a five-foo t ten-inch ,
one-hundred-eighty-pound woma n fro m count y Roscommon. 3 Youn g
John wa s a produc t o f Boston' s Iris h working-clas s culture . Durin g hi s
boyhood th e famil y move d fro m on e neighborhoo d t o another , a com -
mon patter n fo r laborin g families . Still , h e complete d gramma r schoo l
then attende d nigh t classes . Sulliva n claime d i n hi s autobiograph y tha t
his parent s wante d hi m t o becom e a priest , on e o f th e fe w route s t o
social mobilit y ope n t o Irish-Americans . Hi s temperament , t o pu t i t
gently, unsuite d hi m fo r suc h work. 4
Although lif e ha d improve d fo r th e Iris h sinc e th e Grea t Migration ,
manual labo r remaine d th e lo t o f most . Joh n watche d hi s fathe r wor k
doggedly t o kee p th e famil y barel y abov e poverty . Th e firs t American -
born generatio n ha d a fe w mor e opportunitie s tha n th e immigrants , bu t
the vas t majorit y remaine d commo n laborers , workin g lon g hour s i n
dangerous an d tediou s job s fo r brutall y lo w pay . Fe w fulfille d th e
rags-to-riches myth . A s th e lif e chance s fo r Irish-American s went , youn g
Sullivan probabl y di d bette r tha n most . H e drifte d throug h severa l trade s
before hi s teen s wer e over . Fo r abou t si x month s h e worke d a s a
plumber's apprentice , earnin g fou r dollar s a week , bu t crawlin g int o
basements t o tha w pipe s froze n shu t b y th e Bosto n winte r mad e me n
short-tempered a s thei r ski n wa s alternatel y scalde d an d frost-bitten .
John quarrele d wit h a fello w worke r on e day , accusin g hi s companio n o f
not shoulderin g enoug h o f th e burden . H e wo n thei r figh t an d los t hi s
job. Nex t Sulliva n apprentice d t o a tinsmith , bu t hi s inabilit y t o ge t
along wit h anothe r journeyma n sen t hi m o n hi s wa y again . H e the n
entered hi s father' s ol d occupation , masonry , wher e h e spent tw o restles s
years. O n balance , Sullivan' s futur e looke d hardl y promisin g a s h e gre w
toward adulthood . Discriminatio n i n Yanke e Bosto n mad e skille d blue -
collar an d low-leve l white-colla r wor k a s hig h a s mos t Iris h coul d
realistically aspire . Sullivan' s fier y temperamen t jeopardize d eve n thes e
opportunities.5
Yet liabilitie s i n th e conventiona l wor k worl d wer e asset s elsewhere ;
Sullivan's rea l talent s neede d onl y th e prope r socia l context . Lik e s o
many othe r youn g me n o f th e workin g class , Joh n drifte d int o th e
bachelor subcultur e durin g hi s leisur e hours . Her e drinking , prowess ,
and bravad o wer e hig h virtues , an d Sulliva n excelle d i n the m all . H e
loved th e eas y camaraderi e o f th e saloons , a s wel l a s the admiratio n tha t
his athleti c talent s brought . I t was no t a lon g ste p t o earning som e pocke t
money wit h hi s physica l skills . A s th e marke t fo r commercialize d

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 E N D O F T H E B A R E - K N U C K L E ER A

entertainment expanded , h e followe d th e lea d o f countles s working-clas s

men wh o supplemente d thei r income s b y playin g semiprofessiona l sports .
His almos t instinctiv e aggressivenes s wa s backe d b y a powerful five-foo t
eleven-inch, nea r two-hundred-poun d frame . Moreover , Sullivan' s grea t
strength wa s blende d wit h unusua l quicknes s an d agility ; h e wa s a fin e
natural athlete . Lat e i n th e seventies , a s hi s mor e mundan e career s
foundered, h e joined variou s semiprofessiona l basebal l teams , th e Tremonts,
the Etnas , Ou r Boys . Th e Egleston s pai d hi m twenty-fiv e dollar s pe r
game t o pla y lef t fiel d an d firs t base . A substantia l su m o f mone y fo r a
working-class yout h a t th e time , th e offe r pale d besid e th e $1,30 0
contract allegedl y tendere d b y th e Cincinnat i Re d Stocking s i n 1879. 6
Sullivan neve r playe d i n Cincinnati , fo r hi s athleti c propensitie s
already le d hi m i n anothe r direction . "A t th e ag e o f nineteen, " h e
recalled, " I drifte d int o th e occupatio n o f a boxer. " "Drifted " wa s
precisely th e righ t word . Despit e th e antebellu m stat e la w agains t priz e
fighting, Bosto n official s grante d license s fo r glov e exhibitions . Sparrin g
matches ha d take n o n th e intensit y o f regula r rin g fights , however , a s
men sough t no t jus t t o demonstrat e thei r skil l bu t t o knoc k eac h othe r
out. Sulliva n attende d a variet y sho w on e nigh t a t th e Dudle y Stree t
Opera House , an d a s par t o f th e entertainmen t a youn g fighte r name d
Scannel challenge d anyon e i n th e hous e t o pu t o n glove s an d fac e him .
Sullivan's aggressiv e temperamen t ha d previousl y embroile d hi m i n
several stree t fights , s o h e wa s fa r fro m a complete novice . Still , h e ha d
never take n a forma l boxin g lesson . H e strippe d of f hi s coat , rolle d u p
his sleeves , an d walke d t o th e front . A blow fro m Scanne l t o th e bac k o f
Sullivan's hea d mad e th e youn g ma n s o angr y tha t h e knocke d th e
professional ove r a pian o sittin g o n stage. 7
Sullivan no w bega n fightin g i n Bosto n theater s an d musi c halls .
Johnny "Cockey " Woods , Da n Dwye r th e "Champio n o f Massachu -
setts," an d Tomm y Chandle r al l fel l victi m t o th e lad . Sulliva n ha d
trouble containin g himsel f durin g thes e exhibitions , som e o f whic h wer e
not suppose d t o includ e an y har d hitting . I n benefit s give n fo r ex -
middleweight champio n Mik e Donova n an d forme r Englis h champio n
Joe Goss , friend s ha d t o restrai n hi m fro m finishin g eac h ma n insid e th e
four-round limit . I t too k al l o f Donovan' s skil l t o avoi d Sullivan' s
rushes, an d h e lef t th e stag e convince d tha t th e yout h woul d soo n b e
"boss o f the m all. " Thes e earl y fight s kindle d i n youn g Joh n a tast e fo r
fame an d adulatio n tha t th e workada y worl d coul d neve r satisfy . Fe w
working-class men , thei r opportunitie s s o limite d b y a n oppressiv e socia l
structure, coul d hav e resiste d th e glory, th e money , an d th e pee r approva l
that sport s offered . Fewe r stil l ha d th e athleti c skill s t o avoi d th e

2og
 THE M A N L Y AR T

back-breaking labo r o f ho d carrying , ditc h digging , o r cartin g an d

hauling. Earnin g a livin g i n th e ring wa s a t bes t a dangerou s business ,
but a disappointin g pas t an d a n uncertai n futur e mad e Sulliva n willin g t o
take risks. 8
As h e approache d hi s twenty-firs t year , Sulliva n decide d t o abando n
more traditiona l occupation s an d suppor t himsel f solel y a s a boxer .
Known a s th e "Highlan d Boy, " h e wo n a handfu l o f stag e bout s i n
Boston an d Ne w York . Lat e i n 188 0 h e lef t hi s hometow n fo r Cincinnat i
to spa r wit h Joh n Donaldson , th e "champio n o f th e West. " Donaldson' s
vaunted rin g skill s faile d t o intimidat e th e yout h wh o punche d th e
veteran aroun d a t will . No t satisfied , Donaldso n challenge d Sulliva n t o
fight wit h har d glove s (unde r five ounces) . Excep t fo r th e gloves , thi s
bout followe d bare-knuckl e rules , makin g i t Sullivan' s first priz e fight.
They battle d i n th e bac k roo m o f a bee r hal l fo r fifty-three dollar s raise d
by th e thirt y sport s i n attendance . Donaldso n laste d onl y te n rounds ;
after twenty-on e minutes , h e wa s unabl e t o continue. 9
The fight receive d considerabl e pres s attention , an d th e bras h youn g
Sullivan fel t s o confiden t o f hi s power s tha t h e no w dare d an y fighter i n
America t o mee t him . Hi s "defi, " a s suc h challenge s wer e called , wa s
widely reprinted :

Cincinnati, Dec . 9 , 188 0

To the Edito r o f th e Enquirer :
I am prepare d t o mak e a match t o fight any ma n breathing fo r an y su m
from on e thousan d dollar s t o te n thousan d dollar s a t catc h weights . Thi s
challenge i s especially directe d t o Padd y Rya n an d wil l remai n ope n fo r a
month i f h e shoul d no t se e fit to accep t it .

Respectfully Yours ,
John L . Sulliva n

Ryan wa s d e fact o champion , havin g defeate d th e agin g Englis h heavy -

weight Jo e Gos s si x month s earlier . Thu s Sulliva n earl y reveale d hi s
flair fo r self-promotion , challengin g fo r th e titl e thoug h h e wa s stil l bu t
a novice. 10
Ryan spurne d th e lad , advisin g hi m t o "g o an d get a reputation. "
Sullivan did . H e defeate d severa l journeyma n boxer s i n comin g month s
and mad e hi s debu t a t Harr y Hill's , mecc a fo r al l hungr y youn g fighters .
Here, durin g a n exhibitio n give n i n hi s honor , Sulliva n offere d fifty
dollars t o an y ma n wh o coul d stan d i n th e rin g wit h hi m fo r fou r ful l
rounds unde r th e marqui s o f Queensberr y rules . Thi s challeng e create d a
sensation i n sportin g circles . Vetera n Stev e Taylo r accepte d th e dar e bu t

210 .
 E N D O F T H E B A R E - K N U C K L E ER A

lasted onl y tw o rounds . Legen d ha s i t tha t a fe w night s later , Richar d

Kyle Fo x dine d a t Harr y Hill's . Spottin g Sullivan , h e aske d th e proprie -
tor t o sen d th e youn g ma n t o hi s table . Sullivan—whos e eg o an d
ambitiousness equale d th e editor's—allegedl y barke d tha t Fo x coul d
come t o hi m i f h e ha d somethin g t o say . Fro m tha t momen t o n th e Police
Gazette owne r wa s determine d t o brin g Sulliva n down . Whethe r th e
story wa s tru e o r not , th e tw o commence d a lon g an d profitabl e publi c
antipathy. Indeed , on e suspect s tha t thei r well-publicize d enmit y quickl y
became les s a persona l affai r tha n a busines s ploy.' '
While Rya n remaine d inactive , Sulliva n wen t o n th e roa d wit h hi s
fifty-dollar challeng e t o knoc k ou t al l comers . Manage d b y forme r boxe r
Billy Madden , wh o raise d capita l fro m Bosto n sportin g men , Sulliva n
toured Buffalo , Pittsburgh , Cincinnati , Louisville , an d Chicago . I n
Philadelphia h e wa s pai d $15 0 fo r a singl e week' s work , roughl y te n
times a n averag e laborer' s wages . Wherea s antebellu m tour s b y suc h
men a s Ne d Pric e ha d retaine d th e pretex t o f teachin g scientifi c boxing ,
Sullivan's appea l wa s mor e explicitl y violent : me n flocked t o see hi m
beat anyon e wh o dare d ente r th e ring.' 2
In additio n t o thes e stag e bouts , h e fough t a priz e battl e agains t Joh n
Flood, "Th e Bullshea d Terror, " i n Ma y o f 1881 , a match tha t evoke d al l
of th e ring' s ol d seaminess . The y me t o n a moonli t barg e towe d a fe w
miles u p th e Hudson , outsid e th e jurisdictio n o f Ne w Yor k Cit y police .
Oldtimers Barne y Aaro n an d Doone y Harri s seconde d Flood , whil e Jo e
Goss an d Bill y Madde n stoo d behin d Sullivan . Th e tw o fough t wit h
skintight glove s i n fron t o f th e usua l fanc y crow d o f working-clas s men ,
urban dandies , an d professiona l gamblers . Th e "Bosto n Stron g Boy, " a s
he wa s no w becomin g known , easil y too k th e winner' s shar e o f th e
thousand-dollar purs e subscribe d b y th e fou r hundre d sport s i n atten -
dance. Th e jo b laste d a quarte r o f a n hour , an d Sulliva n knocke d o r
threw Floo d dow n i n al l eigh t rounds .
The lad' s victorie s kep t pressur e o n Rya n t o mak e a match . Richar d
Kyle Fo x offere d t o back th e champion fo r u p to ten thousan d dollar s an d
the Police Gazette ben t al l o f it s efforts t o bringing th e fight off . Sulliva n
suggested a glov e battl e fo r on e thousan d dollar s a side . Fox' s represent -
atives retorte d tha t glove s prove d nothin g an d tha t th e stake s wer e to o
paltry. Still , excitemen t mounte d i n anticipatio n o f a championship bout .
Finally Sulliva n raise d $2,500 , agree d t o a regula r priz e fight , an d Rya n
accepted. Stake s wer e deposite d i n Harr y Hill' s hand s an d article s
signed.' 3
The me n wer e t o figh t withi n a hundred mile s o f Ne w Orleans , tacitl y
fixing o n th e Gul f Coas t o f Mississippi . Je m Mace , Jo e Coburn , an d

211
John L . Sulliva n an d Joh n Floo d battl e o n a Hudson Rive r barge, Ma y ı6 , 1881 .
Reports claime d tha t th e combatant s wor e skintigh t gloves , bu t thes e ar e
nowhere eviden t i n thi s engraving . Fro m Willia m Edga r Harding , John L.
Sullivan: Champion Pugilist of the World (1883) .

Tom Alle n ha d al l base d thei r championshi p matche s i n th e Crescen t

City durin g th e earl y 1870s , an d th e area' s cosmopolitanis m mad e i t a
natural choic e fo r thi s battle . Sulliva n bega n trainin g i n Ba y St . Louis ,
Mississippi, i n lat e Decembe r 1881 , and Rya n quickl y se t u p headquar-
ters i n Mississipp i City . B y mid-January , however , th e stat e legislatur e
mandated a thousand-dollar fin e and five years' imprisonmen t for anyone
engaging in a prize fight. Counterbalancin g th e Gulf Coast's traditions of
moral freedom, th e post-Reconstruction era , wit h its rapid modernizatio n
and capitalist development, brough t ne w strictures to much of the South.
Industrialization an d renewe d religiou s fervo r i n th e regio n ofte n mad e
. 212 .
 E N D O F T H E B A R E - K N U C K L E ER A

fugitive activitie s o f wil d pastimes , a s th e ol d way s an d th e ne w battle d

for legitimacy . Bot h fighter s move d bac k t o Ne w Orleans. 14
Week afte r wee k th e Police Gazette fille d it s column s wit h new s o f th e
upcoming battle , an d fea r o f bein g lef t behin d cause d metropolita n
dailies t o expan d thei r coverag e o f th e ring. A specia l corresponden t fo r
the New York Sun, Jos é Marti—wh o woul d di e i n 189 5 tryin g t o hel p
liberate hi s nativ e Cub a fro m Spanis h rule—describe d th e scen e i n Ne w
Orleans: "Everywher e on e hear d th e clin k o f glasses , boisterou s talking ,
heated discussion s i n store s an d o n stree t coiner s o f th e respectiv e merit s
of th e fighters , an d th e rus h o f fee t a s drove s o f peopl e hurrie d t o satisf y
their hungr y eye s wit h a glimps e o f th e broad back , slopin g shoulder s
and whipcor d thigh s o f th e athletes. " B y earl y Februar y sportin g me n
were pourin g int o th e Crescen t Cit y fro m al l ove r America . I n respons e
some prominen t Ne w Orleanian s revive d th e ol d attac k o n th e ring . Th e
Reverend J . Willia m Flynn , fo r example , condemne d th e boxin g frater -
nity fo r corruptin g loca l yout h an d leavin g a "mora l stai n o n thei r
lives." Wit h pressur e building , official s resolve d t o kee p th e figh t ou t o f
their parish . Th e principal s decide d t o tak e a chance , an d the y secretl y
made plan s t o retur n t o Mississippi. 15
Arthur Chambers , a forme r Englis h lightweigh t an d coautho r o f th e
Queensberry rules , no w a Philadelphi a saloonkeepe r an d backe r o f
Sullivan, believe d tha t mor e mone y wa s wagere d o n thi s contes t tha n o n
any othe r i n history . On e estimat e pu t th e tota l bettin g a t thre e hundre d
thousand dollars . Amids t th e excitement , Governo r Lowr y o f Mississipp i
issued a proclamatio n orderin g th e sheriff s o f seacoas t countie s t o
summons their entire populations int o posses—at gunpoint i f necessary—t o
prevent th e battle. 16
Nevertheless, o n Februar y 5 , 1882 , ten-dolla r excursio n ticket s wen t
on sal e a t th e Louisvill e & Nashvill e Railroa d offic e i n Ne w Orleans .
The followin g nigh t Sulliva n an d Rya n boarde d advanc e trains , accom -
panied b y telegrap h compan y employee s wh o woul d connec t th e battle -
ground t o newspape r presse s fro m coas t t o coast . A fe w hour s late r
thousands o f me n packe d railroa d car s an d heade d fo r th e battl e site .
José Mart i describe d ho w the y relive d th e ring' s glor y day s e n rout e t o
Mississippi:

Now come s th e drinking , th e shouting , an d th e layin g o f bets . No w th e

agreement tha t a good fighte r mus t b e fearless, agile , an d game. No w the
reminiscing abou t th e goo d ol d day s i n Ne w Yor k whe n electora l cam -
paigns wer e bare-knuckl e affair s i n th e alleys , th e storie s retol d o f ho w a
certain McCo y kille d Chri s Lill y i n th e ring , an d ho w the bonfires burne d

213
 THE M A N L Y AR T

along Par k Ro w afte r Hye r defeate d Sulliva n "i n a whirlwind fight, " an d
how the huge sign hung for month s on the famous ol d street where the post
office no w stands: "To m Hyer , Champio n o f America. " Betwee n swig s of
burning liquor , som e recal l ho w Morrisse y lef t Heena n fo r dead ; other s
remember th e blo w t o th e forehea d wit h whic h McCoo l felle d Jones , tha t
left hi m vomiting as if his brain had been shaken from it s moorings; others
remember Mace as a great slugger , wh o threw punche s like a windmill and
broke Allen' s nec k wit h on e goo d blow .
Dawn brok e ove r th e resor t o f Mississipp i Cit y wit h th e multitude s
streaming towar d a ring pitche d i n fron t o f th e Barne s Hotel . Th e
veranda provide d th e choices t views , price d accordingly . Minglin g i n th e
crowd wer e merchants , busines s an d professiona l men , lawyer s an d
judges a s wel l a s th e usua l gambler s an d sports. 17
Replicas o f th e fighters ' color s sol d wel l a t ringside; Police Gazette
employees charge d te n dollar s fo r reproduction s o f Ryan's . Th e champi -
on chos e a whit e handkerchie f wit h red , white , an d blu e border , an d i n
the corner s a n Iris h harp , a n America n shield , th e sea l o f Ne w York , an d
the sunburs t emble m o f th e Fenia n Brotherhood . A t th e cente r a n eagl e
straddled th e globe , an d i n it s mout h a scrol l rea d "Polic e Gazette , Ne w
York, 1882. " Th e challenge r selecte d color s containin g simila r
symbolism—a whit e sil k handkerchie f wit h gree n border , a n America n
eagle i n th e center , an d Iris h an d America n flags crosse d i n eac h corner .
Fighters' color s wer e covete d trophies , palpabl e relic s o f heroi c deeds ;
just a s fade d duplicate s o f Sayers' s an d Heenan' s emblem s stil l hun g o n
the wall s o f Ne w Yor k sportin g houses , s o Sullivan' s an d Ryan' s soo n
would grac e saloon s acros s th e country. 18
The bettin g a t figh t tim e tilte d slightl y towar d th e challenger, bu t Rya n
was heavil y favore d fo r firs t bloo d an d firs t knockdown . Bet s o f $100 ,
$500, eve n $1,00 0 wer e common , an d on e estimat e pu t tota l ringside
wagering a t $60,000 . Althoug h Sullivan' s yout h an d strengt h wer e
evident enough , man y o f th e cognoscent i stil l pointe d t o hi s inexperi -
ence. Knowledgeabl e sportin g me n note d tha t th e Bosto n Bo y ha d neve r
before fough t wit h bar e knuckles , tha t Rya n wa s a n inc h talle r an d a fe w
pounds heavier , an d tha t th e champio n possesse d excellen t rin g skill s an d
the confidenc e t o us e them . I f ovation s wer e an y measure , Rya n wa s th e
favorite. Eve n thoug h h e ha d recentl y sustaine d a rupture , fo r whic h h e
wore a trus s unde r hi s fightin g drawers , numerou s member s o f th e fanc y
considered th e titleholde r unbeatable. 19
The challenge r thre w hi s hat i n th e ring first, the n sa t waitin g fo r
twenty minutes , wrappe d i n a blanket , unti l th e champio n arrived . Nex t

2 14
 E N D O F T H E B A R E - K N U C K L E ER A

the fighters ' umpire s haggle d ove r th e selectio n o f a referee , finall y

compromising wit h tw o men . Rya n wo n th e tos s fo r choic e o f groun d
and mad e Sulliva n fac e th e sun . Th e champio n the n offere d th e Bosto n
Boy a sid e bet o f a thousan d dollars , mone y give n t o Rya n b y Richar d
Kyle Fox . Sulliva n covere d th e wager . I t wa s a littl e afte r noo n whe n th e
men finall y stripped , shoo k hands , an d toe d th e scratch. 20
"When Sulliva n struc k me, " Rya n sai d afte r th e fight, " I though t tha t
a telegrap h pol e ha d bee n shove d agains t m e endways. " Th e battle d
lasted onl y nin e round s o f abou t a half-minut e each . Fro m firs t t o las t
Sullivan dominate d hi s opponent . Th e pac e exhauste d bot h men , an d
neither escape d unscathed , bu t th e challenge r wa s alway s i n control .
Ryan's second s counte d o n thei r ma n t o outlas t th e lad , bu t whe n
Sullivan knocke d th e champio n senseles s wit h blow s t o th e templ e an d
jaw i n th e nint h round , the y thre w u p th e sponge . "Amon g th e sportin g
men an d ol d rin g goer s tha t witnesse d th e mill, " th e New Orleans
Times-Democrat conclude d "i t i s generall y concede d tha t th e Bosto n
Boy i s a wonder . Hi s hittin g power s ar e terrific , an d agains t hi s
sledge-hammer fist s th e nake d arm s o f a ma n ar e bu t poo r defense . H e
forced th e fightin g fro m th e star t an d knocke d hi s opponen t abou t a s
though h e wer e a football. " A t ag e twenty-three , previousl y unabl e t o
keep a job, Joh n Lawrenc e Sulliva n wa s heavyweigh t champion. 21
Given th e ring' s recen t troubles , th e New York Times marvele d tha t th e
fight generate d enormou s interes t i n al l part s o f th e countr y an d "amon g
all classe s o f men. " Th e Police Gazette presse s rolle d fo r day s wit h a n
eight-page illustrate d special ; Fox' s ma n migh t hav e lost , bu t hi s pape r
profited handsomely . Indeed , al l o f th e majo r dailie s sen t reporters , a t
once stimulatin g an d fulfillin g th e deman d fo r news . Fo r th e firs t tim e
interviews wit h th e fighters , obviousl y patche d togethe r b y sport s writ -
ers, bega n t o appear . A s muc h a s an y othe r singl e event , th e Sullivan -
Ryan figh t fostere d th e developmen t o f moder n sport s coverage. 22
In Bosto n me n gathere d outsid e newspape r office s an d screame d thei r
joy whe n wor d o f Sullivan' s victor y cam e ove r th e wires. Irish-American s
were especiall y delighted , fo r the y stil l fel t th e stin g o f Yanke e disdain ,
though no t quit e s o harshl y a s i n th e antebellu m era . Ol d Anglo-Saxo n
families continue d t o dominat e Bosto n socia l life , s o her e wa s a sourc e
of grou p pride , o f elementa l virility , t o counte r th e oppressor' s haughti -
ness. Eve n th e Boston Pilot, a newspape r o f th e middl e class , "lace -
curtain" Irish , embrace d Sulliva n a s a hero. Bu t i t wa s no t onl y th e son s
of th e Emeral d Isl e wh o love d Sullivan ; adulatio n fo r th e ne w champio n
spread outwar d t o ne w group s throughou t th e town . On e wa g sa w iron y

215
 THE M A N L Y AR T

in stai d ol d Bosto n lionizin g th e burl y Cel t an d suggested , tongue-in -

cheek, tha t th e Slugge r coul d restor e th e city' s pas t glory :

Just fanc y wha t mingle d emotion s

Would fil l th e Purita n hear t
To lear n wha t renow n wa s wo n fo r hi s tow n
By mean s o f th e manl y art !

Imagine a Winthro p o r Adam s

In fron t o f a bulleti n board ,
Each flingin g hi s ha t a t th e statemen t tha t
The firs t bloo d wa s b y Sulliva n scored .

Thy bards , henceforth , O Boston !

Of thi s triump h o f triumph s wil l sing ,
For a muscula r strok e ha s adde d a spoke
To the Hub , whic h wil l strengthe n th e ring!

Now Lowel l wil l spea k o f th e "ruby, "

And Aldric h o f "closin g a match, "
And Longfello w rhym e o f "comin g t o time, "
Of "bunche s o f fives" an d "th e scratch. "

Doubtless man y prope r Bostonian s wer e no t amused .

Sullivan's popularit y wa s no t confine d t o hi s nativ e city , a s th e
journey bac k Nort h proved . A t ever y railroa d station , crowd s surrounde d
the car s t o catc h a glimps e o f th e ne w champion . Appearin g a t leadin g
saloons o r sparrin g i n loca l sportin g houses , h e wa s heralded i n Chicago ,
Detroit, Cleveland , Pittsburgh , Philadelphia , an d Ne w York . Th e stake s
in han d fro m Harr y Hill , Sulliva n returne d t o Bosto n fo r a thunderou s
reception a t th e Dudle y Stree t Oper a House , wher e jus t thre e year s
before h e ha d sparre d i n hi s firs t exhibition . Th e adulatio n wa s jus t
beginning. Ove r th e nex t decad e Sulliva n becam e on e o f th e best-know n
public figures i n th e world , an d th e mos t idolize d athlet e o f th e entir e
nineteenth century. 24

The Ne w Orde r

Just si x week s afte r h e wo n th e championship , th e Bosto n Bo y

issued a ne w challenge :

216 .
 END OF THE BARE-KNUCKLE ERA

The new champion, John Lawrence Sullivan . His reign lasted ten years, and he
was easily the most popular sports hero of the nineteenth century. From William
Edwards, The Portrait Gallery of Pugilists of America (1894) .

. 217 .
 T H E M A N L Y AR T

There ha s been s o much newspape r tal k fro m partie s who state that they
are desirous o f meetin g m e in the rin g tha t I am disgusted. Nevertheless , I
am willin g t o figh t an y ma n i n thi s country , i n fou r week s fro m signin g
articles, fo r fiv e thousan d dollar s a side; or, an y man i n the old country fo r
the sam e amoun t a t two months fro m signin g articles , I to use gloves, and
he, i f he pleases, to fight wit h the bare knuckles. I will not fight agai n with
the bar e knuckles a s I do not wis h t o put mysel f i n a position amenabl e t o
the law . M y mone y i s alway s ready , s o I want thes e fellow s t o pu t u p o r
shut up .
John L . Sulliva n
Boston, Marc h 23 , 188 2

The ton e wa s quintessentiall y Sullivan—brusque , blunt , an d defiant .

Here wa s th e ope n pugnaciousnes s tha t endeare d hi m t o th e public ,
especially th e workin g class . Th e Bosto n Bo y als o renewe d hi s challeng e
to an y ma n wh o coul d stan d fou r glov e round s o f thre e minute s apiec e
against him , an d raise d th e stake s t o on e thousan d dollars . Excep t fo r
drawing th e color line— a phenomeno n increasingl y commo n i n America n
social lif e a s viciou s ne w segregatio n practice s emerge d fro m th e federa l
government's failur e t o enforc e Reconstructio n policies—Sulliva n me t
all comers . H e knocke d ou t literall y dozen s o f opponent s i n four -
rounders governe d b y th e Queensberr y rules. 25
In Ne w York , Boston , an d Rochester , Sulliva n hel d a serie s o f thes e
"picnics," a s h e calle d them . I n Brooklyn' s Washingto n Par k o n Jul y 4 ,
1882, vetera n fighte r Jimm y Elliot t picke d u p th e gauntlet . On e hundre d
policemen kep t orde r amon g th e fiv e thousan d fans , al l delighte d b y th e
prospect o f a hard-fough t battle . Outsid e th e par k nonpayin g spectator s
watched fro m window s an d rooftops . Th e crow d wen t wil d a s th e
champion force d th e fighting , easil y knockin g Elliot t ou t i n les s tha n
three round s wit h savag e blow s t o th e fac e an d neck . A s wa s hi s custom ,
Sullivan magnanimousl y tendere d a small gift—i n thi s case fifty dollars —
to hi s falle n opponent. 26
Just tw o week s late r th e Bosto n Bo y fough t Jo e Collins , alia s Tu g
Wilson, i n Madiso n Squar e Garden . Wilso n claime d th e championshi p
of England , an d Richar d Kyl e Fo x finance d hi s pilgrimag e t o America ,
hoping h e no w ha d th e ma n t o humbl e hi s nemesis . However , Sulliva n
insisted tha t before a titl e match , th e Englishma n mus t prov e hi s mettl e
in a glov e fight , an d th e champio n offere d on e thousan d dollar s an d hal f
the gat e receipt s i f Wilso n survive d fou r rounds . Fiv e thousan d fans ,
paying a s muc h a s fiv e dollar s each , packe d Madiso n Squar e Garden ,
and fiv e thousan d mor e clamore d fo r admissio n bu t wer e turne d away .
"Probably ther e ha d neve r bee n mor e excitemen t ove r a boxin g contes t

218
 END O F TH E BARE-KNUCKL E ER A

before," on e sourc e reported ; "th e audienc e wa s compose d o f al l

classes, fro m th e mos t intellectua l t o th e lowes t spor t wh o coul d sprin g
the pric e o f admission." 27
Betting wa s rampan t befor e th e match , muc h o f i t a t tw o t o on e o n
Sullivan. Fan s wer e i n fo r a shock , however , becaus e fo r th e firs t tim e
Sullivan faile d t o knoc k hi s ma n out . Th e Englishma n wa s thre e inche s
shorter, thirt y pound s lighter , an d fiftee n year s older , an d h e wen t dow n
nine time s i n th e firs t roun d an d eigh t i n th e second . Bu t Wilso n wa s
never reall y hurt , an d b y th e thir d roun d th e odd s shifte d i n hi s favor , a s
the out-of-shap e Sulliva n exhauste d himself . Wilso n sometime s dance d
out o f th e champion' s reach , sometime s staye d to o clos e fo r hi s devastat -
ing hooks , an d ofte n droppe d withou t a blow . Ye t h e remaine d standin g
at th e en d o f fou r rounds , thankfull y accepte d a draw , an d too k hom e
seven thousan d dollar s fo r twelv e minutes ' work . N o on e doubte d th e
Bostonian's superiority . Nevertheless , whe n Fo x offere d t o bac k Wilso n
with fiv e thousan d dollar s fo r a bare-knuckl e bou t Sulliva n refuse d t o
sign articles , claimin g h e wante d a fight , no t a footrace .
The champio n receive d muc h criticis m fo r holdin g Wilso n to o cheaply ,
not trainin g hard , an d refusin g a rematch . Bu t th e twenty-four-year-ol d
loved th e goo d life . H e discovere d durin g th e half-yea r afte r th e Rya n
bout a low-risk mean s t o kee p mone y an d adulatio n flowing hi s way . Th e
four-round Queensberr y fight s agains t al l comer s prove d a goldmine, fo r
the ne w rule s greatl y expande d a professional' s opportunities . Glove s
protected hi s hands , an d th e eliminatio n o f wrestlin g remove d th e dange r
of injur y fro m a chanc e fall . S o lon g a s th e rule s wer e enforce d an d h e
fought me n o f onl y moderat e skill , a goo d boxe r lik e Sulliva n coul d
repel attack s an d dispatc h almos t an y opponent . Ad d t o thi s th e stag e
fright o f a loca l her o o r neighborhoo d bull y goin g agains t th e grea t
Sullivan, an d th e resul t wa s a formul a fo r eas y victories . American s
gladly pai d t o see th e kin g i n action , an d th e ne w rule s allowe d hi m t o
oblige them .
Sullivan too k hi s ac t o n th e road , starrin g i n a travelin g variet y sho w
put togethe r b y th e sleight-of-han d artis t Harr y Sargent . I n th e mids t o f
jugglers, wrestlers , an d clowns , h e cam e o n stage , mad e hi s famous
declaration tha t h e coul d knoc k ou t an y man , an d challenge d th e house .
If n o on e accepte d (an d b y no w ther e wer e fe w takers , despit e growin g
purses), h e sparre d wit h anothe r membe r o f th e troupe . Becaus e a priz e
fight stil l mean t a bare-knuckl e bou t o n turf , thes e exhibition s wer e
technically withi n th e law , an d a s lon g a s loca l official s looke d th e othe r
way, th e lega l subterfug e hel d up . Occasionally , polic e intervene d whe n
a matc h gre w particularl y violent , o r loca l oppositio n unusuall y vocal , bu t

2IĻ>
 THE MANL Y AR T

generally th e crowd s wer e orderly , eve n respectable . Unde r thes e cir -

cumstances, unprecedente d number s o f American s no w ha d th e opportu -
nity t o see rin g heroe s i n action. 28
Even mor e importan t tha n ne w rule s circumventin g ol d anti-prize-figh t
laws, th e Victoria n urg e t o sto p ever y specie s o f "immoral " amusemen t
was weakening . A s on e spectato r commente d whe n Sulliva n fough t
Charlie Mitchel l i n 1883 , "me n wh o doz e i n obligator y pew s o n Sunda y
to th e soothin g accompanimen t o f a clerica l homily , struggle d eagerl y t o
see thes e Christian s poun d eac h other. " Boxing' s ne w trapping s helpe d
legitimate elit e interest , s o tha t no w "me n eminen t i n th e highe r walk s
of lif e len t th e warran t o f thei r presenc e t o a n exhibitio n o f fistic skil l
which fo r onc e wa s strippe d o f th e attribute s whic h mak e suc h show s
reprehensible." Thu s Rosco e Conkling , Charle s A . Dana , Lawrenc e
Jerome, an d Willia m R . Travers , a s wel l a s member s o f th e Knicker -
bocker Clu b an d th e Unio n Leagu e sa t a t ringside fo r on e o r mor e o f
Sullivan's exhibitions . Indeed , earl y i n 188 3 fifteen thousan d Bostonian s
came t o a benefi t fo r th e champio n give n b y th e prestigiou s Crib b Club .
Harvard graduates , cit y councilmen , an d member s o f th e Somerse t
Society al l attende d th e festivities. 29
Sullivan mad e fa r mor e mone y fro m hi s "knocking-ou t tours " tha n
from championshi p fights ; i n fact , bare-knuckl e matche s ha d becom e
virtually a mean s t o promot e exhibition s rathe r tha n th e othe r wa y
around. Th e Bosto n Bo y an d hi s manager , Bill y Madden , receive d fiv e
hundred dollar s pe r night , usuall y si x night s a wee k durin g on e twenty -
week roa d tri p i n 1882 . A subsequen t tou r i n 1883-8 4 yielde d Sulliva n
around eighty-thousan d dollar s afte r expenses . I n 188 7 th e champio n
formed a partnershi p wit h a circu s impresari o an d earne d sixty-tw o
thousand dollar s fo r sparrin g alongsid e acrobats , tumblers , an d horse -
back riders . Lat e i n th e decad e Sulliva n toure d Englan d an d Australia ,
grossing a n estimate d $168,000 . Som e o f thes e figure s ar e n o doub t
inflated, bu t th e larges t stak e Sulliva n eve r wo n i n a bare-knuckl e fight
was twent y thousan d dollars , an d h e ended u p spendin g mos t o f i t to sta y
out o f prison . On e ca n therefor e understan d hi s attachmen t t o th e
Queensberry rules. 30
Though extremel y lucrative , th e tour s wer e gruelin g affairs . Manage d
by forme r boxer s suc h a s Bill y Madden , A l Smith , an d Pa t Sheedy—al l
buccaneers b y gentee l Victoria n standards , bu t al l i n th e mainstrea m o f
Gilded Ag e hucksterism—th e travelin g show s require d detaile d plannin g
to mak e sur e th e troup e mad e railroa d connections , arrive d o n schedule ,
found accommodations , receive d plent y o f advanc e billing , packe d a
local arena , and , abov e all , earne d a profit .

220 .
 E N D O F T H E B A R E - K N U C K L E ER A

The gran d tou r o f 1883-84 , organize d b y ex-priz e fighte r A l Smith ,

was th e prototype . Sulliva n travele d fo r eigh t month s wit h severa l othe r
professional boxers , includin g Herber t Slade , Je m Mace , an d Stev e
Taylor, a s wel l a s Mik e Donovan , Pet e McCoy , an d Mik e Gillespie .
Only abou t a doze n me n accepte d th e champion' s offe r o f on e thousan d
dollars t o stan d i n th e rin g wit h hi m fo r fou r rounds . The y usuall y wer e
knocked ou t i n th e first minute , bu t i n mos t town s n o one wa s foolhard y
enough t o try , s o th e professional s sparre d wit h eac h other. 31 Th e tou r
started i n Baltimore , wher e te n thousan d fan s attende d a three-nigh t
stand. Fro m there , th e grou p wen t North , the n int o th e Midwest , acros s
the Plain s States , throug h th e Rockies , t o th e Wes t Coast , nort h t o
British Columbia , the n dow n t o Lo s Angeles , acros s th e Southwes t an d
Texas int o th e Dee p South , an d finall y bac k North , endin g i n Toledo ,
Ohio. Occasionall y th e troup e spen t severa l day s i n on e city , bu t mor e
commonly the y barnstorme d a ne w tow n ever y night . Thu s durin g th e
first ful l mont h o f th e tour , Octobe r 1883 , the y mad e twenty-fou r stop s
in si x state s an d th e Distric t o f Columbia , includin g suc h far-flun g citie s
as Norfolk , Va. , Scranton , Penn. , Terr e Haute , Ind. , an d Louisville , Ky .
In smal l village s an d bi g citie s businessmen , politicians , an d professiona l
men go t thei r firs t tast e o f th e manl y art , sittin g besid e loca l worker s an d
sports. Th e nationa l tou r wa s o n th e roa d fo r 23 8 day s an d mad e 19 5
appearances i n 2 6 states . Th e grou p cleare d wel l ove r on e hundre d
thousand dollars , a s legion s o f me n i n obscur e heartlan d town s pai d thei r
dollar eac h t o see th e champio n i n action , an d countles s mor e showe d u p
at hotel s an d railroa d station s jus t t o catc h a glimps e o f him. 32
Under Sullivan' s reign , then , boxin g borrowe d promotiona l technique s
and organizationa l structur e fro m sho w business , especiall y vaudevill e
and th e circus . Roa d managers , bookin g agents , an d advertisin g me n
began replacin g th e ol d gambler-saloonkeepe r promoters . I n thi s sens e
the ring wa s leavin g it s fol k root s behin d an d enterin g th e moder n real m
of mass-produced , repeatabl e spectacles . An d wit h it s emphasi s o n
maximum profi t th e ne w sho w busines s etho s pu t a premium o n cleanin g
up pugilis m i n orde r t o attrac t th e wides t possibl e audience .
The money-makin g possibilitie s di d no t en d wit h boxin g tours . Late r
in hi s caree r Sulliva n joine d severa l theatrica l show s i n whic h h e acted ,
made speeches , o r just plai n pose d wit h flexed muscles . H e earne d ten s
of thousand s o f dollar s tourin g i n th e pla y Honest Hearts and Willing
Hands, renewin g th e ol d connectio n betwee n pugilis m an d th e theater .
All o f thi s wa s par t o f th e large r commercializatio n o f sport , th e growin g
trend towar d rationalizin g entertainmen t int o repeatabl e spectacles . Th e
profit motiv e opene d ne w opportunities : a Ne w Yor k wa x museu m

22 /
 THE MANL Y AR T

presented likenesse s o f Sulliva n an d Jak e Kilrain , a circu s advertise d a

boxing elephan t name d Joh n L . Sullivan , an d shee t musi c vendor s
hawked th e popula r son g "Le t M e Shak e th e Han d Tha t Shoo k th e Han d
of Sullivan. " I n addition , Richar d Kyl e Fo x offere d th e publi c numerou s
cheap biographie s o f priz e rin g heroes—man y o f who m wer e backe d b y
Police Gazette mone y an d wor e Police Gazette belts—an d thes e i n tur n
were cramme d wit h advertisement s fo r trainin g gear , picture s o f th e ne w
stars, an d mor e Fo x publications , al l availabl e b y mai l fro m th e Ga-
zette's offices . Sulliva n himsel f endorse d everythin g fro m boxin g glove s
to bee f broth . Hi s ver y presenc e coul d attrac t a crowd . H e earne d mor e
each yea r tha n president s o r busines s executives , an d befor e hi s fightin g
career ended , h e mad e nearl y a millio n dollars . I n a word , Sulliva n ha d
become a professiona l entertainer , a celebrity , a ma n whos e livelihoo d
depended o n constan t publi c adulation . Perhap s mor e tha n an y America n
before him , Sulliva n live d i n th e publi c spotlight. 33
The commercializatio n o f th e rin g opene d unprecedente d opportunitie s
for othe r boxers , a s growin g number s o f working-clas s me n fough t bout s
under th e Queensberr y rules . Contemporarie s praise d Sulliva n fo r reha -
bilitating boxin g an d givin g pugilist s a n improve d publi c standing . A s
the kin g o f th e ring , hi s courag e an d ferocit y unquestioned , Joh n L .
made fightin g wit h glove s acceptabl e t o th e sportin g crowd . H e pride d
himself o n hi s scrupulou s honest y an d earne d s o muc h mone y fro m
Queensberry four-rounder s tha t h e ha d n o reaso n t o engag e i n an y o f th e
ring's underhande d practices . Sulliva n demonstrate d b y example ho w th e
new rule s allowe d fighter s t o circumven t th e anti-prize-figh t laws ,
engage i n mor e frequen t contests , an d battl e openl y i n publi c arenas .
The lighte r weigh t classification s particularl y benefite d becaus e th e ne w
style rewarde d footwork , defensiv e skills , an d counterpunching . Grea t
boxers suc h a s heavyweight s Jo e Choynsk i ( a Jew ) an d Pete r Jackso n ( a
black), middleweigh t Jac k Dempse y th e Nonparei l an d Bo b Fitzsimmon s
(before h e becam e a heavyweight) , welterweight s Tomm y Rya n an d Jo e
Wolcott, lightweight s Jac k MacAuliff e an d Jo e Gans , an d featherweight s
George Dixo n an d Terr y McGovern , thes e an d innumerabl e other s al l
prospered unde r th e ne w rules. 34
Prize fightin g faile d t o becom e a s respectabl e a s basebal l o r football ,
in par t becaus e i t neve r develope d a single , overarchin g regulator y
agency t o promulgat e rules , awar d championships , an d systematiz e
challenges. Pugilis m alway s retaine d som e o f it s underworl d flavor ; a
hint o f corruptio n eve r lingered . Bu t b y th e 1880 s boxing' s tawdrines s
was a n essentia l par t o f it s appeal , especiall y a s middle - an d upper-clas s
men flocked t o th e ring . A vestig e o f barbarism , th e revitalize d spor t

222
 END O F TH E B A R E - K N U C K L E ER A

"Modern consistency , tho u ar t a (paste) jewel." Attack s on the ring continued ,

but the y gre w les s frequent . Thi s cartoo n fro m Harper's Weekly, Augus t 20 ,
1883, i s testimony bot h t o the criticism an d to pugilism's new-found popularit y
under th e Queensberr y rules .

offered a vicariou s thril l o f violence . Th e Queensberr y rule s redre w th e

arbitrary ye t essentia l borde r separatin g acceptabl e devianc e fro m
unpardonable vice ; the y sanitize d priz e fightin g jus t enoug h t o mak e i t a
legal spectato r sport , ye t no t s o muc h tha t gentleme n a t ringside woul d
lose th e tast e o f "rea l life. " Th e ring continue d t o cal l fort h image s o f
primitive brutality , o f lower-clas s an d ethni c people s ventin g thei r violen t
passions. Bu t glove s an d ne w rule s appeared t o cur b th e animalit y
sufficiently t o allo w a titillating sens e o f dange r insid e saf e an d civilize d
boundaries. Wit h electrica l lightin g no w availabl e i n gran d ne w stadi -
ums, goin g t o a figh t n o longe r seeme d a n illega l ritua l o f th e under -
world bu t a deliciousl y wicke d after-wor k recreation. 35
In hi s autobiograph y Sulliva n himsel f argue d fo r upliftin g th e ring.
The ol d rules , h e declared , permitte d underhande d tricks , s o th e bes t

• 223 .
 T H E M A N L Y AR T

men di d no t alway s win . Worse , spectator s wer e subjec t t o arrest , eve n

muggings. Sulliva n neve r claime d tha t th e Queensberr y rule s mad e
boxing les s violent. The y did , however , chang e th e socia l compositio n o f
the crow d an d th e environmen t i n whic h fight s wer e held :

Where suc h a n audienc e assemble s ther e wil l alway s b e foun d a certai n

class o f dishones t me n practicin g thei r nefariou s work , wherea s unde r th e
Marquis o f Queensberr y rules , th e contes t usuall y take s plac e i n a hall o f
some descriptio n unde r polic e supervision , an d th e pric e o f admissio n i s
put purposel y hig h s o a s t o exclud e th e rowd y element , an d a gentlema n
can se e th e contest , feelin g sur e tha t h e wil l no t b e robbe d o f an y o f hi s
va uables or in any way be interfered with . Under the Marquis of Queensberry
rules the manly ar t of self-defense , o f whic h I am considered a n authority ,
is conducted fo r th e benefit o f gentlemen , no t rowdies . Fightin g unde r the
Marquis o f Queensberr y rule s befor e gentleme n i s a pleasure; t o the othe r
element i t become s a brawl.

Sullivan focuse d no t o n boxin g itsel f bu t o n th e socia l backgroun d o f

the audience . Becaus e th e Queensberr y rule s wer e withi n th e circl e o f
the law , matche s coul d b e bette r governed . B y eliminatin g th e regulatio n
that th e rin g b e pitche d o n turf , th e ne w cod e opene d th e wa y fo r electri c
lighting i n indoo r arenas , allowin g promoter s no t onl y t o profi t throug h
admission charge s bu t t o exercis e crow d contro l a s well . Evenin g bout s
in urba n stadium s obviate d th e nee d fo r th e rowd y excursion s tha t ha d
encouraged me n t o abando n labo r i n th e middl e o f th e wor k wee k an d
underscored mode m capitalism' s shar p distinctio n betwee n worktim e
and leisur e time. 36
Of course , th e ring neve r becam e a s pur e a s Sulliva n claimed . Th e
new rule s helpe d rationaliz e boxing , too k th e spor t awa y fro m th e mos t
disreputable gamblers , an d allowe d i t to be ru n mor e lik e a business. Bu t
beneath th e thi n cloa k o f respectability , th e ol d barbaris m lingered . Th e
very mixtur e o f securit y an d savagery , o f safet y an d danger , mad e priz e
fights s o exciting . Towar d th e en d o f th e centur y me n i n evenin g dres s
and boutonniere s attende d fight s fo r th e catharti c releas e o f a littl e
primitive violence . I t wa s precisel y thi s controlle d atavism , experience d
vicariously an d a t a distance , tha t gav e boxin g it s ne w appeal. 37
The dualis m o f impulsivenes s an d restrain t account s fo r muc h o f
Sullivan's ow n popularity . Unde r th e ne w rule s h e transforme d boxin g
from contest s o f enduranc e int o dazzlingl y quic k an d skillfu l perfor -
mances, characterize d b y a ne w kineti c styl e i n keepin g wit h th e
up-tempo spiri t o f th e age . Bu t i t wa s Sulliva n th e celebrit y a s muc h a s
Sullivan th e fighte r wh o electrifie d men . Th e Bosto n Boy' s raw , sponta -

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 E N D O F T H E B A R E - K N U C K L E ER A

neous personalit y dre w endles s comment . H e kne w ho w t o accumulat e

money, bu t h e kne w eve n bette r ho w t o spen d it . Th e champion' s
legendary conviviality , hi s embrac e o f th e eas y camaraderi e o f saloon s
and sportin g houses , wa s a t th e hear t o f hi s publi c image . Joh n L . love d
the goo d life , includin g elegan t clothes , expensiv e jewelry , th e fines t
foods, th e bes t cigars , an d free-flowin g champagne . Everyon e kne w o f
his drinkin g binge s an d hi s extramarita l affairs . Everyon e als o kne w o f
the gorgeou s barroo m h e opene d i n Bosto n t o trea t an d toas t hi s friends .
He embodie d Gilde d Ag e fascinatio n wit h ric h livin g an d gaud y display s
of wealth . I n hi s reignin g decad e h e strod e int o countles s saloons ,
slapped a hundred-dolla r bil l o n th e counter , an d treate d th e house . Lik e
a padrone , Sulliva n enjoye d th e rol e o f benefactor , meetin g a n endles s
stream o f down-and-ou t me n askin g fo r a handout , widow s withou t
means, an d religiou s missionarie s i n nee d o f support . H e alway s turne d
to hi s curren t manager—h e change d the m often—an d barke d a gruf f
demand fo r a five , o r a ten , o r a fift y t o hel p th e supplicant . Th e Boy' s
extravagance, hi s lac k o f bourgeoi s prudence , wer e a n ingratiatin g par t
of hi s publi c person a i n a n er a grow n wear y o f ster n self-control. 38
Businessmen, politicians , entertainers , artists , an d writer s wer e fasci -
nated b y Sullivan , bu t h e alway s retaine d specia l popularit y wit h th e
working class . Th e champio n spok e thei r language . H e calle d on e
opponent "a n awkwar d duc k an d th e bes t foo t race r i n th e country, "
another a cur , anothe r a loafer , an d eac h a son-of-a-bitch . Journalist s
marveled a t hi s creativ e swearing , hi s cleve r epithet s fo r opponent s an d
prodigious boast s abou t himself . Th e Stron g Bo y claime d h e coul d hav e
beaten an y previou s champion , an d an y livin g ma n i n clas s two , h e
alone bein g i n clas s one. 39 Sulliva n wa s a bor n democrat , a flag wave r
who mixe d wit h al l group s o f people , bu t h e alway s remaine d tie d t o hi s
ethnic, working-clas s origins . H e visite d hi s ol d neighborhoo d often ,
helped ou t hi s brothe r an d sister , an d provide d financia l assistanc e t o hi s
parents. H e als o publicl y supporte d strikin g coa l miner s o n a t leas t on e
occasion an d maintaine d clos e friendship s withi n th e all-mal e saloo n
culture fro m whic h h e came. 40
The champion' s bravad o ha d specia l appea l fo r Irish-Americans , wit h
whom h e openl y identified . Hi s boas t fro m a thousan d stages , "M y
name's Joh n L . Sulliva n an d I can lic k an y son-of-a-bitc h alive, " wa s a
defiant cr y fo r a downtrodden peopl e who , i n their first ful l postimmigran t
generation, sough t a faire r shar e o f America' s opportunities . Sullivan' s
giddy ris e seeme d t o offe r a mode l o f succes s fo r self-assertiv e men .
Under hi s reign , boxin g an d sparrin g becam e mor e prominen t tha n eve r
in Irish-America n communities . Durin g th e mid-eighties , fo r example ,

225
 THE MANL Y AR T

Worcester, Massachusetts , witnesse d gran d fourt h o f Jul y picnic s sponsore d

by th e Ancien t Orde r o f Hibernians . Thre e t o fou r thousan d peopl e cam e
to enjo y dancing , drinking , clambakes , an d athleti c events , bu t th e
center o f attentio n wa s a serie s o f sparrin g matches , ofte n followe d b y
impromptu fistfights . Thu s working-clas s Irishme n celebrate d th e mos t
sacred nationa l holiday , no t wit h upliftin g orator y o r solem n patrioti c
displays bu t wit h thei r ow n demonstration s o f masculin e prowess. 41
Sullivan becam e a n importan t symbo l fo r othe r ethni c group s a s well .
The Jewis h write r Abraha m Caha n opene d hi s 189 6 novell a Yekl wit h
Jake, a n immigran t desperatel y seekin g t o assimilat e himsel f int o Ameri -
can culture , demonstratin g th e fisti c art s whil e boastin g t o hi s fello w
sweatshop worker s tha t h e ha d a frien d wh o personall y kne w th e grea t
Sullivan. Caha n her e capture d ho w sport s celebritie s suc h a s Joh n L .
became standard-bearer s o f Americanizatio n fo r countles s ne w immi -
grants an d thei r children . T o pla y sport s seeme d a n archetypicall y
American act , becaus e the y wer e freighte d wit h th e value s o f success ,
meritocracy, an d competition ; t o bu y a ticke t t o a n athleti c even t wa s t o
learn th e ne w rol e o f consumer ; t o roo t fo r a tea m o r a champio n gav e
one a sens e o f havin g freedo m o f choice ; t o acquir e knowledg e abou t
baseball o r footbal l o r boxin g wa s t o b e informe d abou t somethin g
distinctly American . On e nee d no t eve n understan d Englis h t o si t amon g
citizens, chee r th e loca l heroes , an d thereb y fee l a t leas t partiall y
integrated int o a n alie n society . An d whe n immigrant s coul d applau d th e
deeds o f on e o f thei r ow n countrymen , thei r sens e o f findin g a plac e i n
America wa s doubl y enhanced. 42
But Sullivan' s fam e a s a celebrit y sprea d beyon d working-clas s
immigrant communities ; h e wa s muc h mor e i n th e publi c domai n tha n
previous fighters , muc h les s a n integra l par t o f working-clas s stree t lif e
than Hyer , Morrissey , o r Heenan . Emblemati c o f a n emergin g mas s
culture tha t partiall y transcende d th e division s o f clas s an d gender , o f
religion an d ethnicity , Sulliva n represente d sensua l fulfillmen t an d con -
sumption o f leisure , bot h previousl y see n a s working-clas s vice s bu t no w
becoming nationa l norms . Th e champion' s monikers , "th e Bosto n Stron g
Boy," "th e Bosto n Boy, " "th e Stron g Boy, " o r simpl y "th e Boy, "
indicate tha t th e publi c Sulliva n wa s ver y muc h a child i n a man' s body .
Above all , h e seeme d a creatur e o f impulse . Edito r Charle s Dan a o f th e
New York Sun commente d o n Sullivan' s enormou s appetites ; h e dine d
like Gargantua , dran k lik e Gambrinus , ha d th e strengt h o f Samso n an d
the ferocit y o f Achilles . H e move d wit h a child' s eas e bu t hi t lik e a
giant. 43
Stories circulate d abou t Sulliva n protectin g newsboy s agains t bullies ,

226
 E N D O F T H E B A R E - K N U C K L E ER A

aiding wome n i n distress , an d givin g u p liquo r a t hi s dyin g mother' s

request. Mor e storie s circulate d tha t Sulliva n kicke d newsboy s an d
chased waitresses , tha t h e bea t hi s wif e an d kep t mistresses , an d tha t h e
broke u p saloon s i n drunke n rages . On e nigh t i n Philadelphia , fo r
example, h e allegedl y becam e thoroughl y inebriate d a t th e Guar d Hous e
Bar. H e tor e hi s roo m up , wen t outsid e t o haras s passersb y fo r a while ,
returned a t 5:0 0 A.M . fo r a breakfas t o f si x doze n clam s an d whiskey ,
then ha d t o b e carrie d t o bed . Belligeren t whe n awakene d a t eleve n
o'clock, h e calme d himsel f wit h anothe r pint . Polic e avoide d Sulliva n
during thes e drunke n sprees , whil e newspaper s editoralize d tha t th e
immunity o f th e "hulkin g ruffian " encourage d hi s bruta l lawlessness. 44
Both image s o f Sullivan—th e generous , good-nature d bo y an d th e
brooding, destructiv e boy—containe d muc h truth ; bot h wer e unite d b y
themes o f adolescen t impulsiveness . H e wa s a her o an d a brute , a bo n
vivant an d a drunk, a love r of lif e an d a reckless barbarian . I n th e publi c
mind, Sulliva n th e ma n an d Sulliva n th e fighte r wer e one . H e cut
through al l restraints , acte d rathe r tha n contemplated , an d pai d littl e
regard t o th e moralit y o r immoralit y o f hi s behavior . H e wa s totall y
self-indulgent, eve n i n act s o f generosity , totall y a hedonis t consumin g
the goo d thing s aroun d hi m an d beckonin g other s t o d o th e same . Fo r
individuals deepl y ambivalen t abou t th e transitio n fro m middle-clas s
Protestant virtue s o f productivit y t o ne w value s o f consumption , h e wa s
a transcenden t symbol . An d fo r middle-clas s me n terrifie d b y th e
prospect o f losin g th e vita l "nerv e force " tha t alon e brough t success ,
Sullivan seeme d a gloriou s exampl e o f abundan t huma n energy . H e
epitomized actio n i n a n ag e tha t feare d inertia .

"... Nig h N e w Orlean s u p o n a n Emeral d Plain... "

Between barnstormin g tour s Sulliva n fough t severa l majo r glov e

battles. Richar d Kyl e Fo x kep t importin g boxer s fro m abroad , backin g
them wit h thousand s o f dollars ; Sulliva n kep t insistin g tha t Queensberr y
fights preced e Londo n Priz e Rin g ones ; th e ne w heroe s kep t gettin g
knocked ou t insid e fou r rounds , obviatin g th e nee d fo r bare-knuckl e
meetings. I n th e summe r o f 1883 , fo r example , Fo x bankrolle d a
gigantic Ne w Zealander , Herber t Slade , "th e Maori. " Forme r champio n
Jem Mace , Slade' s mento r an d trainer , assure d Fo x o f Sullivan' s immi -
nent demise . Afte r month s o f Police Gazette hype , te n thousan d excite d
fans packe d th e Garde n t o see th e battle . Joh n L . mutilate d Slad e fo r
three anticlimacti c round s befor e knockin g hi m out. . The champio n mad e

22γ
 THE MANL Y AR T

as muc h mone y o n suc h stag e meeting s a s o n bare-knuckl e fight s

because th e winner' s shar e o f gat e receipt s (i n thi s case , 6 5 percent )
often toppe d te n thousan d dollars . H e ha d n o reaso n t o risk hi s title. 45
But circumstance s eventuall y calle d Sulliva n bac k t o th e ol d priz e
ring. O n Ma y 4 , 1883 , h e fough t a n electri c four-rounde r wit h Englis h
champion Charli e Mitchel l i n Ne w York . A n overflo w crow d pai d sixtee n
thousand dollar s t o witnes s th e bout , seat s costin g fan s a dolla r t o fiv e
dollars each . Mitchel l weighe d fort y pound s les s tha n Sullivan , bu t
rumors sprea d tha t dissipatio n ha d wrecke d th e ol d champion' s constitu -
tion. Polic e stoppe d th e figh t befor e th e Bosto n Bo y finishe d Mitchell ,
but no t before th e acerbi c Englishma n ha d knocke d hi m down , a n
embarrassing first . O n Ma y 30 , 1884 , Sulliva n wa s schedule d t o mee t
Mitchell i n a rematch . Allegedl y Willia m K . Vanderbilt , Henr y War d
Beecher, an d assorte d aldermen , judges , assemblymen , an d polic e an d
fire commissioner s al l hel d tickets . Accordin g t o Sullivan' s account ,
Mitchell feigne d illnes s jus t before th e bout , an d th e battl e wa s can -
celled. Th e Stron g Boy , o f course , brok e trainin g an d wen t o n a drinkin g
spree. Anticipatin g this , Mitchel l ha d th e matc h reinstated , bu t b y the n
the champio n wa s i n n o conditio n t o fight . Sulliva n staggere d full y
clothed ont o th e stage , mumble d tha t h e wa s sick , an d lef t th e aren a t o a
resounding choru s o f boos . H e blame d Mitchel l fo r thi s humiliatio n an d
swore revenge. 46
Mitchell wa s no t Sullivan' s onl y problem . Wear y o f th e rin g whe n h e
returned fro m a lon g roa d tou r i n mid-1884 , h e bega n t o stagnat e a s a
fighter. Ove r th e nex t fe w year s h e fough t onl y a handful o f Queensberr y
battles, mostl y agains t undistinguishe d pugilists . Certainly , Sullivan' s
success at dispatching opponent s wa s making i t difficult t o find contenders.
Equally important , becaus e h e reall y wen t fo r knockouts , politician s an d
judges i n Ne w York , Philadelphia , an d eve n Bosto n sometime s ordere d
the polic e t o brea k u p Queensberry matche s unde r th e old anti-priz e figh t
laws. Official s acte d a t th e behes t o f suc h reformer s a s Henr y Berg h
who, despit e threat s agains t hi s life , crusade d t o abolis h th e ring . Thu s
in 188 5 citizen s fro m civi c an d religiou s organization s suc h a s th e
Philadelphia La w an d Orde r Societ y persuade d a judge jus t hour s befor e
fight tim e t o sto p a sold-ou t matc h betwee n Sulliva n an d Dominic k
McCaffrey. Disgusted , th e champio n brok e u p som e furnitur e the n lef t
town mutterin g abou t goin g bac k t o th e wil d Wes t wher e ther e wa s no t
so muc h la w an d order . Th e tw o me n finall y me t i n Cincinnat i late r i n
the year , bu t whe n th e battl e ende d withou t a clea r victor y fo r eithe r
side, suspicion s tha t th e champio n wa s n o longe r th e fighte r o f ol d
seemed confirmed. 47

228
 END OF THE BARE-KNUCKLE ERA

Sullivan's difficulties kept piling up. His drinking was becoming

serious, even life-threatening. His wife Annie, moreover, initiated di­
vorce proceedings, and her charges of brutality and adultery against
Sullivan became a public scandal. To make matters worse, the champi­
on's avoidance of the regular prize ring caused many of his followers to
desert him. Unreconstructed sporting men still believed that a real fight
meant a bare-knuckle one. Richard Kyle Fox produced plenty of willing
if mediocre contenders and Sullivan ducked them all, wanting only glove
battles. To top off the Strong Boy's problems, early in 1887, five years
after winning the championship, he broke his left arm during a
4�
cross-country tour.
Nine months after this last calamity, his frustration mounting,Sullivan
left his American problems behind and embarked on a tour of Great
Britain. Crowds gave the champion a tumultuous welcome, presenting
gifts, begging for speeches, following every move he made. In Cardiff a
larger crowd greeted him than ex-prime minister Gladstone. In London a
single-paragraph advertisement in the Sportsman drew thousands of
admirers. The exclusive Pelican Club invited the champion to spar
before peers and lords. Here Sullivan met the Prince of Wales and boxed
for the future king of England. In Ireland he enjoyed an emotional
homecoming, visited the sights he had heard so much about in Boston,
4'J
and was cheered all the way as a hero of his peopie.
But Sullivan's luck turned sour again. Partly for revenge, partly to
accommodate the British people, and partly to truly earn the title
"World's Champion," he signed articles to fight a bare-knuckle match
with Charlie Mitchell. The champion trained down to a reasonable
weight--one commentator noted that when Sullivan arrived in England.
his ample waist would not have disgraced a city alderman-by scorning
drink, rich foods, and cigars. "All his joys are gone," journalist William
Edgar Harding observed. "When asked how he managed to stand it, he
smiled not cheerfully, and said in his deepest tones: 'Somebody will have
to pay me back for leading a Sunday school superintendent's life, and if
I can't get at anyone else, Mitchell will have to foot the whole bill.' ,,50

Because of the vigilance of English authorities, the men crossed the

Channel to France. They fought on a miserable March day, on the baron
de Rothschild's estate, before a small crowd of sports and gentlemen.
The Englishman was in fine trim, and he needed all of his quickness to
stay away from the champion. Sullivan dominated the fight, but he never
seriously hurt Mitchell. The challenger yanked the Bostonian's mustache
and spiked him on the shins. "Fight like a gentlemen, you son of a
bitch, if you can," the Slugger growled. But standing in the cold rain

229
 THE MANLY ART

and grappling in the mud chilled Sullivan until he shook. Worst of all, in
three hours of fighting spread over thirty-nine rounds he failed to catch
the wily Englishman. Both sides finally agreed to a draw. Authorities
arrested Sullivan and Mitchell on the way out of France, and the two
men were forced to jump bail and flee to England. With the stakes
drawn, the champion quietly sailed back to America.
His run of bad luck continued. He sparred at a few benefits and went
on a short road-tour with a travelling circus, but within months his
health broke down completely. Sullivan claimed to have typhoid fever,
gastric fever, inflammation of the bowels, heart trouble, liver complaint,
and incipient paralysis. Acute alcoholism was a more plausible diagnosis.
He lay bedridden for weeks, finally rising on his thirtieth birthday
against the advice of his doctors. It was time to cease being a victim,
time to act. Within two months he posted five thousand dollars to fight a
bare-knuckle championship battle, and a month later he signed articles.
His claim to the title shaken by Mitchell, his health and age betraying
him, his fans clamoring for vindication and his enemies out for blood,
Sullivan staked his career on a single desperate battleY
His opponent was Joseph Killion. The challenger told reporters that he
learned to box because, as an awkward lad from the country, he had been
victimized with cruel practical jokes by fellow workers at a Boston-area
rolling mill. His efforts at self-defense paid off; he soon won several
matches among his peers, making him "Champion of the Mill." A
natural athlete, Killion also rowed in four-man crews during the 1880s,
winning the junior sculling championship at the National Amateur
Regatta in 1883. Unfortunately, when it became known that he was a
professional pugilist, the National Rowing Association stripped him of
both the title and his amateur status. The ring's revival created new
opportunities for talented working-class men, however, and money­
making opportunities were more compelling than the amateur ideal. The
winter of 1883 found him teaching sparring at exclusive Cribb clubs in
Boston and Baltimore. He took the ring name Jake Kiirain, fought
Queensberry bouts in major East Coast and Midwest cities, and com­
piled a fine record. By 1887 Kilrain had grown weary of living in
Sullivan's shadow, and Richard Kyle Fox agreed to back him, believing
he now had the man to humble the Strong Boy.52
But Kilrain's rise coincided with Sullivan's run of trouble. Early in
1887 Fox designed a new heavyweight championship belt,-allegedly
made from two hundred ounces of solid silver, with diamond and gold
ornamentation. In return, the editor insisted that his offices arrange all

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 END OF THE BARE-KNUCKLE ERA

title fights for the belt, that he be stakeholder, and that the Gazette have
a representative at ringside. Meanwhile Kilrain published two cards
challenging the champion for five thousand dollars a side and the belt.
This was in May 1887, and because Sullivan's arm was still healing, he
rejected the match. Citing six decades of American pugilism as prece­
dent, Fox declared that a champion who refused a legitimate challenge
relinquished his title. Thus on June 4, 1887, in a Baltimore theater, the
editor of the Police Gazette awarded the belt to Kilrain and declared him
champion. 53
John L. contemptuously responded that he would fight once his arm
was well and that when he won the "dog collar" from Kilrain, he would
offer it as a boxing trophy to the bootblacks of New York. In retaliation
against Fox, the champion's Boston friends had an even more elegant
belt made, this one with three hundred ninety-seven diamonds and
valued at eight thousand dollars. Mayor Hugh O'Brien, seven city
councilmen, and four thousand Hub City residents packed the Boston
Theater to present the belt and honor "Our John," as he was known
locally. Sullivan then went to Europe, suffered the Mitchell fiasco, and
returned only to have his health break down. 54
Thus it was not until the champion's ability to defend his title grew
doubtful that he took up Kilrain's challenge. The backers of the Strong
Boy, whose physique had deteriorated badly, remanded him to the
custody of William Muldoon, a champion wrestler, celebrity strongman,
and health fetishist. He took Sullivan to his isolated country home in
Belfast, New York, and put him under a strict regimen of diet and
exercise, including rope jumping, dumbbell workouts, and farm labor.
The champion shed years of dissipation and regained much of his lost
vitality. Over and over, the press cited Sullivan's resurrection as an
example of the fruits of industrious, moral, and purposeful living. "How
inconsistent the pretended Christians are," trainer Muldoon complained.
"They call us brutes and do not want us to give exhibitions lest we
demoralize their cigarette-sucking, dwarfy puny offspring' We who
would teach them an exercise beneficial to body and mind." S5
Richard Kyle Fox bent every effort to stir up public interest. The Police
Gazette condemned Sullivan as a drunken and swaggering braggart,
while depicting Kilrain as a genteel family man, complete with high silk
hat and polite manners. A Jetter to the Boston Post, written by a
"Mother of Sons," praised Kilrain for his abstemiousness, modest
demeanor, even temper, and good character. Perhaps, the writer specu­
lated, Providence had sent him to knock out the bully Sullivan. But after

. 23 J .
 THE MANLY ART

their fight, she urged, Kilrain should quit the prize ring and go to work
for an athletic club, "where he can train the rising generation in athletics
S6
and also in this fine art of keeping one's temper. "
Once again New Orleans was chosen as the most congenial staging
ground for the battle. Despite new antiboxing statutes passed by the city
council, a sympathetic mayor and dilatory law enforcement still made
the Crescent City the best gathering place for the fancy. With Chief of
Police David Hennessey's approval, gambler Bud Renaud arranged the
excursion to the secret fight venue. The Southern Athletic Club offered
its facilities for Kilrain's final training, while Sullivan fine-tuned at the
Young Man's Gymnastic Club. Newspapers across the country gave
unprecedented attention to the fight, covering the combatants' training,
moods, and progress South. Reporters from every major daily made their
way to New Orleans, the Associated Press sent representatives, and
Western Union employed fifty special operators who telegraphed over
two hundred thousand words of coverage. As the day of the fight
approached, men poured into New Orleans in special trains, some
chartered from New York by Richard Kyle Fox. Declared the Picayune,
"The city is fighting mad . . . . Everybody had the fever and is talking
Sullivan and Kilrain. Ladies discussed it in street cars, men talked and
argued about it in places which had never heard pugilism mentioned
before. " On the night of July 7, 1889, after days of revelry, three trains
left the Crescent City crammed with holders of ten- and fifteen-dollar
excursion tickets. 57
Governors of half-a-dozen Southern states vowed to prevent the battle,
troops stood at the main railroad lines leading out of Louisiana, and the
governor of Mississippi offered a one-thousand-dollar bounty for the
arrest of Sullivan. But the train engineers stayed on little-used rural
tracks to elude militia units. Before sunrise on a sweltering Delta
morning, the cars from New Orleans unloaded their freight in Richburg,
Mississippi. Five thousand citizens swarmed onto the land owned by
Charles Rich, a sawmill proprietor, who had his men build a ring
surrounded by rough-hewn bleachers. Pugs, gunslingers, and sporting
men brushed up against influential society figures and members of
exclusive athletic clubs. A timely bribe of two hundred fifty dollars kept
a local magistrate from reading the riot act. By 10 A.M. both fighters
were in the ring, and as the men stripped, the temperature soared past
one hundred degrees. Mike Donovan, former middleweight champion,
and Charlie Mitchell, the "bombastic sprinter " as Sullivan contemptu­
ously called him, seconded Kilrain. Mitchell, always a volatile character,
carried two guns, and he hired a private detective for protection, though

232
 END OF THE BARE -KNUCKLE E RA

precisely what he feared remains unclear. Mitchell even retained the

services of famed gun fighter and gambler Bat Masterson to serve as
timekeeper and bodyguard for the Kilrain party. Muldoon and Mike
Cleary seconded Sullivan, and for referee both sides agreed on John
Fitzpatrick, a New Orleans politician soon to be mayor. 58
In black tights and white stockings Kilrain approached Sullivan's
comer and wagered the thousand dollars given him by Richard Fox. The
champion, in his usual green tights with the American flag round his
middle, covered the side bet. The twenty-thousand-dollar purse, put up
by Fox for Kilrain and by Boston gambler Charlie Johnston for John L. ,
was the largest on record, topping the ten thousand dollars staked forty
years earlier when Yankee Sullivan fought Tom Hyer. Partisans on both
sides were confident, and so the odds stood even at fight time. The men
were the same age and height, though Kilrain weighed one hundred
eighty pounds, thirty fewer than the champion. Given his recent trou­
bles, Sullivan appeared to be in excellent shape: "Neck firm, head set
squarely on the shoulders, massive shoulder blades, great width of the
chest, perfectly rounded, properly developed arms, and that grim savage
determination that marked the man of strong animal courage and extraor­
dinary physical endurance." Indeed, as he toed the scratch for the first
round, the champion was like the strapping lad of old, moving as if he
had springs under his shoes. "He was not the flabby Sullivan familiar to
New Yorkers and Boston men of late. His feet bounded off the turf. His
shoulders rolled with the old swaggering air of eight years ago. He
looked the 'Boston Strong Boy' of early days as he sprang towards the
center; his bent arms held low, his attitude careless, his head hanging a
little forward as he glared at his adversary.' ,59
Kilrain won the first fall by throwing Sullivan down and first blood
with a sixth-round blow to the left ear. But the fight belonged to the
Boston Boy. The challenger wrestled, backpedaled, and counterpunched
to wear his opponent out. He succeeded only in angering the champion,
who growled and cursed throughout the battle. Sullivan controlled the
pace, stalking Kilrain, pressing, keeping him always off balance. "His
old time ferocity seemed to come back," William Edgar Harding
reported; "he rushed at Kilrain like a tiger at its prey. His eyes flashed,
his lips were set and he seemed to become larger and more massive than
he was." The battle lasted two hours and fifteen minutes. The July sun
blistered Kilrain's pale back while Sullivan cut up his face and smashed
his ribs. Kilrain survived seventy-five rounds by backing away and
falling at light blows. Infuriated, Sullivan berated him: "Stand up and
fight like a man"; ''I'm no sprinter, I'm a fighter"; "You're a champion

. 233 .
 THE MANLY ART

The last bare-knuckle championship fight, July 8, 1889. Sullivan and challenger
Jake Kilrain fought seventy-five rounds in the mid-day sun of Richburg,
Mississippi. Urban sports as well as lawyers, doctors, and even a college
president looked on.

eh? A champion of what?" Sullivan had words left over for Kilrain's
second, Charlie Mitchell: "I wish it was you I had in here, you
,60
sucker.'
The only doubt about the outcome came in the forty-fourth round. A
drink of cold tea spiked with whiskey made the champion vomit. Word
quickly went round the ring that Sullivan's stomach was retaining the
whiskey but rej ecting the tea, a bit of humor that barely masked his
partisans' alarm. Fighters often drank alcohol during especially difficult
battles-Mike Donovan claimed a full quart of whiskey kept Kilrain
going-so fans were surprised at Sullivan's sudden illness, and his
friends feared that the tide now turned against him. But when Kilrain
offered a draw, the champion barked "No, you loafer," and punched

. 234 .
 END OF T HE BARE -KNUCKLE ERA

him down again. By now Sullivan's left eye was closing, and his aging
lungs blew hard, but repeated shots to the stomach, ribs, and neck left
Kilrain in much worse shape. The final thirty rounds were more lopsided
than the first forty-five. The fifty-fifth time they toed the scratch, Kilrain
could barely defend himself. Ten rounds later it was five hundred
dollars to fifty dollars on Sullivan and no takers. Before the seventy­
sixth round could begin, Mike Donovan, fearing for his man's life,
threw up the sponge. Still full of fight, Sullivan ran to Kilrain's corner
and challenged Mitchell on the spot. Friends intervened to prevent
serious bloodshed. 61 .
Men at ringside seized everything as mementos of the great event,
including Sullivan's hat, water bottle, and colors, bits of the ring posts
and ropes, and souvenir to prove to themselves and others that they were
eyewitnesses to history. The mania spread well beyound Richburg.
"Never, during even a Presidential election, has there been so much
excitement as there is here now, even when the brutal exhibition is over
and it is known that Sullivan was successful and that seventy-five rounds
were necessary to 'knock out' Kilrain." Thus the New York Times
recorded its astonishment at the interest generated by the match. Many
newspapers, including Joseph Pulitzer's New York World, gave all or
2
most of their front page to the fight. 6
The champion, never known for his humility, called the bout the best
since Hyer's and Sullivan's 1849 match, and others were inclined to
agree. Poets with serious pretensions memorialized the fight, among
them Harry P. Keily, who dedicated his work to Sullivan's trainers:

The referee now "Make ready" cries;

Then all for battle quick prepare;
Sullivan stands with brightening eyes;
Kilrain transfixed with vacant stare.
The seconds then disrobe their men,
When 10 two Hercules appear;
Their like we ne're shall see again,
Not if we lived a thousand years.
Then all advance with friendly smile
And grasp each other by the hand.
'Twas worth the joumey----every mile­
"03
To see them so majestic, grand..

But the jubilation over the great man's victory was best captured in
countless songs and ditties. One bit of vaudeville doggerel caught on
with special tenaciousness:

. 235 .
 THE MANLY ART

His colors are the Stars and Stripes,

He also wears the green.
And he's the grandest slugger that
The ring has ever seen,
No fighter in the world can beat
Our true American,
The champion of all champions
Is John L. Sullivan!

From high culture through folk culture, Americans lionized Sullivan.

While Boston aesthetes followed the exploits of their city's champion,
Texas blacks boasted that com in the Lone Star State grew twenty feet
high, "with stalks as big as the arm of John L. Sullivan when he
whipped Kilrain." The American consul to Tahiti even claimed that on
the Polynesian islands, natives knew of the Slugger's deeds.64
Although police chief Hennessey assured the boxers of legal immunity
in New Orleans, the champion's party quickly left the Crescent City. In
Tennessee, Nashville police broke in on Sullivan and Muldoon at a
scheduled stop, arrested them, and took them off the train. Only a legal
technicality and a sympathetic judge prevented their return to Richburg.
Once in New York, Sullivan received his twenty-thousand-dollar stake
money plus four thousand dollars in excursion profits. Awarded the
Police Gazette championship belt, he had the "dog collar" appraised at
one hundred seventy-five dollars and unceremoniously returned to Richard
Kyle Fox.65
Mississippi governor Lowry still vowed to prosecute Sullivan. Having
exploited the bout to sell newspapers, Frank Leslies's and other journals
called for the fighters' extradition:

All law-abiding citizens will sympathize with the efforts of Governor

Lowry of Mississippi to vindicate the authority of the state as against the
prize fighters who so recently defied it. ... The spectacle of two bruised
and battered ruffians dodging about the country, to escape the officers of the
law, was in itself sufficiently demoralizing, without the addition , in print,
of the story of their debaucheries and their low brutalities: and the two
together, as illustrative of prevailing popular tendencies, certainly afford
little ground for confidence as to the future dominance of the better forces
66
in our life as a people.

Spurred by a thousand-dollar bounty offered by the state of Mississippi,

officials finally caught up with Sullivan, and Governor Hill of New York
signed the requisition sending the champion back South. If proof were

. 236 .
 END OF THE BARE-KNUCKLE ERA

still needed of Sullivan's popularity, his return to Mississippi provided it.

The journey resembled a royal progress more than the rendition of a
criminal. His captors agreed not to bind him in irons or limit his
movements, and in each city and at every train stop enormous crowds
met and cheered their champion. An especially friendly gathering greeted
the returning hero in Mississippi's capital city, Jackson, where Sullivan
67
held a gala reception at his hotel.
The state indicted him for the offenses of prize fighting and assault
and battery. He was tried in Purvis, the seat of Marion County, and
convicted of the first charge. His attorneys appealed on the grounds that
the nature of the champion's crimes had not been adequately specified in
the indictment, that the Sullivan-Kilrain battle was not a public fight
because it did not disturb the peace and tranquility of an unwitting
community, and that the law required two defendants who must be
charged jointly. In a bit of very convoluted legal reasoning the court
agreed, reversing the earlier decision and quashing the indictment.
Perhaps the Great John L.'s mere presence influenced the judge to bend
the law. The victory was a Pyrrhic one, however, because it cost
Sullivan more in lawyers' retainers , court fees, and travel expenses than
he cleared from beating Kilrain. He vowed never to fight again under the
old prize ring rules. No one knew for sure at the time, but the world had
6g
witnessed the last bare-knuckle title fight

'The Champion of All Champions"

Sullivan wore his laurels lightly. Back on top as the greatest fighter
alive, the "physical superior of all men," he had nothing more to
69 He was too old, too successful, and too impulsive to maintain
prove.
the intense discipline demanded by the ring; the good life beckoned
again, and he followed. Once his legal difficulties were settled, the
champion joined a theatrical troupe and toured in the melodrama Honest
Hearts and Willing Hands, written expressly for him. Playing a black­
smith , he took off his shirt, pounded an anvil, beat a bully, and mutilated
his lines. Critics hated it, the public loved it. More than ever, Sullivan
was the consummate celebrity, one on whom the public spotlight shone
so brightly that person and persona merged. Always a showman, he
often had made little speeches to his fans after knocking out some
hapless victim. The theater possessed all the old elements of display,
pageantry, and fantasy which Sullivan the boxer loved. Besides, next to
fighting itself John L. 's greatest talents lay in the show-business arts of

. 237 .
 THE MANLY ART

self-advertisement and self-promotion. His troupe toured North America

in the second half of 1890, then went overseas to Australia in 189 I. In
the three years following the Kilrain match the champion did not do any
serious fighting, though he did spar against a young Californian named
James J. Corbett. 70
Time is always the athlete's sternest opponent. As his body begins to
betray him, younger men come to the fore. Sports give poignant
expression to the cycle of youth, maturity, and old age. The observant
spectator watches a deeply moving drama containing lessons about his
own mortality, but an athlete lives that drama. He travels a foreshortened
life span, lasting a score of years if he is very lucky, less than a decade if
he is not. In the end the skills that brought glory, fame, and wealth are
dead, and in a symbolic sense so is he.
Sullivan's overseas tour was not a success. Australians were well
acquainted with the ring, and they wanted to see first-class fighting, not
second-rate acting. While the champion was away, hungry young boxers
mocked his abilities, and when he returned to America, fans clamored to
know if he dared renew his claim as the world's greatest fighter. Hurt by
his supporters' loss of confidence and angered at the petty pretenders, he
answered in his own distinctive way:

St. Paul, Minn., March 5, 1892 ...

I hereby challenge any and all the bluffers who have been trying to make
capital at my expense to fight me, either the last week in August or the first
week in September, this year, at the Olympic Club, in the City of New
Orleans, La., for a purse of $25,000 and an outside bet of $ 10,000, the
winner of the fight to take the entire purse. ..
I give preference in this challenge to Frank P. Slavin of Australia, as he
and his backers have done the greatest amount of blowing. My second
preference is that bombastic sprinter, Charles Mitchell, of England, whom I
would rather whip than any man in the world. My third preference is James
J. Corbett, of America, who has achieved his share of bombast. But in this
challenge I include all fighters.
The Marquis of Queensberry rules must govern this contest, as I want
fight, not foot-racing, as I intend keeping the championship of the world.
John L. Sullivan
71
Champion of the World.

There it was. The next world heavyweight championship fight would be

settled with gloves. Sullivan failed to mention the most formidable
challenger of all, Peter Jackson, the great black Australian fighter. Partly
because of the racist beliefs that he imbibed from the larger culture, and

. 238 .
 END O F TH E B A R E - K N U C K L E ER A

partly becaus e o f fea r tha t hi s fan s woul d deser t hi m i f h e fough t a blac k

man, Sulliva n continue d t o dra w th e colo r line , jus t a s American s wer e
drawing i t i n countles s ne w area s o f socia l lif e durin g thi s er a o f Ji m
Crow.
Slavin, th e Australia n champion , ha d tourin g commitment s h e wa s
unable o r unwillin g t o break , an d Mitchel l hesitate d a t th e siz e o f th e
stakes. Youn g Corbett , however , wh o kne w Sullivan' s styl e firsthand ,
raised th e money . Par t o f i t cam e fro m th e usua l bookmaker s an d
sporting men . Bu t Mik e Donova n als o garnere d a larg e portio n o f
Corbetťs cas h throug h hi s contact s a t th e Ne w Yor k Athleti c Club ,
where h e obtaine d commitment s fro m suc h wealth y socialite s a s Col .
Frederick McLewe e an d Edwar d Kearney , Jr. 72 Whe n puttin g u p th e
stakes i n New York , Corbetť s manager , Willia m Brady , allegedly remarked ,
"There ar e men , member s o f high-standin g club s righ t i n thi s city , wh o
will pu t u p almos t an y amoun t o n Corbett. " Significantly , Brad y wa s no t
an old-tim e boxe r o r rin g ma n bu t a show-busines s entrepreneur , soo n
to becom e a motion-pictur e promoter , wh o sa w priz e fightin g a s a n
extension o f th e entertainmen t field . Indeed , h e viewe d th e champion -
ship a s a wa y t o cas h i n o n th e rea l mone y afforde d b y th e stage .
Accordingly, Brad y wrot e a play , Gentleman Jack, expressl y fo r Corbet t
to sta r i n afte r h e wo n th e title. 73
The Sullivan-Corbet t figh t differe d fro m previou s championshi p bout s
in strikin g ways . Althoug h th e usua l sportin g me n an d pug s gathere d fo r
the signin g o f articles , the y me t no t a t th e Police Gazette office s bu t
in th e New York World building . Respectabl e journal s suc h a s E . L .
Godkin's The Nation bemoane d th e declin e o f newspape r editors ' mora l
stewardship. Godki n raile d tha t th e pres s pandere d t o th e "offscouring s
of huma n society—gamblers , thieves , drunkard s an d bullie s . . . persons
whose manner s an d moral s ar e a disgrac e t o ou r civilization. " Bu t
Joseph Pulitze r an d othe r ne w mogul s o f th e prin t medi a understoo d th e
power o f spectacles , an d the y wante d t o captur e Richar d Kyl e Fox' s
readership fo r thei r dailies . Indeed , t o compete fo r th e Gazette's clientel e
they establishe d separat e sport s sections , featurin g storie s o n th e like s
of th e grea t Joh n L . I n te n years , then , th e New York World wen t fro m
condemning th e rin g t o callin g itsel f "fistiana' s authority. " Mainstrea m
papers ha d containe d figh t new s fo r decade s bu t Pulitzer' s ope n commit -
ment t o arrangin g an d coverin g bout s wa s a ne w departur e fo r a famil y
daily. Rearguar d oppositio n notwithstanding , priz e fightin g no w ha d
powerful allies. 74
Corbetťs publi c person a als o adde d a uniqu e dimensio n t o th e ring .
After attendin g college , h e hel d a respectabl e jo b a s a ban k clerk ; heav y

239
 T H E M A N L Y AR T

James J . Corbett , firs t titl e challenge r unde r th e Queensberr y rules . Corbetť s

reputation wa s base d o n hi s abilitie s a s a scientifi c boxer , no t o n barroo m
brawling. Bettin g odd s initiall y gav e hi m littl e chanc e agains t Sullivan .

240
 END O F TH E B A R E - K N U C K L E ER A

labor fo r Corbet t mean t training , no t puttin g brea d o n th e table . H e

learned boxin g i n a sparrin g clu b rathe r tha n o n th e streets , an d hi s
reputation reste d totall y o n glov e fight s unde r th e Queensberr y rules . N o
gang connections , lower-clas s drifting , o r stree t fightin g fo r Corbett . Th e
newspapers calle d hi m "Handsom e Jim, " "Pompadou r Jim, " an d
eventually "Gentlema n Jim. " Clean-cut , intelligent , an d highl y skilled ,
Corbett i n hi s publi c imag e denie d th e ol d equatio n o f boxer s wit h
brutes. 75
But th e mos t strikin g thin g o f al l abou t th e Sullivan-Corbet t figh t wa s
its busines s arrangements . Lat e i n 188 9 Ne w Orleans ' silk-stockin g
athletic club s bega n sponsorin g professiona l bouts , expandin g ol d arena s
and buildin g ne w ones , al l th e whil e hidin g behin d th e thi n paddin g o f
five-ounce gloves . A s on e newspape r pu t it , "stead y businessmen ,
society bloods , an d i n fact , al l classe s o f citizen s ar e eage r an d anxiou s
to spen d thei r wealt h t o see a glov e contest. " O n Marc h 14 , 1890 , th e
New Orlean s cit y counci l authorize d Queensberr y fights , wit h th e
provisos tha t n o liquo r b e served , tha t n o bout s b e stage d o n Sundays ,
and tha t promoter s contribut e fift y dollar s t o charity . Th e fina l lega l
obstacle fel l whe n th e Olympi c Clu b defeate d th e ol d anti-priz e rin g
statutes i n court , establishin g th e righ t t o hol d glov e fight s t o th e finis h
for a purse. 76
Thus o n Januar y 14 , 1891 , Jac k Dempse y "th e Nonpareil " an d
"Ruby" Rober t Fitzsimmon s fough t wit h glove s fo r th e middleweigh t
championship an d eleve n thousan d dollars . The y battle d i n th e Olympi c
Club's ne w thirty-five-hundred-sea t aren a o n Roya l Street , wher e polic e
enforced a ba n o n gamblin g an d drinking . Thre e hundre d specia l
ringside seat s wer e reserve d fo r th e wealthies t fans . Th e New Orleans
Daily Picayune calle d Fitzsimmons' s victor y a "scientifi c exhibitio n o f
the manl y ar t o f self-defense , fre e fro m th e disorderl y scene s whic h
formerly surrounde d th e ring," whil e th e Times Democrat compare d
boxing favorabl y wit h football , s o popular just the n on colleg e campuses .
Once th e ol d gentlemen' s club s demonstrate d th e deman d fo r "re -
formed" priz e fighting , ne w one s devote d mainl y t o profi t too k ou t
charters, buil t arenas , an d stage d bouts . Soo n th e Ne w Orleans , Wes t
End, Columbia , an d Metropolita n club s wer e promotin g fight s no t a s
genteel amateu r affair s bu t a s busines s ventures. 77
All o f thi s testifie s t o th e transformatio n o f boxing . Befor e th e
Queensberry championship s man y sociall y prominen t Ne w Orleanians ,
including member s o f th e Young Men's Gymnasti c Clu b an d th e Souther n
Athletic Club , ha d surreptitiousl y attende d Sullivan' s bare-knuckl e fight s
in Mississippi . Lawyers , doctors , schoo l boar d members , polic e com -

241
 T H E M A N L Y AR T

missioners, cit y officials , eve n on e colleg e presiden t late r acknowledge d

their presenc e i n Richbur g fo r th e Kilrai n match . A s glov e contest s wer e
now legal , thes e me n openly planne d t o atten d th e upcomin g bout.' 8
Sensing th e larg e potentia l audienc e fo r th e newl y sanitize d sport ,
clubs no w compete d wit h on e anothe r t o sig n u p prominen t contenders ,
offering handsom e purse s i n th e belie f tha t gat e receipt s woul d excee d
expenses. Boxin g faile d t o becom e a s rationalize d an d bureaucraticall y
regulated a s basebal l o r football ; th e corrup t underworl d scen t alway s
lingered. Still , ne w promotiona l technique s shifte d contro l awa y fro m
gamblers t o entrepreneurs . Th e d e fact o legalizatio n o f priz e fightin g i n
New Orleans and the transformation o f the ring into something approaching a
business gav e unprecedente d opportunitie s t o promisin g youn g fighters ,
among the m Rober t Fitzsimmons , Arthu r Upham , Bill y Myer , Jimm y
Carroll, Pete r Mahar , And y Bowen , Fran k Slavin , an d man y others. 79
New Orlean s athleti c club s di d mor e tha n simpl y attrac t ne w talent ;
they helpe d systematiz e boxing . Si x weigh t classifications , whic h Richar d
Kyle Fo x ha d informall y recognize d wit h championshi p belts , wer e
standardized. Referees , no w clu b employees , wer e empowere d t o sto p
bouts an d awar d decision s i f a fighter' s lif e wa s endangered . Som e
clubs sponsore d contest s wit h a limite d numbe r o f round s an d authorize d
the refere e t o declar e a winne r i f th e battl e wen t th e distance . Al l th e ol d
pugilistic categories—priz e fights , sparrin g exhibitions , Queensberr y
contests—began t o merg e unde r th e ne w order . Especiall y important , th e
challenge system , derive d fro m dueling' s cod e o f honor , wa s eliminat -
ed. Clu b owner s selecte d contenders , hire d agent s t o negotiat e thei r
contracts, rente d o r buil t indoo r arenas , an d mad e al l th e loca l arrange -
ments fo r matches . Thes e change s ratifie d th e fac t tha t contro l o f th e
ring ha d move d ou t o f th e old , honor-boun d neighborhoods . Boxin g wa s
becoming commercia l entertainment , mor e accessibl e tha n eve r befor e t o
all classes. 80
As th e firs t heavyweigh t championshi p bou t fough t wit h gloves ,
promoted b y a n athleti c club , an d hel d i n a n urba n arena , th e Sullivan -
Corbett figh t pu t a sea l o f approva l o n thes e changes . Riskin g hi s titl e
under th e ne w order , Sulliva n wa s th e ke y playe r i n thi s transitio n
because h e wa s b y fa r th e mos t prestigiou s figur e i n th e boxin g world .
But althoug h th e champio n ha d don e s o muc h t o brin g abou t th e ring' s
transformation, h e woul d alway s b e remembere d bette r a s th e las t grea t
bare-knuckler tha n th e harbinge r o f th e moder n era . A s th e New Orleans
Picayune pu t it , "i t wa s th e ol d generatio n agains t th e new . I t wa s th e
gladiator agains t th e boxer." 81
"Handsome Jim " Corbet t ha d alread y beste d Jak e Kilrain , beate n th e

242
 END O F TH E BARE-KNUCKL E ER A

fine Jewis h fighte r Jo e Choynski , an d fough t t o a dra w agains t th e

masterful Australia n black , Pete r Jackson . Th e challenge r worke d ou t i n
California wit h Mik e Donova n and , b y the time h e lef t fo r Ne w Orleans ,
felt sur e tha t Sulliva n woul d als o fall . Meanwhil e th e champio n packe d
the hous e fo r a fe w mor e performance s o f Honest Hearts and Willing
Hands, traine d lightl y fo r th e comin g bout , an d enjoye d a triumpha l
round o f benefit s al l th e wa y South. 82
As bot h me n arrived , th e Crescen t Cit y wa s i n a n uproar . Th e
Olympic Clu b no t onl y buil t anothe r ne w aren a an d pu t u p th e twenty -
five-thousand dolla r purs e fo r th e heavyweigh t bou t o n Septembe r 7 ,
1892, i t arrange d a lightweigh t titl e figh t betwee n Jac k McAuliff e an d
Billy Mye r o n Septembe r 5 an d a featherweigh t championshi p contes t
between Jac k Skell y an d Georg e "Littl e Chocolate " Dixo n fo r Septem -
ber 6 . Th e New York Herald marvele d tha t "th e odiu m whic h reste d
upon th e priz e rin g an d th e majorit y o f it s exponent s a decad e o r tw o
ago, becaus e o f th e disgracefu l occurrence s connecte d wit h it , hav e i n a
measure bee n removed , unti l no w th e event s o n han d ar e of nationa l an d
international importance. " A s th e Chicago Daily Tribune, recallin g th e
old sportin g days , observed , "no w me n trave l t o great boxin g contest s i n
vestibule limite d trains ; the y slee p a t th e bes t hotels . . . and whe n th e
time fo r th e contes t arrives , the y fin d themselve s i n a grand , brilliantl y
lighted arena." 83
The grea t pugilisti c carniva l sen t a surg e o f excitemen t throug h th e
country. Grove r Cleveland' s an d Benjami n Harrison' s presidentia l campaig n
simmered o n th e bac k burne r a s boxin g coverag e boile d ove r ont o fron t
pages. MacAuliŕf e retaine d hi s lightweigh t titl e wit h a convincing knock -
out i n th e fifteent h round . Th e followin g night , despit e th e controvers y
over a black fightin g a white, Dixo n thrashe d Skell y i n eight rounds . Th e
fight ma y hav e demoralize d Souther n whites , an d man y resolve d tha t a
black ma n mus t neve r strik e a whit e on e agai n i n th e ring, bu t "Littl e
Chocolate" retaine d hi s crow n fo r seve n mor e years. 84
At last , o n th e nigh t o f Septembe r 7 , te n thousan d fan s fro m al l ove r
the countr y swarme d th e Olympi c Clu b arena . Th e festiv e crowd s i n th e
French Quarte r recalle d Mard i Gras . Colorfull y dresse d sportsmen , soli d
planters, ragge d blac k roustabouts , an d Italia n stree t vendor s parade d th e
teeming thoroughfares . Merchants ' window s wer e fille d wit h picture s o f
the principal s an d replica s o f thei r fightin g colors . Unti l figh t da y bettin g
had bee n ligh t a t thre e o r fou r t o on e o n Sullivan , a s fan s expecte d
repeats o f 188 2 an d 1889 . Ominously , however , a surg e o f last-minut e
money fo r Corbet t brough t th e odd s clos e t o even . "Th e mos t intens e
excitement prevaile d throughou t th e city, " declare d th e Times Democrat

243
 THE MANLY ART

The end of the bare-knuckle era, September 7, 1892. Before ten thousand fans
in a New Orleans arena, Sullivan risked his title against Corbett under the
marquis of Queensberry rules. From the National Police Gazette, September 24,
1892.

as New Orleans held its breath; "the streets were thronged with visitors
of all classes, from the millionaire to the baker to the fakir. Politicians,
lawyers, merchants and gamblers elbowed each other in all public places
on comparatively equal terms.',85
At ringside, former New Orleans mayor Guilotte announced the
fighters' weights. Sullivan scaled in at two hundred twelve pounds,
close to his size against Kilrain. But the Slugger's flabby body showed
none of the tautness of three years earlier. Corbett, his hair as always in
an impeccable pompadour, entered the ring in splendid condition,
twenty-five pounds lighter and eight years younger than the champion.
Urbane clubmen, respected professionals, and formally attired business­
men sat nervously at ringside until the usual introductions ended. But it
was not only men-and a few elegant women-in the Crescent City who

. 244 .
 E N D O F T H E B A R E - K N U C K L E ER A

waited anxiously . I n ever y metropoli s excite d fan s gathere d i n theater s

and newspape r office s t o lear n th e results . O n to p o f th e Pulitze r
Building i n Ne w Yor k a re d beaco n wa s poise d t o signa l whe n th e figh t
went Sullivan' s way , a whit e on e fo r Corbett . Smal l town s wer e als o
caught u p i n th e informatio n network . Miner s i n Blocton , Alabama , fo r
example, gathere d a t th e loca l Od d Fellow s lodg e where , fo r fift y cent s
each, the y hear d th e round-by-roun d telegraphi c report s rea d alou d an d
shared fo r a momen t i n a n instantaneou s nationa l culture . Wit h hundred s
of thousand s o n th e edge s o f thei r seats , then , th e bou t began. 86
The figh t wa s n o contest . Youn g Corbet t circled , danced , jabbed , an d
countered, whil e Sulliva n rushe d hi s fleetin g for m an d slugge d th e air .
At firs t th e crow d hisse d th e champion' s runnin g tactic s bu t soo n
applauded hi s strategy . B y th e fift h round , havin g measure d Sullivan' s
slow reactions , th e California n lande d consistently . Fan s gre w eve r
more excited , sensin g wha t wa s coming . Corbet t probabl y coul d hav e
ended th e figh t an y tim e afte r th e twelft h round , bu t h e waite d unti l th e
champion staggere d wit h exhaustion . Then , i n th e twenty-first ,

he rushed i n and plante d blo w afte r blo w on Sullivan's fac e an d neck . Th e

champion, s o soo n t o los e hi s covete d title , backe d away , tryin g t o sav e
himself. H e lowere d hi s guar d fro m shee r exhaustion , an d catchin g a
fearful smas h o n the jaw, reached t o the ropes, and the blood poured down
his fac e i n torrent s an d mad e a crimso n rive r acros s th e broa d chest . Hi s
eyes wer e glassy , an d i t wa s a mournfu l ac t whe n th e youn g California n
shot hi s righ t acros s th e jaw an d Sulliva n fel l lik e a n ox.

Youth, skill , an d science , th e newspaper s said , ove r age, dissipation , an d

brute strength. 87
The da y afte r th e figh t Willia m Lyo n Phelps , professo r o f Englis h a t
Yale, rea d th e dail y newspape r t o hi s elderl y father , a Baptis t minister .
"I ha d neve r hear d hi m mentio n a priz e figh t an d di d no t suppos e h e
knew anythin g o n th e subject , o r care d anythin g abou t it . S o whe n I
came t o th e headlin e CORBET T DEFEAT S SULLIVAN , I rea d tha t
aloud an d turne d th e page . M y fathe r leane d forwar d an d sai d earnestly ,
'Read i t b y rounds. ' " A fe w commentator s welcome d Sullivan' s defea t
as th e fittin g en d fo r a swaggerin g rowdy . Declare d th e New York Times,
"the dethronemen t o f a mea n an d cowardl y bull y a s th e ido l o f th e
barrooms i s a public good that is a fit subjec t fo r public congratulations." 88
But mor e sensitiv e observer s sa w large r significanc e i n Sullivan' s
career. A youn g journalis t name d Theodor e Dreise r remembere d meet -
ing th e grea t ma n shortl y afte r hi s las t fight :

245
 T H E MANL Y AR T

And the n Joh n L . Sullivan , raw , red-faced , big-fisted , broa d shouldered ,

drunken, wit h gaud y waistcoa t an d tie , an d ring s an d pin s se t wit h
enormous diamond s an d rubies—wha t a n impressio n h e made ! Surrounde d
by loca l sport s an d politician s o f th e mos t rubicun d an d degrade d
character. . . . Ciga r boxes , champagn e buckets , decanters , bee r bottles ,
overcoats, collar s an d shirt s littere d th e floor, an d lollin g bac k i n th e mids t
of i t al l i n ease an d splendo r hi s ver y grea t self , a sort o f prize-fightin g J . P .
Morgan.

Here wa s Sulliva n th e hedonist , garis h i n ever y detail , flattered b y

hangers-on, luxuriatin g i n th e goo d life . Wit h hi s ow n masculin e
prowess unquestioned , h e glorie d i n leisur e an d excess .

'Aw, haw ! haw ! haw! ' ( ca n hea r hi m eve n no w whe n I aske d hi m m y

favorite questio n abou t life , hi s plans , an d th e valu e o f exercise(!) , etc . 'H e
wants t o kno w abou t exercise ! You'r e al l right , youn g fella , kind a slim , but
you'll do . Si t dow n an d hav e som e champagne . Hav e a cigar . Giv e hi m
some cigars , George . Thes e youn g newspape r me n ar e al l righ t t o me . I' m
for 'em . Exercise ? Wha t I think ? Haw ! haw ! Writ e an y damne d thin g yu h
please, youn g fella , an d sa y tha t Joh n L . Sulliva n sai d so . That' s goo d
enough fo r me . I f the y don' t believ e it , brin g i t bac k her e an d I'l l sig n i t fo r
yuh. Bu t I kno w it'l l b e al l right , an d I won' t sto p t o rea d i t neither . Tha t
suit yuh ? Wel l al l right . No w hav e som e mor e champagn e an d don' t sa y I
didn't trea t yu h right , 'caus e I did. I' m ex-champio n o f th e world , defeate d
by tha t littl e dud e fro m California , bu t I' m stil l Joh n L . Sullivan—ain' t tha t
right? Haw ! haw ! They can' t tak e tha t awa y fro m me , ca n they ? Haw ! haw !
Have som e mor e champagne , boy. '
I adore d him . . . .

Crude, boisterous , gargantua n i n hi s power s an d hi s appetites , Sulliva n

was th e perfec t symbo l fo r a n expansiv e age. 8 9
Within te n year s o f losin g th e title , havin g gaine d a hundre d pound s
and pawne d hi s championshi p belt , h e file d fo r bankruptcy . Fo r a whil e
his fortune s revive d a s h e gav e theate r tour s an d temperanc e lecture s an d
even collaborate d o n figh t storie s unde r hi s ow n by-line . Sulliva n
became a sor t o f elde r statesman , brusqu e ye t comical , alway s o n han d
for a championshi p bout . Accordin g t o legend , hi s las t year s wer e
painful ones , a s hear t disease , cirrhosi s o f th e liver , an d povert y debilitat -
ed hi s bod y an d spirit . H e die d o n Februar y 2 , 1918 , an d wa s burie d i n
Roxbury. 9 0
But i t wa s Sulliva n i n hi s ful l power s tha t me n remembered , th e raw ,
bare-knuckled gian t wh o challenge d th e worl d an d bea t al l comers . A t
the tur n o f th e centur y Ernes t Thompso n Seton , late r th e founde r o f th e

246
 E N D O F T H E B A R E - K N U C K L E ER A

Boy Scout s o f America , ha d worrie d alou d tha t feminin e influenc e

coddled America n youth s an d mad e the m flabby . Bu t Seto n wa s reas -
sured b y th e though t tha t h e neve r me t a bo y wh o woul d no t rathe r b e
John L . Sulliva n tha n Le o Tolstoy. 91
Looking bac k o n hi s ow n boyhood , Vache l Lindsa y als o recognize d
the champio n a s th e centra l symbo l o f hi s era :

When I wa s nin e year s old , i n 1889 ,

I sen t m y lov e a lacy Valentine .
Suffering boy s wer e dresse d lik e Fauntleroys ,
While Judg e an d Puc k i n gian t humo r vied .
The Gibso n Gir l cam e shinin g lik e a bride
To spoi l th e cul t o f Tennyson' s Elaine .
Louisa Alcot t wa s m y gentl e guide. . .
Then...
I hear d a battl e trumpe t sound .
Nigh Ne w Orlean s
Upon a n emeral d plai n
John L . Sulliva n
The stron g bo y
Of Bosto n
Fought seventy-fiv e round s wit h Jak e Kilrain. 92

Heroic strif e brok e throug h th e sentimenta l clutte r o f lac e an d ruffle s an d

curls. Sulliva n rejecte d th e routin e worl d o f wor k an d famil y t o liv e b y
his fists an d hi s wits . I f on e ma y thin k o f cultur e i n terms o f gender , the n
John L . Sullivan , th e greates t America n her o o f th e lat e nineteent h
century, represente d a remasculinization o f America . T o Lindsay, writin g
in the shado w o f Worl d Wa r I , th e Stron g Bo y o f Bosto n embodie d a los t
era o f genuin e heroism , betraye d no w b y th e complexit y o f moder n life .
To turn-of-the-centur y America n men , Sulliva n symbolize d th e growin g
desire t o smas h throug h th e fluff o f bourgeoi s gentilit y an d th e tangl e o f
corporate ensnarement s t o th e throbbin g hear t o f life. 93

247
 Epilogue: The Manl y Ar t

A thir d o f a century afte r Joh n L . Sulliva n los t hi s titl e an d ende d th e

bare-knuckle era , Jac k Dempsey , sevent h holde r o f th e heavyweigh t
championship unde r th e Queensberr y rules , defende d hi s crow n agains t
Gene Tunney . Bille d a s par t o f th e nation' s sesquicentennia l celebration ,
the 192 6 battl e attracte d 120,00 0 fan s i n Philadelphia , whil e million s
listened t o round-by-roun d radi o coverage . A t ringside sa t movi e star s
including Charli e Chaplin , To m Mix , an d Norm a Talmadge , sport s
heroes suc h a s Bab e Ruth , Joh n McGraw , an d Jaco b Rupert , business -
men, amon g the m Andre w Mellon , Charle s Schwab , Vincen t Astor ,
Harry Payn e Whitney , an d W . Averil l Harriman , a s wel l a s governors ,
mayors, an d cabine t secretaries . Elegan t women—"classi e dames " a s
fight promote r Te x Rickar d calle d them—als o watche d th e bou t wit h
their escorts . Whe n Tunne y wo n a surpris e decisio n ove r Dempsey , th e
New York Times announce d i t wit h a three-tie r banne r headlin e acros s
page one , followe d b y seve n page s o f front-sectio n coverage. 1
The pat h fro m th e Bosto n Stron g Boy' s reig n t o Dempsey' s an d
Tunney's wa s no t a smoot h one ; priz e fightin g ha d it s difficultie s i n th e
decades afte r Corbet t becam e th e firs t Queensberr y titleholder . State s
legalized th e spor t the n outlawe d i t a s boxing leadershi p passe d fro m cit y
to city . Whe n Jac k Johnson—defiant , unbeatable , an d black—becam e
champion i n 1908 , Progressiv e Er a racis m cause d anothe r relaps e o f th e
ring. Bu t th e groundwor k fo r pugilism' s triump h i n th e 1920 s an d
beyond wa s lai d durin g th e 1880 s an d 1890s . Graduall y priz e fightin g
found it s plac e i n th e large r twentiet h centur y landscap e o f bi g business ,
mass media , an d corporate-capitalis t ideologies .
Less tha n a centur y separate d England' s aristocrati c boxin g patron s
from th e ric h an d powerfu l o f Americ a wh o sa t a t ringside watchin g

248
 EPILOGUE

Dempsey an d Tunney . I n th e intervenin g year s critic s charge d tha t th e

ring subverte d republica n virtue , threatene d huma n progress , mocke d
evangelical piety , an d destroye d th e spiri t o f industry . Bu t th e Victoria n
cry tha t sport s i n general , an d boxin g i n particular , fostere d nothin g bu t
sloth an d criminalit y gre w increasingl y hollo w a s th e centur y wor e on .
Liberalized Christianit y advocate d les s worldl y asceticism , mor e activ e
participation i n secula r life . Equall y important , th e advance d capitalis t
economy require d adventurou s consumer s a s muc h a s cautious , self -
controlled producers .
Boxing itsel f change d alon g wit h America n society . On e nee d onl y
contrast To m Hye r an d Yanke e Sullivan , barel y escapin g Baltimor e
authorities an d the n fightin g a t sunse t o n froze n tur f befor e a fe w
hundred friends , wit h Jame s J . Corbet t an d Joh n L . Sullivan , contendin g
in a n electricall y illuminate d aren a i n fron t o f te n thousan d fan s fro m al l
social classes , t o appreciat e ho w fa r th e rin g ha d come . Boxin g stil l ha d
roots i n th e countles s loca l club s an d gym s o f ethni c neighborhoods . Bu t
now a sophisticate d commercia l structur e channele d loca l talen t int o
national entertainmen t markets . B y th e 1890 s priz e fightin g wa s les s
tightly controlle d a t th e loca l level , les s dependen t o n th e ol d saloon -
centered bachelo r subculture , les s exclusivel y a par t o f working-clas s
life. Boxin g ha d becom e a business .
Athletic heroe s adde d a ne w dimensio n t o America' s succes s ethic .
On th e simples t level , sport s suc h a s priz e fightin g embodie d deep -
rooted nationa l mythology . Champio n boxer s fulfille d th e America n
dream o f persona l achievemen t an d unlimite d individua l opportunity .
The rin g wa s th e sternes t o f meritocracies , fo r eac h ma n teste d himsel f
against al l challengers , publicl y riskin g injur y an d humiliatio n t o mak e i t
to th e top . Me n fro m poo r backgrounds , arme d onl y wit h courage ,
muscle, an d skill , becam e heroe s becaus e thei r hard-earne d achieve -
ments reaffirme d th e potentia l o f America n life . Fe w notice d tha t i t wa s
the lac k o f othe r opportunitie s whic h pulle d me n towar d th e ring . Fa r
from deflatin g th e myt h o f socia l mobility , th e fac t tha t mos t fighter s
possessed limite d ability , suffere d seriou s injuries , an d lef t boxin g a s
poor an d obsur e a s whe n the y began , onl y serve d t o highligh t th e gaud y
success o f th e fe w a t th e pinnacle . Winner s i n th e mos t elementa l
competition, priz e rin g champion s wer e ne w star s i n th e constellatio n o f
the self-mad e man .
But drivin g onesel f towar d fam e an d fortun e i s learne d behavior . T o
be intensely , unrelievedl y individualisti c cut agains t th e grai n o f th e
cultures fro m whic h s o man y priz e fighter s came . Boxin g blende d th e
cult o f succes s wit h olde r loyaltie s an d thereb y kep t me n connecte d wit h

249
 THE MANL Y AR T

their origins . Bruise r Joh n L . Sulliva n wa s a n Iris h and America n

champion, cleve r Benn y Leonar d wa s a Jewish and America n champion ,
invincible Rock y Marcian o wa s a n Italia n and America n champion ,
brilliant Muhamma d Al i wa s a blac k and America n champion . Th e
symbolism o f th e ring refracte d th e America n idea l o f individua l achieve -
ment, o f upwar d socia l mobility , throug h distinctiv e ethni c an d working -
class sensibilities ; lik e othe r sports , boxin g merge d particularisti c loyal -
ties an d moder n values . Thi s blendin g proces s ha s remaine d a constan t
function o f boxin g fro m th e earliest bare-knuckl e fight s throug h today , a s
new group s o f immigrant s an d thei r childre n hav e undergon e th e com -
plex an d haltin g proces s o f acculturation. 2
What change d b y th e lat e nineteent h century , however , wa s th e fac t
that boxer s wer e n o longe r heroe s exclusivel y t o working-clas s an d
ethnic peoples . No w America' s growin g white-colla r populatio n crave d
muscular demigods . Athleti c idol s wer e harbinger s o f transformatio n a s
the succes s ethi c stretche d t o accommodat e ne w socia l necessities . A
society gearin g towar d mas s consumptio n neede d model s o f pleasur e a s
well a s labor . Leisur e good s an d gran d spectacle s offere d vicariou s
escape fro m th e corporation s an d bureaucracie s engulfin g socia l life ;
activities tha t onc e ha d bee n considere d wastefu l o r immora l no w
became valued . Fa r fro m th e paragon s o f productivit y uphel d b y th e ol d
Victorian world , th e ne w idol s wer e celebrities , entertainers , peopl e wh o
produced nothin g tangibl e bu t possesse d personalit y an d charisma . I n a
word, America' s futur e heroe s woul d b e exemplar s o f pla y mor e tha n
work. 3
These cultura l transition s wer e capture d i n th e ver y word s "th e manl y
art." Lik e othe r skille d workers , bare-knuckl e boxer s practice d th e "art s
and mysteries " o f thei r trade . Indeed , thei r abilit y t o symboliz e autono -
mous craftsmanshi p becam e eve r mor e importan t a s th e ol d artisa n
system brok e down . Bu t o n a mor e abstrac t level , priz e fightin g ha d
some o f th e sam e socia l an d cultura l function s a s the fine arts , especiall y
the theater . Dram a interpret s dail y life , helpin g u s understan d th e world .
Far fro m bein g purel y escapist , th e theater—indeed , al l art—addresse s
the huma n condition , allowin g u s t o transcen d workada y consciousnes s
and perceiv e realit y anew . Ar t comment s o n mainstrea m culture , sug -
gests alternative s t o th e wa y thing s are , reveal s ne w huma n ideal s an d
aspirations.4
The manl y art functione d i n precisel y thes e ways . I n the bare-knuckl e
days, whe n "priz e fighter " an d "pugilist " wer e term s o f derisio n i n
polite society , ever y bout' s celebratio n o f violence , physicality , an d
"animal passions " define d b y antithesi s th e competin g cultura l style s o f

250
 EPILOGUE

the bourgeoisi e an d th e workin g class . Boxin g uphel d aggressiveness ,

courage, an d persona l hono r ove r saf e an d stabl e Victoria n values ; i t
offered a mode l o f rough-cu t masculinit y i n oppositio n t o th e domesti c
ideal; i t glorifie d mal e beaut y i n a n ag e deepl y ambivalen t abou t huma n
corporeality. Th e rin g wa s a plac e o f freedo m amids t th e constraint s o f
daily life . It s hard , unsentimenta l etho s gre w ou t o f th e danger s an d
disappointments o f working-clas s experience . Bu t th e rin g coul d als o
embody ideal s o f restraint . Neve r a s anarchi c a s it s critic s charged , priz e
fighting a t it s bes t exemplifie d rule-boun d method s fo r settlin g persona l
differences. Boxer s exhibite d composur e unde r pressure , unflinchin g
fortitude, an d heroi c stoicism , al l i n th e name o f masculin e prowess . Th e
sporting fraternit y measure d bout s agains t thei r ow n aestheti c standards ,
which balance d i n poeti c tensio n coo l self-contro l an d hot-bloode d
passion. Potentially , then , eac h figh t wa s a wor k o f art , o r mor e
precisely a drama , stage d accordin g t o tightl y structure d rule s an d
illuminated b y violence. 5
Although th e rin g wa s transforme d b y th e en d o f th e nineteent h
century, i t stil l sometime s offere d ar t sketche d i n blood . Priz e fightin g
continued t o resonat e fo r street-corne r me n i n mal e pee r grou p societies ;
it uphel d th e ol d passion-fille d display s o f courag e an d honor . Occasion -
al championshi p matche s stirre d men' s imagination s wit h mythi c mean -
ing: th e racia l dram a o f Jac k Johnso n an d Ji m Jeffries , th e tamin g o f th e
brute b y a skille d technicia n i n th e Dempsey-Tunne y fights , th e interna -
tional battle s o f freedo m versu s fascis m i n th e Joe Louis-Ma x Schmelin g
bouts. 6
But wha t commercia l sophisticatio n gav e i n breadt h o f audienc e
appeal, i t sometime s too k awa y i n depth . Boxer s wer e becomin g celebri -
ties, individual s wh o mad e career s ou t o f offerin g repeatabl e spectacle s
to payin g audience s rathe r tha n fol k heroe s o f loca l communities . A s th e
old Victoria n etho s withered , priz e fightin g gre w t o b e les s th e share d
expression o f a n oppositiona l wa y o f lif e tha n excitin g entertainmen t sol d
in nationa l leisur e markets , simila r t o circuses , amusemen t parks , dim e
novels, an d movies . Th e rin g bega n losin g it s capacity t o uphold alterna -
tive cultura l standards . Increasingly , boxin g matche s provide d vicariou s
thrills, temporar y interlude s fro m whic h me n returne d bette r adjuste d t o
modern life . Sport s i n genera l an d priz e fightin g i n particula r becam e
absorbed int o th e hegemoni c culture , an d successfu l athlete s wer e
pointed t o a s proo f tha t th e socia l orde r stil l functione d smoothly , tha t
ability an d har d wor k wer e indee d rewarded . I n a word , th e ring' s
original antibourgeoi s messag e ha d bee n diluted , an d pugilis m los t som e
of it s ol d expressiv e force .

25'
 THE MANL Y AR T

If boxing' s powe r a s art gre w problematic , s o did th e ver y meanin g o f

the wor d manly. W e rarel y hea r thi s ter m an y more , yet i t wa s quit e
common unti l th e twentiet h century . Manl y ha d man y nuances , bu t i t i s
clear tha t bourgeoi s an d working-clas s me n ofte n use d th e wor d differ -
ently. I n The Contrast, Royal l Tyler' s 178 7 play , Colone l Manl y wa s
frank, upright , brave , an d independent . Similarly , Benjami n Frankli n
declared tha t a trac t writte n b y hi s grandfathe r exhibite d "decen t
plainness an d manl y freedom. " Almos t a centur y late r Horati o Alge r
wrote tha t Ragge d Dick , on e o f hi s fictiona l characters , "woul d no t
steal, o r cheat , o r impos e upo n younge r boys , bu t wa s fran k an d
straight-forward, manl y an d self-reliant. " Thes e bourgeoi s example s al l
conjoined manlines s wit h th e value s o f self-possessio n an d forthrightness ,
which i n tur n wer e linke d t o maturity . Th e concep t implie d adul t
autonomy, th e opposit e o f childlik e dependence . T o b e manl y wa s t o b e
responsible an d sociall y useful , t o have , i n a word , wha t Victorian s
called "character." 7
Although working-clas s me n accepte d th e importanc e o f independence ,
many rejecte d th e stabl e bourgeoi s moralit y implie d i n suc h phrase s a s
"manly self-reliance. " I n thei r usage , manlines s ha d t o d o mor e wit h
valor, strength , an d prowes s tha n wit h uprigh t behavior . T o b e manl y
meant bein g no t womanly—soft , sentimental , nurturant—mor e tha n
being no t childlike . Manlines s o n th e urba n street s wa s tie d t o honor , t o
one's statu s amon g peers ; i t inhere d i n a n individual' s reputatio n fo r
toughness. Bravado , grou p loyalty , an d defianc e o f outsider s wer e mark s
of leadershi p i n thi s world . A s exemplar s o f th e manl y art , pugilist s
resisted al l slights . The y avenge d wit h bloo d insult s t o themselve s an d
their cliques , an d uphel d a masculin e idea l o f elementa l virility . Fo r th e
fancy, then , bare-knuckle d priz e fightin g wa s no t merel y entertainmen t
but th e expressio n o f a wa y o f life .
Toward th e en d o f th e century , however , thi s working-clas s idea l o f
masculinity too k o n a vicariou s appea l fo r a middl e an d uppe r classes .
Internalized self-control— a crucia l componen t o f bourgeoi s manliness —
grew eve r les s satisfyin g i n a n ag e o f diminishin g autonomy . Th e
business world , wher e me n identifie d thei r interest s wit h impersona l
bureaucracies an d attempte d t o ascen d th e corporat e ladder , lef t the m
feeling cut of f fro m th e physica l basi s o f lif e an d isolate d fro m eac h
other. No t onl y clerk s bu t eve n successfu l manager s an d professional s i n
massive ne w institution s fel t adrif t i n a passional vacuu m o f dul l routine .
Here th e ol d bourgeoi s idea l o f manlines s los t muc h o f it s appeal . Bu t
the ver y force s tha t rendere d wor k unfulfillin g als o offere d ne w form s o f
leisure a s compensation , sport s prim e amon g them . Th e mor e tha t

252
 EPILOGUE

middle- an d upper-clas s me n sense d th e artificialit y an d stuffines s o f

modern life , th e mor e the y wer e captivate d b y mass-produce d image s o f
virility. Wher e institution s no w controlle d s o muc h o f individuals ' lives ,
sports heroe s suc h a s boxer s seeme d autonomous . More , the y uphel d th e
importance o f huma n volition , o f bol d assertion s o f selfhood . Stil l
tightly controlle d i n th e workin g world , man y bourgeoi s me n turne d t o
the pe t spor t o f th e urba n undergroun d a s on e vicariou s escap e fro m a n
oppressive environment .
The rin g itself , ironically , wa s transforme d i n the process . Moder n lif e
compartmentalizes th e ancien t concep t o f honor , relegatin g i t t o those o n
the margin s o f society . Poo l hustlers , pimps , juvenil e delinquents , an d
gangsters, suc h outcast s hel p defin e norma l behavio r b y violatin g socia l
conventions. Actin g ou t tha t whic h i s considere d deviant , the y highligh t
what i s acceptable . Bu t the y als o fil l a void , offerin g vicariou s example s
of fatefu l an d honorabl e acts . Dangerou s deeds , high-stake s risks , test s of
strength an d nerve , al l ar e par t o f conventiona l society' s fantasies , ye t al l
are denied b y dail y life . Th e moder n worl d i s divided int o saf e an d silen t
places o n th e on e hand—home , shop , an d office—an d th e underworl d o f
criminals, sportsmen , an d gambler s o n th e other. 8
From th e real m o f danger , o f ris k taking , o f elementa l manliness ,
commercial fantasie s ar e fashioned . Th e tediu m an d predictabilit y o f
workaday lif e brin g peopl e t o see k thrillin g experience s an d model s o f
individuality i n th e rigidl y segmente d real m o f play . Althoug h fascinate d
by underworl d ways , bourgeoi s cultur e doe s no t becom e on e o f honor .
Rather, it s member s consum e images o f honor . Example s o f toughness ,
defiance, glamor , aggressiv e sexuality , an d machism o ar e no t merel y
tolerated; the y ar e essentia l palliative s t o th e boredo m an d mora l
vacuity o f moder n life . Thu s mas s medi a sanitiz e the n pla y bac k
depictions o f outla w fol k cultures . Criminals , six-gu n heroes , urba n
detectives, roc k stars , renegad e cops , gamblers—al l ar e glamorized ,
their images transformed int o consumer commodities. Al l fulfill daydream s
without alterin g life' s realities .
On th e urba n street s th e rin g neve r completel y los t it s capacit y t o
symbolize th e violen t way s o f mal e honor . Bu t althoug h the y stil l spran g
from toug h neighborhoo d subcultures , priz e fighters , especiall y th e mos t
successful ones , wer e decreasingl y representativ e o f a n oppositiona l wa y
of life . Display s o f manliness , courage , an d prowes s i n th e rin g wer e
now valuabl e commodities , marketabl e images , no t threatenin g a t al l t o
middle-class ways . A s of old , boxers ' deed s spok e of elemental strif e an d
bloodshed. Bu t fo r many , perhap s mos t i n th e audience , th e messag e wa s
goods fo r sale , no t hard-wo n knowledg e o f a bruta l life . Successfu l

253
 THE MANL Y AR T

fighters ha d bee n turne d int o celebrities , ne w model s o f succes s i n a

culture dedicate d t o fame , leisure , an d consumption . An d th e fancy —the
old sportin g fraternit y tha t ha d live d beyon d th e pal e o f respectabl e
society—became fans, payin g spectator s i n searc h o f entertainment. 9

254
 Afterword t o the Updated Editio n

Many novelist s tel l u s that a s they writ e they'r e no t alway s sur e wha t
their character s wil l d o next . Eve n th e conclusio n ma y remai n hidde n
from th e authors' vie w until late in the day. I think these writers mean tha t
after they'v e se t their openin g scenes , started thing s i n motion, an d intro -
duced thei r characters , tha t onl y then , i n th e crucibl e o f writin g itself ,
does the full stor y slowl y emerg e i n thei r imaginations .
Writing abou t th e pas t i s often mor e lik e thi s tha n academi c historian s
are comfortable admitting . W e have a professional stak e i n th e illusio n o f
control—that ou r book s an d article s demonstrat e exactl y wha t w e se t ou t
to prove , tha t th e archive s affir m ou r assertions , tha t ou r footnote s bea r
everything out . We'r e especiall y pron e t o exaggerate ho w muc h w e ar e i n
charge when we train advanced graduate students. These young scholars —
who are under pressure to finish their dissertations in a timely manner, find
a tenure-track job, and secur e a professional reputation—tak e wha t we say
about historical metho d an d historical writin g ver y seriously . The proble m
is that th e novelist s ar e right. Sometime s thing s just tak e on a life o f thei r
own. There is a lot of serendipity even in historical scholarship .
When I started th e dissertation tha t eventually becam e The Manly Art, I
expected t o write a chapter on boxing's bare-knuckle era, then focus o n the
twentieth century . I never got past the 1890s . I became more and mor e en-
grossed in the story of the early prize ring, and I sensed that it could teac h
me something .
Stripped t o it s essentials , tha t i s ho w I stil l work— I find a stor y I like,
one that my gu t tell s m e will reveal somethin g importan t abou t a n histori -
cal moment. I then construct th e narrative ou t of primar y sources , hopin g
to be surprised by what I find and all the while trying to figure out what the
story means . It's a pretty intuitiv e process , an d I have to admit that , a t th e

• 25 5 •
 THE MANL Y AR T

outset o f an y give n project , I am painfully inarticulat e becaus e I cannot

really sa y where things will end up. And even after I finish a book or an
essay and people tell me they like it, I still feel vaguel y uneasy, as if I've
gotten away with something.
Of course, not every historian works this way. Much, perhaps most, his-
torical wor k i s mor e hypothesi s driven . M y onl y poin t i s tha t ther e ar e
many ways to write history. I know scholars who begin with long, detailed
outlines. Som e colleagues hav e mastered digita l tool s an d ar e extremely
well organized i n culling thei r sources , creating databases , an d s o forth .
They see m t o know wha t the y ar e doing . M y ways—an d I suspec t tha t
there are many like me—are more chaotic. By the time I've finished writ-
ing just about anything, the room where I work looks like a bomb went off .
Notes, folders , photocopies , books , an d photograph s li e everywher e i n
thick piles. The Manly Art was written just before computers took over our
profession. M y subsequent wor k has benefited fro m organizin g material s
digitally, bu t th e writin g process—gainin g contro l o f masse s o f unrul y
materials, shaping sources into stories and stories into meanings—seem s
just as intuitive as ever.
My point is that writin g is a very personal an d individual process . My
untidy habit s sui t me. They aren' t fo r everyone , though I do think tha t a
little chaos has its advantages. I have come to believe that writing is a par-
ticular kind of thinking, much as painting, mathematics, and carpentry are
forms o f thought, eac h distinc t fro m th e other. The actual proces s of as-
sembling words into sentences and sentences into paragraphs, rearranging
them on the page, organizing facts , tinkerin g wit h narrative, and playing
with ideas—includin g th e physical , tactil e ac t o f writin g o r typing— is
thinking itself . Writing thi s wa y is difficult becaus e w e don't thin k then
write; we think through writing. The two are inseparable. There is a cer-
tain amoun t of anxiety buil t into working lik e this; as I say, much of the
time you don't have a firm grip on where you are going, or if you're going
anywhere at all. With time, though, you learn to trust your ability to make
sense of things. More or less.

It is twenty-five year s since I finished writing The Manly Art and, truth
be told, twenty-five year s since I have read the whole book. It is amazing
how much you forget and misremember, even of your own work. Amazing,
too, how a quarter century makes the final product seem inevitable, when,
in fact, writing it was a process of discovery.
For example, it didn't occur to me until fairly lat e in the work that I was
writing a book abou t th e beginning s o f a nationa l celebrit y culture . By
i860 a few boxers had become heroes to working class men, and big fights
• 256 •
 AFTERWORD T O T H E UPDATE D EDITIO N

drew considerable newspape r coverage, most of it quite negative because

the whole enterprise was illegal. But a generation later , toward the end of
the century, the great John L. Sullivan of Boston had become the nation's
first tru e sports celebrity, an American icon. The likes of poet Vachel Lind-
say an d novelis t Theodor e Dreise r lionize d him—Dreise r calle d hi m " a
sort of prize fightingJ. P. Morgan"—and Ernest Thompson Seton, founder
of the Boy Scouts, noted approvingl y tha t he never met a lad who would
not rather be Sullivan than Leo Tolstoy.
Boxing itself ha d changed by late in the nineteenth century, cleaned it-
self u p just in time for bourgeoi s America n me n to break ou t of stiflin g
Victorian proprieties, so that now presidents spoke out on the values of the
ring, famous painters depicte d great boxers, and muscular Christians put
on the gloves and knocked each other around. The book I wrote a quarter
century ago , then , wa s abou t suc h change s an d th e socia l an d cultura l
transformations tha t enabled them. I had some vague sense of all that early
on, but I could not have articulated it with any depth or conviction.
The Manly Art was an early attempt to understand sport in a larger his-
torical context. I wrote in the original preface—and of course, prefaces are
always written last—that the book took its cues from socia l history (which
included the germs of what came to be called cultural history), labor his-
tory, and gender history . When The Manly Art wa s first published, thes e
were intellectually vibrant areas for American history and American stud-
ies scholars, though claiming that sport could be understood through those
particular lenses was a bit unusual. But sports were perfect for anyone who
wanted t o write histor y fro m "th e bottom up " or offer a history o f "th e
inarticulate"—in other words, the non-elites who for so long most histori-
ans had ignored.
Studying socia l histor y mean t addressin g th e relationshi p betwee n
groups—rich an d poor, black and white, men and women, immigrant and
native-born, youn g and old , and farmers an d city-folk. Socia l histor y fo -
cused on things like wealth, status, and power and how they were distrib-
uted an d ho w socia l group s attaine d o r failed t o attain them . O f course ,
prize fighters themselves di d no t compris e a majo r socia l category , bu t
boxers were emblematic of important groups, especially men, immigrants,
and the workin g class . Few pugilists mad e a living wit h their fists; most
prize fightersearned their keep in trades like butchering and in less-skilled
jobs that required brawn, suc h as carting an d hauling. Boxers wer e local
heroes whose deeds were toasted and sung in countless saloons. So the rise
of the ring coincided with—depended on—th e formation o f an American
working class. Boxing was necessarily a chapter of labor history because
how people play is structured by how they work.

• 257 .
 THE MANL Y AR T

Within the working class, the great ring warriors were especially impor -
tant t o the immigrants an d ethnic group s o f th e big cities, as the ra w divi -
sions o f th e street s wer e playe d ou t insid e th e ropes . Sociologist s hav e
written o f ethni c succession , wit h newcomer s eac h takin g thei r turn : Jew -
ish champions lik e Benn y Leonar d an d Ma x Baer ; Italians suc h a s Prim o
Camera an d Rock y Marciano ; Africa n American s o f th e post-World Wa r
II era like Sugar Ray Robinson, Muhammad Ali , and Joe Frazier; and late r
Latinos suc h a s Robert o Dura n an d Osca r d e la Hoya . O f course , i t wa s
never a n orderl y progression , bu t th e ide a tha t boxin g wa s par t o f a large r
process b y whic h popula r cultur e fostere d simultaneou s processe s o f
Americanization an d ethnicizatio n i s a n importan t piec e o f th e broade r
history o f boxing in America .
That process began on these shores in the late eighteenth and early nine -
teenth centuries when the greatest fighters—and fo r a while, practically th e
only ones—wer e Englis h an d Irish . Boxin g wa s thei r sport , afte r all ; the y
brought i t to America. Unti l the end of the century, boxing wa s a way the y
dramatized their enmities, gave them expression, even as they tried to con-
tain their passions withi n th e ring.
And, of course, boxers, trainers, promoters, and the like were almost ex-
clusively men. The world they lived in, the world of bars, brothels, volunteer
firehouses, an d such , wa s a mal e realm . Whe n The Manly Art first ap -
peared, it was widely reviewed, almost entirely by men, and quite favorably .
In scholarl y journal s an d mor e popula r site s lik e newspaper s an d maga -
zines, reviewers generally sai d that I wrote well, told a good story , and ha d
useful thing s to say about how prize fighting reflected an d shape d working -
class culture, as well as how it offered immigrant s a way to express at onc e
their ethni c distinctivenes s an d thei r ne w America n identity . Virtuall y n o
reviewer, however , note d tha t it was a book abou t gender. Friends have told
me since that I should have been mor e explicit about it. But I was explicit, I
thought. I wrot e o n th e thir d pag e o f th e origina l preface , "Thi s i s gende r
history." Thereafter , I spen t man y paragraph s talkin g abou t "manhood, "
"manliness," "masculinity," and the "bachelor subculture. "
The rin g wa s no t merel y abou t immigrant s an d workers , i t wa s abou t
male ones , and that fact could not have been clearer in the adoring descrip-
tions contemporary journalists lavishe d o n boxers' bodies :

[Christopher Lilly's ] ski n wa s ver y clea r an d ligh t i n color , bu t firm in

texture and healthy in tone. His form is round almost to perfection; his sides,
instead of branching from the waist, gradually outwards to the armpits, circle
concavely inwards like reversed crescents.. . . If Lilly's appearance was fine,
[Thomas] McCoy's was beautiful. Hi s skin had a warmer glow than the for-

• 2 58 •
 AFTERWORD T O T H E UPDATE D EDITIO N

mer's; his form wa s more elegantly proportioned, and his air and style more
graceful an d manlike . Hi s swellin g breas t curve d ou t lik e a cuirass ; hi s
shoulders wer e deep, with a bold curve d blade , and th e muscular develop -
ment of the arm large and finelybrought out. . . .

Such loving accounts were not lost on the workingmen wh o made their liv-
ing wit h thei r bodies , no r di d thes e me n overloo k th e destructio n boxin g
wrought on those same bodies. Tom McCoy died in the ring that afternoo n
in lat e summer , 1842 . Fo r boxer s an d thei r fans , a violen t battl e lik e th e
Lilly-McCoy fight wa s a ritua l o f manliness , a displa y o f fortitud e an d
courage, a showcase of masculine ideals. But for the courts that prosecuted
those involve d an d th e middle-clas s newspaper s coverin g thes e events ,
such spectacle s wer e a blood y perversio n o f responsible , bourgeoi s
manhood.
Women's histor y wa s a vibrant field when The Manly Art wa s first pub-
lished, an d the concept o f gender had become ver y muc h a part o f histori -
ans' discourse . Tha t bot h me n an d wome n acte d accordin g t o gendere d
assumptions an d tha t each sid e shape d th e other wa s not particularl y con -
troversial. Yet , despit e th e publication , fo r example , o f Joa n Scott' s cele -
brated American Historical Review articl e "Gender: A Useful Categor y o f
Historical Analysis " a few month s afte r The Manly Art appeared , th e con -
cept o f gende r di d no t hav e muc h tractio n whe n i t cam e t o work s tha t
weren't abou t women . Mor e precisely , mos t histor y writin g stil l focuse d
on men , bu t tha t didn' t mak e i t men' s history . Male s (i n politic s o r wa r
or diplomacy ) wer e normative ; malenes s di d no t requir e commen t o r
analysis. Gende r a s a n analytica l too l remaine d ghettoize d i n women' s
history.
But thing s change d dramaticall y a fe w year s later . B y th e 1990s , th e
momentum tha t ha d bee n buildin g fo r explicitl y cultura l histor y move d
questions o f identity an d subjectivit y t o the forefront o f many scholars ' re -
search, whic h i n tur n opene d th e wa y t o growing interes t i n th e construc -
tion o f masculinity . Implicitl y an d explicitly , ne w book s argue d tha t idea s
about manhoo d helpe d shap e th e cours e o f history , tha t ho w w e thin k
about being a man matters no t just t o culture but to politics and economic s
and diplomacy, that here as elsewhere, culture was an engine of history, not
its caboose. T o name just a few, Anthon y Rotundo' s American Manhood:
Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era
surveyed ho w an d wh y ideal s o f manlines s change d ove r th e decades ;
George Chaunce y explore d th e relationship between manhoo d an d sexual -
ity i n Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay
Male World; Gail Bederma n i n Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural

• 259 •
 THE MANL Y AR T

History of Gender and Race in the United States; offere d a provocative in -

terpretation o f how ideas about racial hierarchy wer e inextricably linke d t o
a new an d aggressiv e masculinit y tha t played itsel f ou t amon g progressiv e
era elites ; Ted Ownb y demonstrate d i n Subduing Satan: Religion, Recre-
ation and Manhood in the Rural South ho w a distinctl y souther n versio n
of masculinit y shape d th e region's post-Civi l Wa r history , an d Kriste n L .
Hoganson argued in Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics
Provoked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars that ide -
als o f manhoo d fundamentall y molde d America n foreig n polic y i n a n er a
of imperial expansion . These an d man y othe r recent work s placed th e his-
tory o f masculinity a t the center of historical discourse .

Sport history , too , ha s learne d som e ne w trick s i n th e las t quarte r cen -

tury. Especially a s the league of sport historians has grown and diversified ,
works o n women , Africa n Americans , an d Latino s hav e multiplied . Th e
flowering o f cultura l histor y ha s bee n especiall y importan t t o th e field's
intellectual development . Man y spor t historian s no w mak e th e analysi s o f
gender—including masculinity—a n explici t part of their work. In a similar
vein, sport s ca n revea l ho w rac e i s constructe d i n particula r time s an d
places. One need only go to a professional ballgam e today, where predomi-
nantly whit e audience s chee r mostl y minorit y athletes , t o recogniz e th e
need fo r ne w histories tha t reveal th e micro-climates o f race.
A glanc e a t th e name s o n professiona l tea m roster s make s i t equall y
clear tha t on e can' t thin k abou t sport s toda y withou t a transnationa l per -
spective. Sports, of course, are part o f the entertainment industry , subjec t
to global capitalism' s ongoin g quest fo r ne w markets . Being media-drive n
spectacles wher e fan s construc t identitie s ou t o f tea m logo s an d playe r
gear, sport s ar e abou t nothin g s o muc h a s consume r culture . A frien d o f
mine recently tol d m e that whe n he was growing u p in Philadelphia i n th e
1960s, no kid woul d hav e the effrontery t o wear th e grea t Wil t Chamber -
lain's numbe r 13 , let alon e do n a replica o f hi s 76er s singlet . No w every -
one wit h a littl e mone y t o bur n wear s th e jerse y o f hi s o r he r favorit e
athlete.
If I were writing The Manly Art today , the result would be different fro m
what I produced twenty-fiv e year s ago . Probably somethin g woul d b e lost .
For example, historians ar e les s attuned t o issues of class than the y wer e a
quarter centur y ago . I wel l migh t hav e though t les s abou t th e ring' s con -
nection t o workin g clas s culture , less , too , abou t th e tie s betwee n leisur e
and labor . Man y athlete s ar e wealth y today , bu t th e fac t i s tha t mos t o f
them still come from an d never escape modest backgrounds, so social class
remains a n indispensible wa y t o understand sports .

• 260 •
 AFTERWORD T O T H E UPDATE D EDITIO N

Conversely, historians have become more sophisticated i n their thinkin g

about the role of capitalism i n th e development o f consume r culture , an d I
might hav e pushed tha t line of inquiry furthe r tha n I did. The sam e is true
of the connection betwee n th e ring an d nationalism, especiall y ho w sport s
helped ne w people s t o imagin e themselve s American s an d ho w sportin g
prowess cam e t o be associate d wit h patriotis m an d eve n jingoism. More -
over, newly digitize d source s woul d hav e let m e follow individual s aroun d
the country (o r even outside the United States ) more effectively, givin g m e
a better ide a of boxing's range.
I suspec t als o tha t digita l tools—on-lin e newspape r archives , fo r
example—would hav e uncovered mor e about race and enabled m e to track
less well-known fighters i n more obscure places. An expanded sourc e base
would hav e allowe d m e t o bette r tel l th e stor y o f ho w an d wh y th e colo r
line wa s draw n i n th e lat e nineteent h centur y an d als o t o ad d materia l
about early blac k fighters an d their fans. Equall y important , w e know a lot
more no w abou t th e large r contex t o f Africa n American s an d Latino s i n
sport and popular culture than we did a quarter of a century ago , but we are
only beginnin g t o lear n ho w sport s wer e a crucibl e fo r racia l attitudes ,
identities, and relationships .
Still, I com e awa y fro m rereadin g m y ow n word s feelin g prett y goo d
about The Manly Art. Certainl y I didn' t sa y everythin g tha t migh t hav e
been sai d abou t earl y priz e fighting i n America . Bu t th e boo k wa s a n
achievement. I learned how to write and think about history. And it was not
just a first fo r m e a s a youn g scholar . Ove r th e year s The Manly Art
changed som e people's mind s about the study of popular culture in genera l
and sports history i n particular. I t also helped expand scholarly boundarie s
by exploring masculinity in history, and by suggesting that notions of man-
hood ca n b e understoo d onl y alongsid e othe r socia l categorie s lik e clas s
and ethnicity . Overall , The Manly Art pushe d ho w historian s thin k abou t
culture i n som e ne w directions , an d other s hav e buil t o n that . Al l worth -
while, and I am grateful t o have had th e opportunity t o play m y part .

• 261 •
 Notes

Prologue. The English Priz e Ring

1. Pierc e Egan , Boxiana, or Sketches of Ancient and Modern Pugilism (London ,
1812), pp . 408-20 . Ega n claime d tha t on e quarte r o f th e crow d wa s "o f th e highest
mould," p. 409. For a fine discussion o f th e socia l diversit y o f th e fancy , it s specia l
language and pastimes, see John Ford, Prize Fighting: The Age of Regency Boximania
(South Brunswick, 1971) , chap. 9.
2. Egan , Boxiana, pp . 360-71.
3. Ibid. , p. 404
4. Pierc e Egan , "Memoir s o f To m Molineaux, " The Fancy 1 (1822): 492 ; Egan ,
Boxiana, pp . 360-71, 386-408; Ford, p. 39.
5. Egan , Boxiana, pp . 411-12.
6. Ibid. , p. 412.
7. Ibid. , p. 419.
8. Georg e Borrow , Lavengro (London , 1921) , p. 166 ; J. C. Reid, Bucks and Bruis-
ers: Pierce Egan and Regency England (London, 1971) , pp. 12-17. Writing of the reign
of Richard Humphrie s a s champion i n the 1780s , Pierce Egan declared, "Royalt y fre -
quently witnessed the displays of the art, accompanied b y Dukes, Earls, Honourables,
etc. and men of the first distinction felt not ashamed of being seen in the ring or in act-
ing as umpires at a boxing match." Boxiana, p. 104.
9. Pindar , The Odes of Pindar, trans. Si r John Sandy s (Cambridge , Mass. , 1978) ,
pp. 79-80. Also see the tenth and eleventh odes in praise of boxers, pp. 111-25.
10. The Iliad, trans. Richmond Lattimor e (Chicago , 1967) , pp. 467-69; The Odys-
sey, trans. Robert Fitzgerald (Ne w York, 1963) , pp. 335-39. In the Odyssey, Odysseus,
disguised a s an impoverished ol d man, fought a n insolent beggar while noblemen en -
joyed the sport.
11. The Aeneid of Virgil, trans. Rolfe Humphrie s (Ne w York, 1951) , pp. 125-29.
12. Alle n Guttman n emphasize s th e sacred/secula r dichotom y i n From Ritual to
Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (Ne w York , 1978) , pp. 16-26 . O n boxin g i n
classical civilization s see , fo r examples , E . Norma n Gardiner , Athletics of the
Ancient World (London , 1930) , chap . 15 ; Gardiner , Greek Athletic Sports and

• 263 .
 NOTES TO PAGES 23-26

Festivals (London , 1910) , chap . 19 ; M . I . Finle y an d H . W . Pleket , The Olympic

Games: The First Thousand Years (New York, 1976) , pp. 37-42; H. A. Harris, Greek
Athletes and Athletics (Bloomington , 1966) , pp. 97-109; Nicolaos Yalouris , ed., The
Eternal Olympics; The Art and History of Sport (Ne w Rochelle , N.Y. , 1979) , pp .
216-25.
13. Teres a McLean, a historian o f Englis h medieva l sports , makes n o reference t o
boxing in The English at Play in the Middle Ages (Windsor Forest, 1983) . T. B. Shep-
herd claim s th e Januar y 168 1 Protestant Mercury a s th e first newspape r t o giv e a n
account o f th e ring: "Yesterda y a match o f boxing wa s performed befor e Hi s Grac e
the Duk e o f Albermarl e betwee n th e Duke' s footma n an d a butcher. Th e latte r wo n
the prize, as he hath done many times before, being accounted, though a little man, the
best at that exercise in England." The Noble Art: An Anthology (London , 1950) , p. 88.
A 172 5 poem b y Rober t Byru m o n the championshi p matc h betwee n Fi g an d Sutto n
assumed that boxing fans kne w the classics:

To compare such poor dogs as Alcides and Theseus

To Sutton and Fig would be very facetious .
Were Hector himself wit h Apollo to back him,
To encounter with Sutton—zooks ho w he would thwack him!

In a similar vei n the caption on a mid-eighteenth-century prin t of Jack Broughton in -

vited Pindar to revive and compare the English champion to his puny Greeks. Both are
reprinted i n Shepherd, pp. 91-95.
14. Denni s Brailsford , Sport and Society, Elizabeth to Anne (Toronto , 1969) , pp.
198-216; Robert W. Malcolmson, Popular Recreations in English Society, ı γoo-1850
(Cambridge, 1973) , chap. 1 ; Ford, pp . 41-42, 88-93 ; ar, d Eri c Dunnin g an d Kennet h
Sheard, Barbarians, Gentlemen and Players: A Sociological Study of the Develop-
ment of Rugby Football (New York, 1979) , pp. 269-70. Also see the excellent essays in
Neil McKendrick, John Brewer , and J. H. Plumb, eds., The Birth of a Consumer Soci-
ety: The Commercialization of Eighteenth Century England (London , 1982) . On th e
rise o f sport s i n Englan d se e Richar d D . Mandell , Sport: A Cultural History (Ne w
York, 1984) , chap. 7.
15. Ford , chap. 6 and pp. 102-6 , 119-20 . Also see Reid, pp. 14-15 ; Egan, Boxiana,
PP• 5i-59; and Shepherd, pp. 88-90, 95-97.
16. Ford , esp . pp . 131-36 ; McKendrick , Brewer , an d Plumb , esp . chaps . 1 and 6 ;
John Ford, Cricket: A Social History, 1700-18ĵ¦ (Plymouth , 1972) ; and Malcolmson ,
pp. 42-43, 145-46 .
17. Willia m Hazlitt, "Th e Fight," in The Complete Works of William Hazlitt (Lon -
don, 1933) , 17: 79, 81.
18. Ibid. , pp. 82-86. As was the custom, carrier pigeons released at ringside brought
news of the fight's outcome back to London.
19. Pierc e Egan , Boxiana, or Sketches of Ancient and Modern Pugilism, ed . Joh n
Ford (London, 1976) , pp. 5-9, 132-34 , 182-86 ; Ford, Prize Fighting, pp . 70-72, 78-79,
97, 166-87 . Henr y Hal l Dixo n wrot e i n The Druid tha t al l o f th e magistrate s i n th e
county o f Rutlan d attende d th e secon d Crib-Molineau x fight. Excerpte d i n Shepherd ,
P• 103 .

• 264 •
 NOTES TO PAGES 27-3O

20. Pierc e Egan, from Anecdotes (1827) , quoted i n Shepherd , p. 95. On violence in
English socia l life se e Malcolmson, pp. 43-51; Lawrence Stone , The Family, Sex and
Marriage in England, 1500-1800 (Ne w York , 1977) , pp. 94-95; and Keit h Thomas ,
Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England, 1500-1800 (London ,
1983), chap. 4.
21. Ford , Prize Fighting, pp. 10 , 26, 31, 65-82; Egan, Boxiana, Introduction , pp . 2-
3, 9o-9ĩ , 108-12 , 146-55 , 219 , 236 , 263-64 . Jac k Slack' s boxin g skill s inspire d
George Colema n an d Bonne l Thornto n t o declare i n 1754 , "the sturd y Englis h hav e
been as much renowned for their boxing as for their beef; both which are by no means
suited t o the water y stomach s an d wea k sinew s o f th e French . To this nutrimen t an d
this ar t i s owin g tha t lon g establishe d maxim , tha t on e Englishma n ca n bea t thre e
Frenchmen.. . ." Excerpted i n Shepherd, pp. 96-97.
22. Dunnin g and Sheard observe that in most traditional recreations, the gentry and
aristocracy participate d directly with the lower classes, though the barriers of inequal-
ity were clearly demarcated: "prio r to the nineteenth centur y . . . the daily live s of the
different classe s wer e intertwine d i n a closer, mor e direc t an d persona l manne r tha n
later became the case" (pp. 38-39).
23. Thi s heterogeneit y wa s capture d i n a miniatur e panoram a draw n b y Georg e
Cruikshank an d accompanie d b y Pierc e Egan' s text . " A Pictur e o f th e Fancy " wa s
fourteen fee t lon g and two-and-one-half inche s wide, came rolled up in a tiny box, and
depicted all of the revelry and ritual that attended a great battle. For a description, see
Reid, pp. 41-43.
24. Georg e Borrow brilliantly evoked the complex interplay of individual and com-
munity pride: "Ah, there is nothing like the ring," an old barkeep muses. "I wish I was
not rathe r too old to go into it . I often thin k I should lik e to have another rally—on e
more rally—and then—bu t there's a time for al l things—yout h wil l b e served , ever y
dog has his day, and mine has been a fine one. Let me be content. After beatin g Tom of
Hopton there was not much more to be done in the way of reputation; I have long sat in
my bar, the wonder and glory of this here neighbourhood. I'm content as far as reputa-
tion goes" (p. 491).
25. Reid , p . 22 ; Ford, Prize Fighting, pp . 26-28 , 36-57 ; an d Egan , Boxiana, pp .
464-67. Man y of Egan's chapters hav e titles of the pattern "Jo e Hood—The Weaver, "
"Bill Wood—The Coachman," and "George Ingleston—The Brewer. "
26. A centra l them e i n Malcomson , Popular Recreations; E . P . Thompson, The
Making of the English Working Class (New York , 1966) ; Dunning an d Sheard , Bar-
barians, Gentlemen and Players.
27. The Fancy 1 (1822): 504; Dunning and Sheard, pp. 269-72; Malcolmson, chap.
5; and Ford, Prize Fighting, pp. 9, 31, 166-87.
28. Cobbett , "I n Defenc e o f Boxing, " Political Register (1805) , reprinted i n Shep-
herd, pp . 6-8 ; Thompson , Making of the English Working Class, pp . 225 , 736; an d
Ford, Prize Fighting, p. 33. Of cours e the value s o f manliness, simplicity , an d hardi -
hood could readily be used to attack the decadence and luxury of the aristocracy.
29. Hug h Cunningham' s Leisure in the Industrial Revolution (Ne w York , 1980 )
provides a fine correctiv e t o thos e wh o se e a tota l eclips e o f ol d sport s i n th e
Victorian era . Nonetheless, I believe Cunningham underestimate s th e damage don e
when socia l elite s abandone d working-clas s recreations . Fo r a fine discussio n o f

• 26 5 •
 NOTES T O PAGE S 3 O - 3 4

middle-class repressio n o f leisur e alon g wit h th e "wholesome " alternative s proffere d

by Victorians , se e Pete r Bailey , Leisure and Class in Victorian England: Rational
Recreation and the Contest for Control, I8ĴO-I88¦ (London , 1978) .
30. Ford , Prize Fighting, pp . 136 , 184 , 188-89 . B y 183 1 Bell's Life in London com -
mented o n th e "prostrat e stat e o f pugilisti c sports " an d declared , "W e thin k w e ma y
now fairl y sa y w e hav e recorde d th e las t speec h an d dyin g word s o f th e Fancy. " Th e
English rin g wa s fa r fro m dead , an d grea t matche s i n th e futur e woul d excit e wide -
spread interest . Bu t ther e wa s neve r agai n a n er a t o matc h th e on e tha t ende d wit h th e
first quarte r o f th e nineteent h century . Quote d i n Spirit of the Times, Decembe r 10 ,
I83i.
31. Bria n Harrison , "Religio n an d Recreatio n i n Nineteent h Centur y England, "
Past and Present 3 8 (Decembe r 1967) : 98-125 ; Reid , pp . 70-72 , 136-38 ; Bailey ,
chaps. 1 and 2 ; an d Malcolmson , chaps . 6-8 . Fo r th e simultaneou s assaul t o n blood -
sports an d cruelt y t o animals , se e Thomas , chap . 4; Cunningham, chap . 1 .
32. Se e Malcolmson , chaps . 6 - 8 ; J . H . Plumb , "Th e Acceptanc e o f Modernity, " i n
McKendrick, Brewer , an d Plumb , pp . 316-34 . Befor e th e lat e eighteent h centur y En -
glish writer s expresse d littl e mora l revulsio n a t th e ancien t gladiatoria l games . Bu t
now, embracin g a progressiv e vie w o f histor y growin g ou t o f romantic , egalitarian ,
and revolutionar y ideologies , man y viewe d al l suc h spectacles , ancien t a s wel l a s mod -
ern, wit h horror .
33. Cf . Elme r M . Million , "Th e Enforceabilit y o f Priz e Figh t Statutes, " Kentucky
Law Review 2 7 (Novembe r 1938) : 164-67 ; anon. , "I s Priz e Fightin g Legal? " Law
Times 3 5 (Apri l 28 , i860) : 74 .
34. Cunningham , chap . 1 ; Malcolmson, chaps . 5 and 6 ; Bailey , chap . 1 ; Ford, Prize
Fighting, pp . 32-34 ; an d Dunnin g an d Sheard , pp . 41-43 .

Chapter 1 . Hat s i n t h e Rin g

1. O n Molineau x se e Pierc e Egan , Boxiana, or Sketches of Ancient and Modern

Pugilism (London , 1812) , pp. 360-71 ; Egan , "Memoir s o f Tom Molineaux, " The Fancy
1 (1822) : 489-502 ; Frederic k W . J . Henning , Fights for the Championship: The Men
and Their Times, 2 vols . (London , 1903) , 2 : 30 ; an d Pau l Magriel , Histor y o f Boxin g
collection, mostl y unsorte d an d unnumbere d transcript s an d photocopie s o f docu -
ments relatin g t o th e America n priz e rin g i n th e nineteent h century , primaril y selec -
tions fro m newspaper s an d periodicals ; a privat e collectio n owne d b y Ji m Jacob s o f
New Yor k City . Som e o f thes e document s hav e bee n paginated , som e contai n biblio -
graphical information , bu t man y ar e o f uncertai n provenience . (Hereafte r cite d a s
Magriel ms. )
2. Wha t i s mos t interestin g abou t U.S . pres s coverag e o f th e Crib-Molineau x
fights i s tha t i t differe d hardl y a t al l fro m reportin g o n championshi p battle s no t in -
volving a n American . O n Februar y 18 , 1811 , th e New York Evening Post simpl y
copied a round-by-roun d descriptio n fro m a n Englis h journal , addin g n o editoria l
comment. Bu t si x year s late r th e Evening Post, o n Januar y 4 , 1817 , gave exactl y th e
same treatmen t t o a battle betwee n Carte r an d Oliver , tw o Englis h fighters. I n othe r
words, th e America n pres s sporadicall y reporte d th e Englis h rin g an d Molineaux' s

• 266 •
 NOTES T O PAGE S 3 5 - 3 6

fights wit h th e sam e space-fillin g nonchalance . Th e New York Morning Post wa s

typical; see , fo r example , Octobe r 8 , Novembe r 1 2 an d 28 , Decembe r 6 , 11 , and 31 ,
1811.
3. A goo d comprehensiv e stud y o f black s i n boxin g remain s t o b e written . Fo r a n
informal an d ofte n inaccurat e work , se e Nathanie l Fleischer , Black Dynamite, 5
vols. (Ne w York , 1938) . Eugen e Genoves e argue s tha t suc h fights occurre d bu t of -
fers n o evidence . Se e Genovese , Roll Jordan Roll: The World the Slaves Made
(New York , 1974) , p . 569 . O n souther n "boxing, " mor e commonl y calle d "roug h
and tumble, " se e Elliot t J . Gorn , " ' G o u g e an d Bite , Pul l Hai r an d Scratch' : Th e
Social Significanc e o f Fightin g i n th e Souther n Backcountry, " American Historical
Review 9 0 (Februar y 1985) : 18-43 . F ° r Faulkner , se e Absalom! Absalom! (Ne w
York, 1951) .
4. Davi d K . Wiggins , historia n o f antebellu m blac k recreations , foun d n o evidenc e
of thi s patter n sav e fo r tw o WP A narratives . Se e hi s "Spor t an d Popula r Pastime s i n
the Plantatio n Community : Th e Slav e Experience " (diss. , Universit y o f Maryland ,
1979). The American Turf Register 2 (September 1830 ) reported a fight a t Ne w Jerusa -
lem, Fairfa x County , Virginia , betwee n Le e Sims , a fre e blac k an d a blacksmit h b y
trade, an d "th e note d bully " Elia s Grimsley . Sim s won , declaring , "I'l l le t yo u kno w
I'm a Jackso n man , yo u d d Adam s so n o f a bitch. " Bu t mos t evidenc e indicate s
that i n th e earl y nineteent h century , southerners , whit e o r black , rarel y participate d i n
the regula r priz e ring . Fo r example s o f legend s an d famil y memorie s o f black s fight-
ing, se e Richar d M . Dorson , American Negro Folktales (Greenwich , Conn. , 1967) , pp.
132-35-
5. Jenni e Holliman , American Sports, i78¦-i83¦ (Durham , N.C. , 1931) , p . 140 ;
Magriel ms. , pp. 54-56; Egan, Boxiana, pp . 360-71; an d Egan , "Memoirs, " pp. 489-502.
6. Egan , Boxiana, pp . 440-49. I n occasiona l stree t fights Richmon d avenge d racia l
slurs uttrere d b y hi s adopte d countrymen .
7. Ibid. , pp . 360-71 ; Egan , "Memoirs, " pp . 489-502 .
8. Se e Pau l Magriel , Bibliography of Boxing: A Chronological Checklist of Books
in English Published before 1900 (Ne w York , 1948) ; Magrie l ms. , pp . 6 2 - 6 3 ; a n Q ,
anon., The American Fistiana (Ne w York , 1849) . New edition s o f American Fistiana
were als o publishe d i n i86 0 an d 1873 . Louis e Jorda n Walmsley , wh o studie d th e
sports affiliation s o f prominen t Americans , record s n o notic e o f Molineau x i n he r
Sport Attitudes and Practices of Representative Americans before 1870 (Farmville ,
Va., 1938) . Se e als o anon. , Famous Fights in the Prize Ring, vois . 2 an d 3 (n.d.) ,
pp. 17-29 .
9. Boston Gazette, Marc h 5 , 1733 , reprinte d i n Fran k Luthe r Mott , American
Journalism (Ne w York , 1962) , p . 53 . Mott claime d thi s wa s th e first priz e rin g new s
published i n America . Magrie l foun d n o earlie r report s i n hi s research . Car l
Bridenbaugh, however , point s ou t tha t i n 170 9 newl y ric h Ne w Yor k merchant s an d
English colonia l official s attempte d t o recreat e th e ga y gentr y lif e o f th e mothe r
country, patronizin g hors e races , th e theater , an d eve n priz e fights. Findin g thes e
activities offensive , townsfol k obtaine d order s fro m thei r counci l forbiddin g them .
See Bridenbaugh , Cities in the Wilderness: The First Century of Urban Life in
America (Ne w York , 1938) , p . 275 . I n th e eighteent h centur y souther n roug h an d
tumble fighting wa s ofte n calle d "boxing " an d th e practic e ha d tie s t o th e Englis h

• 267 •
 NOTES TO PAGES 36-41

ring. Bu t thes e "eye-gouging " matche s scarcel y resemble d stand-u p priz e fighting.
See Gorn, pp. 18-23 .
10. Royal American Magazine I (June 1774) ; Holliman, pp. 139-40. Private Joseph
Plumb Martin describe d a boxing match between tw o "drunken Irishmen " during th e
Revolution; onl y "lowbre d foreigners " engage d i n the practice, he concluded. Private
Yankee Doodle, ed . George F. Scheer (New York, 1963) , p. 129, quoted in Bonnie Sue
Stadelman, "Amusement s o f th e America n Soldie r durin g th e Revolution " (diss. ,
Tulane University , 1969) , p . 92 . Seventy-fiv e year s afte r th e Revolutio n th e New
York Clipper (March 11 , 1854) claimed that an English and an American soldier fought
each other for £10 just before th e Battle of Yorktown.
11. Magrie l ms, , p . 45; Douglass C . North , The Economic Growth of the United
States, 17ço-1860 (Ne w York , 1966) , p. 23. As Jenni e Holliman' s American Sports
reveals, sport s ten d t o migrat e not a s disembodie d idea s bu t a s customs , carrie d b y
immigrants.
12. Rober t Morea u d e St . Méry , Moreau de St. Méry's American Journey,
1793-1798, trans , an d ed . Kennet h an d Ann a Robert s (Garde n City , NY . 1947) , pp.
328-29.
13. Additiona l scrap s o f evidenc e suppor t thi s conclusion . B y 180 5 the New York
Evening Post assumed it s readers wer e well enough acquainted wit h the terminolog y
of the ring that it carried a tongue-in-cheek story , "Congressional Pugilism," describ-
ing a falling ou t betwee n tw o member s o f th e Hous e o f Representative s a s a sixty -
four-round struggle . Wit h increasin g frequenc y America n newspaper s reprinte d de -
tailed account s o f Englis h fights i n the 1810 s and 1820s . Meanwhile, constable s an d
aldermen di d thei r bes t t o prevent occasiona l surreptitiou s battle s i n Ne w York Cit y
and Philadelphia . Se e New York Evening Post, Decembe r 13 , 1805, in Magrie l ms. ,
pp. 50-51 ; Port Folio, Februar y 1813 , pp. 188-90 ; American Register 2 (1817): 273-
76; Philadelphia National Gazette, Jul y 8 , 1823 , Magrie l ms ; an d Joh n Thoma s
Scharf an d Westcot t Thompson , History of Philadelphia, 1609-1884 (Philadelphia ,
1884), p. 941.
14. American Fistiana (1849) , p. 28, and (i860), p. 6; Magriel ms. , pp. 72-74.
15. New York Evening Post, July 10 , 1823, in Magriel ms., pp. 79-81.
16. Ibid .
17. Ibid .
18. Averag e incom e i s fro m Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial
Times to 1970, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1975) , 1:163-64.
19. Indeed , eve n journalists wer e far fro m full y awar e o f boxing's spread . Afte r a
number o f fights had alread y bee n stage d i n America , Charleston' s Southern Patriot
and Commercial Advertiser, Octobe r 29 , 1824 , stil l headline d it s articl e o n th e
Hammond-Kensett fight "Firs t America n Regula r Millin g Match. " Th e stor y wa s
taken from th e New York Emerald, Octobe r 16 , 1824.
20. Ibid . See also New York Spectator, October 17 , 1824, in Magriel ms., pp. 83-84.
American Fistiana (i860) , p . 6 , credite d immigrant s Georg e Kenset t an d Willia m
Fuller with this American blossoming o f English sporting life .
21. American Fistiana (i860) , pp . 6-7 ; "Repor t o f th e Battl e betwee n Georg e
Kensett an d Ned Hammond, " in The Life and Battles of Yankee Sullivan (Ne w York ,
1854), pp. 88-89.

• 268 •
 NOTES TO PAGES 4 i - 46

22. "Repor t o f th e Battle, " pp. 88-90. This repor t wa s originall y submitte d t o the
New York Evening Post, but the editor rejected it , probably becaus e of the usual hesi-
tancy t o cover the rin g bu t als o because th e accoun t containe d a vehement attac k o n
boxing critics.
23. Ibid .
24. New York Spectator, October 17 , 1824, in Magriel ms. , p. 83; Rowland Tappa n
Berthoff, British Immigrants in Industrial America, lj9o-i9ļo (Cambridge , Mass. ,
1953). PP• 5-6•
25. Berthoff , pp . 5-6 ; als o se e Spirit of the Times, Februar y 20 , 1836 , a lette r
from "Ou r Liverpoo l Correspondent " date d Januar y 1 , 1836 ; Robert Malcolmson ,
Popular Recreations in English Society, ı γoo-1850 (Cambridge , 1973) , chaps. 6 -
8; Nat Fleische r an d Sa m Andre , A Pictorial History of Boxing (Ne w York , 1975) ,
p. 40; and American Fistiana (i860) , pp. 8-9. Fo r informal historie s of Deaf Burke ,
see Nathanie l Fleischer , The Heavyweight Championship (Ne w York , 1949) ,
pp. 37-46 , an d Loui s Golding , The Bare-Knuckle Breed (Ne w York , 1954) ,
pp. 168-74 .
26. American Fistiana (i860) , pp. 8-9; New York Star, cited in Spirit of the Times,
July 2, 1836; and Spirit of the Times, February 27 , 1836.
27. New Orleans Daily Picayune, Ma y 10 , 1837, in Magriel ms.; American Fistiana
(i860), p. 9; Spirit of the Times, Septembe r 2 , 1837 , in Magrie l ms. ; and Ear l F . Nie-
haus, The Irish in New Orleans, 1800-1860 (Bato n Rouge , 1965) , pp. 59-60. Burke,
incidentally, was of Irish ancestry, a fact tha t seem s not to have mattered.
28. Spirit of the Times, August 22 , September 2 , 1837 ; New York Morning Herald,
August 21 , 1837.
29. I n additio n t o th e source s i n not e 28 , the New York Commercial Advertiser,
August 23, 1837, and th e New York Star, August 22 , 1837 , also covered th e fight. The
Advertiser wa s less sanguine than the Spirit of the Times, condemning this "exhibition
of brutality" put on by "two foreign vagabonds. "
30. Thi s wa s equall y tru e o f othe r form s o f entertainment . Durin g play s theater s
were filled with talking, peanut chewing, banter between actor s and audiences, not to
mention a n occasiona l riot . Se e Davi d Grimsted , Melodrama Unveiled: American
Theater and Culture, 1800-1850 (Chicago , 1968) ; Peter George Buckley, "To the Op-
era House: Culture and Society in New York City, 1820-1860 " (diss., State University
of New York at Stony Brook, 1984) , pt. 1.
31. Source s generall y note d boxers ' trades—see , fo r example , American Fistiana
(1849)•
32. Stepha n Thernstrom' s Poverty and Progress: Social Mobility in a Nineteenth
Century City (Ne w York , 1964 ) started a flood of studie s documenting thi s mobility .
For other examples, consult Frank Friedel , ed., The Harvard Guide to American His-
tory, 2 vols . (Cambridge , Mass. , 1974) , 1 : 425, 437-38, an d 2 : 900 . Walmsley , wh o
surveyed the writings of several dozen prominent Americans before 187 0 for Sporting
Attitudes and Practices, foun d ver y littl e evidence of elite interest in pugilism an d no
involvement with prize fighting.
33. Tw o Ne w Yorker s wh o ha d a fallin g ou t ove r money , fo r example , stripped ,
squared off, an d settled their differences i n front o f a crowd on Broadway. Spirit of the
Times, June 9, 1832.

• 26 9 •
 NOTES T O PAGE S 4 6 - 5 O

34. O n th e them e o f pla y a s a formativ e influenc e o n culture , se e Joha n Huizinga' s

Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture (Boston , 1950) .
35. American Fistiana (1849) , p . 29 ; Spirit of the Times, Jun e 10 , 1837 ; American
Fistiana (i860) , pp . 7-8 ; an d Spirit of the Times, Marc h 3 , 1832 . Ofte n w e kno w littl e
more abou t particula r fights tha n name s an d dates : Fearno n versu s Spanis h Le w i n
1835, fo r example , o r Jac k Tea l versu s Ji m "Th e Infant " Jeroloma n i n 1841 . Becaus e
they aros e ove r genuin e socia l conflicts , bout s cam e i n spurts , on e challeng e leadin g t o
another. American Fistiana (1849 ) recorded thre e fights i n 1832 , fou r eac h i n 1835 .
1838. an d 184J , an d virtuall y non e i n between . Newspaper s revea l tha t man y mor e
fights too k place .
36. McLan e t o Jac k Langan , quote d i n American Fistiana (i860) , p . 8 . McLan e
mentioned a few name s o f whic h American Fistiana wa s unaware , an d th e revers e wa s
also true . Als o se e American Fistiana (1849) , p. 29 .
37. Anon. , The Complete Art of Boxing (Philadelphia , 1829) , was th e ver y first boo k
on pugilis m publishe d i n America ; se e Magriel , Bibliography of Boxing, p . 14 . Th e
next work , appearin g i n th e 1840s , wa s als o a boo k o f instruction , Owe n Swift' s Box-
ing without a Master, originall y publishe d i n Londo n i n 1840 .
38. Columbian Sentinel, Februar y 10 , 1798 , i n Magrie l ms, ; Philadelphia
Aurora, Augus t 15 , 1815 . Gabrie l Furman , a Ne w Yor k attorne y an d amateu r
historian, observe d tha t a s o f 1673 , Bosto n authoritie s woul d no t countenanc e a
dancing schoo l bu t permitte d fencin g lesson s t o b e given . B y th e nineteent h centur y
things wer e reversed , wit h dancin g see n a s a polit e accomplishmen t an d self -
defense i n th e for m o f boxin g condemned . Se e Furman' s "Th e Customs , Amuse -
ments, Styl e o f Livin g an d Manner s o f th e Peopl e o f th e Unite d State s fro m
the Firs t Settlemen t o f th e Countr y t o th e Presen t Time. " typescrip t o f a n 1840s '
manuscript, i n th e collection s o f th e New-Yor k Historica l Society . Als o se e
Mr. LeGuy' s Decembe r 4 , 1769 , advertisemen t fo r fencin g an d dancin g lesson s
in th e New York Gazette Mercury, i n Magrie l ms „ an d Richar d Lynealľ s notic e
in th e New York Gazette Postboy, Januar y 3 , 1757 ; Stewar t Sore n Brynn , "Som e
Sports i n Pittsburg h durin g th e Nationa l Period , 1775-1860, " Western Pennsyl-
vania Historical Magazine 5 1 (Octobe r 1968) : 3 4 5 - 6 3 . an d 5 2 (Januar y 1969) :
57-59-
39. Holliman , p . 141 ; National Intelligencer, Apri l 3 , 1828 .
40. American Fistiana (1849) , pp . 29-30 ; Melvi n Adelman . "Th e Developmen t o f
Modern Athletics : Spor t i n Ne w Yor k City , 1820-1870 " (diss. , Universit y o f Illinois ,
1980), p . 560; Spirit of the Times, Apri l 20 , 1832 , and Decembe r II , 1841 ; and Boston
Evening Transcript, Januar y 19 . 1836 . i n Magrie l ms . Fo r othe r advertisement s an d
descriptions, se e Schar f an d Thompson , p . 942 ; Baltimore American, Novembe r 23 ,
1825; Spirit of the Times, Januar y 26 , 1833 , March 5 , 1836 , an d Jul y 2 , 1836 , Ma y 26 ,
1832, an d Apri l 6 an d 20 , 1844 .
41. The Telescope, Jun e 25 , 1825 ; New York Evening Post, Decembe r 14 . 1826 , i n
Magriel ms .
42. American Fistiana (1849) , P • 2 9 Baltimore American, Novembe r 23 , 1825 , i n
Magriel ms. . p . 86 ; Columbian Sentinel, Novembe r 1 , 1826 . i n Magrie l ms. , p . 86 ;
Holliman, pp . 146-47 ; an d Schar f an d Thompson , p . 942.
43. National Intelligencer, Apri l 3 , 1828 . in Magrie l ms. , p . 92.

• 2JO •
 NOTES TO PAGES 5 i - 5 6

44. Egan , Boxiana 4 , quote d i n Magrie l ms. ; Boxiana, pp . 473-74 ; an d Egan ,

"Memoirs," pp. 496-98.
45. Egan , Boxiana 4, quoted in Magriel ms.
46. Fo r examples, see Fleischer an d Andre, pp. 26-29; Magriel ms. , pp. 66, 101-3 .
In his pioneering stud y of the sporting subcultur e John Dizike s also found a clear so-
cial distinctio n betwee n patron s o f sparrin g master s an d supporter s o f th e ring . Se e
Dizikes, Sportsmen and Gamesmen (Boston , 1981) , pp. 209-10.
47. Newspape r advertisemen t fro m a n unspecifie d Charlesto n daily , December 15 ,
1824, Magriel ms. , p. 105 . On "Tom and Jerry" see Buckley, pp. 353-59.
48. Magrie l ms. , pp. 108-12 ; Holliman, pp. 141-46 . For some examples o f Fuller' s
advertisements, se e th e New York Evening Post, Novembe r 27 , 1826 ; Spirit of the
Times, October 13 , 1832, and January 3 , 1835 ; Adelman, p . 560. According t o Ameri-
can Fistiana (i860) , p . 7 , Fulle r bea t Madden , an d mor e significantly , th e fight ar -
rangements wer e mad e wit h "increasin g regar d fo r rule s an d precedents. " Als o se e
Holliman, p. 145; Life and Battles of Sullivan, p . 89. Fuller attended a t least one other
fight, at which he held th e wagers of several individuals , but he refused t o accept any
official positio n as referee o r umpire, fearing fo r his reputation.
49. Charleston Mercury, February 1 , 1825. For other newspaper endorsements, se e
New York Albion, Marc h 12 , 1825 , April 29 , 1826 ; New York Evening Post, Jun e 24 ,
1830; and New York Enquirer, November 22 , 1826 , all i n Magriel ms . The equation of
physical with moral health was just beginning at this early date; it would grow stronger
as the century progressed .
50. Furman , pp. 302-3.
51. Lette r to New York Albion, Decembe r 12 , 1825, in Magriel ms., pp. 105-7. Also
see Holliman, p. 146.
52. Holliman , pp . 141-44 ; Spirit of the Times, October 13 , 1832, January 3 , 1835;
New York Albion, Decembe r 12 , 1825; New York Enquirer, November 22 , 1826 ; New
York Evening Post, November 27 , 1826, all in Magriel ms.
53. Davi d Rothma n treat s socia l breakdow n mor e a s a metaphor tha n a reality i n
Discovery of the Asylum (Boston , 1971) . Paul Johnson' s stud y o f Rocheste r make s a
very convincin g cas e fo r a real, no t just a metaphorical, chang e i n pattern s o f defer -
ence. Se e Johnson , A Shopkeeper's Millennium: Society and Revivals in Rochester,
New York, 1815-1837 (New York, 1978).
54. Rober t Wain , The Hermit in Philadelphia, 2 d ser . (Philadelphia , 1821) , pp .
78-80, 187-93 .
55. A point well made by Dizikes, chaps. 1 , 2, 4, 5.
56. Thi s i s mad e clea r i n Owe n Swift' s popula r sparrin g guide , Boxing without
a Master. Advertisement s o n th e fron t an d bac k cover s offere d advic e manual s
on fashion , th e ar t o f conversation , brida l etiquette , tastefu l dress , an d decorou s
behavior, indicatin g tha t th e publishe r anticipate d a sociall y conscious , upper -
crust readership . Accordin g t o Swift , i t wa s th e scientifi c basi s o f sparrin g whic h
separated i t fro m vulga r priz e fighting. I n lif e me n mus t "liv e temperately , but
not abstemiously, " an d sparrin g similarl y moderate d th e excesse s o f th e ring ,
substituting friendl y rivalr y fo r violen t hatreds , physica l excellenc e fo r simpl e
brutality.
57. Fo r two differing interpretation s o f the role of social class in early nineteenth -

• 27 7 •
 NOTES TO PAGES 57~6o

century popular culture, particularly the theater, see Buckley, "To the Opera House,"
and Lawrence W. Levine, "William Shakespear e an d the American People : A Study
in Cultura l Transformation " American Historical Review 8 9 (Februar y 1984) :
34-66.
58. Spirit of the Times, May 5, 1832; "Report of the Battle between Georg e Kenset t
and Ned Hammond," in Life and Battles of Sullivan, p . 88.
59. R . Payne Knight, "Eulogy o f Boxing an d Cock Fighting," reprinted i n Literary
Magazine and American Register, October 1806 , pp. 266-67.
60. Ibid .
61. Ibid .
62. "Nimro d o n Boxing," in Bell's Life in London, reprinte d i n New York Sporting
Magazine, Novembe r 1834 , p. 188; American Turf Register 7 (June 1836) : 457-61; and
Spirit of the Times, August 22 , 1837 . Even the special vocabular y o f the fancy seepe d
into everyday conversation: "I s a man bankrupt, h e is 'floored ' i n town, but if a coun-
tryman, they become more agrarian, and now say he is 'grassed. ' Whe n a partner dies,
he is 'don e for'; and , i f h e runs away , 'bolted ' expresse s th e rapidit y o f hi s motions. "
American Turf Register 7 (Jun e 1836) : 460. Se e als o Spirit of the Times, Januar y 8 ,
1842; Gorn, pp . 18-43 . O n m e American Turf Register se e Jack Willia m Berryman ,
"John Stuar t Skinne r and Earl y America n Sport s Journalism, 1819-1835 " (diss., Uni-
versity of Maryland, 1976) .
63. Dizikes , pp. 210-12; Wain, pp. 78-80, 187-93 .
64. Thoma s Jefferso n t o J . Bannister , Octobe r 15 , 1785 , quote d i n Henr y Steel e
Commager, ed. , Living Ideas in America (Ne w York , 1951) , pp. 557-58. Nile's Illus-
trated Journal condemne d Englis h societ y fo r encouragin g me n "t o bea t an d abus e
and possibl y kil l on e another , a s ha s frequentl y happened , i n th e presenc e o f noble s
and divines . . . . We ar e no t ye t fashionabl e enoug h fo r suc h thing s i n th e Unite d
States." Quote d i n Dizikes , p . 211 . Of course , republicanis m (lik e Darwinism ) wa s
broad enough to justify man y positions; as we have seen, republican values legitimated
boxing fo r Willia m Cobbett . O n republicanism se e J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavel-
lian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition
(Princeton, 1975) ; Bernard Bailyn , The Ideological Origins of the American Revolu-
tion (Cambridge , Mass. , 1967) ; Gordon S . Wood, The Creation of the American Re-
public (Chape l Hill, 1969) ; Sean Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York City and the
Rise of the American Working Class, 1788-1850 (Ne w York , 1984) ; Robert E . Shal -
hope, "Towar d a Republican Synthesis : Th e Emergenc e o f a n Understandin g o f Re -
publicanism i n America n Historiography, " William and Mary Quarterly, 3 d ser. , 2 9
(January 1972) : 49-80; an d Joh n F . Kasson, Civilizing the Machine: Technology and
Republican Values in America, ľ/76- ıçoo (Ne w York, 1976) . For a critique, see John
Patrick Diggins , The Lost Soul of American Politics: Virtue, Self-interest, and the
Foundations of Liberalism (Ne w York, 1984).
65. Gazette of the United States, January 23 , 1790, p. 328, reprinted fro m th e Mas-
sachusetts Sentinel. O n these arguments se e Dizikes, pp. 210-12.
66. "O f Boxing," New York Magazine, or Literary Repository, Novembe r 1794 , pp.
656-58. For a spirited attack on "vulgar" mob behavior, on the rabble's alleged love of
gossip, buffoonery , an d violence , se e Th e Wanderer , "Mobs—Od i Profanu m Vul -
gus,'" Port Folio 3 (April II , 1807) : 230, quoted fro m th e New York Emerald.

• 27 2 •
 NOTES T O PAGE S 6 l - Ó 2

67. "O n Pugilism, " Literary Magazine and American Register, Jun e 1806 , pp .
468-69. Also see Kasson, chaps. 1-3 .
68. New York Spectator, July 15 , 1823, in Magriel ms., p. 82.
69. New York Evening Post, Jul y 10 , 1823 , in Magrie l ms . The Philadelphia Na-
tional Gazette copie d a n English paper's descriptio n o f the 182 3 battle betwee n Tom
Spring and William Neate to reveal the "debased" sporting tastes of the English pub-
lic an d th e "barbarous " slan g wit h whic h thes e scene s wer e described : "W e doub t
whether an y othe r par t o f Christianit y affords , i n th e rati o o f th e population , mor e
scope for propagating Religion, than London;—and w e are sure that none other could
present a scene more adverse to the spirit of religion and civilization, then the Boxing
Match, a t whic h s o man y score s o f th e Fai r Se x wer e assembled. " Religion , tende r
sentiments, morality—all , th e edito r thundered , wer e overturne d i n th e priz e ring .
Round-by-round coverag e followed . Philadelphia National Gazette, Jul y 8 , 1823 , in
Magriel ms., p. 79. Editors occasionally expressed their astonishment at women being
associated wit h th e manl y ar t i n thi s era . A tongue-in-cheek repor t i n th e Marc h 3 ,
1832, Spirit of the Times described tw o women challengin g eac h othe r an d squarin g
off i n England i n 1772 . Nevertheless, suc h incident s see m t o have bee n rare . I n th e
Old Worl d an d th e New , prostitutes wer e sometime s see n a t ringside, bu t thei r spo -
radic appearanc e merel y seem s t o have underscored mal e domination o f th e cultur e
of the ring.
70. Spirit of the Times, May 12 , 1832. In 178 7 Thomas Jefferson declare d in a letter
to Edward Carrington, "Wer e it left t o me to decide whether we should have a govern-
ment without newspapers or newspapers withou t a government, I should not hesitate a
moment to prefer the latter.. . ." Adrienne Koch and William Peden, eds., The Life and
Selected Writings of Thomas Jefferson (Ne w York, 1944) , pp. 411-12.
71. New York Evening Post, Decembe r 14 , 1826 , in Magrie l ms. , pp. 90-91. Als o
see the New York Evening Post, July 10 , 1823, versus December n , 1826 ; or the New
York Spectator, Jul y 15 , 823 , and October 17 , 1824 ; all i n Magrie l ms. , pp. 80 , 82,
83, 87.
72. O n th e New York Herald se e Do n Carlo s Seitz , The James Gordon Bennetts,
Father and Son (Ne w York , 1928) ; Richard O'Connor , The Scandalous Mr. Bennett
(Garden City , NY , 1962) ; and Olive r Carlson , The Man Who Made the News (Ne w
York, 1942) . Also see Alexander Saxton , "Problems o f Class and Race in the Origin s
of the Mass Circulation Press, " American Quarterly 36 (Summer 1984) : 211-34; New
York Morning Herald, August 21 , 1837. On the penny pres s als o se e Michael Emery ,
The Press in America: An Interpretive History of the Mass Media, 4th ed. (Englewood
Cliffs, N.J. , 1978) . On early sports journalism se e John Rickard Betts, "Sporting Jour-
nalism i n Nineteent h Centur y America , 1819-1900, " American Quarterly 5 (Sprin g
1953): 39-56.
73. Spirit of the Times, Ma y 19 , 1832 . The wee k befor e Porte r reprinte d withou t
comment a not e fro m th e Sporting Magazine: " . .. fa r fro m lookin g o n thi s beastl y
practice wit h an y degre e o f toleration , w e hav e alway s hel d i t i n deepes t abhor -
rence. . .. The custom is looked upon, and justly so , as a stain upon the national char -
acter of England by her continental neighbors . Let us afford n o reason to infer tha t we
have inherited th e vicious tast e which encourage s it. " Also see Norris W . Yates, Wil-
liam T. Porter and the Spirit of the Times (Baton Rouge, 1957).

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 NOTES TO PAGES 63-67

74. Spirit of the Times, Februar y 20 , 1836 , Augus t 22 , 1837 , September 2 , 1837 .
While edito r Joh n Stuar t Skinne r modele d hi s journal o n suc h Englis h gentlemen' s
magazines as Bell's Life in London, h e too hesitated when it came to blood sports, and
he printed ver y littl e prize-fight news . For examples, see American Turf Register and
Sporting Magazine 5 (February 1834) : 310; 7 (June 1836) : 457-61. O n the America n
gentry see Dizikes, chaps. 4, 5.
75. NewYorker, Octobe r 6, 1838. Also see Nile's Weekly Register, August 14 , 1830,
September 21 , 1833 , Augus t 27 , 1836 ; New York Mirror 1 2 (Marc h 7 , 1835) : 287 ,
quoted i n Fran k Luthe r Mott , A History of American Magazines (Ne w York , 1962) ,
p. 482.
76. "Th e Boxer, " fro m Passages from the Diary of a Physician, i n Spirit of the
Times, Novembe r 3 , 1832 , als o reprinte d i n Atkinson's Casket 8 (Februar y 1833) :
66-67.
77. Se e sources in note 64 on republicanism.
78. Th e literatur e o n Victorianis m i s extensive, but se e especiall y Pete r Gay , The
Bourgeois Experience: Victoria to Freud, vol. 1 : The Education of the Senses (Ne w
York, 1984) ; Kasson, chaps. 1 an d 2; Daniel Walker Howe, Victorian America (Phila -
delphia, 1975) ; Daniel T Rodgers , The Work Ethic in Industrial America, 1850-ıç20
(Chicago, 1978) , esp . chap . 1 ; and Kare n Halttunen , Confidence Men and Painted
Women: A Study of Middle-Class Culture in America, 1830-18γo (Ne w Haven ,
1982).
79. Spirit of the Times, August 22 , 1837 , in Magrie l ms . In The Bourgeois Experi-
ence Peter Gay brilliantly captures the Victorians' comple x attitudes and unconsciou s
conflicts abou t sexuality . Thoug h hi s wor k i s a n excellen t correctiv e t o rigid stereo -
types, th e public cultur e o f th e nineteenth-centur y middl e clas s stil l appear s quit e
austere.
80. A brief stor y i n th e New York Traveler described a boy bringin g dinne r t o his
working father . Tw o well-dresse d youth s belittle d hi s tattere d garments : "Th e littl e
fellow pu t down his kettle, and the spirit of the hero rising within him, he dropped hi s
furless ha t an d wen t t o his persecutors i n a style of skil l an d bravery tha t woul d have
done honor to a Fuller or a Blackburn with their best and brightest laurels won in pugi-
listic lore." Whistling "Yankee Doodle," the lad picked up the dinner pail and set off to
bring hi s fathe r bot h th e mea l an d th e story . Spirit of the Times, May 26 , 1832 , fro m
New York Traveler. For a definitive but deterministic exploratio n o f th e modernizin g
process, se e Richar d D . Brown , Modernization: The Transformation of American
Life, 1600-1865 (Ne w York, 1976).
81. American Fistiana (1849) , p. 29. "Now gentlemen," he allegedly declared, "I'v e
done my duty, and as you don't see m disposed to go, I'll sta y and see it out."
82. Joh n Rickard Betts , America's Sporting Heritage, 1850-ıç50 (Reading , Mass.,
1974), p. 38; New Jersey Emporium and True American, Januar y 24 , 1835 , p. 2, cited
from th e New York Courier and Enquirer.
83. Acts of the Fifty Ninth General Assembly of the State of New Jersey, Begun
October 28, 1834 (Trenton, 1835) , "A Further Supplemen t t o the Act entitled A n Ac t
for th e Punishmen t o f Crimes,' " passe d Februar y 26 , 1835 , pp. 89-90 ; New Jersey
State Gazette 6 (March 14 , 1835): 3.
84. Se e references i n note 64. In a civil actio n a New York court failed t o uphold

• 274 •
 NOTES TO PAGES 68-71

a breach o f contract sui t brought agains t a steamship owner who agreed t o transpor t
spectators to and from a fight, then failed t o provide the service. Charles Denny sol d
tickets labele d "Sparrin g Match " fo r on e dolla r each , payin g Willia m D . Norto n
$125 for us e of the steamship Bergen. Afte r th e fight at Fort Washington Poin t spec-
tators foun d th e vesse l gone , and Denn y wa s forced t o refund thei r ticke t money . A
jury refuse d t o awar d damage s t o Denn y becaus e th e origina l contrac t wa s fo r a n
illegal purpos e an d therefor e void . New York Commercial Advertiser, Januar y 13 ,
1836, in Magrie l ms . For othe r laws , see Stat e o f Massachusetts , Acts and Resolves
Passed by the General Court of Massachusetts (Boston , 1849) , chap. 49, p. 31, "An
Act to Prevent Priz e Fighting" ; State of Massachusetts, Massachusetts Reports: Su-
preme Judicial Court of Massachusetts 7 3 (Boston, 1883) : 324-28; and State of New
York, Senate and Assembly Proceedings (Ne w York, 1858) , pp. 35, 99, 149 , 253, and
(1859), pp. 120 , 147 , 504. On early statut e an d cas e la w als o se e Elmer M . Million ,
"Enforceability o f Prize Fight Statutes," Kentucky Law Review 2 7 (November 1938) ,
PP• i52-55•
85. Dizikes , pp. 28-44, 71-73-
86. Willia m Alcott, The Young Man's Guide (1836), p. 159, quoted in Peter Levine,
"The Promis e o f Spor t i n Antebellu m America, " Journal of American Culture 2
(Winter 1980) : 627; Nile's Weekly Register, May 31 , 1823, quoted i n Betts , America's
Sporting Heritage, p. π. O n the work ethic see Rodgers, chaps. 1-3 .

Chapter 2. The First American Champion s

i. Anon. , The Life and Battles of Yankee Sullivan (New York, 1854), pp. 9-11. Also
see Ed James, The Life and Battles of Yankee Sullivan (Ne w York, n.d.).
2. Life and Battles of Sullivan, pp . 18-15; Spirit of the Times, March 6, 1841 , quot-
ing fro m Bell's Life in London; E d James , "Live s an d Battle s o f th e Iris h Champi -
ons," containe d i n scrapboo k o f sport s clippings , Ne w Yor k Publi c Librar y Annex ;
New York Clipper, July 5, 1856 ; and Thomas M . McDade, "Death i n the Afternoon, "
Westchester Historian 4 6 (Winte r 1970) : 2. Alexander Johnsto n claim s tha t larcen y
was Sullivan' s crim e i n Ten-and-Out (Ne w York , 1972) , pp. 24-25. The deportatio n
story i s difficult t o pin down. Whether or not Sulliva n really wa s deported, th e stor y
was wel l know n an d contribute d t o hi s unsavor y reputation . Year s late r i t wa s als o
alleged tha t Sulliva n quarrele d wit h his wife on e nigh t and inebriated , h e knocked a
burning lam p ont o th e bed wher e sh e lay . Her clothes caugh t fire and sh e burned t o
death.
3. Life and Battles of Sullivan, p. 16.
4. Ibid. , pp. 16-17 ; anon., American Fistiana (Ne w York, i860) , pp. 10-11 .
5. Th e Sporting Chronicle, quote d i n American Fistiana (1849) , pp . 8-π ; E d
James, The Life and Battles of Tom Hyer (New York , 1879) , p. 2. James claime d tha t
McCleester and Hyer had clashed before over politics.
6. James , Life and Battles of Hyer, pp . 4-6 , 30 ; American Fistiana (i860) , pp .
12-13; Life and Battles of Sullivan, pp . 17-22 . Seco r publishe d a challeng e fo r a
rematch an d Sulliva n declare d hi s willingnes s t o fight, bu t n o battl e eve r resulted .
See Spirit of the Times, Marc h 5 , 1842 . The "droppin g system"—fallin g withou t a

• 275 •
 NOTES TO PAGES 7 i - 7 8

blow t o end a round an d avoi d punishment—was illegal , but apparently Sulliva n wa s

quite good at feigning bein g hit or thrown.
7. American Fistiana (i860) , p. 22.
8. Life and Battles of Sullivan, pp . 22-23; American Fistiana (i860) , p. 13.
9. Life and Battles of Sullivan, pp . 23-24; American Fistiana (i860) , p. 13 ; Spirit of
the Times, September 3, 1842.
10. Life and Battles of Sullivan, p . 24; Spirit of the Times, September 3 , 1842.
11. American Fistiana (1849) , p. 2.
12. New World 5 (September 3, 1842): 158; New York Express and New York Morn-
ing Express, Augus t 30 , 1842 , in Margrie l ms . (clipping s an d excerpt s o f priz e fight
stories mostl y fro m newspapers) . Pete r Georg e Buckley' s discussio n o f th e develop -
ment of the penny press is particularly helpful . Se e his "To the Opera House: Cultur e
and Societ y i n Ne w Yor k City , 1820-1860 " (diss. , Stat e Universit y o f Ne w Yor k a t
Stoney Brook, 1984) , pp. 359-63.
13. McDade , p . i ; Melvi n Adelman , "Th e Developmen t o f Moder n Athletics :
Sport i n Ne w York City, 1820-1870 " (diss., University o f Illinois, 1980) , p. 562; and
New York Herald, extra ed., November 28, 1842 , testimony o f Jaspar J. Golden. Eth-
nic tensions ran particularly hig h in New York in 1842 . A deep recession an d Catho-
lic demand s fo r ai d t o parochial school s wer e two o f the mos t salien t cause s o f th e
rise o f th e anti-Catholi c America n Republica n party . Se e Edwar d K . Spann , The
New Metropolis: New York City, 1840-1857 (Ne w York , 1981) , pp. 36-40 ; Rober t
Ernst, "Economi c Nativis m i n New York City durin g th e 1840's, " New York History
32 (1948): 70-86; and Ira M. Leonard, "Th e Rise and Fall of the American Republi -
can Part y i n Ne w Yor k City, " New-York Historical Society Quarterly 5 0 (1966) :
150-92.
14. New York Herald, extra ed., November 28, 1842 , testimony of Harold Carpente r
and George Lansing; Spirit of the Times, September 17 , 1842; and McDade, p. 2.
15. New York Herald, extra ed., November 28, 1842, testimony of Jaspar J. Golden;
McDade, p. 3; New York Morning Express, Septembe r 15 , 1842, in Magriel ms.; Spirit
of the Times, September 17 , 1842.
16. Spirit of the Times, September 17 , 1842.
17. American Fistiana (1849) , pp. 15-16 ; McDade, pp. 2-3; New York Herald, extra
ed., November 28 , 1842 , testimony o f E. E. Camp; Spirit of the Times, Septembe r 17 ,
1842.
18. Spirit of the Times, Septembe r 17 , 1842 . Also se e th e New York Commercial
Advertiser, Septembe r 15 , 1842.
19. Spirit of the Times, Septembe r 17 , 1842 ; McDade, p . 3-4; New York Morning
Express, Septembe r 15 , 1842.
20. Proceedings of the Board of Aldermen of New York City 23 (May 10-N0vembe r
14, 1842 ) (New York, 1843) , minutes o f meetings on September 19 , 1842, pp. 322-24.
New York Herald, extra ed., November 28 , 1842; Westchester Herald (no date given),
quoted i n McDade, p. 6. The New York Evening Post also covered the trial but not as
well as the Herald.
21. New York Herald, extra ed., November 28, 1842.
22. McDade , p. 6.
23. The Diary of George Templeton Strong, ed . Alle n Nevin s an d Milto n Halse y

• 276 •
 NOTES TO PAGES 78-8 l

Thomas (Ne w York, 1952) , p. 185 ; The Dairy of Philip Hone, i828-l8¦l, 2 vols., ed.
Allan Nevin s (Ne w York , 1927) , 2 : 620, 636-37 ; an d Danie l T . Rodgers , The Work
Ethic in Industrial America, i8¦O-i92o (Chicago , 1978) , p. 15. For a fine discussion of
Hone's response to the social changes taking place in New York City during the 1830 s
and 1840s , see Allen Stanle y Horlick , Country Boys and Merchant Princes: The So-
cial Control of Young Men in New York (Lewisburg, 1975) , pp. 34-39. For another at-
tack on the Herald as the cause of McCoy's demise, see New York Evangelist, Septem -
ber 15 , 1842, pp. 292-93.
24. New York Herald, extra ed., November 28, 1842; Spirit of the Times, September
17, 1842.
25. New York Tribune, Septembe r 17 , 1842 . Th e Herald claime d tha t McCoy' s
mother told him to return home victorious or not at all, a charge vehemently denie d in
the New York Commercial Advertiser, Novembe r 24 , 1842 , which accused Sulliva n of
being the main promoter of all recent prize fights.
26. New York Tribune, September 17 , 1842. Also see New York Sun, Septembe r 1 4
and 15 , 1842 .
27. New York Daily Tribune, September 19 , 1842.
28. Th e New York Commercial Advertiser, Novembe r 27 , 1842, claimed tha t when
McCoy wa s fouled earl y i n th e fight, his chief backer , Jac k Harris— a "kin g gamble r
and harlot' s paramour"—wave d of f th e awarde d victory . The newspape r allege d tha t
McCoy was deliberately brough t to the ring fatigued an d improperly traine d i n a con-
spiracy by his backers "to win money on his premeditated defeat." A letter to the editor
of the Commercial Advertiser, Septembe r 16 , 184 2 declared tha t th e promoter s wer e
not me n o f characte r engage d i n som e lawfu l callin g bu t predators , "livin g o n thei r
wits, keepers of gambling houses, and what is termed fancy men about town, who by
their outrageous conduct, and vicious propensities, furnish th e most baneful example s
to the youths of our country."
29. New York Daily Tribune, September 19 , 1842.
30. Benjami n Caunt , date d Ne w York , Decembe r 20 , 1841 , t o a n unname d
correspondent, i n Magrie l ms. ; Spirit of the Times, Apri l 12 , May 7 , Octobe r 22 ,
1842.
31. Spirit of the Times, April 23 , 1842. Also see ibid., October 22 , 1842.
32. Ibid. , January 2 1 and January 28 , 1843.
33. Ibid. , Januar y 14 , 1843 ; American Fistiana (i860) , p . 15 ; McDade, p . 5 . Th e
Herald, for example, gave Freeman's and Perry's exploits about six inches of indiffer -
ent copy; January 27 , 1843.
34. Freema n was not even mentioned i n any edition of American Fistiana.
35. American Fistiana (i860) , pp. 15-17 ; Life and Battles of Sullivan, p . 28. The
New York Herald o f February 9 , 1849 , a l s o credite d th e Mexican Wa r with attenuat -
ing interes t i n pugilism . Thoug h man y boxer s enliste d t o fight in Mexico , th e con -
flict's lat e beginnin g an d shor t duratio n hardl y accoun t fo r priz e fighting's lon g
hiatus.
36. National Police Gazette, October 8 , 1845; Spirit of the Times, May 1 and April
3, 1847 ; and American Fistiana (1849) , p. 30. American Fistiana (184 9 and i860) , the
Police Gazette, an d Spirit of the Times during th e 1840 s containe d muc h o f th e bes t
coverage of the ring.

• 27 7 •
 NOTES T O PAGE S 8 2 - Ç O

37. American Fistiana (184 9 and i860) .

38. Advertisement s i n Alvi n F . Harlow , Old Bowery Days (Ne w York , 1931) , pp.
300-301.
39. Spirit of the Times, December 12 , 1846, January 2 , 1847.
40. American Fistiana (i860 , p. 16 ; Life and Battles of Sullivan, pp . 29-33, quote d
from New York Herald, Ma y 14 , 1847 ; Police Gazette, Ma y 8 , April 3 , and Jun e 12 ,
1847; anc • J°h n Rickar d Betts , America's Sporting Heritage, 1850-1950 (Reading ,
Mass., 1974) , p. 56. The local country folk wer e at once fascinated an d repelled b y the
invaders from Ne w York. The commandant fro m th e Harper's Ferry armor y trie d un -
successfully t o stop the fight, fearing hi s foundry worker s woul d b e lured awa y fro m
their tasks.
41. New York Herald, Februar y 6 , 1849 ; Police Gazette, Februar y 10 , 1849 , re -
printed in Spirit of the Times, February 17 , 1849; American Fistiana (1849) , p. 27; Life
and Battles of Sullivan, pp . 49-60; and American Fistiana (i860) , p. 17.
42. Unspecifie d Ne w Yor k newspaper , quote d i n Life and Battles of Sullivan,
pp. 63-64 ; Police Gazette, Februar y 19 , 1849 , quoted i n American Fistiana (1849) ,
p . 22 .
43. Leonar d Dinnerstein and David Reimers, Ethnic Americans, 2 d ed. (New York,
1982), p. 156 ; Ray Alle n Billington , The Protestant Crusade, 1800-1860 (Chicago ,
1938), p. 239; Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, 2 vols.
(Washington, D.C. , 1975) , 1 : 106 ; and Edwar d K . Spann , The New Metropolis: New
York City, 1840-1857 (Ne w York, 1981) , chaps. 2 and 4.
44. James , Life ofHyer, p . 1. One of the umpires a t the fight, John J. Way, was also
a butcher. O n Ne w Yor k butchers , se e Sea n Wilentz , Chants Democratic: New York
City and the Rise of the American Working Class, iγ88-i8¦o (Ne w York , 1984) , pp.
I37-4O•
45. New York Herald, Februar y 7 an d 9 , 1849 ; Life and Battles of Sullivan, pp .
33-34; American Fistiana (1849) , p . 2 ; and Georg e W . Walling , Recollections of a
New York City Chief of Police (n.p., 1890), pp. 40-41.
46. Reprinte d in American Fistiana (1849) , p. 3; Life and Battles of Sullivan, p . 34.
47. American Fistiana (1849) , pp. 3-4.
48. Ibid. ; Life and Battles of Sullivan, pp . 35-36.
49. American Fistiana (1849) , pp. 3-4; Life and Battles of Sullivan, pp . 35-36.
50. American Fistiana (i860) , p . 18 ; American Fistiana (1849) , p . 15 ; New York
Herald, February 9 , 1849.
51. Se e references i n note 50.
52. Police Gazette, stor y reprinte d i n American Fistiana (1849) , pp. 10-π , 14-15 .
Also see Spirit of the Times, November 25, 1848.
53. American Fistiana (1849) , pp . 10-15 . American Fistiana (i860 ) reveal s th e
ambiguity o f th e ter m priz e fight. I t list s hundred s o f battle s betwee n 185 0 an d
i860, ye t in man y o f these th e primary motiv e appear s t o have been settlin g privat e
scores.
54. Police Gazette stor y reprinte d i n American Fistiana (1849) , pp. 11-14 ; New
York Herald, Februar y 9 , 1849 , quoted i n Life and Battles of Sullivan, pp . 40-46.
For othe r athleti c regimens , se e "Trainin g fo r Running , Fightin g o r Health, " New
York Sporting Magazine, Jul y 1833 , pp. 219-22 ; Spirit of the Times, Jul y 9 , 1842 .

• 278 •
 NOTES TO PAGES 9O-98

Training philosophy owe d much to British thought and practice as articulated b y the
Victorian boxin g journalis t Henr y Miles . Se e Ala n Lloyd , The Great Prize Fight
(New York, 1977) , chap. 11.
55. American Fistiana (1849) , pp. 11-14; Life and Battles of Sullivan, pp . 40-46.
56. Life and Battles of Sullivan, pp . 40-46.
57. Spirit of the Times, February 3 , 1849.
58. Amon g th e fulles t account s ar e Police Gazette, Februar y 10 , 1849 , reprinte d
in Spirit of the Times, Februar y 17 , 1849; American Fistiana (1849) , PP- 22-28; and
Life and Battles of Sullivan, pp . 50-60. Als o se e New York Sun, Februar y 9 and 10 ,
i849•
59. Quote d i n Police Gazette, Februar y 10 , 1949 , reprinted i n Spirit of the Times,
February 17 , 1849. Also see sources in note 58.
60. Se e sources in note 58.
61. New York Herald, February 8 , 1849 , reprinted i n Life and Battles of Sullivan,
pp. 60-61; James, Life of Hyer, p. 20; Betts, p. 33; and reports reproduced i n Life and
Battles of Sullivan, pp . 62-63. Als o see Spirit of the Times, January 2 0 and Februar y
3, 1849 ; New York Herald, February 6, 1849; New York Sun, February 7-11, 1849; New
York Tribune, February 8 and 10 , 1849; New York Herald, February 9 , 1849 ; and New
York Commercial Advertiser, Februar y 8 and 10 , 1949.
62. Life and Battles of Sullivan, pp . 60-61; James , Life of Hyer, p. 20 ; American
Fistiana (1849) , pp. 10-28.
63. Spirit of the Times, February 24 , 1849.
64. Fro m th e "Colonel' s Club " i n th e Literary World, reprinted i n Spirit of the
Times, March 10 , 1849. The broadside ballad was a common form of news dissemina-
tion fo r thre e centurie s i n th e Ol d Worl d an d th e New . Se e Lesli e Shephard , The
Broadside Ballad: A Study in Origins and Meaning (London , 1962) ; and G. Malcolm
Laws, Native American Balladry (Philadelphia , 1964) .
65. See , for examples , account s i n American Fistiana (184 9 a n d i860) ; New York
Herald, February 9 , 1849 ; New York Sunday Mercury, Februar y 25 , 1849; and James,
Life of Hyer, p. 20.
66. Diary of Philip Hone, p . 861 ; New York Christian Advocate, Februar y 15 ,
1849.
67. New York Evening Mirror, February 7 , 1849 . Bell's Life in London, Marc h II ,
1849, declared that recent immigrants transplanted th e old spirit of the English ring in
America; reprinted in Spirit of the Times, April 14 , 1849.
68. Cf . Spirit of the Times, October 23 , 1858 , quoted in Adelman, p. 564; New York
Herald, February 5 , 7, 9, and II , 1849 .
69. Se e fo r example , Willia m Riordan , Plunkett of Tammany Hall (Ne w York ,
1948), p. 86.

Chapter 3. The Age of Heroes

i. Lette r signed "Reklaw," dated April 30, 1849, in Spirit of the Times, May 5, 1849.
Fistiana wa s a yearly publication o n the English ring written by Francis Dowling, edi-
tor of Bell's Life in London,

• 279 •
 NOTES TO PAGES 98-IO3

2. Anon. , American Fistiana (Ne w York , 184 9 an d i860) , reporte d si x t o seve n

times mor e fights in the decade afte r th e Sullivan-Hyer battl e than i n the one before .
Moreover, i t is often difficul t t o tell fro m th e descriptions whe n persona l quarrel s o r
even sparrin g matche s ende d an d priz e fights began . Thi s absenc e o f clea r distinc -
tions shoul d cautio n u s agains t imposin g rigi d categories . Priz e fighting an d stree t
brawling were close kin, and the word "pugilism " was often applie d indiscriminatel y
to both.
3. Se e American Fistiana (i860) , p . 34 ; New York Daily Tribune, Octobe r 22 ,
1858. On the saloon se e Jon M. Kingsdale, "The 'Poo r Man' s Club': Social Function s
of th e Urba n Working-Clas s Saloon " American Quarterly 2 5 (Octobe r 1973) , pp .
472-89.
4. American Fistiana (i860) , pp . 34 , 77. On th e working-clas s saloo n see , fo r ex -
amples, Norman H . Clark, Deliver Us from Evil: An Interpretation of American Pro-
hibition (Ne w York , 1976) , chap. 4; Jill Siege l Dodd , "Th e Workin g Classe s an d th e
Temperance Movemen t i n Antebellu m Boston, " Labor History 1 9 (Fal l 1978) :
5IO-3I•
5. Joh n Rickar d Betts , America's Sporting Heritage, i8¦o-ig¦O (Reading , Mass.,
1974), pp. 33, 57; Betts, "Sporting Journalis m i n Nineteenth Centur y America , 1819 -
1900," American Quarterly 5 (Spring 1953) : 39-56. Betts' studie s remain the standard
works on nineteenth-century sport s journalism.
6. Th e most thorough bibliography of pre-twentieth-century boxin g is Paul Magriel,
ed.. Bibliography of Boxing: A Chronological Checklist of Books in English Published
before içoo (Ne w York , 1948) . Als o se e Arman d J . Lottinville , " A Bibliograph y o f
Boxing," Research Quarterly 9 (Marc h 1938) : 139-51 ; an d Rober t Henderson , ed. ,
Early American Sports, 3 d ed. (Rutherford, N.J. , 1977).
7. Michae l T Isenberg , "Joh n L . Sulliva n an d Hi s America, " manuscrip t draf t
(Annapolis, 1985) , chap. 4 , p . 16 ; New York Clipper, Augus t 2 0 an d Septembe r 10 ,
1853, January 21 , February 25 , March 1 8 and 25, April 2 2 and 29, 1854.
8. Duk e o f Wellingto n t o Si r John Burgoyne , o n th e "Nationa l Defence s o f Grea t
Britain," London, 1845 , from New York Clipper, in Magriel ms.
9. Nei l Harris , Humbug: The Art of P. T Barnum (Boston , 1973) ; Rober t Toll ,
On with the Show: The First Century of Show Business in America (Ne w York ,
1976), p . 26 . Queen expresse d suc h sentiment s frequently . See , fo r examples , New
York Clipper, Jul y 23 , August 1 3 and 20 , 1853 , October 2 4 and Decembe r 12 , 1857,
and January 22 , 1859 . For typical advertisements , se e New York Clipper, Septembe r
16, 1854.
10. "Amusements, " New Englander 9 (1851) : 358 , quoted i n R . Hogan , "Si n an d
Sports," in Ralph Slovenko and James A. Knight, eds., Motivation in Play, Games and
Sport (Springfield , 111. , 1967), pp. 124-25.
11. Juniu s Henr y Browne , The Great Metropolis (Hartford , 1869) , pp . 68-70 . I n
addition to Hogan, pp. 121-49 , s ee Cliffor d E . Clark, "The Changing Nature of Protes-
tantism i n Mid-Nineteent h Centur y America : Henr y War d Beecher' s Seve n Lecture s
to Young Men," Journal of American History 5 7 (March 1971) : 832-46.
12. "Th e Goo d Tim e Coming, " reprinted i n The Life and Battles of Yankee Sul-
livan (Ne w York , 1854) , p . 97 . Th e origina l "Goo d Tim e Coming " was writte n
by Charles Macka y an d se t t o musi c b y Stephe n Foster . Th e lyric s wer e a paean t o

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 NOTES T O PAGES IO4-IO O

the comin g er a o f social , moral , an d religiou s perfection . Se e Willia m W . Austin ,

"Susanna," "Jeanie," and "The Old Folks at Home": The Songs of Stephen C. Fos-
ter from His Time to Ours (New York , 1975) , pp. 17-20 . For a representative exam -
ple o f Queen' s sportin g values , se e New York Clipper, Septembe r 2 , 1854 . Fo r a n
incredibly blood y match between a pig and a dog, see New York Clipper, January 21,
i854•
13. Thi s la w eve n forbad e Commonwealt h citizen s fro m stagin g fights i n othe r
states. See Stat e o f Massachusetts , Acts and Resolves Passed by the General Court
of Massachusetts (Boston , 1849) , chap. 49, p. 31; New York Clipper, Septembe r 27 ,
1856; Massachusetts Reports, Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts 7 3 (Boston,
1883): 324-28, "An Act to Prevent Prize Fighting"; New York Clipper, November 24,
i854•
14. New York State Legislature, Eighty-Second Session, 1859 , chap. 37, "An Act to
Prevent and Punish Prize Fighting," passed March 7, 1859, pp. 63-64 in Magriel ms.
15. A point made explicitly b y the New York Sunday Mercury, Marc h 7 , 1853 , af -
ter arrests o n Riker's Island . Frank Quee n believed magistrate s were less concerne d
with justice than with shaking down boxers for part of their stake money. He pointed
out tha t th e law s kept doctor s awa y fro m th e ring , deprivin g fighters o f medica l at -
tention. See , fo r example , New York Clipper, Octobe r 4 , 1856 , Januar y 22 , 1859 .
Ironically, th e anti-prize-figh t law s ma y hav e ha d a counteractiv e effect , divertin g
ring activitie s int o undergroun d channel s an d reinforcin g feeling s o f rebellio n
against authority .
16. Dal e Somers, The Rise of Sport in New Orleans (Baton Rouge, 1972), pp. 53-59.
Many fights were held in parishes adjoining Ne w Orleans to circumvent the law.
17. American Fistiana (i860) , p. 23; Spirit of the Times, August 13 , 1853 .
18. American Fistiana (i860) , p. 26.
19. Ibid . pp . 24-66 , 70-72 , 76 , especially 52-53 . Fo r boxin g i n Pittsburgh , se e
Stewart Sore n Brynn , "Som e Sport s i n Pittsburg h durin g th e Nationa l Period ,
1775-1860," Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine, 5 2 pt . 2 (Januar y 1969) :
63, 69.
20. American Fistiana (i860) , pp. 24-66. The geographical mobilit y o f America n
laborers i n thi s er a wa s nothin g shor t o f remarkable . See , fo r examples , Stepha n
Thernstrom, Poverty and Progress: Social Mobility in a Nineteenth Century City
(New York, 1964) ; Thernstrom an d Richard Sennett , eds., Nineteenth Century Cities:
Essays in the New Urban History (New Haven, 1969).
21. American Fistiana (i860) , pp . 26 , 46 , 53 , 64 , 66 , 90-93 . Jame s Kelly , fo r
example, wa s bor n i n Ireland , migrage d t o England , the n America , saile d t o
Australia t o searc h fo r gold , returne d t o th e Unite d States , joined th e gol d rus h t o
California, returne d t o Ne w York . H e fough t al l alon g th e way , finishing hi s rin g
career agains t Ne d Pric e i n Poin t Albino , Canada . American Fistiana (i860) , pp .
72-73•
22. Willia m Tovee , for example , a cabinetmaker b y trade, fough t a few battle s i n
the English ring late in the Regency Era. He migrated to New York in 1831 , where his
fortunes ros e an d fel l a s a tavern keepe r an d selle r o f furniture . H e turne d bac k t o
pugilism when hard times came and supported himself by giving sparring lessons and
exhibitions, finally becoming the acknowledged maste r of ceremonies for most of the

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 NOTES T O PAGES IO7-II O

glove display s hel d i n th e Ne w Yor k area . Whe n ol d "Fathe r Bill " die d i n 1883 , he
was know n throughou t th e sportin g worl d fo r th e congenialit y an d goo d time s h e
facilitated o n th e sparrin g stage . Tovee' s caree r ca n b e trace d i n th e New York
Clipper.
23. E d Pric e t o Fran k Queen , Boston , Decembe r II , 1859 , printe d i n American
Fistiana (i860) , pp. 76-77. Price , incidentally , becam e a n attorne y whe n hi s boxin g
days were over.
24. Melvi n Adelman , "Th e Development o f Moder n Athletics : Sport i n New York
City, 1820-1870 " (diss., University of Illinois, 1980) , pp. 569-81. On the general devel-
opment o f sport s se e Betts , Sporting Heritage, pt . I , and Benjami n Rader , American
Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Spectators (Englewoo d Cliffs, N.J. ,
1983), pts. 1 , 2; on urban stree t culture see chap. 4.
25. I n the voluminous literatur e on the rags-to-riches motif John Cawelti's Apostles
of the Self-Made Man: Changing Concepts of Success in America (Chicago , 1965 )
stands out.
26. Fo r Morrissey's earl y life , se e New York Herald, May 2 , 1878 ; New York Sun,
May 2 , 1878 ; New York Clipper, Ma y 23 , 1878 ; New York Times, Ma y 6 , 1878 ; Ed
James, The Life and Battles of John Morrissey (Ne w York , 1879) , pp. 3-4 ; Edwar d
Wakin, Enter the American Irish (New York, 1976) , pp. 116-18 ; William Edgar Hard-
ing, ed., John Morrissey, His Life, Battles and Wrangles, from His Birth in Ireland
until He Died a State Senator (Ne w York, 1881) ; American Fistiana (i860) , p. 58; New
York Tribune, Ma y 2 , 1878 ; David R . Johnson , " A Sinfu l Business : Th e Origin s o f
Gambling Syndicate s i n the United States, " in Davi d Bayley , ed., Police and Society
(Beverly Hills, 1977) , pp. 28-29; Herbert Asbury, The Gangs of New York (New York,
1928), pp. 90-100; Alvin F . Harlow, Old Bowery Days (Ne w York , 1931) , p. 301; and
M. R . Werner , Tammany Hall (Ne w York , 1938) , pp. 67-69. There i s a book-lengt h
"biography" o f Morrissey , Jac k Kofoeď s Brandy for Heroes (Ne w York , 1938) . It i s
thoroughly unreliable . Fre d Harve y Harrington' s forthcomin g stud y o f Morrisse y
therefore wil l be especially welcome .
27. James , p. 5; New York Herald, May 2, 1878; and anon., The Lives and Battles of
Tom Sayers and John C. Heenan, "The Benicia Boy" (Ne w York , i860) , pp. 57-5 8
(mainly a collection o f English an d American newspape r stories).
28. Life and Battles of Sullivan, p . 64; American Fistiana (i860) , p. 20; Spirit of
the Times, Octobe r 16 , 1852 ; an d James , pp . 5-6 . Thompson' s rea l nam e wa s Bo b
McLaren.
29. I n addition to the sources in note 28 see Adelman, p. 565; Harding, p. 6. During
these years Hyer alternately declared that he promised his parents he never would fight
again and issued general challenges to all comers, and specific ones to particular fight-
ers includin g Willia m Perry , champio n o f England , fo r te n thousan d dollar s a side .
However, Hye r neve r fough t a regular priz e battl e afte r hi s 184 9 fight with Sullivan .
See Spirit of the Times, March 22-Apri l 5 , 1851.
30. New York Daily Tribune, March 10 , 1855; Life and Battles of Sullivan, pp . 64-
70; American Fistiana (i860) , pp. 20-22. As Adelman notes in "Development of Mod-
ern Athletics, " this earl y ethni c parado x i s simila r t o th e moder n on e where , fo r ex -
ample, Joe Frazier i s depicted b y the press as the whit e man's boxer and Muhamma d
Ali as the militant black .

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 NOTES T O PAGES I I I - I I 7

31. New York Clipper, Octobe r 1 5 and 22 , 1853 ; Life and Battles of Sullivan, pp .
67-69. "The behavior of some of them while in the cars," the Herald's corresponden t
complained of the men going to the fight, "was not such as could be commended; an d
many acts o f disorder, t o use th e mildes t term , wer e perpetrated." New York Herald,
October 1 3 and 14 , 1853.
32. I n additio n t o coverag e b y th e Herald an d th e Clipper se e James , pp . 6-12 ;
American Fistiana (i860) , pp . 20-22 ; Life and Battles of Sullivan, pp . 64-71 ; New
York Daily Tribune, October 1 3 and 20, 1853; New York Times, October 11 , 1853; New
York Evening Post, October 13 , 1853; and Spirit of the Times, October 22, 1853.
33. I n additio n t o th e abov e se e the Clipper, October 2 2 and 29 , and Novembe r 5 ,
1853. Afte r th e fight the Clipper received correspondenc e fro m a s fa r awa y a s Ala -
bama, including an offer t o back Sullivan in a rematch; November 26 , 1853.
34. Life and Battles of Sullivan, p . 98; New York Tribune, October 13 , 1853; New
York Evening Post, October 13 , 1853; and New York Times, October 14 , 1853.
35. Lives of Sayers and Heenan, p . 56; Ed James , Life and Battles of Tom Hyer
(New York , 1879) , p. 22; James, Life of Morrissey, p . n ; an d New York Clipper, July
22, 1854.
36. James , Life of Morrissey, p . 13 ; New York Tribune, Novembe r 2 , 1877 ; an d
George Walling , Recollections of a New York Chief of Police (n . p. , 1890) , pp .
375-76.
37. Anon. , The Life of William Poole (Ne w York , 1855) ; Elliot t J . Gorn , "Th e
Killing o f Butche r Bill " (pape r rea d a t th e America n Historica l Associatio n meet -
ings, Chicago , Decembe r 1984) . I t wa s allege d tha t gang s le d b y Pool e an d Mor -
rissey ha d onc e fough t fo r contro l o f th e ballo t boxe s i n a n uptow n precinct . See ,
for example , Matthe w Hal e Smith , Wonders of a Great City (Chicago , 1887) , pp .
345-49•
38. New York Sunday Mercury, Ma y 3, 1863 ; Buffalo Commercial Advertiser, Au -
gust 1 , 1857; and New York Clipper, August 8, 1857.
39. American Fistiana (i860) , pp. 38-46; New York Clipper, August 8, 1857 ; Phila-
delphia Sun, Augus t 4 , 1857 ; Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, Augus t 3 , 1857 ; New
York Daily Tribune, August 4 , 1857 ; and Buffalo Commercial Advertiser, Augus t I ,
I857•
40. Fo r example, se e American Fistiana (i860) , pp. 46-49, 50-51; New York Clip-
per, October 1 7 and November 28, 1857.
41. American Fistiana (i860) , pp. 58-59; Ed James, The Life and Battles of John C.
Heenan, the Hero of Farnborough (New York, 1879) , PP- I _ 2 •
42. American Fistiana (i860) , pp. 58-59 ; James , Life and Battles of Heenan, pp .
2-4; Lives of Sayers and Heenan, p . 56.
43. American Fistiana (i860) , p. 66; Buffalo Republic, quote d i n New York Daily
Tribune, October 20, 1858 ; and Allan Lloyd, The Great Prize Fight (New York, 1979),
pp. 63-66.
44. New York Tribune, October 20 and 22, 1858; New York Clipper report, reprinted
in American Fistiana (i860) , pp. 58-61; Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper, Octo -
ber 30, 1858; James, Life of Morrissey, pp . 13-19; and Lives of Sayers and Heenan, pp.
63-67.
45. Se e reference s i n not e 44 . Fre d Harve y Harringto n point s ou t i n persona l

• 283 •
 NOTES T O PAGE S I l 6 - I 2 4

correspondence that boxing matches were often mor e orderly than political conventions.
46. Se e sources cited in note 44.
47. Se e th e source s cite d i n not e 44 , an d American Fistiana (i860) , pp . 57-58 ;
Harper's Weekly 2 (October 30 , 1858) : 690.
48. Harding , p. 14 ; Buffalo Commercial Advertiser, October 18 , 1858, cited i n New
York Tribune, October 20 , 1858; and New York Daily Tribune, May 2, 1878.
49. New York Tribune, Octobe r 2 0 an d 22 , 1858 ; American Fistiana (i860) , pp .
58-61; and Lives ofSayers and Heenan, p . 63.
50. New York Tribune, Octobe r 22 , 1858 ; Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper,
October 30 , 1858 ; Lloyd, p. 36.
51. "Th e Priz e Fight, " Harper's New Monthly Magazine 1 8 (December 1858) : 84-
86. Th e literatur e o n refor m i s voluminous , bu t fo r tw o semina l work s o n romanti c
perfectionism, se e David Brion Davis, "The Emergence of Immediatism in British and
American Antislaver y Thought, " Mississippi Valley Historical Review 49 (Septembe r
1962); 209-30 , an d Joh n L . Thomas , "Romanti c Refor m i n America , 1815-1865, "
American Quarterly 1 7 (Winter 1965) : 656-81.
52. "Th e Priz e Fight, " Harpers, pp . 86-88; Buffalo Republic, quote d i n New York
Tribune, October 20 , 1858 ; New York Herald, October 21 , 1858, and American Fisti-
ana (i860) , p. 59.
53. Troy Evening Transcript, Octobe r 1858 , quoted i n New York Tribune, Octobe r
20, 185 8 New York Times, quote d i n Betts , America's Sporting Heritage, p . 57 ;
Harper's Weekly 2 (October 30, 1858): 690.
54. Lives of Savers and Heenan, pp . 64-67; James, Life of Morrissey, pp . 18-20 ;
anon., The Life of John Morrissey: From the Penitentiary to Congress (n.p., n.d.), p. 7.
The "Dea d Rabbits " wer e a stree t gan g o f mostl y Iris h youths , accuse d o f variou s
criminal activities .
55. "Morris y an d the Russian Sailor, " in M. C. Dean, comp., The Flying Cloud and
One Hundred Fifty Other Old Time Poems and Ballads (Virginia , Minn., 1922) . This
broadside ballad ha s been recorded often. Hear, for example, Joe Heaney on Irish Mu-
sic in London Pubs, ASC H Records F G 3575 (New York , 1965) . D. K. Wilgus o f th e
University o f California , Lo s Angeles , ha s kindl y supplie d m e wit h dozen s o f refer -
ences to this ballad, as well as other songs about the Troy man, recorded in Ireland and
America. Man y o f th e song s o f nineteenth-centur y pugilist s coul d stil l b e hear d i n
Ireland wel l into the twentieth century .
56. Huber t How e Bancroft's Popular Tribunals 2 , pp. 1- 9 an d 267-8 3 in his Col-
lected Works (San Francisco , 1887) , is sympathetic t o the vigilante s fo r thei r effort s
to secur e "civilize d industry , agriculture , manufacturers , an d th e gentle r art s o f do-
mesticity." Th e New York Clipper o f Jul y 5 an d 12 , 1856 , doubte d th e vigilantes '
claims, quoting Californi a newspapers , Sullivan' s allege d confession , an d th e coro -
ner's repor t t o thro w suspicio n o n thos e wh o usurpe d th e law . Als o se e E d James ,
The Life and Battles of Yankee Sullivan (Ne w York, n.d.), pp. 22-23. On the vigilan -
tes se e Rober t M . Senkewicz , Vigilantes in Gold Rush San Francisco (Stanford ,
1984).
57. Spirit of the Times, Octobe r 3 , 1863 , July 2 , 1864 ; New York Herald, June 27,
1864; New York Times, Jun e 27 , 1864 ; Asbury , pp . 67-69 , 100 ; an d James , Life of

• 284 •
 NOTES TO PAGES I24-I3 O

Hyer, p. 24. Dying youn g an d destitut e wa s almost th e norm fo r thes e working-clas s

men. I n a n informa l sampl e o f forty-nin e prominen t Englis h an d America n bare -
knuckle fighters b y sport s write r Arthu r Willia m Mann , hal f th e me n die d befor e
reaching the age of forty, four-fifths neve r turned fifty. Most were poor, and only about
one ou t o f fiv e eve r attaine d mor e tha n a modes t living . Fro m th e paper s o f Arthu r
William Mann , Librar y o f Congress ; m y thank s t o Warre n Goldstei n fo r thi s refer -
ence. Michae l T . Isenber g claim s tha t forty-seve n wa s th e averag e ag e o f death fo r
bare-knuckle fighters , roughl y typica l fo r working-clas s men , bu t disturbingl y lo w
given the fact that most prize fighters began their adulthood as unusually healthy indi-
viduals who had survived childhood diseases. Isenberg, chap. 3, p. 38.
58. American Fistiana (i860) , pp. 80-81; James, Life ofHeenan, p . 4.
59. New York Clipper, n o date given, quoted in American Fistiana (i860), pp. 80-81.
60. New York Times and New York Herald, no dates given, quoted in ibid.
61. Johnson , pp . 17-24 . "Sinfu l Business " i s well-researche d an d a n impressiv e
piece of work given the fugitive natur e of the subject .
62. Ibid. , pp. 28-43; Adelman, p. 584; anon., "The True Inwardness of Gambling,"
New York Sun, Augus t 4, 1875 , originally printed in the Cincinnati Commercial; an d
Donald J . Mrozek, Sport and American Mentality, 1880-ıçıo (Knoxville , 1983) , pp.
120-21.
63. I n additio n th e source s cite d i n not e 6 2 se e Biographical Dictionary of the
American Congress (Washington, D.C., 1928) , in Magriel ms . (mainly a collection of
contemporary newspape r reports); Leo Hershkowitz, Tweed's New York (Garden City,
N.Y., 1977), pp. 149-55, 321-25; Werner, pp. 286-91; Myers, pp. 299-301; Wakin, pp.
116-18; and "Morrissey: A Remarkable Interview wit h the Great Expelled," Brooklyn
Daily Eagle, August 2, 1875.
64. New York Daily Tribune, May 2, 1878. See also the Nation 4 (March 7, 1867).
65. Harrington , personal correspondence; New York Herald, May 2, 1878.

Chapter 4. The Meanings of Prize Fighting

i. Pete r Georg e Buckley, "T o the Opera House : Culture an d Societ y i n Ne w York
City, 1820-1860 " (diss., State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1984) , pp. 505-
10, raises this crucial issu e in a very sophisticate d way . We must be careful, however ,
not t o rea d th e presen t int o th e past . Today' s celebrit y possesse s a n aur a o f media -
created intimac y whic h i s fraudulen t an d alienating . W e neve r personall y touc h th e
media-made celebrity , an d h e o r she i s oblivious t o fans a s individuals. Bu t this wa s
not the case for the first generation of great bare-knucklers.
2. Frederic k Va n Wyck , Recollections of an Old New Yorker (New York , 1932) ,
pp. 100-114 . O n th e developmen t o f sport s i n th e antebellu m er a se e Benjami n C .
Rader, "Th e Ques t fo r Subcommunitie s an d th e Ris e o f America n Sports, " Ameri-
can Quarterly 2 9 (Fal l 1977) : 307-21 ; Robert a J . Park , "Th e Attitude s o f Leadin g
New Englan d Transcendentalist s towar d Healthfu l Exercise , Activ e Recreations ,
and Proper Care of the Body, 1830-1860, " Journal of Sport History 4 (Spring 1977) :
34-50; Melvi n Adelman , "Th e Developmen t o f Moder n Athletics : Spor t i n Ne w

• 285 •
 NOTES TO PAGES i3O-i3 i

York City , 1820-1870 " (diss. , Universit y o f Illinois , 1980) , esp . chaps . 9-11 ; Joh n
Rickard Betts , "Min d an d Bod y i n Early America n Thought, " Journal of American
History 5 4 (March 1968) : 790-801; Betts , "Sporting Journalis m i n Nineteent h Cen -
tury America , 1819-1900" ; American Quarterly 5 (Sprin g 1953) : 39-56 ; Betts ,
America's Sporting Heritage, l8¦O-i9¦O (Reading , Mass. , 1974) , pt . 1 ; Stephe n
Hall Hard y an d Jac k Berryman , " 'Public Amusement s an d Publi c Morality' : Spor t
and Socia l Refor m i n th e America n City , 1800-1860 " (pape r presente d a t th e an -
nual meetin g o f th e Organizatio n o f America n Historians , Detroit , Apri l 1-4 ,
1981); Pete r Levine , "Th e Promis e o f Spor t i n Antebellu m America, " Journal of
American Culture 2 (Winter 1980) : 623-34; and Benjami n Rader , American Sports:
From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Spectators (Englewoo d Cliffs , N.J. ,
1983), pt. 1.
3. O n th e bourgeoi s respons e t o th e poo r o f mid-nineteenth-centur y citie s se e
Paul Boyer , Urban Masses and Moral Order in America (Cambridge , Mass., 1978) ,
pts. 2 and 3 ; Carroll Smith-Rosenberg , Religion and the Rise of the American City
(Ithaca, 1971) . Fo r example s o f Victoria n response s t o sports , se e Joh n Dizikes ,
Sportsmen and Gamesmen (Boston , 1981) , chaps . 1-5 , 8 ; Buckley , pp . 591-604 ;
Edward K . Spann , The New Metropolis: New York City, 1840-1857 (Ne w York ,
1981), pp. 164-73 ; a n d Rader , American Sports, pp . 30-43 . Sto w Person s capture s
the earnes t ton e o f Victoria n lif e i n hi s The Decline of American Gentility (Ne w
York, 1973) . On the growing bifurcatio n o f American culture—elit e vs . plebeian—
see Buckley , esp . pp. 160-61 . Excellen t discussion s o f th e underlyin g assumption s
in Victoria n cultur e ar e containe d i n Danie l T . Rodgers, The Work Ethic in Indus-
trial America, 1850-1950 (Chicago , 1978) ; Danie l Walke r Howe , ed. , Victorian
America (Philadelphia , 1976) ; an d Howe , The Political Culture of the American
Whigs (Chicago , 1979) .
4. Fo r demographic change, see Spann, chap. 1 ; Amy Bridges, A City in the Repub-
lic (Cambridge, Mass., 1984), pp. 39-45; Sean Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York
City and the Rise of the American Working Class, 1788-1850 (Ne w York , 1984) , pp.
18-24, 192 ; Allen Stanle y Horlick , Country Boys and Merchant Princes: The Social
Control of Young Men in New York (Lewisburg, 1975) , chap. 1 ; George Rogers Taylor,
"American Urban Growth Preceding th e Railroad Age," Journal of Economic History
27 (September 1967) : 309-39; Douglass C. North, The Economic Growth of the United
States, 1790-1860 (Ne w York, 1966) , pt. 2; and Philip A. M. Taylor, The Distant Mag-
net: European Migration to the United States of America (London , 1971) , pp. 34-37.
Frank Queen claimed that audiences for sparring matches ranged from dealer s in Wall
Street stock s t o dealers i n faro , fro m Broadwa y dandie s t o seller s o f lozenges . How -
ever, he mentione d nothin g o f shopkeepers , businessmen, o r industrialists . New York
Clipper, February 4 , 1854.
5. Fo r a fine discussion o f th e mora l econom y o f the old artisan culture , it s root -
edness i n republica n ideolog y an d collectiv e welfare , se e Wilentz , chaps . 2 and 3 .
For chang e i n th e relation s o f work , se e Wilentz , pp . 108-10 , 119 , 134 ; Pau l
Faler, Mechanics and Manufacturers in the Early Industrial Revolution: Lynn,
Massachusetts, ı γ60-1860 (Albany , N.Y , 1981) , chap. 7 ; Bruc e Lauri e " 'Nothing
on Compulsion' : Lif e Style s o f Philadelphi a Artisans , 1820-1850, " Labor History
15 (Summer 1974) : 337-66 ; Susa n Hirsch , Roots of the American Working Class

• 286 •
 NOTES TO PAGES 132-13 3

(Philadelphia, 1978) , chaps . 1 , 2, an d 5 ; Joseph F . Kett , Rites of Passage: Adoles-

cence in America, 1790 to the Present (Ne w York , 1977) , chap. 6; Bridges, chap. 3;
and Pau l Johnson , A Shopkeepers' Millennium: Society and Revivals in Rochester,
New York, 1815-1837 (Ne w York , 1978) , chap. 2 . For a paralle l transformatio n o f
white colla r work , se e Horlick , pts . 1 and 2 . On wealt h distributio n see , for exam -
ples, Stepha n Thernstrom , Poverty and Progress: Social Mobility in a Nineteenth
Century City (New York, 1975) ; Edward Pessen, Riches, Class and Power before the
Civil War (Lexington , Mass. , 1973) ; and Le e Soltow , "Economi c Inequalit y i n th e
United State s i n th e Perio d fro m 1790-1860, " Journal of Economic History 3 1
(December 1971) : 833-39.
6. Fo r som e o f th e socia l an d cultura l implication s o f th e transformatio n fro m
an artisa n t o a n industria l economy , se e th e work s b y Wilentz , Johnson , Faler ,
Laurie, rlirsch , and Horlick cited above , in addition to Bruce Laurie, "Fire Compa -
nies an d Gang s i n Southwark : Th e 1840s, " in Alle n F . Davis an d Mar k H . Haller ,
eds., The Peoples of Philadelphia: A History of Ethnic Groups and Lower-
Class Life, 1790-1940 (Philadelphia , 1973) , pp. 71-87; J. Thomas Jable , "Aspect s
of Mora l Refor m i n Earl y Nineteent h Centur y Pennsylvania, " Pennsylvania
Magazine of History and Biography 10 2 (Jul y 1978) : 344-63 ; Susa n G . Davis ,
" 'Making Night Hideous': Christmas Revelr y an d Public Order in Nineteenth Cen -
tury Philadelphia, " American Quarterly 3 4 (Summe r 1982) : 185-99 ; Rodgers , pp .
15-22; Jil l Siege l Dodd , "Th e Workin g Classe s an d th e Temperanc e Movemen t i n
Antebellum Boston, " Labor History 1 9 (Fal l 1978) : 510-31 ; Davi d Montgomery ,
"The Workin g Classe s o f th e Pre-Industria l America n City , 1780-1830, " Labor
History 9 (Winter 1968) : 3-22; an d Karen Halttunen, Confidence Men and Painted
Women: A Study of Middle-Class Culture in America (Ne w Haven , 1982) , esp .
pp. 8-37 .
7. Th e socia l stress create d b y th e expansio n o f market s i s a central them e i n th e
work of Wilentz, Johnson, Faler, Laurie, Horlick, Rodgers, and Hirsch.
8. Laurie , Faler, Johnson, Dodd , an d Wilentz al l trac e variations o n this theme of
"moral classes" within the working class.
9. Raise d o n th e radica l republicanis m o f th e preindustria l city , edito r Georg e
Wilkes als o merged suppor t fo r labo r with interes t i n sportin g events. See Alexande r
Saxton, "George Wilkes: The Transformation o f a Radical Ideology," American Quar-
terly 3 3 (Fal l 1981) : 437-58. Wilkes' s devotio n t o radicalis m wane d a s hi s desir e t o
acquire wealt h grew . Wilent z argue s tha t historian s hav e exaggerate d th e inheren t
contradiction of labor radicalism and street life, pp. 255-56, 270-71, 326-35. Also see
Bridges, p. 152 ; Subterranean, Januar y 31 , February 28 , and May 23, 1846, and Octo-
ber 25, 1845.
10. A s Buckle y reveal s i n "T o th e Oper a House, " surprisin g number s o f thes e
men migrate d t o Californi a i n searc h o f adventure . Wa r als o provide d a tes t o f
masculine honor . Severa l boxer s an d thei r backer s signe d a n ope n lette r t o th e
Subterranean (Jul y II , 1846) , fo r example , declarin g thei r intentio n t o enlis t an d
fight in Mexico. For an alternativ e interpretatio n o f sport s and work , one emphasiz -
ing "congruence " betwee n labo r an d leisur e values , se e Stephe n M . Gelber ,
"Working a t Playing : Th e Cultur e o f th e Workplac e an d th e Ris e o f Baseball, "
Journal of Social History 1 6 (Summer 1983) : 3-22. For two pathbreaking studie s of

• 287 •
 NOTES TO PAGES i33-i3 4

nineteenth-century theater , se e Rober t Toll , Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show in

Nineteenth Century America (Ne w York , 1974) , an d Davi d Grimsted , Melodrama
Unveiled: American Theater and Culture, 1800-1850 (Chicago , 1968) .
11. Wilent z argues persuasively that the street culture was not purely traditionalist—
seeking to restore the recreations of the past—but a hybrid, mixing old and new social
and cultura l patterns ; pp . 53-60 , 257-63 . Als o se e Joshua Brown , "Th e 'Dead -
Rabbiť-Bowery Bo y Riot: A n Analysi s o f th e Antebellu m Ne w Yor k Gang" (thesis,
Columbia University , 1976) , pp. 155-56 ; Spann, pp. 248-56; Hirsch, pp. 74-75; How-
ard B . Rock, Artisans of the New Republic (Ne w York , 1979) , pp. 295-319; Buckley,
pp. 319-35 ; an d Bruc e Laurie , The Working Peoples of Philadelphia, 1800-1850
(Philadelphia, 1980) , pp. 53-58. For a particularly luri d accoun t o f working-class lif e
on the Bowery, see Junius Henri Browne, The Great Metropolis: A Mirror of New York
(Hartford, 1869) , pp. 130-37, 326-31 568-73.
12. Brown , Spann , Wilentz , Buckley , Rock , Hirsch , an d Lauri e al l touc h o n thes e
points. The desir e t o for m voluntar y association s wa s par t o f th e large r tendenc y o f
Americans to band together in pursuit of specific goals , a tendency engendered by the
atomization o f market - an d contract-base d society . A s Benjami n Rade r observes ,
sports organizations such as early baseball clubs were another way that men countered
social isolatio n wit h voluntar y consociation . Se e "Ques t fo r Subcommunities, " pp .
355-69. The Irish also brought their heritage of secret societies and faction fighting—
the poo r man' s tool s fo r influencin g elections an d temperin g th e powe r o f landlord s
and bosses—al l o f whic h fe d th e gangs , fir e companies , politica l clubs , an d othe r
working-class institutions in American cities. See Brown, pp. 117-47.
13. Stonecutte r an d Bowery B'hoy Davi d Broderick also opened a tavern, named it
in hono r o f Mik e Walsh' s radica l newspaper , an d ther e entertaine d th e edito r alon g
with the likes of Yankee Sullivan, William Poole, and John Morrissey. Another saloon
keeper, To m McGuire , a ma n whos e root s wer e i n th e radica l republicanis m o f th e
preindustrial city , gre w t o moderat e wealt h promotin g priz e fights a s wel l a s black -
faced minstrelsy , and even grand opera in New York and San Francisco. J. Frank Ker-
nan, Reminiscences of the Old Fire Laddies and Volunteer Departments of New York
and Brooklyn (Ne w York , 1885) , pp. 114-19 ; Saxton, pp. 437-38, 442. For a typically
judgmental accoun t o f thes e "degraded " characters , se e Browne , Great Metropolis,
chap. 6. On the centrality of the saloon to working-class culture see Jon M. Kingsdale,
"The 'Poo r Man's Club': Social Functions of the Urban Working-Class Saloon," Amer-
ican Quarterly 2 5 (October 1973) : 472-89; Michael T. Isenberg, "John L. Sullivan and
His America," draft manuscrip t (Annapolis, 1985) , chap. 2, pp. 24-26; and Roy Rosen-
zweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City,
1870-1920 (Cambridge , 1983) , pt. 2, chap. 2.
14. Laurie , Working Peoples of Philadelphia, pp . 58-62; Herbert Asbury , Ye Olde
Fire Laddies (Ne w York, 1930), pp. 154-55, 171-84; Wilentz, pp. 259-63; Laurie, "Fire
Companies an d Gang s in Southwark, " pp. 71-87; Kernan, p. 19 ; Buckley, pp. 333-42;
Adelman, pp. 569-74; Alvin F. Harlow, Old Bowery Days (New York, 1931) , chap. 12;
Alexander B. Callow, The Tweed Ring (New York, 1966) , chaps. 1,4,5, 7, 8; Leo Hersh-
kowitz, Tweed's New York (Garden City, N.Y, 1977) , chaps. 1-6 ; Kett , pp. 90-93; an d
Ed James , "Live s an d Battle s o f the Irish Champions " (1883) , in a scrapbook o f clip-
pings on nineteenth-century America n sports , New York Public Library Annex.

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 NOTES TO PAGES I34-I3 6

15. See , for example, anon., London and New York: Their Crime and Police (New
York, 1853) , reprinted fro m article s i n the New York Journal of Commerce, Februar y
1853; Harlow, chaps. 1 1 and 16 ; Herbert Asbury , The Gangs of New York (New York ,
1928), pp. 37-45; Jerome Mushkat, Tammany: The Evolution of a Political Machine,
1789-1865 (Syracuse , 1971) , p. 208; Gustavus Myers , The History of Tammany Hall
(New York, 1901) , pp. 154-63 ; and M. R. Werner, Tammany Hall (New York , 1928),
pp. 44-65 •
16. Saxton , pp. 437-58, does a fine job o f revealin g th e juncture o f politics, stree t
life, an d working-clas s culture . Als o se e Kett , pp . 8-90 ; Wilentz , pp . 255-64 , 300 -
301; Brown, pp. 60-61, 144-56 ; George G. Foster, New York by Gaslight (Ne w York ,
1850), chap . 12 ; Foster, New York in Slices by an Experienced Carver (Ne w York ,
1849), chap . 9 ; Laurie , Peoples of Philadelphia, pp . 151-58 ; Harlow, chaps . 11 , 16;
Asbury, Gangs of New York, pp. 37-45 ; Mushkat , p . 208 ; Meyers, pp . 154-63 ; and
Werner, pp . 44-65. For an alternativ e interpretatio n o f gang behavior—one stressin g
antisocial act s more than grou p norms—see Leonar d Berkowitz , "Violence an d Rul e
Following Behavior, " i n Pete r Marsh an d Ann e Campbell , eds. , Aggression and Vio-
lence (Oxford, 1982) , pp. 91-101.
17. Spann , pp . 319 , 326-29 , 344-5¤ . 352-53 ; Wilentz , pp . 255-64 , 326-35 ;
Brown, pp . 78-95; and Bridges , pp. 61-62, 110-13 , r 32-35. Rynders, for example ,
brought such fighters as Bill Ford and John McCleester to sixth ward primary meet -
ings, trying t o us e muscl e t o broaden hi s politica l bas e beyond th e fifth ward . Ker -
nan, pp. 52-54. O n violence a s a political too l i n artisa n cultur e se e Michael Feld -
berg, "Urbanizatio n a s a Cause o f Violence : Philadelphi a a s a Test Case, " in Alle n
F. Davi s an d Mar k H . Haller , eds. , The Peoples of Philadelphia (Philadelphia ,
1973), pp. 56, 66. Fo r tie s betwee n urba n vice , gambling , an d politics , se e Haller ,
"Recurring Themes, " the conclusion t o Davis and Haller , pp. 277-90.
18. Fo r mor e o n stree t politics , se e Georg e Walling , Recollections of a New York
Chief of Police (n.p., 1890), pp. 375-76; New York Daily Tribune, "The Poole Tragedy,"
March 10 , 1855 ; Spann, 318-19 ; Fred Harve y Harrington , "Gamblers , Politician s an d
the World of Sport, 1840-1870 " (a paper read at the Organization of American Histori-
ans meeting, April 8, 1983). As Buckley points out, several of the most influential indi -
viduals in working-class culture, such as editors George Wilkes and Mike Walsh, poli-
tician Isaia h Rynders , an d promote r Davi d Broderick , becam e wealth y me n an d
ultimately cut themselves off from th e very culture they helped create; pp. 406-9.
19. O n nativism an d politics i n New York see Robert Ernst, "Economic Nativis m
in New York City durin g the 1840s, " New York History 2 9 (April 1948) : 170-86 ; Ira
M. Leonard , "Th e Ris e an d Fal l o f th e America n Republica n Part y i n Ne w Yor k
City," New-York Historical Society Quarterly 5 0 (Apri l 1966) : 150-92 ; Spann , pp .
276-80, 334-39 ; Wilentz , pp . 315-25 . 343¯49; an d Bridges , pp . 12 , 30-33. 39¯45 .
92-98. Severa l historian s hav e argue d tha t ethni c conflic t wa s th e majo r formativ e
influence i n th e politic s o f th e antebellu m era . Fo r thi s "ethnocultural " school , se e
Michael F . Holt , Forging a Majority: The Formation of the Republican Party in
Pittsburgh, 1848-1860 (Ne w Haven, 1969); Holt, The Political Crisis of the 1850s (New
York, 1978) ; Joel H . Silbey , The Transformation of American Politics, 1840-1860
(Englewood Cliffs, 1967) ; Robert Kelly , The Cultural Pattern in American Politics:
The First Century (Ne w York, 1979) ; Paul Kleppner , The Cross of Culture: A Social

• 289 •
 NOTES TO PAGES I37-I4 O

Analysis of Midwestern Politics, 1850-IĢOO (New York, 1970) ; Kleppner, The Third
Electoral System, i8¦ĵ-l8g2: Parties, Voters and Political Cultures (Chape l Hill ,
1979). Boxer s affirme d th e continuit y o f ethni c identit y acros s generation s i n thei r
ring names . Thus one black becam e "Youn g Molineaux " an d a Jewish fighter calle d
himself "Youn g Dutc h Sam " afte r hi s Englis h predecessor . Still , Iris h an d Englis h
immigrants dominate d th e sport. Adelma n estimate s tha t around 5 5 percent o f pre -
Civil War New York fighters were of Irish extraction, and most of the rest came fro m
English stock ; pp. 559-69.
20. Wilentz , pp. 137-39; Buckley, pp. 342-49; New York Clipper, April 29 , 1854.
21. I n addition t o Wilentz an d Buckle y a s cited i n note 19 , see Laurie, "Fir e Com -
panies," pp. 77-78; Jable, "Moral Reform, " pp . 362-63.
22. Fo r examples, see New York Clipper, December 1 0 and October 15 , 1853.
23. Th e mos t comprehensiv e wor k o n stree t cultur e i s Buckley , "T o th e Oper a
House." It was the corrupting effects o f street culture on youth which reformers feare d
most. See especially Halttunen , pp. 23-32.
24. O n symboli c inversio n se e Barbar a A . Babcock, ed. , The Reversible World:
Symbolic Inversion in Art and Society (Ithaca , 1978) . Police Captain Pett y referred t o
Norton's fifth war d cliqu e a s " a gan g o f rowdie s compose d o f thieves , gamblers ,
pimps, bount y jumpers, fighters an d ru m sellers. " The presiden t o f th e polic e boar d
called Norto n "th e champio n o f th e desperat e an d dangerou s classes, " includin g
thieves, prostitutes , an d murderers . Othe r boxer s als o foun d succes s o n thei r ow n
terms. Ed Pric e became a n attorney afte r retirin g fro m th e ring, building hi s practic e
with th e aid of his stree t contacts , while Orvill e "Awful " Gardner— a fe w year s afte r
biting off par t of William "Dubli n Tricks" Hasting's ear in a brawl—was converted t o
Christianity an d preached t o others of his background i n the language and style of the
Bowery. Quotations fro m Edwi n P . Kilroe, comp., "Skeleton Outlin e o f the Activitie s
of Michael Norton, " New-York Historical Societ y manuscrip t dated April 1 , 1938. See
also Charle s Lorrin g Brace , The Dangerous Classes of New York and Twenty Years
Work among Them (New York, 1872) , pp. 288-97; Spann, p. 346.
25. O n "modern" personality se e Richard D . Brown, Modernization: The Transfor-
mation of American Life, 1600-1865 (Ne w York , 1976) , chaps. 5 and 6 , and Wilbu r
Zelinsky, A Cultural Geography of the United States (Englewoo d Cliffs , N.J. , 1973) ,
chap. 2 . M y considerabl e intellectua l deb t t o Cliffor d Geert z shoul d b e obviou s i n
these pages. See his The Interpretation of Cultures (Ne w York, 1973).
26. Contras t the behavior of men at a fight with Victorian propriety a s elucidated by
Howe e t al . in Victorian America an d b y Halttune n i n Confidence Men and Painted
Women.
27. O n gambling see Ann Fabian, "Rascals and Gentlemen: The Meaning of Amer-
ican Gambling, 1820-1890 " (diss., Yale University, 1983) .
28. O n the centrality of gambling t o the rise of sports see Harrington, "Gamblers ,
Politicians, and the World of Sports." Labor radical Mike Walsh seems to have taken
a live-and-let-live attitud e towar d gambling ; se e Subterranean, Decembe r 27 , 1845.
The ring depended o n professional gambler s for stake money and to facilitate wager -
ing amon g othe r bettors . Jak e Somerendyke , fo r example , was a regula r a t th e
Empire Clu b wher e fight s wer e discussed an d arranged . H e earned hi s mone y fro m
his expertis e a t th e rin g an d track , handicappin g horse s an d fighters an d sellin g

• 290 •
 NOTES TO PAGES i4O-i4 3

"pools" t o othe r gamblers . Se e E d James , The Life and Battles of Tom Hyer (Ne w
York, 1879) , p. 2.
29. Fabian , "Rascal s an d Gentlemen" ; Harrington , "Gamblers , Politicians an d th e
World of Sports." Also see Haller, "Recurring Themes," pp. 277-90.
30. O n gender roles in Victorian America se e Rader, American Sports, p . 34; Pe-
ter Stearns, Be a Man: Males in Modern Society (Ne w York, 1979) , chap. 5; Edward
Anthony Rotundo , "Bod y an d Soul : Changin g Ideal s o f America n Middle-Clas s
Manhood," Journal of Social History 1 6 (Summe r 1983) : 23-38; Rotundo , "Man -
hood i n America: Th e Norther n Middl e Class , 1770-1920 " (diss., Brandeis Univer -
sity, 1982) , chaps. 4-6 ; Mar y P . Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in
Oneida County, New York, ı γço-1865 (Cambridge , 1981) ; Charles E . Rosenberg ,
"Sexuality, Clas s an d Rol e i n Nineteent h Centur y America, " i n Josep h an d Eliza -
beth Pltck , eds. , The American Man (Englewoo d Cliffs , N.J. , 1980) , pp . 219-54 ;
Michael Gordon , "Th e Idea l Husban d a s Depicte d i n th e Nineteenth Centur y Mar -
riage Manual, " i n Plec k an d Pleck , pp . 145-57 ; Jo e L . Dubbert , A Man's Place:
Masculinity in Transition (Englewoo d Cliffs , N.J. , 1979) , chap. 2; Pleck an d Pleck ,
"Introduction," pp . 14-15 ; Nanc y F . Cott , The Bonds of Womanhood: "Woman's
Sphere" in New England, 1780-1835 (Ne w Haven, 1977) ; Ann Douglas , The Femi-
nization of American Culture (Ne w York , 1977) ; Willia m H . Chafe , Women and
Equality: Changing Patterns in American Culture (Oxford , 1979) , chap . 2 ; Pete r
Gabriel Filene , Him/Her/Self: Sex Roles in Modern America (Ne w York , 1974) ,
chaps. 1 and 2 ; and Nanc y F . Cott an d Elizabet h H . Pleck, eds. , A Heritage of Her
Own: Toward a New Social History of American Women (New York , 1979) , chaps.
6-14.
31. Span n captures the male basis of this culture, pp. 344-50. Rotundo's disserta -
tion i s particularly helpfu l here , especially chaps . 2-6. Also see Jonathan Katz , ed.,
Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the USA (New York , 1976) . Jo-
seph H. Pleck, The Myth of Masculinity (Cambridge , Mass., 1981) , pp. 140-42 , uses
the term s "traditional " an d "modern " t o differentiat e male-centere d fro m female -
centered masculinity , a class-biased formulation . Pete r Stearn s i s quite sensitiv e t o
the proble m o f ho w clas s an d gende r role s interact ; pp . 41-46 , 59-60 , 62-63 ,
70-71.
32. Rader , American Sports, p . 34 ; Hirsch, pp . 54-55; Kernan , p . 165 ; Stearns,
pp. 52-53 , 85 ; Kingsdale, "Th e 'Poo r Man' s Club, ' " pp . 472-89; Brace , pp . 286 -
97; Ned Polsky , Hustlers, Beats and Others (Chicago , 1967) , especially pp . 31-37,
72-73, 85-115 ; Adelman, pp . 582-89; Boyer, chap. 7; and David R. Johnson, Polic-
ing the Urban Underworld (Philadelphia , 1979) , especiall y pp . 29-40 , 78-89 ,
126-81.
33. Carrol l Smith-Rosenberg , "Th e Femal e Worl d o f Lov e an d Ritual : Relation s
between Women in Nineteenth Century America," Signs 1 (Autum n 1975) : 1-29; Isen-
berg, chap. 2, pp. 18-19.
34. New York Clipper, Decembe r 10 , 1853 . Joseph an d Elizabet h Plec k poin t ou t
that eighteenth-century me n were intensely intimat e i n their interactions with one an-
other. American Man, p. 13.
35. O n th e concep t o f hono r se e Bertra m Wyat t Brown , Southern Honor: Ethics
and Behavior in the Old South (Ne w York , 1982) , esp. pt. 1 ; Wyatt-Brown, Yankee

• 2ÇI •
 NOTES TO PAGES i43-i4 5

Saints and Southern Sinners (Bato n Rouge , 1985) ; Edward L . Ayers, Vengeance and
Justice, Crime and Punishment in the Nineteenth Century American South (Ne w
York, 1984) , esp. chap. 1 ; Elliott J . Gorn, '"Goug e an d Bite , Pull Hai r an d Scratch' :
The Socia l Significance o f Fighting i n the Southern Backcountry, " American Histori-
cal Review 9 0 (February 1985) : 38-42; Peter Berger et al., The Homeless Mind (Ne w
York, 1973) , pp. 83-94 ; Juli o Caro-Baroja , "Honou r an d Shame : A n Historica l Ac -
count o f Severa l Conflicts, " trans . R . Johnson , an d Julia n Pitt-Rivers , "Honou r an d
Social Status, " both i n J . G. Peristiani , ed. , Honour and Shame (Chicago , 1966) , pp.
88-91, 19-77 ; and "Honor" in David Sills, ed., The International Encyclopedia of the
Social Sciences 6 (New York, 1968) : 503-10.
36. Se e references i n note 32 above.
37. Brown , pp . 113-17 ; Bridges , p . 116 ; Spann , pp . 71 , 25-28, 134-51 . 306-19 ;
Wilentz, pp. 117-19 , 363-64; and Roger Lane, Violent Death in the City (Cambridge,
Mass., 1979) , pp. 59-64, 117-24 . The human environmen t coul d be as threatening a s
the natural one. Mobbing and rioting were common, traditional forms of protest aimed
at attaining particular social or economic goals. Moreover, street crime—though com-
paratively infrequen t b y modern standards—wa s perceive d a s growing out of control.
See Michae l Feldberg , "Urbanizatio n a s a Cause o f Violence , Philadelphi a a s a Test
Case," in Davis and Haller, pp. 53-69.
38. Wilentz , chap . 7 , esp . 262-66 ; Leonar d L . Richards , Gentlemen of Property
and Standing: Ann-Abolition Mobs in Jacksonian America (Ne w York, 1970) . Tradi-
tional use s o f violenc e i s a pervasive them e i n Buckley , "T o th e Oper a House, " an d
Brown '"Dea d Rabbiť-Bower y Bo y Riot." Also se e Harlow, pp. 146-51 ; Charles N .
Glabb an d Theodor e Brown , A History of Urban America (Ne w York , 1967) , pp .
87-88.
39. Eve n though the rules of the ring sometimes broke down, it was the ideal of fai r
combat whic h gav e boxin g symboli c power . Afte r a barroo m misunderstandin g i n
1859, John C. Heenan was set upon in the streets of Boston, kicked down from behind ,
shot at, and left bleedin g with injuries t o his back and knee. Contrast suc h brutality —
not uncommon i n street life—wit h th e controlled passion s of the ring. Ed James, Life
and Battles of John C. Heenan (Ne w York, 1879) , p. 3. For a fascinating discussio n of
the verbal violenc e i n Englis h yout h gangs , see Pate r Marsh , "Th e Rhetoric s o f Vio-
lence," in Mars h an d Ann e Campbell , eds. , Aggression and Violence (Oxford , 1982) ,
pp. 102-17 .
40. Th e bes t evidenc e indicate s tha t violen t spectacle s suc h a s boxing matche s d o
not have a cathartic effect bu t tend to promote real violence. See, for examples, David
P. Phillips, "The Werther Effect," The Sciences, July-Augus t 1985 , pp. 33-39; George
Gaskill and Robert Pearton , chap. 1 0 of Jeffrey H . Goldstein, ed., Sports, Games and
Play: Social and Psychological Viewpoints (Hillsdale , N.J., 1979) , pp. 263-91; Gold -
stein, ed., Sports Violence (New York, 1983) ; and Richard G . Sipes, "War, Sports and
Aggression: A n Empirica l Tes t o f Tw o Riva l Theories, " American Anthropologist,
n.s., 751 (February 1973) : 64-86.
41. Fo r a n excellen t surve y o f sociologica l theorie s o n yout h gan g violence , se e
David Downes, "The Language of Violence," in Marsh and Campbell, Aggression and
Violence, chap. 3.

• 29 2 •
 NOTES TO PAGES i 4 8 - i 5 i

Chapter 5 . Triumph and Declin e

i. American Fistiana (Ne w York , i860) , pp. 82-85; Alan Lloyd , The Great Prize
Fight (New York, 1977) , chap. 7; Bell's Life in London, Ma y 15 , 1859, in The Lives and
Battles of Tom Sayers and John C. Heenan, "The Benicia Boy" (Ne w York, i860) , pp.
71-77; and Richard Calhoun, "The Great International Priz e Fight of i860, " World of
Sport, Ma y 1984 , pp. 40-45. Generally, Lloyd an d Calhoun ar e the most reliable sec-
ondary source s on this fight.
2. Lives of Sayer and Heenan, p . 90 ; Vanity Fair, Januar y 14 , i860 , p . 45 , i n
Magriel ms . ( a collectio n primaril y o f comtemporar y newspape r account s o f bare -
knuckle fights).
3. Olive r Wendell Holmes, "The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table," Atlantic Monthly
1 (May 858) : 881 .
4. Melvi n Adelman , "Th e Developmen t o f Moder n Athletics : Spor t i n Ne w Yor k
City, 1820-1870 " (diss., University of Illinois, 1980) , p. 566. Frank Luther Mott, histo-
rian of American journalism, claims that Heenan's fights were the sports highlights of
the era. A History of American Magazines (Ne w York, 1962) , 2: 201; American Jour-
nalism (Ne w York, 1962) , p. 382. Also see William Edga r Harding, John C. Heenan:
Champion Pugilist of America (Ne w York, 1881) , p. 5.
5. Lloyd , pp. 92-94. On this fascinating woma n se e John Dizikes, Sportsmen and
Gamesmen (Boston , 1981) , pp. 228-34; Claudia Johnson, American Actress: Perspec-
tives on the Nineteenth Century (Chicago , 1984) , chap. 8.
6. Severa l sample s o f th e iconograph y o f th e rin g ar e photocopie d i n th e Magrie l
ms. Also see Nathaniel Fleischer, Sam Andre, and Nat Loubet, A Pictorial History of
Boxing, rev. ed. (Secaucus, N.J., 1975), pp. 43-47.
7. Alexande r Saxton, "George Wilkes: The Transformation o f a Radical Ideology, "
American Quarterly 3 3 (Fall 1981) : 445-46; New York Times, April 25 , 28, 30, i860 .
Newspapers carried debate s and letters on the fighters' respective merits. See Lives of
Sayers and Heenan, pp . 69-71, 91-94 ; John Rickar d Betts , America's Sporting Heri-
tage, 1850-1950 (Reading , Mass., 1974) , p. 39.
8. Harper's Weekly 4 (May 5, i860) , quoted in Betts, America's Sporting Heritage,
P•39•
9. Leslie' s criticism is contained in the issue of December 31, 1859 . F°r examples of
how the illustrated newspaper s covered the fight, see Frank Leslie's Illustrated News-
paper, Marc h 24, i860, and the New York Illustrated News, April 14 , i860.
10. Mott , American Journalism, p . 382 . Eac h journa l assure d it s reader s tha t i t
alone could be counted on for authentic coverage, and the competition between papers
was extremely fierce. The New York Illustrated News sen t an engraver to do his work
from artists ' sketche s o n boar d th e homeward-boun d steame r Vanderbilt. America n
papers flooded London whil e tons of English journals wer e snatched u p at America n
ports. Lloyd, pp. 133, 158-59.
11. Se e Prologue, above ; Lloyd, pp . 14 , 18-19 . Robert W . Malcolmson, Popular
Recreations in English Society, 1700-1850 (Cambridge , Mass. , 1973) , make s a
forceful cas e for the decline of ancient sport s in the Victorian period, and writers on
boxing i n th e er a confir m hi s conclusions . Denni s Brailsford , Sport and Society:

• 293 •
 NOTES T O PAGES I5i—15 9

Elizabeth to Anne (Toronto , 1969) , argues tha t th e declin e o f sport s theor y i s greatl y
overestimated, tha t th e workin g clas s wa s abl e t o preserv e it s autonomou s recre -
ations. H e clearl y exaggerate s i n th e cas e o f boxing , bu t th e tenacit y o f th e workin g
class i n preservin g ol d pastime s ha s to o ofte n bee n slighte d b y thos e wh o vie w mod -
ernization a s a n overwhelming , superorgani c process .
12. Se e Lloyd , pp . 22-116 .
13. Ibid . Morrisse y denie d reveng e a s a motive, implyin g tha t bettin g o n Sayer s wa s
purely a n investment . Th e forme r champion , incidentally , wa s accompanie d t o En -
gland b y Da d Cunningham , slaye r o f Paudee n MacLaughlin , wh o wa s Willia m Poole' s
murderer. E d James , The Life and Battles of John Morrissey (Ne w York , 1897) , pp .
19-20.
14. Lloyd , pp . 111-25 ; s e e a ' s o undate d passage s fro m London Sporting Life i n
Lives of Sayers and Heenan, pp . 77-86 .
15. Clipper quote d i n American Fistiana (i860) , p . 87 ; Wilkes' Spirit of the Times,
January 21 , i860, quote d i n Adelman , p . 566.
16. Lives of Sayers and Heenan, pp . 71,91 , quotatio n take n fro m a January editio n
of Wilkes' Spirit of the Times; The Diary of George Templeton Strong, ed . Alle n Nev -
ins an d Milto n Halse y Thoma s (Ne w York , 1952) , Monday, Apri l 3 , i860 .
17. Fo r example , se e Georg e Borrow , Lavengro (London , 1910) , chap. 26 ; unattrib -
uted quotatio n i n Lloyd , pp . 124-31 , 157 ; Famous Fights in the Prize Ring (London ,
n.d.), p . 4 ; E d James , The Life and Battles of John C. Heenan, the Hero of Farnbor-
ough (Ne w York , 1879) , pp. 5-6 .
18. James , Life of Heenan, pp . 6-17 . Lloyd , chaps . 20-23 , persuasivel y synthesize s
reports fro m th e Britis h an d America n press .
19. F . Locker-Lampson , Fifty Famous Fights in Fact and Fiction, quote d i n T B .
Shepherd ed. , The Noble Art: An Anthology (London , 1950) , p. 147 ; Lloyd, pp . 155-57 ,
164.
20. Willia m Makepeac e Thackeray , "Th e Figh t o f Sayeriu s an d Heenanus, " re -
printed i n Shepherd , Noble Art, pp . 151-52 .
21. On e broadsid e b y "Dilse y o f London " ha d Heena n repeatedl y declar e "Eri n g o
Bragh." Reprinte d i n J . N . Healy , Old Irish Street Ballads (Cork , 1969) , 3 : 16 .
22. Quote d i n Willia m D . Cox , ed. , Boxing in Art and Literature (Ne w York ,
1935), pp . 121-22 ; Foste r Rhe a Dulles , America Learns to Play (Gloucester , Mass. ,
1959). P • !46 ; Lloyd , p . 152 ; Adelman , pp . 568-69 ; an d James , Life of Heenan, pp .
17-18.
23. Al l cite d i n Adelman , pp . 567-68 . Als o se e Lloyd , pp . 158-59 ; Lives of Sayers
and Heenan, p . 78; Harding, John C. Heenan, p . 5; and James , Life of Heenan, pp . 15 -
17. The passag e o f tim e mad e th e Englis h pres s a s certai n tha t Sayer s wa s cheate d a s
the America n pres s wa s tha t Heena n deserve d th e belt .
24. "Heena n an d Sayers, " i n M . C . Dean , comp. , The Flying Cloud and One
Hundred Fifty Other Old Time Poems and Ballads (Virginia , Minn. , 1922) , pp .
24-25.
25. Th e New York Clipper ha d t o remind it s reader s wh o Charle s Freema n was . Se e
Lives of Sayers and Heenan, p . 90. Als o se e Adelman , p . 601, and Lloyd , p . 38.
26. Rand y Roberts , Jack Dempsey: The Manassa Mauler (Bato n Rouge , 1979) ,
chap. 3 . O n boxin g an d militaris m i n th e twentiet h centur y se e Jeffre y T Sammons ,

• 294 •
 NOTES T O PAGE S I O I - l 6 5

"America i n th e Ring : Th e Relationshi p betwee n Boxin g an d Societ y circ a 1930 -

1980" (diss. , Universit y o f Nort h Carolina , Chape l Hill , 1982) .
27. Thoma s Wentwort h Higginson , "Physica l Courage, " Atlantic Monthly 2 (No -
vember 1858) : 733-37 .
28. Fo r example, American Fistiana (i860) , p. 17 . The Sayers-Heena n bou t contin -
ued t o provid e a livin g metapho r fo r me n involve d wit h th e diplomac y o f th e Civi l
War. I n England , Lor d Palmersto n wrot e t o hi s foreig n secretar y o n Jun e 13 , 1862 ,
that Britis h mediatio n betwee n th e warrin g side s woul d b e lik e "offerin g t o mak e i t
up betwee n Sayer s an d Heena n afte r th e Thir d Round. " Henr y Adams , i n Englan d
with hi s father , Ambassado r Charle s Franci s Adams , ST., als o use d a boxin g meta -
phor t o explai n th e situatio n o f th e summe r o f 186 2 t o hi s brother , Charles , Jr. : "Yo u
see w e ar e strippin g an d squarin g off , t o sa y nothin g o f sponging , fo r th e nex t round. "
From Bria n Jenkins , Britain in the War for the Union, 2 vols . (Montreal , 1974) , 2 :
166-76; The Letters of Henry Adams, ed . J . C . Levenso n e t al . (Cambridge , Mass. ,
1982), 1 : 167-69 .
29. Th e argumen t tha t sport s prepare d me n fo r wa r receive d fulles t expressio n a t
the en d o f th e century . Se e Donal d J . Mrozek , Sport and American Mentality, 1880-
1910 (Knoxville , 1983) , chap. 2 .
30. Lawrenc e Webster Fielding , "Spor t o n the Road t o Appomattox: Th e Shado w o f
Army Life " (diss. , Universit y o f Maryland , 1974) , pp . 48 , 106-10 , 155 , 172-74 . Ac -
cording t o Fielding , th e Unio n armie s wer e generall y mor e intereste d i n sport s tha n
the Confederates .
31. Ibid. , pp . 106 , 306 , 313 , 321 , 345 , 346 , 366 , 385 , 392 , 397 , 411 , 414 , 487 ,
491.
32. Augustu s Buell , The Cannoneer (Washington , D.C. , 1890) , pp. 54-55. See als o
Alexander Hunter , Johnny Reb and Billy Yank (Ne w York , 1905) , p. 98. The 187 3 edi -
tion o f American Fistiana stresse d th e pugnacit y o f th e Iris h soldiers . Fran k Wilke -
son recalle d tha t th e batter y nex t t o hi s wa s manne d b y Irishme n wh o "indulge d i n a
fist fight almos t nightly. " The y eventuall y persuade d som e o f Wilkeson' s comrade s
to participat e i n thei r melees . Recollections of a Private Soldier (Ne w York , 1887) ,
p. 24 .
33. Buell , pp . 54-55 , 274-77 .
34. American Fistiana (1873) , pp. 100-101 .
35. Fielding , pp . 329 , 462 , 308 ; Alfre d Davenport , Camp and Field Life of the
Fifth New York Volunteer Infantry (Ne w York , 1879) , p . 103 , quoted i n Fielding , p .
308; Edmun d Randolp h Brown , The Twenty Seventh Indiana Volunteer Infantry in
the War of the Rebellion, 1861-1865 (Monticello , In. , 1899) , p. 87, quoted i n Fielding ,
P- 3O5•
36. A poin t wel l mad e b y Fielding , pp . xi-xii .
37. J . H . Worsham , Foot Cavalry, cite d i n Fielding , pp . 199-200 , 202-3 , 487 .
38. Not e b y Privat e Georg e E . Smith , quote d i n Fielding , p . 441 . Se e als o Ala n
T. Nolan , The Iron Brigade (Madison , W i s e , 1975) , pp . 184-85 ; Fielding , pp .
202-3.
39. Joha n Huizinga , Homo Ludens: The Play Element in Culture (Boston , 1950) ,
esp. chap . 1 .
40. American Fistiana (1873) , pp . 101 , 103 , 104 . Fistiana, p . 103 , reporte d a

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 NOTES TO PAGES i65-l6 9

highly "artistic " fight i n whic h Jo e Cobur n an d Bil l Clar k put o n th e glove s an d
fought fo r half a n hour, each clean hi t ending a round, until Coburn wo n eleven hit s
to ten . E d James , sport s edito r o f th e Clipper, referee d thi s bou t o n Januar y 28 ,
1863.
41. Fo r examples see American Fistiana (1873) , pp. 117 , 119-21, 123-24 . On mal e
frontier lif e se e Elliot t West , The Saloon on the Rocky Mountain Mining Frontier
(Lincoln, Neb., 1979).
42. American Fistiana (1873) , pp. 96, 117-18 , 124 ; West, pp. 85-87. In 1851 , five
hundred patron s paid S2.5 0 each to watch Matthe w Trac y an d Bil l Blackwood pum -
mel eac h othe r a t Storm' s Ranch , California . Fou r year s later , twenty-fiv e hundre d
spectators, includin g " a numbe r o f gayly dresse d females, " spen t five dollars apiec e
and saw Con Orem battle Patsy Marley at Last Chance Flat, Montana Territory. Als o
see Raber t K . DeArment , Bat Masterson, The Man and the Legend, (Norman ,
Okla., 1979) , pp. 72, 218-19, 339-43 ; Fleischer, Andre , an d Loubet , Pictorial His-
tory, p . 79.
43. New York Sunday Mercury, Ma y 10 , 1863 ; accounts take n fro m th e Sporting
Life, the Sportsman, an d the Illustrated Sporting News, cited in Famous Fights in the
Prize Ring (London, n.d. [ca . 1870s]), pp. 173-75.
44. I n additio n t o the source s i n note 43 see William Edga r Harding , Champions
of the American Prize Ring (New York, 1880) , pp. 39-44; Harding, Prize Ring Heroes
(New York , 1889) , pp . 78-80 ; James , Life of Heenan, pp . 18-19 ; Mott , American
Journalism, p . 382; and Dizikes , p. 225. As was common, som e enterprising rogue s
published a bogus extra edition o f Wilkes' Spirit of the Times with a n early bu t fals e
report o f th e Heenan-Kin g fight. Se e American Gentleman's Newspaper, Decembe r
26, 1863.
45. New York Times, May 6 , 1863 . See also th e New York Sunday Mercury, Ma y 3
and 10 , 1863 ; Wilkes' Spirit of the Times, May 1 6 and 23 , 1863 ; New York Illustrated
News, May 16 , 1863; American Fistiana (1873), pp. 106-8 ; and New York Herald, May
6,1863.
46. Se e references i n note 45. On rough an d tumbl e fighting on the Southern fron -
tier se e Elliott J. Gorn, " 'Gouge an d Bite , Pull Hair an d Scratch' : The Socia l Signifi -
cance o f Fightin g i n th e Souther n Backcountry, " American Historical Review 9 0
(February 1985) : 18-43 .
47. New York Clipper, quote d i n American Fistiana (1873) , p. 106 ; see als o New
York Herald, May 6, 1863.
48. Se e reference s i n not e 45 . Coburn' s color s wer e emeral d green , McCoole' s
green-and-white chec k with a red, white, and blue border.
49. New York Sunday Mercury, Ma y 3, 1865.
50. American Fistiana (1873) , pp. 128 , 136 ; E. B . Mitchell, Fencing, Boxing and
Wrestling (London, 1893) , pp. 143-44 ; Boston Theatrical News, Jun e 4, 1870 , Sport-
ing Times and Theatrical News, Ma y 2 1 and 28 , 1870 , all i n Magrie l ms. ; and New
York Clipper, quoted in American Fistiana (1873) , pp. 145-47.
51. Categorie s (heavyweight, lightweight, etc.) were used intermittently an d with-
out precisio n durin g th e bare-knuckl e era . Chandle r weighe d 13 6 pounds , Harri s
137. Nat Fleischer regards thi s as the first middleweigh t championshi p bout , in Ring
Record Book (Ne w York , 1968) , p . 17 . Th e quotatio n i s fro m th e coverag e i n

• 296 •
 NOTES T O PAGE S I 7 O - I 7 2

American Fistiana (1873) , pp . 128-31 . Als o se e "Th e Doone y Song, " publishe d b y
T. C. Boyd (Sa n Francisco , n.d.) , from th e collection o f Danie l W . Patterson, Universit y
of Nort h Carolina , Chape l Hill ; American Fistiana (1873) , pp. 103 , 116-17 , '34 > ! 3 6 ,
144; Herber t Asbury , Gangs of New York (Ne w York , 1928) , pp . 184-85 ; Wilkes'
Spirit of the Times, Novembe r 14 , 1863 , in Magrie l ms .
52. Huizinga' s centra l thesi s i n Homo Ludens i s tha t agonisti c pla y i s th e fon t o f
culture.
53. American Fistiana (1873) , pp. 98 , 101 , 108-10 . American Fistiana refer s t o th e
"increased vigilanc e o f th e myrmidon s o f th e law " durin g th e l86os , p . 101 . Also se e
Wilkes' Spirit of the Times, Ma y 23 , ]863 . Figh t crowd s occasionall y roughe d u p th e
local officials .
54. O n th e changin g natur e o f politic s se e Pete r Georg e Buckley , "T o Th e Oper a
House: Cultur e an d Society , 1820-1860 " (diss. . Stat e Universit y o f Ne w Yor k a t Ston y
Brook, 1984) , pp. 4 0 8 - 9; Adelman , pp . 573-74; an d especiall y Am y Bridges , A City in
the Republic (Cambridge , Mass. , 1984) , chaps. 7 , 8 .
55. American Fistiana (1873) , pp. 123 , 136-37, 144 , 150 . See also American Gentle-
man's Newspaper, Octobe r 24 , 1863 ; Wilkes' Spirit of the Times, Decembe r 23 , 1865 ,
and Februar y 15 , 1868.
56. Fo r a n excellen t reinterpretatio n o f Gilde d Ag e culture , se e Ala n Trachtenberg ,
The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (Ne w York ,
1982).
57. New York Clipper, quote d i n American Fistiana (1873) , pp. 70-71 .
58. American Fistiana (1873) , p . 151 . O n labo r i n thi s er a see , fo r examples ,
Trachtenberg, chap . 3 ; Danie l T . Rodgers , The Work Ethic in Industrial America,
i8ļo- ç2o (Chicago , 1978) , chaps . 2 an d 6 ; Melvi n Dubofsky , Industrialism and the
American Worker , 1865-192 0 (Ne w York , 1973) ; Davi d Montgomery , Workers' Con-
trol in America: Studies in the History of Work, Technology and Labor Struggles
(Cambridge, 1979) ; and Herber t G . Gutman , Work, Culture and Society in Industrial-
izing America (Ne w York , 1972) .
59. American Fistiana (1873) , pp . 103-4 , 120 , 129 , 142-43 ; Wilkes' Spirit of the
Times, Ma y 23 , 1863 ; an d New York Clipper, Jun e 10 , 1871 . Henr y L . Ferguson ,
Fisher's Island, New York, 1614-í<ı2ı (Ne w York , 1925) , contains a fine descriptio n
from th e poin t o f vie w o f a loca l communit y invade d b y a fight crowd . Fa y Fox ,
daughter o f Rober t Fo x wh o owne d Fisher' s Island , lef t a vivid recollectio n o f a bou t
on th e sleep y island : "Hav e I mentione d thi s episod e o f m y earl y days , a priz e fight ?
There wer e tw o bu t th e firs t on e wa s th e importan t one . A far m han d cam e rushin g
around t o th e fron t piazz a t o tel l m y fathe r tha t tw o o r thre e hundre d me n wer e bein g
landed fro m tw o bi g schooner s nea r Nort h Hill . Fathe r ordere d hi s hors e and , fol -
lowed b y ever y ma n o n th e premises , se t ou t t o investigat e matters . Th e bi g field jus t
below th e Twi n Hill s wa s th e scen e o f action . Al l th e wome n an d children , to o fright -
ened t o b e lef t behind , followe d o n an d fro m th e Twi n Hill s w e looke d dow n upo n a
scene, on e whic h I have neve r forgotten . Sentinel s wer e o n th e watc h fo r a n approach -
ing steame r wit h officer s o f th e law , an d th e affai r wa s no t on e o f pur e enjoymen t fo r
fear o f liabilit y t o arrest. " Ferguso n conclude d tha t th e groun d th e fight too k plac e o n
was stil l known a s th e "battlefield " durin g th e 1920s . My thank s t o Willie MacMulle n
for thi s reference .

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 NOTES T O PAGES ľJ2-ljg

60. St. Louis Democrat, Ma y II , 1870 , quoted i n Sporting Times and Theatrical
News, Boston , May 28, 1870, in Magriel ms.
61. American Fistiana (1873) , pp . 148-51 . Th e estimate s o f profi t an d los s com e
from th e New York Clipper, December 16 , 1871, in a letter signed "Justice " and date d
December n , 1871 . Also see Clipper, January 2 8 and May 20 , 1871 ; Alexander John -
ston, Ten and Out (New York, 1927) , pp. 45-57. Sources estimate that each party too k
home $800.
62. American Fistiana (1873) , pp. 102 , 119 , 148; Harding, Champions of the Prize
Ring, pp . 25 , 31-32; Johnston, p . 49; and Michae l T . Isenberg, "Joh n L . Sulliva n an d
His America," manuscript draft (Annapolis , 1985) , chap. 5, pp. 14-15.
63. American Fistiana (1973) , pp. 99, π o - i i , 115 , 132, 140, 152-55 . Also se e Wil-
kes' Spirit of the Times, August 21 , 1869 ; Johnston, p. 50.
64. The American Gentleman's Newspaper, Octobe r 24 , 1863 ; American Fistiana
(1873), pp. 112 , 121-22 , 140-42 ; Johnston, pp . 45-49; Wells Drury , An Editor of the
Comstock Lode (Ne w York, 1936) , pp. 88-89; A. K. McClure, Three Thousand Miles
through the Rockies (Philadelphia , 1869) , pp. 422-25; "The Pacifi c Cit y Fight, " The
Palimpsest 2 (June 1921) : 182-89 ; a n d Nathanie l Fleischer , The Flaming Ben Hogan
(New York, 1941).
65. American Fistiana (1873) , pp. 119 , 121-22; Wilk.es' Spirit of the Times, January,
1868; and Wilkes' Spirit of the Times, October 10 , 31, 1868.
66. New York Clipper, December 4, 1869 ; American Fistiana (1873) , pp. 153-55.
67. Fo r example s o f th e literatur e o n crim e amon g th e "dangerou s classes, " se e
Charles Lorin g Brace , The Dangerous Classes of New York (New York , 1872) ; New
York State, Report of the Select Committee Appointed by the Assembly of 1875 to In-
vestigate the Causes of the Increase of Crime in the City of New York (New York ,
1876), pp. 8-10, 12-24 , 37-38, 85-89; Herbert Asbury , The Gangs of New York (New
York, 1928) ; Arthu r Pember , The Mysteries and Miseries of the Great Metropolis
(New York , 1874) , pp. 2-12 ; an d Pete r Stryker , The Lower Depths of the Great Me-
tropolis (Ne w York , 1866) . On the rise of weapon s se e Roger Lane, Violent Death in
the City (Cambridge , Mass. , 1979) , pp . 59-63 . Lan e argue s tha t pe r capit a violen t
crime rates probably dropped i n this era.
68. Harding , Champions of the Prize Ring. See Paul Magriel, Bibliography of Box-
ing: A Chronological Checklist of Books in English Published before igoo (Ne w
York, 1948) , pp. 20-25, for several titles under Harding's and Price's names, as well as
others probably writte n b y one of them bu t published anonymously . All o f these biog-
raphies hav e the sam e reverentia l ton e a s Champions of the Prize Ring. Hardin g de -
scribed Hyer , for example, as a "generous, whole souled ma n and a 'thoroug h Ameri -
can,' " pp. 7-8.

Chapter 6. "Figh t Like a Gentleman, Yo u Son

of a Bitch, If You Can"

1. Risin g interes t i n athletic s wa s fa r fro m purel y American . I n Englan d an d

France sport s received grea t attentio n fro m upper - an d middle-class me n in colleges,
prep schools , an d athleti c clubs . Thoug h I concentrate her e o n development s i n th e

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 NOTES TO PAGES i8O-l8 l

United States , therefore , th e growt h o f sportin g interes t shoul d b e see n a s a trans -

Atlantic phenomenon. The literature on the Gilded Age is immense, but I have foun d
Alan Trachtenberg' s The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the
Gilded Age (Ne w York, 1982 ) particularly useful . Thi s chapter's title is from a quota-
tion attributed to John L. Sullivan after Charli e Mitchell spiked him during their 188 7
fight on the estate of the baron de Rothschild.
2. O n th e historiograph y o f th e pla y movemen t se e Stephe n Hard y an d Ala n G .
Ingham, "Games , Structure s an d Agencies : Historian s o n th e America n Pla y Move -
ment," Journal of Social History 1 7 (Winter 1983) : 285-301. A s Donal d J . Mroze k
observes, physica l educator s an d doctor s intereste d i n sport s share d a n emphasi s o n
scientific methods , efficiency , managemen t o f th e body , an d rationa l expertise—al l
pregnant value s durin g thi s era . Mrozek, Sport and American Mentality, 1880-1910
(Knoxville, 1983) , pp. 67-68.
3. Gunthe r Barth , City People: The Rise of Modern City Culture in Nineteenth-
Century America (Ne w York, 1980) , pp. 195-96; T. DeWitt Talmage, Sports That Kill
(New York , 1875) , pp . 20-22 , 46-47 ; Talmage , Abominations of Modern Society
(New York , 1872) , pp. 154-85 ; R. Hogan , "Si n an d Sports, " in Ralp h Slovenk o an d
James A. Knight, eds., Motivation in Play, Games and Sports (Springfield , 111. , 1967),
pp. 125-26 ; Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in
an Industrial City (Cambridge , Mass., 1983) , pt. 3 ; Joseph F. Kett, Rites of Passage:
Adolescence in America, iγ ço to the Present (Ne w York, 1977) , pp. 189-208 ; Benja -
min Rader, American Sports: From Folk Games to the Age of Spectators (Englewoo d
Cliffs, N.J. , 1983) , pp. 146-69 ; Gerald Frankli n Roberts , "Th e Strenuou s Life : Th e
Cult o f Manlines s i n th e Era o f Theodor e Roosevelt " (diss. , Michigan Stat e Univer -
sity, 1970) , chap . 3 ; Mrozek , pp . 203-10 ; Gu y Lewis , "Th e Muscula r Christianit y
Movement," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation 5 (Ma y 1966) :
27-42; Richar d A . Swanson , "Th e Acceptanc e an d Influenc e o f Pla y i n America n
Protestantism," Quest 1 1 (1968): 58-70 ; Stephe n Hal l Hardy , How Boston Played:
Sport, Recreation and Community, 1865-ıçı5 (Boston , 1982) , chaps. 3 an d 4 ; an d
Daniel T . Rodgers , The Work Ethic in Industrial America, 1850-ıç20 (Chicago ,
1978), chap. 4.
4. Th e developmen t o f sport s i n thi s era i s wel l summarize d i n Rader , American
Sports, pt . 2 , an d Joh n Rickar d Betts , America's Sporting Heritage, 1850-1950
(Reading, Mass., 1974) , chaps. 4-8. On the erratic but still rising average income be-
tween i86 0 and 188 0 see Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to
1970, 2 vols. (Washington , D.C. , 1975) , 1 : 165 . Also se e Joh n Modell , "Pattern s o f
Consumption, Acculturatio n an d Famil y Incom e Strategie s i n Lat e Nineteenth -
Century America, " i n Tamar a Hareven , ed. , Family and Population in Nineteenth-
Century America (Princeton , 1978) , and Joseph S. Zeisel, "The Workweek in Ameri-
can Industry , 1850-1956, " in Eri c Larrabe e an d Rol f Myersohn , eds. , Mass Leisure
(Glencoe, 111. , 1958), pp. 145-53 . Also se e Herber t G . Gutman , "Wor k Cultur e an d
Society i n Industrializin g America , 1815-1919, " American Historical Review 7 8
(June 1973) : 53i-87•
5. Amon g th e cleares t statement s o f sport s a s a manifestation o f modernizatio n
are Melvin Adelman , "Th e Developmen t o f Moder n Athletics : Sport s i n Ne w Yor k
City, 1820-1870 " (diss., University o f Illinois, 1980) ; Allen Guttmann, From Ritual to

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 NOTES TO PAGES i 8 l - l 8 3

Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (Ne w York, 1978) ; and Alan Geoffrey Ingham ,
"American Spor t in Transition: The Maturation of Industrial Capitalism and its Impact
on Sport" (diss., University of Massachusetts, 1978) . For sport and business, see espe-
cially Pete r Levine, A. G. Spalding and the Rise of Baseball: The Promise of Ameri-
can Sport (Ne w York , 1985) , chap. 5. For a case stud y o f one prominen t turn-of-the -
century sport , se e Richard Hammond , "Progres s an d Flight : A n Interpretation o f the
American Cycl e Craz e o f th e 1890s, " Journal of Social History 5 (Winte r 1971) :
235-57•
6. O n the rise of commercialized leisur e see, for examples, Trachtenberg, pp. 122-
39; Barth , chap . 5 ; Lewi s A . Erenberg , Steppin' Out: New York Nightlife and the
Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Westport , Conn. , 1981) ; Rober t
Toll, On with the Show: The First Century of Show Business in America (Ne w York ,
1976); Franci s G . Couvares , "Th e Triump h o f Commerce : Clas s Cultur e an d Mas s
Culture i n Pittsburgh," in Michael H . Frisch an d Danie l J . Walkowitz, eds., Working-
Class America: Essays on Labor, Community and American Society (Urbana , 111.,
1983), pp. 123-52; Rosenzweig, chaps. 7 and 8; Perry Duis, The Saloon: Public Drink-
ing in Chicago and Boston, 1880-1920 (Urbana , 111. , 1983); Jon M. Kingsdale, "Th e
'Poor Man' s Club' : Social Function s o f th e Urban Working-Clas s Saloon, " American
Quarterly 2 5 (October 1973) : 472-89; Lary May, Screening Out the Past: The Birth of
Mass Culture and the Motion Picture Industry (Chicago , 1980) , chaps. 1 and 2 ; and
especially Joh n F . Kasson' s outstandin g Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the
Turn of the Century (Ne w York, 1978) .
7. Th e histor y o f Fo x an d th e Police Gazette await s scholarl y treatment , bu t se e
Betts, America's Sporting Heritage, pp . 61-63; Betts , "Sporting Journalis m i n Nine -
teenth Centur y America, " American Quarterly 5 (Sprin g 1953) : 39-56; Gen e Smit h
and Jayne Barry Smith, eds., The Police Gazette (New York, 1972 ) pp. 14-18; Edward
Van Every, The Sins of New York as Exposed by the Police Gazette (Ne w York, 1930);
Van Every, The Sins of America as Exposed by the Police Gazette (Ne w York , 1931) ;
and Barth, pp. 83-109.
8. Thes e themes are treated wit h specia l perceptiveness in Warren I. Susman, Cul-
ture as History: The Transformation of American Society in the Twentieth Century
(New York, 1984) , esp. chaps. 8-11, 14. Also see Zeisel, pp. 145-53; Modell, "Patterns
of Consumption" ; T J . Jackso n Lears , No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the
Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920 (Ne w York , 1981) , esp. chaps. 1 , 3;
and D. H. Mayer, "American Intellectuals and the Victorian Crisis of Faith," American
Quarterly 2 7 (December 1975) : 585-603.
9. Erenberg , Steppin' Out, i s th e authorit y here . Se e esp . chaps . I , 3 , pp .
233-38.
10. Ibid. ; Herbert Asbury, The Gangs of New York (New York, 1928) , pp. 244, 261,
273, 276; Normal R. Clark, Deliver Us from Evil: An Interpretation of American Pro-
hibition (Ne w York, 1976) , chap. 4; and Trachtenberg, chap. 4.
11. I n additio n t o the source s i n note 1 0 see Michael Isenberg , "Joh n L . Sulliva n
and His America," manuscript draft (Annapolis , 1985) , prologue, pp. 11-13. For con-
temporary account s of Harry Hill' s and similar establishments, see Edward Crapsey,
The Nether Side of New York; or, The Vice, Crime and Poverty of the Great
Metropolis (Ne w York , 1872) , pp. 161-62 ; James D . McCabe , Lights and Shadows

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 NOTES TO PAGES i83-l8 8

of New York Life (Philadelphia , 1879) , pp. 600-604; anon. , The Snares of New York
(New York , 1879) , p . 179 ; Mathe w Hal e Smith , Wonders of a Great City; or, the
Sights, Secrets and Sins of New York (Chicago, 1887) , chaps. 2, 17; Samuel A. Mack-
eever, Glimpses of Gotham, and City Characters (Ne w York, 1887) , pp. 59-60; John
H. Warren , Jr. , Thirty Years Battle with Crime (Poughkeepsie , N.Y , 1874) , chaps .
14-16.
12. Va n Every, Sins of New York, pp . 199-219 ; Isenberg, prologue, pp. 11-13; Barth,
chap. 6; Toll, chaps. 7, 8, 10; Erenberg, chaps. 1 , 3 .
13. O n th e play movemen t se e references i n not e 3 and especially Hard y an d Ing -
ham, pp. 285-301.
14. Kett , pp. 173-81 ; Rader, American Sports, pp. 70-86; Guy Lewis, "The Begin-
ning of Organized Collegiate Sport," American Quarterly 22 (Summer 1970) : 229-29;
Betts, America's Sporting Heritage, pp. 209-23; John A. Lucas and Ronald A. Smith,
The Saga of American Sport (Philadelphia , 1975) , chaps. 12-15 ; Christopher Lasch ,
"The Corruption of Sport," New York Review of Books 24 (April 28, 1977), reprinted in
his The Culture of Narcissism (Ne w York, 1979) , pp. 181-219; Lasch, "The Moral and
Intellectual Rehabilitatio n o f the Ruling Class," in The World of Nations: Reflections
on American History, Politics and Culture (Ne w York , 1974) , chap. 7; and Christia n
Karl Messenger , Sport and the Spirit of Play in American Fiction: Hawthorne to
Faulkner (New York, 1981) , chaps. 6-8.
15. Rader , American Sports, pp . 50-68; Benjamin Rader , "The Quest for Subcom -
munities and the Rise of American Sports, " American Quarterly 29 (Fall 1977) : 364-
66; Betts , America's Sporting Heritage, chap . 6 ; Luca s an d Smith , chap . 10 ; Hardy,
chap. 7; Mrozek, pp. 118-29 ; Joe Willis and Richar d Wettan , "Social Stratificatio n i n
New York City Athletic Clubs, 1865-1915, " Journal of Sport History 3 (Spring 1976) :
45-63•
16. Mroze k i s particularly goo d o n sports an d upper-clas s regeneration , pp . 19-27.
His discussion o f the rise o f a male aesthetic amon g elites (chap. 7) is also quite fine.
On th e developmen t o f a "masculine primitive " ethi c se e Edward Anthon y Rotundo ,
"Manhood i n America: The Northern Middl e Class, 1770-1920 " (diss., Brandeis Uni-
versity, 1982) , chaps. 7 and 9.
17. I n additio n t o the citations i n not e 1 6 see Lears, pp. 47-58; Stow Persons , The
Decline of American Gentility (Ne w York, 1973) , pp. 274-75, 285-87; Kett, pp. 162 -
73; Elizabet h H . an d Josep h H . Pleck , eds. , The American Man (Englewoo d Cliffs ,
N. J., 1980) , pp. 24-25; Edward Anthony Rotundo, "Body and Soul: Changing Ideals of
American Middle-Clas s Manhood , 1770-1920, " Journal of Social History 1 6 (Sum-
mer 1983) : 28-33; a n d Frankli n Henr y Giddings, Democracy and Empire (Ne w York,
1901), pp. 317-18.
18. Th e classic statemen t o f these phenomena i s John Higham, "The Reorientatio n
of America n Cultur e i n the 1890s, " in Joh n Weiss , ed,, The Origins of Modern Con-
sciousness (Detroit , 1965) , pp. 25-48. Higham dates this shif t to o precisely—it bega n
before th e Civil War and accelerated towar d th e end of the century. Moreover, thoug h
he purports t o write about American culture , his examples come mostly fro m th e up-
per and middl e classes. Nevertheless, i t is a seminal essay . Also se e Roberts, chap. 4.
On Sandow se e Toll, pp. 297-99; Mrozek, pp. 220-24.
19. Lasch , "Rehabilitation o f the Ruling Class," pp. 83-87. George M. Fredrickson,

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 NOTES TO PAGES i88-i9 2

The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union (New York ,
1965), pp. 217-25; Dudley A . Sargent, Outing 5 (February 1885) : 379. Sargent's diary,
incidentally, reveal s a rather strenuou s dail y regimen . M y thank s t o John Kneebon e
for excerpts culled from th e Harvard Archives .
20. Jame s Turner, Without God, Without Creed: The Origins of Unbelief in Amer-
ica (Baltimore , 1985) ; Meyer, pp . 585-603; John Cawelti , Apostles of the Self Made
Man (Chicago , 1965) , p. 5; Adelman, pp . 679-94; Kare n Halttunen , Confidence Men
and Painted Women: A Study of Middle-Class Culture in America, I8JO-I8JO (Ne w
Haven, 1982) , pp. 201-10 . Also se e Norber t Elia s an d Eri c Dunning , "Th e Ques t fo r
Excitement i n Unexcitin g Societies, " i n Gunthe r Luschen , ed. . The Cross-Cultural
Analysis of Sports and Games (Champaign-Urbana , 111. , 1970) , pp . 31-51 . Lodge ,
speaking before a Harvard alumn i dinner in June 1896 , is quoted in Mrozek, p. 28.
21. Se e Davi d Brio n Davis , "Stress Seekin g an d th e Self-Mad e Ma n i n America n
Literature: 1894-1914, " i n Samue l Klausner , ed. , Why Man Takes Chances (Garde n
City, N.Y., 1968), pp. 108-13 . Roderick Nash argues that the "discovery" of the wilder-
ness as a font o f national virtu e occurre d a t the end of the nineteenth centur y becaus e
primitivism seeme d an antidote to civilization. "Natural" life, like virile athletic activ-
ity, was a counter to the softness o f commercialism. Se e Nash, "The American Cul t of
the Primitive," American Quarterly 1 8 (Fall 1966) : 517-37.
22. O n socia l Darwinis m se e Richar d Hofstadter , Social Darwinism in American
Thought, 1860-ıçi¦ (Philadelphia , 1944) ; Fredrickson, pp . 192-94 , 213-25 ; Lasch ,
"Rehabilitation o f the Ruling Class," pp. 80-99; Mrozek, chaps. 2 and 7; Lears, chap.
1; Trachtenberg, chap. 3.
23. I n additio n t o the reference s i n not e 2 2 see especiall y Mrozek , pp . 28-53. ¤ n
Anglo-Saxon racis m se e John Higham , Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American
Nativism, 1860-ıç2¦ (Ne w York, 1970) , chaps. 6 and 7.
24. Lears , pp. 107-17 . Lears' analysi s builds on Lasch's "Rehabilitation o f the Rul-
ing Class, " pp. 84-87. Sports, as Lear s point s out , wer e par t o f a larger martia l idea l
that beguiled man y upper-class men .
25. Franci s A. Walker, "Colleg e Athletics, " Technological Quarterly 6 (July 1983) :
1-16. O n purposeful pla y see esp. Rosenzweig, pp. 140-52 .
26. Olive r Wendell Holmes, Jr., "The Soldiers Faith," in Max Lerner, ed., The Mind
and Faith of Justice Holmes (Boston , 1943) , pp. 18-21 .
27. Halttunen , pp . 201-10 ; Rotundo , "Manhoo d i n America, " chap . 4 ; an d Sus -
man, Culture as History, Intro . Jeffrey P . Hantover identifie s thi s transformatio n o f
work a s th e ke y elemen t i n th e ris e o f Bo y Scout s o f America . Se e hi s "Th e Bo y
Scouts an d th e Validatio n o f Masculinity, " i n Plec k an d Pleck , pp . 285-310 . Fo r a n
interesting discussio n o n th e ris e o f th e ne w middl e class , se e Stuar t M . Blumin ,
"The Hypothesi s o f Middle-Clas s Formatio n i n Nineteent h Centur y America : A
Critique an d Som e Proposals, " American Historical Review 9 0 (Apri l 1985) : 299 -
338. Als o se e Pete r N . Stearns , Be a Man: Males in Modern Society (Ne w York ,
1979), pp. 96-112; Peter Gabrie l Filene , Him/Her/Self: Sex Roles in Modern Amer-
ica (Ne w York , 1975) , pp . 68-76 . Filen e point s ou t tha t th e numbe r o f salarie d
white-collar worker s multiplie d eigh t time s betwee n 187 0 an d 1910 , jumping fro m
one-third t o two-thirds of the entire middle class. Many of these new jobs wer e filled
by women .

• 3¤2 •
 NOTES TO PAGES I92-I9 7

28. Plec k an d Pleck , pp . 14-28 ; Stearns , pp . 75-78, 96-112; Rotundo , "Bod y an d

Soul," pp . 28-33 ; Rotundo , "Manhoo d i n America, " chaps . 4-6; Filene , chaps . 1-3 ;
Joe L . Dubbert , A Man's Place: Masculinity in Transition (Englewoo d Cliffs , N.J. ,
1979), chaps. 2-6; Roberts, "The Strenuou s Life," chap. 4; Rupert Wilkinson , Ameri-
can Tough: The Tough-Guy Tradition and American Character (Westport , Conn. ,
1984); and Davi d G . Pugh, Sons of Liberty: The Masculine Mind in Nineteenth Cen-
tury America (Westport , Conn., 1983) . See Peter Gay on the subtleties of male fears of
female power : The Bourgeois Experience, Victoria to Freud, vol. i : The Education of
the Senses (Ne w York , 1984) , pp . 179-82 , 188-213 . The masculin e crisi s i s nicel y
summarized i n Patrick Miller , "The Manly Idea l an d National Characte r in late Nine-
teenth Centur y America " (pape r presented a t the tenth America n Studie s convention ,
San Diego, Calif., November 3, 1985).
29. Al l of the works mentioned i n note 28 discuss these fears o f feminization. Als o
see Henry James, The Bostonians (Harmondsworth , 1976) , p. 290, and Ernest Thomp-
son Seton , quote d i n Plec k an d Pleck , p . 25 . On medica l view s o f wome n se e Caro l
Smith-Rosenberg and Charles Rosenberg, "The Female Animal: Medical and Biologi-
cal View s o f Woma n an d He r Rol e i n Nineteent h Centur y America, " Journal of
American History 6 0 (September 1973) : 332-56.
30. Se e reference s i n not e 2 8 for mal e fear s o f "ne w women. " Ironically , just a s
bourgeois male s discovered th e joys o f savagery , Iris h working-clas s me n wer e be -
ing urged b y Catholic religiou s an d la y leader s t o acquire th e classic Victoria n vir -
tues. I n novels, sermons , an d tract s manlines s wa s redefine d a s bein g a good pro -
vider, a stabl e worker , an d a devou t churchgoer . "Rea l men " attende d mas s an d
shunned drunkenness . Se e Collee n McDannel , "Catholicis m an d th e Iris h Male :
Gender an d Ethnicit y i n Lat e Nineteenth-Centur y America " (pape r rea d a t th e
tenth America n Studie s Associatio n meetings , Sa n Diego , Calif. , Novembe r 3 ,
I985)•
31. Plec k an d Pleck , Introduction , pp . 21-28 ; Filene , pp . 86-94 ; Rotundo , "Bod y
and Soul, " pp. 37-38; Rotundo, "Manhood i n America," chap. 8; Stearns, pp. 110-12;
Hantover, pp. 285-301; Kett, p. 173 ; Dubbert, chaps. 2-6; Miller, "Manly Ideal. "
32. Althoug h disgusted b y professional priz e fighting, Thomas Wentworth Higgin -
son praise d sparrin g a s fine exercise and cited th e example of a New Yor k clergyman
who saved himsel f b y administering a "timely cross-counte r an d flyin g crook " t o an
assailant. Higginson , "Saint s an d Thei r Bodies, " Atlantic Monthly 1 (March 1858) :
592.
33. Olive r Wendel l Holmes , Sr. , "Autocra t o f th e Breakfas t Table, " Atlantic
Monthly 1 (May 1858) : 881 .
34. Ibid . A few youn g men , includin g Franci s Parkman , sparre d a t Harvard i n th e
antebellum years . Isenberg, chap. 3, p. 25.
35. Theodor e Roosevelt , "Professionalis m i n Sports, " North American Review 1 5
(August 1890) : 187. Also see Isenberg, chap. 3, pp. 25-26.
36. O n th e era o f Jack Johnso n se e Rand y Roberts , Papa Jack: Jack Johnson and
the Era of White Hopes (Ne w York , 1983) ; Al-Tony Gilmore , Bad Nigger: The Na-
tional Impact of Jack Johnson (Por t Washington, N.Y., 1975).
37. Roosevelt , p. 191.
38. Wayn e Andrews , ed. , The Autobiography of Theodore Roosevelt, condense d

• 303 •
 NOTES TO PAGES I97-2O I

ed., (New York, 1958) , pp. 30-31. Also see Theodore Roosevelt, Letters, ed . Elting E.
Morrison, 8 vols. (Cambridge, Mass., 1951-54), 6: 1103; 8: 962; Michael Donovan, The
Roosevelt That 1 Know (Ne w York, 1909) , chap. I . On the young Roosevelt se e David
McCullough, Mornings on Horseback (Ne w York , 1981) , an d Edmun d Morris , The
Rise of Theodore Roosevelt (Ne w York, 1979) .
39. Pennsylvania , fo r example , sa w renewe d effort s agains t sparrin g an d priz e
fighting, testimony to pugilism's growing popularity. See J. Thomas Jable, "Aspects of
Moral Reform i n Early Nineteenth Centur y Pennsylvania, " Pennsylvania Magazine of
History and Biography 10 2 (July 1978) : 191.
40. Famou s name s com e u p ofte n i n Isenberg' s description s o f Sullivan' s fights.
Also se e Donal d Bar r Chidsey , John the Great (Ne w York , 1942) , p. 78; anon., The
Modern Gladiator (St . Louis, 1892) , p. 383.
41. G . Stanley Hall , Life and Confessions of a Psychologist (Ne w York , 1923) , pp.
578-79-
42. Se e Messenger , p . 95, chaps . 5 , 6 , 10 ; Elizabeth Johns , Thomas Eakins: The
Heroism of Modern Life (Princeton, 1983) , pp. 43, 47; and Carl S. Smith, "The Boxing
Paintings o f Thoma s Eakins, " Prospects 4 (1979) , pp. 403-20 . Painting s b y Eakin s
embodied th e new masculine aestheti c of the upper and middl e classes. The romanti c
versus th e realisti c dichotom y i s a n endurin g one , finding recen t expressio n i n suc h
popular motion pictures as Rocky an d Raging Bull. O n the estrangement o f intellectu -
als from bourgeoi s culture , se e Christopher Lasch , The New Radicalism in America,
1889-1963 (Ne w York, 1967).
43. O n Victoria n didacticis m see , in additio n t o the source s mentione d i n not e 42,
Howe, "America n Victorianis m a s a Culture, " pp . 507-32 , an d Walte r Edward s
Houghton, The Victorian Frame of Mind, 1830-18yo (Ne w Haven, 1957) . Smith notes
that Eakins an d other American student s in Paris in the late 1860 s were familiar wit h
boxing for exercise and for settling quarrels, pp. 405-6.
44. Joh n Lawrenc e Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences of a Nineteenth Century
Gladiator (Boston , 1892) , p. 273. For a parody o f this work, se e John L . Sluggervan ,
De Recomemhrances of a iç-Cent Scrapper (Ne w York, 1892) . Also see Betts, Sport-
ing Heritage, p . 165 ; Frank Leslie's Magazine, Marc h 31 , 1883, p. 86, November 29,
1884, p. 227, quoted i n Frederic k L . Paxon, "Th e Ris e o f Sport, " Mississippi Valley
Historical Review 4 (Septembe r 1917) : 150 ; Isenberg, chap. 3, pp. 23-27; and Rader ,
American Sports, p . 56. Rotundo, "Manhood i n America," pp. 309-10, reports a n in-
creased numbe r o f stree t fights amon g youn g gentlemen . Magrieľ s an d Lottinville' s
bibliographies documen t a larg e numbe r o f ne w boxin g lesso n manual s i n thes e
years.
45. Michae l Donovan , The Science of Boxing (Ne w York , 1893) , pp. 19-21 ; Dono-
van, Roosevelt I Know, p. 146; James E. Sullivan, Life and Battles of James J. Corbett
(New York , 1892) , p. 13 ; and Bacon's Dictionary of Boston, 1886 , in Magrie l ms . (a
collection o f newspaper reports on bare-knuckle fights).
46. Reveren d Brobsťs sermo n i s quoted in anon., The Modern Gladiator (S t Louis,
1892), pp. i9i-93 •
47. G . Stanley Hall, Youth: Its Education, Regimen and Hygiene (New York, 1911),
PP• 93-95 •
48. Danie l L . Dawson , "Wit h th e Gloves, " Lippincotťs Monthly Magazine 4 9

• 3¤4 •
 NOTES TO PAGES 201-205

(January 1892) : 97-100 ; A . Austin , "Theor y an d Practic e o f Boxing, " Outing 1 5

(March 1890) : 412, 419.
49. Charle s E . Clay, " A Bout wit h the Gloves," Outing 9 (January 1887) : 359-60.
This is the first part of Clay's series; see also parts 2 and 3 in 9 (February 1887) : 469-
77, and 1 0 (April 1887) : 26-31.
50. Duffiel d Osborn , " A Defense o f Pugilism, " North American Review 4 6 (Apri l
1888): 434-35•
51. Joh n Boyl e O'Reilly , The Ethics of Boxing and Manly Sports (Boston , 1888) ,
chaps. 13 , 15; The Science of Self-Defense (Philadelphia , 1900) , intro. Professor E . D.
Cope agreed that the ring must be taken back from th e "vicious classes" and reforme d
for the educated elite . Cope believed that anti-prize fight legislation contribute d to ef -
feminization an d sentimental delicacy among men. See "The Effeminisation o f Man,"
Open Court 7 (Octobe r 26 , 1893) : 38-47. Boxing's ris e to semirespectabilit y wa s af -
firmed b y Eadwear d Muybridge' s photographin g pugilist s a s par t o f hi s 188 7
university-sponsored scientifi c motion studies. See Muybridge's Complete Human and
Animal Locomotion, 4 vols. (New York, 1979) , 2: 682-709.
52. Se e especially Cope, "Effeminisation o f Man," p. 3847.
53. Mauric e Golesworthy, comp., Encyclopedia of Boxing (London, 1975) , pp. 194-
95; Isenberg, chap. 3, pp. 27-28.
54. O'Reilly , Ethics of Boxing pp . 5-6, mad e th e argument for reduce d violenc e
under th e Queensberr y rules , an d i t ha s bee n repeate d eve r since . Certainl y com -
paring account s o f fights unde r th e ol d Londo n Priz e Rin g rule s an d th e ne w
Queensberry rule s doe s no t revea l an y lessenin g o f th e brutality . Th e quotatio n
about th e Dixon-Skell y fight i s fro m th e New Orleans Weekly Times Democrat,
Sept. 7, 1892.
55. Dr . Allan J. Ryan recently argue d tha t "removing the gloves would make box-
ing a sport of jabs and defense an d it would deemphasize the knockout punches. It is a
change that would save lives and preserve the sport." Ryan goes on to say that today's
ten-ounce glove, soaked with perspiration by the late rounds of a fight, make s the fist
into a club. See his editorial in Physician and Sportsmedicine 1 1 (December 1983) : 49.
The medica l literatur e o n Boxing injurie s i s voluminous, but one conclusion i s clear:
the more punches to the head a man takes over his career, the greater is the likelihood
of sever e brain damage , though i t may no t manifest itsel f unti l year s afte r h e retires.
See, for examples, R. J. Ross, M. Cole, and J. S. Thompson et al., "Boxers—Computed
Tomography, EEG , an d Neurologica l Evaluation, " an d Council o n Scientifi c Affair s
Report, "Brai n Injury i n Boxing," both in Journal of the American Medical Associa-
tion 249 (January 14 , 1983): 211-13, 254-57; MacDonald Critchley, "Medical Aspect s
of Boxing , Particularl y fro m a Neurologica l Standpoint, " British Medical Journal,
February 16 , 1957 , pp. 357-66; F. J. Unterharnscheidt, "Hea d Injurie s afte r Boxing, "
Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 4 (1972): 77-84; J. A. N. Corsellis,
C. J. Bruton, and Dorothy Freeman-Browne, "The Aftermath o f Boxing," Psychologi-
cal Medicine 3 (1973): 270-303; and Robert J. McCunney an d Pearl K. Russo, "Brain
Injuries i n Boxers," Physician and Sportsmedicine 1 2 (May 1984) : 53-64. My thanks
to Dr. Tom Virgets for these references. O n the general topi c of violence in sports see
Jeffrey H . Goldstein, ed., Sports Violence (New York, 1983).
56. Golesworthy , pp . 194-95 ; Clay , p . 30 ; Dawson , "Wit h th e Gloves, " p . 101.

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 NOTES TO PAGES 2O"J-2U

Dawson argue d tha t th e chie f advantag e o f th e Queensberr y rule s wa s t o shorte n

bouts, putting a premium o n offensive skill s rather than endurance .

Chapter 7 . The End of the Bare-Knuckl e Era

1. Joh n Boyl e O'Reilly , The Ethics of Boxing and Manly Sports (Boston , 1888) ,
PP• 75> 79• Sargent's evaluatio n wa s also publishe d a s an appendi x t o Sullivan' s au -
tobiography, The Life and Reminiscences of a içth Century Gladiator (Boston ,
1892).
2. Unspecifie d newspape r quote d i n Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences, p . 14 . The
autobiography appear s t o hav e bee n ghostwritte n wit h Sullivan' s aid . Despit e enor -
mous gap s an d factua l errors , i t contains valuabl e detail s o n importan t events , espe-
cially Sullivan' s tours . Sulliva n ha s bee n th e subjec t o f severa l popula r biographies ,
often highl y imaginative and unreliable. In addition to Donald Barr Chidsey, John the
Great (Ne w York , 1942) , se e R . F . Dibble, John L. Sullivan: An Intimate Narrative
(Boston, 1925) ; Nathaniel Fleischer, The Boston Strong Boy: The Story of John L. Sul-
livan, the Champion of Champions (Ne w York, 1941) ; and Fleischer, John L. Sullivan:
Champion of Champions (Ne w York, 1951) . See als o the chapters o n Sullivan i n Bo-
hun Lynch , Knuckles and Gloves (London , 1922) , an d Loui s Golding , The Bare-
Knuckle Breed (New York, 1954) .
3. Michae l T. Isenberg, "John L. Sullivan an d His America," draft manuscrip t (An -
napolis, 1985) , chap. 1 ; Sullivan, Life and Reminiscences, pp . 21-22 . Fo r Sullivan' s
early life , se e also anon., Famous Irish Fighters in the Ring (Londo n [ca . 1892]) , pp.
i-3•
4. Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences, pp . 23-25. Sullivan claimed h e attended Bos -
ton Colleg e fo r sixtee n months , wher e h e studie d fo r th e priesthood . Th e stor y i s al-
most certainly fictitious. Michael T. Isenberg, whose excellent biography of Sullivan is
forthcoming, inform s m e that a thorough chec k o f college records reveals no trace of
John L . Isenber g estimate s tha t Sulliva n ha d roughl y th e equivalen t o f a n eighth - o r
ninth-grade education .
5. Ibid . On the social and economic limitations placed on the Boston Irish see Isen-
berg, chap . 1 , pp . 11-12 , 20-23 , chap . 2 , pp . 3-6 ; Stephe n Thernstorm , The Other
Bostonians: Poverty and Progress in the American Metropolis, 1880-19γo (Cam -
bridge, Mass., 1973) , chaps. 6, 7.
6. Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences, pp . 24-25; Isenberg, chap. 2 , pp. 1-2 , 18-19 ,
24-3O•
7. Isenberg , chap . 1 , pp. 32-33 ; Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences, pp . 24-27 ; and
Stephen H . Hardy , How Boston Played: Sport, Recreation and Community, i86¦-
1915 (Boston, 1982) , pp. 168-72 .
8. Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences, pp . 28-31 ; Michae l Donovan , The Roosevelt
That I Know (New York, 1909) , pp. 40-44; and Isenberg, chap. 1 , pp. 32-33.
9. Isenberg , chap. 4, pp. 9-11; Sullivan, Life and Reminiscences, pp . 38-42.
10. Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences, pp . 40-45; Isenberg chap. 4, pp. 23-33.
11. Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences, pp . 44-46 ; Edwar d Va n Every , The Sins
of New York as Exposed by the Police Gazette (Ne w York , 1930) , p . 261 ; William

• 3¤6 •
 NOTES T O PAGE S 2 I I - 2 l 6

Edgar Harding, John L. Sullivan, the Champion Pugilist (New York, 1883) , pp. 10-12;
and Isenberg, prologue, p. 13.
12. Se e references i n note 1 1 and Isenberg , chap . 4, pp. 23-28 ; for averag e wages,
see Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, 2 vols. (Wash-
ington, D.C., 1975) , 1 : 165.
13. Th e stor y o f th e Sullivan-Rya n fight i s wel l tol d b y Isenberg , chap . 4 , pp .
28-38; Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences, pp . 45-52 ; an d Famous Irish Fighters,
PP• 2-3 •
14. Willia m H . Adams, "Ne w Orlean s a s th e Nationa l Cente r o f Boxing, " Louisi-
ana Historical Quarterly 39 (1956): 93; C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South
(Baton Rouge, 1951) , p. 171.
15. Fo r coverage of the Sullivan-Ryan fight, see especially th e National Police Ga-
zette fo r th e week s befor e an d afte r Februar y 7 , 1882 . Gazette sport s edito r Willia m
Edgar Harding reprinte d thes e storie s i n his biographies. Also se e Sullivan , Life and
Reminiscences, pp . 70-76 ; Dal e Somers , The Rise of Sport in New Orleans (Bato n
Rouge, 1972), pp. 162-65; and Van Every, p. 263. Reverend Flynn is quoted in Somers,
p. 166 . José Marti, The America ofJosé Marti, trans . Juan de Onís (New York, 1953),
p. 118 . Marti considered th e ring absolutely barbarous .
16. New Orleans Times Democrat an d New Orleans Picayune, February 2-7 , 1882;
Marti, p . 120 .
17. Marti , p . 117 ; Isenberg, chap . 4, pp. 28-36 . Obviously , Mart i go t a fe w o f hi s
details wrong.
18. Isenberg , chap. 4, pp. 32-36; Famous Irish Fighters, p. 3; Somers, p. 166 ; Sul-
livan, Life and Reminiscences, pp . 78-85; anon. , The Modern Gladiator (St . Louis ,
1892), p. 27; William Edga r Harding, Life and Battles of John L. Sullivan (Ne w York,
1891), pp. 32-41; an d Harding , John L. Sullivan. Th e las t tw o sources reprin t Police
Gazette reports. Also se e New Orleans Times Democrat an d New Orleans Picayune,
February 8 , 1882.
19. Se e references i n not e 18 . Ryan's ring experience wa s in fact no t much broader
than Sullivan's .
20. Se e reference s i n not e 18 . O n th e Rya n fight se e Isenberg , chap . 4 , pp .
35-38.
21. Se e reference s i n not e 18 ; New Orleans Times Democrat, Februar y 8 , 1882 ;
Isenberg, chap. 4, pp. 35-38.
22. New York Times, quoted in Somers, p. 167.
23. Harding , John L. Sullivan, pp. 13-25; Frank Luther Mott, American Journalism
(New York , 1962) , p. 487; Hardy, pp . 168-75 ; Van Every , p . 265; Sullivan, Life and
Reminiscences, pp . 92-94. Th e New Orleans Times Democrat wa s obviousl y prou d
that the fight went so well yet editorialized agains t the "disgusting display. "
24. Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences, pp . 94-95; Frederick L . Paxson, "Th e Ris e
of Sport," Mississippi Valley Historical Review 4 (September 1917) : 150; and John A .
Lucas an d Ronal d A . Smith , The Saga of American Sport (Philadelphia , 1975) , p.
300. Na t Fleischer , America' s leadin g boxin g journalist fo r fifty years , declare d h e
knew o f n o other fighter "gettin g suc h a grip o n th e popula r imagination, " no t eve n
Jack Dempse y o r Joe Louis . Fleischer, Boston Strong Boy, p. 1 . Sport historia n Joh n
Rickard Bett s calle d Sulliva n "th e first o f ou r legendar y sportin g heroes. " Betts ,

• 3O7 •
 NOTES T O PAGE S 2 l 8 - 2 2 2

America's Sporting Heritage, i8¦O-igļO (Reading , Mass. , 1974) , p . 165 . Benjami n

Rader agree s tha t Sulliva n wa s "probabl y th e first trul y nationa l sport s hero. " Radar ,
American Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Spectators (Englewoo d
Cliffs, N.J. , 1983) , pp. 101-3 .
25. Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences, pp . 97-98 ; Famous Irish Fighters, pp . 5-6 .
The precis e numbe r o f Sullivan' s fights i s ope n t o question , bu t hi s autobiograph y
clearly exaggerates . I defe r t o Isenber g o n thi s point , whos e researc h indicate s tha t
Sullivan fough t forty-si x priz e bout s an d forty-tw o exhibition s agains t rea l boxer s (no t
including member s o f hi s tourin g groups) . Eve n thes e mor e modes t number s giv e Sul -
livan man y time s mor e rin g experience s tha n an y o f hi s predecessors . Isenberg , per -
sonal correspondence .
26. Again , Th e Police Gazette i s th e mos t importan t sourc e o n Sullivan' s glov e
fights, bu t als o se e Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences, pp . 97-98 ; Famous Irish Fight-
ers, pp . 5-6 ; an d especiall y Isenberg , chap . 5 .
27. Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences, pp . 99-103 ; Harding , Life of John L. Sulli-
van, pp . 42-46; Famous Irish Fighters, p . 6 ; an d Isenberg , chap . 5 , pp. 6 - 9 .
28. Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences, pp . 103-17 .
29. Quote d i n ibid. ; Isenberg , chap . 5 , pp . 16-17 , 26-30 . Whe n Sulliva n rendere d
Mitchell defenseles s i n th e thir d round , polic e officer s steppe d i n t o en d th e
carnage.
30. Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences, pp . 103-30 , 132-56 , chaps . 9-10 ; Nathanie l
Fleischer, All Time Ring Record Book (Norwalk , Conn. , 1942) , pp . 24-25 , 41-42 ; an d
Famous Irish Fighters, p . 7. Sullivan estimate d hi s earning s a t half a million dollar s a s
of 1889 .
31. Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences, pp . 103-56 . Again , Isenber g ha s followe d
the progres s o f Sullivan' s tour s wit h admirabl e scholarshi p an d correcte d th e record .
Sullivan claime d i n hi s autobiograph y tha t fifty-nine challenger s fro m th e audienc e
stood befor e hi m o n th e tour , a grossl y exaggerate d estimate . Isenberg , prologue ,
pp. 23-24 .
32. Isenber g tell s th e stor y o f th e gran d tou r brilliantly . Se e chap . 6 . Als o se e
Robert Toll , On with the Show: The First Century of Show Business in America (Ne w
York, 1976) , pp. 61-79, for th e logistic s o f circu s touring , whic h h e liken s t o a "movin g
factory." O n th e centralizatio n o f th e theate r se e Jac k Poggi , Theater in America: The
Impact of Economic Forces (Ithaca , 1968) , pp . 3-8 , 26-27 ; Gunthe r Barth , City Peo-
ple (Ne w York , 1980) , chap. 6 .
33. Foste r Rhe a Dulles , America Learns to Play (Gloucester , Mass. , 1959) , p. 263 ;
Isenberg, prologue , pp . 23-24 , chap . 6 ; Betts , America's Sporting Heritage, pp . 79 ,
207, 242-43 ; Fleischer , Ring Record Book, pp . 24-25 ; Sullivan , Life and Reminis-
cences, pp . 221 , 281 ; and Harding , John L. Sullivan. Earl y book s suc h a s American
Fistiana containe d a pag e o r tw o o f advertising , usuall y fo r thei r publishers ' othe r
works. B y contrast , th e Spaldin g Athleti c Library' s Boxing: A Perfect Treatise on the
Science of Self-Defense (Ne w York , 1893 ) containe d forty-tw o page s o f tex t an d
twenty-two o f advertising .
34. See , fo r example , Modern Gladiator, pp . 383-84 . Wit h table s o f statistics ,
Nathaniel Fleischer' s Ring Record Book give s a good sens e o f thi s blossomin g o f th e
ring.

• 3O8 •
 NOTES TO PAGES 223~228

35. O n the new acceptance of previously taboo entertainment se e especially Lewi s

A. Erenberg, Steppìn' Out: New York Nightlife and the Transformation of American
Culture (Westport, Conn. , 1981) ; John Kasson , Amusing the Million: Coney Island at
the Turn of the Century (New York, 1978) ; and Lary May, Screening Out the Past: The
Birth of Mass Culture and the Motion Picture Industry (Chicago , 1980).
36. Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences, pp . 241-44.
37. On e i s reminde d o f th e nineteent h century' s fascinatio n wit h th e "sublime, "
the artisti c merge r o f terro r an d beauty , dange r an d security . Se e Perr y Miller , The
Life of the Mind in America; From the Revolution to the Civil War (Ne w York ,
I965)•
38. Isenberg , chap. 5, pp. 18-25 , 32—37; Dulles, pp. 226-28; Donovan, chap. 4; and
New York Morning Journal, Apri l I , 1885. See also Isenberg's discussion of the "urban
manhood culture, " chap. 2, pp. 24-30, and Perry R . Duis, The Saloon: Public Drink-
ing in Chicago and Boston (Urbana , 111., 1983).
39. Boston Globe, Augus t 9 , 1882 ; Somers , p . 173 ; and Willia m Edga r Harding ,
The Life and Battles of Jake Kilrain (New York, 1888) , p. 17.
40. Joh n D . McCallum , The World Heavyweight Boxing Championship (Radnor ,
Penn., 1974) , p. 10 ; Herbert Gutman , "Work , Cultur e an d Societ y i n Industrializin g
America, 1815-1919, " American Historical Review 7 8 (Jun e 1973) : 564; Willia m V .
Shannon, The American Irish (Ne w York , 1963) , pp. 95-102; and New York Tribune,
December 30 , 1887 , p. 4, cited i n Paxson, pp. 150-51 . The Tribune editor condemned
Sullivan's unmitigated coarsenes s an d brutality ye t marveled at his fearlessness i n the
ring.
41. Ro y Rosenzweig , Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an
Industrial City, 18γo-1920 (Cambridge , Mass., 1983) , p. 75.
42. Abraha m Cahan, Yekl, and the Imported Bridegroom and Other Stories of Yid-
dish New York (New York, 1970) , pp. 2-3; Barth, City People, chap. 5, esp. pp. 186-91 ;
and Isenberg, chap. 2.
43. Charle s Dana as cited i n Modern Gladiator, pp. 189-90 .
44. Th e newspapers , especiall y th e Police Gazette, wer e filled wit h storie s o f th e
champion's sprees . Accounts o f Sullivan' s styl e of livin g within th e bachelor subcul -
ture ar e readil y foun d i n Modern Gladiator, pp . 73-87 , 216-17 , 337-66 . Chidsey' s
John the Great contains man y storie s wit h a core of trut h an d a great dea l o f embel -
lishment. Also see Isenberg, chap. 2.
45. Isenberg , chap . 5 , pp . 28-32 ; Fleischer , Ring Record Book, pp . 24-25 , 41;
Harding. Life of John L. Sullivan, pp . 49-52; and Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences,
chap. 5.
46. Isenberg , chap. 5, pp. 24-28, and chap. 7, p. 20; National Police Gazette, cite d
in Van Every, p. 268; Famous Irish Fighters, pp. 9-10; and Sullivan, Life and Reminis-
cences, chap. 5. A few months later, numerous magnates and politicians came to watch
Sullivan battle Alt' Greenfield; se e Isenberg, chap. 7, p. II .
47. Isenberg , chap . 5 , pp . 9 , 14 , 27 , 31 ; cha p 7 ; p . 12 , 43-44 . Zulm a Steele ,
Angel in Top Hat (Ne w York , 1942) , pp. 269-70 ; an d Joh n Thoma s Jable , "Sport s
Amusements an d Pennsylvani a Blu e Laws " (diss. , Pennsylvani a Stat e University ,
1974), pp . 99-104 . Official s foile d mos t o f Bergh' s efforts . I n Philadelphi a loca l
clergymen exerte d pressur e o n Mayor Smith , bu t despit e magisteria l efforts , man y

• 309 •
 NOTES TO PAGES 22Ç-233

fights wen t on . Forme r Ne w Yor k polic e chie f Georg e Wallin g stoppe d a n 188 4
match i n Madison Squar e Garde n whe n i t became clear that Sulliva n was going fo r
a knockout. No policeman excep t Walling would testify befor e a grand jury tha t the
exhibition wa s indeed a prize fight, and the case was dismissed. Walling , Recollec-
tions of a New York Chief of Police (Ne w York , 1890) , pp. 373-74.
48. Fleischer , Ring Record Book, pp . 24-25, 41; Famous Irish Fighters, p. 10 ; and
Sullivan, Life and Reminiscences, chap . 9. E. B. Mitchell, Fencing, Boxing and Wres-
tling (Longon, 1893) , pp. 140-47, for example, argued that glove fighting proved noth-
ing, that onl y bare-knuckl e fights wer e real battles . On Sullivan' s drinkin g se e espe-
cially Isenberg , chaps . 5 an d 6 . O n hi s divorce , se e Isenberg , chap . 7 , pp . 20-24 ,
46-48.
49. Harding , Life ofKilrain, p . 17; Famous Irish Fighters, pp. 11-14; Sullivan, Life
and Reminiscences, chaps . 9-10 ; Harding , Life of John L. Sullivan, pp . 74-80 ; an d
Modern Gladiator, pp. 95-97.
50. Sullivan , quote d i n Harding, Life of Sullivan, pp . 76-80; also see references i n
note 49.
51. Harding , Life of Kilrain, pp . 7—18 ; Sullivan, Life and Reminiscences, chaps .
9-10; and Famous Irish Fighters, pp. 12-14.
52. Harding , Life ofKilrain, pp . 5-7; Fleischer, Ring Record Book, p . 40. The Bal-
timore Crib b Club charged $1 5 for membershi p an d $1 0 for twent y lesson s fro m Kil -
rain. Fo r a well-written popula r accoun t o f th e fight, se e Jame s A . Cox , "Th e Grea t
Fight: Mr. Jake vs. John L. Sullivan," Smithsonian 1 5 (December 1984) : 153-68. Isen-
berg, chaps. 9 and 10 , is the best source on these years.
53. Harding , Life ofKilrain, pp . 18-19 , 3 2_ 33- The Police Gazette no w called hi m
"ex-champion" Sullivan .
54. Harding , Life ofKilrain, pp . 18-19 , 3 2~33; Isenberg, chap . 7, pp. 44-46; Sulli -
van, Life and Reminiscences, pp . 175-76 ; and Hardy , pp. 173-76 . Police Gazette re -
ports fo r th e Kilrain-Smit h fight ar e reprinte d i n Harding , Life of Kilrain, pp . 7-10 ,
19-40. Each having a belt now, Sullivan and Kilrain sailed for England, both fought fo r
the "Championship of the World," both received a draw, and both claimed that the En-
glish had robbed them, just as they had robbed John C. Heenan a generation earlier.
55. Se e references i n note 54. On Sullivan' s and Muldoon's preparations se e Mod-
ern Gladiator, pp . 219-62, 330.
56. Quote d in Harding, Life ofKilrain, p . 29. For months the Police Gazette hype d
the fight. See also Gene Smith and Jayne Barry Smith , eds., The Police Gazette (Ne w
York, 1972) , p. 16.
57. Adams , "Ne w Orlean s a s the National Cente r o f Boxing," pp. 93-95; Somers,
pp. 168-70 ; Donovan, pp . 110-13 ; Famous Irish Fighters, p . 14 ; New Orleans Pica-
yune, Jul y 8, 1889 ; and Betts, America's Sporting Heritage, p . 73.
58. Somers , pp. 172-74 ; Donovan, chap. 8; Famous Irish Fighters, p. 14 ; New York
World, July 9 , 1889 ; New Orleans Picayune, Jul y 8 , 9 , 1889 ; New Orleans Times
Democrat, Jul y 9 , 1889 ; Sullivan, Life and Reminiscences, chap . 10 ; Harding, Life of
John L Sullivan, pp . 80-92; McCallum, pp. 14-15 ; Robert K . DeArment, Bat Master-
son: The Man and the Legend (Norman , Okla. , 1979) , pp . 339-41 ; an d Cox , "Th e
Great Fight," pp. 154-55.
59. Th e quotation s ar e fro m Harding , Life and Battles of John L. Sullivan an d

• 3IO •
 NOTES TO PAGES 234-23 8

Famous Irish Fighters, both o f whic h relie d heavil y o n th e New York World for thei r
accounts. Excellen t coverag e als o appeare d i n th e Police Gazette an d New Orleans
Picayune fo r the weeks before an d after th e fight.
60. Harding , Life of John L. Sullivan, p . 88 ; account fro m a n unspecifie d Bosto n
newspaper i n Priz e Fightin g scrapbook , Widene r Library , Harvar d University ,
Cambridge.
61. Sullivan' s remark s ar e quote d i n th e detaile d repor t o f th e Modern Gladiator,
pp. 139 , 143, 150, 156, 160. Also see Harding, Life of John L. Sullivan, pp . 80-92; Fa-
mous Irish Fighters, pp. 15-16 ; Donovan, chap . 8; Sullivan, Life and Reminiscences,
pp. 207-12; McCallum, pp. 14-15 ; and Cox, "The Great Fight," p. 166.
62. New York Times, July 9, 1889. The Times' use of "knock out" is indicative of the
influence o f th e Queensberr y rules , fo r th e ter m an d concep t wer e borrowe d fro m
glove fighting. New York World, Jul y 9, 1889 ; Somers, p. 173.
63. Modern Gladiator, p. 356. Keily's poem i s reprinted o n pp. 321-24.
64. Th e song circulated widely . See Fleischer, Boston Strong Boy, p. 1 . D. K. Wil-
gus has kindly loane d m e several broadsid e ballad s o n Sullivan . Significantly , b y th e
1880s songs about fighters seem to have been les s numerous than i n the days of Mor-
rissey, Hyer, and Yankee Sullivan. Perhaps this indicates prize fighting's growing dis-
tance from th e folk lif e of the streets, the ring's institutionalization a s part of commer-
cial culture . The Magriel ms . (a collection o f newspaper report s of bare-knuckle fights)
contains severa l cartoon s fro m unspecifie d source s parodyin g well-bre d Bostonian s
fawning ove r Sullivan. Se e also George P. Rawick, ed,, The American Slave: A Com-
posite Autobiography (Westport , Conn. , 1977) , suppl. ser . I , vol . 11 : South Carolina,
p. 103 ; Dulles, p. 227; and Modern Gladiator, p. 353.
65. Modern Gladiator, pp . 196-97 , 194-95 ; Donovan , p . 13T ; and Sullivan , Life
and Reminiscences, pp . 213-16.
66. Frank Leslie's Weekly, July 27, 1889.
67. Sullivan , Life and Reminiscences, pp . 217-19 ; Betts, America's Sporting Heri-
tage, p. 142.
68. Bram e and Alexander, Reports of Cases Decided by the Supreme Court of Missis-
sippi, October Term, l88ŷ, and April Term, i8ço (Philadelphia , 1890) , pp. 345-56; Sul-
livan, Life and Reminiscences, pp . 219-21 ; Elme r A . Million , "Th e Enforceabilit y o f
Prize Figh t Statutes, " Kentucky Law Review 2 7 (Novembe r 1938) : 155 ; an d Jeffre y
Thomas Sammons , "America i n the Ring: The Relationship between Boxin g and Soci-
ety, circa 1930-1980 " (diss., University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 1982) , pp. 7-14.
69. Thi s is Mike Donovan's phrase in Roosevelt I Know, p. 187.
70. Fleischer , Ring Record Book pp. 24-25, 42; Sullivan, Life and Reminiscences,
pp. 221-28 , chap. 11 ; Chidsey, chap . 17 ; and Isenberg , persona l correspondence . O n
the concept of celebrity se e Daniel J. Boorstin, The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events
in America (Ne w York , 1978) , chap. 2 ; and Warre n I . Sussman , Culture as History:
The Transformation of American Society in the Twentieth Century (Ne w York, 1984) ,
chaps. 8, 14.
71. Chidsey , chap . 18 ; Sullivan, Life and Reminiscences, chaps . 11-12 ; challeng e
quoted i n Willia m Edga r Harding , Life and Battles of James J. Corbett (Ne w York ,
1892), pp . 25-26 . Sulliva n claime d tha t stag e commitment s prevente d hi m fro m
fighting.

• 3II •
 NOTES T O PAGES 2 3 9 - 2 4 3

72. Donovan , pp . 148-68 ; Harding, Life and Battles ofCorbett, p . 27. According t o
Donovan, Corbet t late r sough t advic e fro m Kearne y o n investin g i n Bron x rea l estate ,
p. 190 .
73. Harding , Life and Battles of Corbett, p . 27 ; Dulles, p . 210 ; and especiall y Ala n
Woods, "Jame s J . Corbett : Theatrica l Star, " Journal of Sport History 3 (Summe r
1976): 162-75 . J ° e Choynsk i an d Pete r Jackso n als o ha d attaine d sufficien t celebrit y
status t o appea r i n Uncle Tom's Cabin, managin g t o spa r durin g th e adaptatio n o f thi s
abolitionist work .
74. I n additio n t o th e New York World itsel f se e Betts , Sporting Heritage, pp . 6 3 -
68, 377 ; " A Poin t i n Journalism, " The Nation 5 6 (Marc h 23 , 1893) : 209-10 . Fo r a n ex -
cellent discussio n o f th e developmen t o f th e urba n popula r press , se e Barth , chap . 3 .
Isenberg, chap . 12 , is the authorit y o n th e Corbet t fight.
75. See , fo r examples , Jame s Edwar d Sullivan , The Life and Battles of James J.
Corbett (Ne w York , 1892) , chaps . 1-2 ; an d Harding , Life and Battles of Corbett,
chap. 1 and p . 44 ; Isenberg , persona l correspondence . Th e realit y o f Corbetť s lif e
was les s attractiv e tha n hi s pres s image , fo r h e wa s a deepl y mood y an d eve n bruta l
man. Fo r a n exampl e o f th e Corbet t image , se e Nathanie l Fleischer , An Informal
History of Heavyweight Boxing from i^/ig to the Present Day (Ne w York , 1949) ,
chap. 10 .
76. Adams , "Ne w Orlean s a s th e Nationa l Cente r o f Boxing, " pp . 96-100 ; New
Orleans Daily States, Januar y 3 , 1890 , quoted i n Somers , Rise of Sport, p . 174 .
77. Se e Somers , pp . 174-91 ; Adams , "Ne w Orlean s a s th e Nationa l Cente r o f Box -
ing," pp . 96-100 ; New Orleans Daily Picayune, Januar y 19 , 1891 ; New Orleans Times
Democrat, Januar y 16 . 1891.
78. Me n fro m al l thes e profession s attende d th e Sullivan-Corbet t fight. The y testi -
fied i n favo r o f suc h matche s i n "Stat e o f Louisian a vs . Th e Olympi c Club, " Henr y
Demis, reporter , Reports of Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of
Louisiana 46 , pt . 2 , 189 4 (Ne w Orleans , 1895) : 952-57 . Se e als o vol . 77 , 189 5 (Ne w
Orleans, 1896) : 1096-99 ; Sammons , pp . 7-14 .
79. Somers , pp . 174-91 ; Adams , "Ne w Orlean s a s th e Nationa l Cente r o f Boxing, "
pp. 96-100 . A s Melvi n Adelma n point s out , th e gamble r promote s hi s man , th e entre -
preneur promote s th e whol e spectacle : "Th e Developmen t o f Moder n Athletics : Spor t
in Ne w Yor k City , 1820-1870 " (diss. , Universit y o f Illinois , 1980) .
80. Thi s interpretatio n i s take n fro m Somers' s excellen t discussion , pp . 174-91 ;
Harding, Life of John L. Sullivan, an d Life and Battles of Corbett als o discus s fight
arrangements. Als o se e Adams , "Ne w Orlean s a s th e Nationa l Cente r o f Boxing, " pp .
96-100.
81. New Orleans Picayune, Septembe r 8 , 1892 .
82. Donovan , chaps . 9 , 10 ; Somers , pp . 183-84 . Newspaper s spille d incredibl e
amounts o f in k fo r week s befor e an d afte r th e battle . Se e especiall y Police Gazette,
New York World, an d New Orleans Picayune.
83. New York Herald, Augus t 28 , 1892 , quote d i n Somers , Rise of Sport, p . 179 ;
Chicago Daily Tribune, Septembe r 8 , 1892 , quoted i n Betts , p. 77.
84. Somers , pp . 179-83 ; Adams , "Ne w Orlean s a s th e Nationa l Cente r fo r
Boxing," pp . 101-5 . A crow d o f cheerin g black s greete d Dixo n outsid e th e aren a
and heralde d hi m a s thei r champion . Th e followin g da y th e Times Democrat calle d

• 312 •
 NOTES TO PAGES 244-25O

the fight a mistake, and the Picayune declare d that the Olympic Club had "learned it s
lesson."
85. Somers , pp. 179-83 ; Adams, "New Orleans as the National Center for Boxing,"
pp. 101-5 ; New Orleans Picayune, Septembe r 7, 8, 1892 ; New York World, September
7, 8 , 1892 ; New Orleans Times Democrat, Septembe r 7 , 8 , 1892 ; and Isenberg , pro -
logue, p. 21 .
86. Th e Blocton [Ala.] Courier, September 2, 1892 , claimed that "this is a spirit of
entertainment whic h shoul d b e encouraged. " M y thank s t o Charles E . Adam s o f th e
University of Alabama for this reference .
87. Somers , pp . 183-85 ; Chicago Tribune, Septembe r 9 , 1892 ; Harding, Life and
Battles of Corbett, chap. 7; quoted from Sullivan , Life of Corbett, p. 35; Harding, Life
of John L. Sullivan, pp . 92-102; and James Connors, Illustrated History of the Great
Corbett-Sullivan Ring Battle (Buffalo , 1892) . Connor' s boo k use d illustration s an d
symbols t o indicat e th e locatio n o f eac h punch , claimin g tha t Sulliva n receive d 14 1
blows to the head and 45 to the body. Lieut. Col. A. A. Woodhull also saw the fight as
proof tha t spee d an d agility—which , h e pointed out , the arm y coul d trai n me n for —
were superior to brute strength, and that force mus t be made effective throug h intelli -
gence, a n importan t lesso n fo r moder n arme d forces . Donal d J . Mrozek , Sport and
American Mentality, 1880-1910 (Knoxville , 1983) , p. 56.
88. Willia m Lyo n Phelps , Autobiography with Letters (Ne w York , 1939) , p. 356;
Adams, "Ne w Orlean s a s th e Nationa l Cente r o f Boxing, " pp. 104-5 ; and New York
Times, September 8 , 1892 . Needless t o say, San Franciscans wer e ecstatic and Bosto-
nians saddened .
89. Theodor e Dreiser, A Book about Myself (New York, 1922) , pp. 150-51 .
90. Dibble , chaps. 5-8 ; als o se e Georg e Bellows' s painting , "Introducin g Joh n L .
Sullivan." On Sullivan's last years, see especially Isenberg , chaps. 1 3 and 14.
91. Seto n quote d i n Joseph an d Elizabet h Pleck , eds. , The American Man (Engle -
wood Cliffs, N.J. , 1980) . p. 25. See also Joseph F. Kett, Rites of Passage: Adolescence
in America, 1790 to the Present (Ne w York , 1977) , p. 23 ; Rader, p . 103 ; Isenberg,
prologue.
92. Vache l Lindsay, "John L. Sullivan, the Strong Boy of Boston," in Mark Harris,
ed., Selected Poems of Vachel Lindsay (Ne w York, 1963) , p. 13.
93. Christia n K . Messenger , Sport and the Spirit of Play in American Fiction:
Hawthorne to Faulkner (New York, 1981) , pp. 93-95.

Epilogue. The Manly Art

1. Elliot t J . Gorn, "Th e Manass a Maule r an d th e Fightin g Marine : A n Interpreta -

tion o f th e Dempsey-Tunne y Fights, " Journal of American Studies 1 9 (Apri l 1985) :
28-31; Randy Roberts, Jack Dempsey: The Manassa Mauler (Baton Rouge, 1979) , pp.
228-29.
2. Thi s interpretatio n i s eloquentl y pu t fort h b y Lawrenc e Levin e fo r Afro -
American expressiv e cultur e i n Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-
American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (Ne w York , 1977) . See especiall y
the sections of Jack Johnson, Joe Louis, and the Epilogue, pp. 429-37, 441-45.

• 313 •
 NOTES TO PAGES 25O-254

3. Se e T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transforma-

tion of American Culture, 1880-ıç20 (Ne w York , 1981) , chap . 3 ; Warre n Susman ,
Culture as History: The Transformation of AmericanSociety in the Twentieth Century
(New York, 1984) , chaps. 8, 11 , 14.
4. Cf . Victo r W. Turner, "Limina l t o Liminoid i n Play, Flow and Ritual : A n Essa y
in Comparative Symbology, " Rice University Studies 6 0 (Summer 1974) : 52-92.
5. Testifyin g a t th e trial o f William Poole' s allege d murderers , Johnny Ling , a sa-
loonkeeper, use d th e wor d "artists " t o describ e skille d gambler s an d pugilist s wh o
won by playing within the rules. New York Times, December 7, 1855.
6. O n boxin g i n twentieth-centur y stree t gang s se e Willia m Foot e Whyte , Street
Corner Society (Chicago , 1943) .
7. Se e Edwar d Anthon y Rotundo , "Manhoo d i n America : Th e Norther n Middl e
Class, 1770-1920 " (diss., Brandeis University, 1982) , chap. 2; Benjamin Franklin , The
Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (Ne w York , 1944) , p . II ; an d Horati o Alger ,
Ragged Dick (New York, 1962) , pp. 43-44.
8. Cf . Ervin g Goffman , "Wher e th e Actio n Is, " in hi s Interaction Ritual (Garde n
City, N.Y, 1967) , pp. 266-69.
9. Pete r Tamony , a n amateu r linguist , argue s i n persona l correspondenc e tha t
"fancy," no t "fanatic" a s most dictionarie s claim , i s the sourc e o f th e wor d "fan. " H e
makes a persuasive case.

• 314 •
 Selected Bibliograph y

Melvin L. Adelman, A Sporting Time: New York City and the Rise of Modern Athlet-
ics, 1820-18yo (Champaign, University of Illinois Press, 1990).
William J . Baker , Sports in the Western World (Champaign , Universit y o f Illinoi s
Press, 1988) .
Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race
in the United States, 1880-191γ (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1996) .
David Block, Baseball Before We Knew It: A Search for the Roots of the Game (Lin -
coln, Bison Books, 2006).
Kasia Boddy, Boxing: A Cultural History (London , Reaktion Books, 2009).
Anthony Burgos , Playing America's Game: Baseball, Latinos, and the Color Line
(Berkeley, University o f California Press , 2007).
Susan Cahn, Coming on Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth Century Women's
Sports (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1998).
George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay
Male World, i8ço-iç4o (Ne w York, Basic Books, 1995).
R.W. Connell, Masculinities (Berkeley , University of California Press , 2005).
David D . Gilmore, Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity (Ne w
Haven, Yale University Press, 1991).
Warren Goldstein , Playing for Keeps: A History of Early Baseball (Ithaca , Cornel l
University Press, 2009 edition).
Elliott J . Gor n an d Warre n Goldstein , A Brief History of American Sports (Cham -
paign, University o f Illinois Press, 2004).
Allen Guttman , From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (Ne w York ,
Columbia Universit y Press, 2004).
Stephen Hardy , How Boston Played: Sport, Recreation and Community, i86¦-i9i¦
(Knoxville, University of Tennessee Press, new ed, 2003).
Kristen L . Hoganson , Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics Pro-
voked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (New Haven , Yal e
University Press, 2000).
Michael T . Isenberg , John L. Sullivan and His America (Champaign , Universit y o f
Illinois Press, 1994).

• 315 •
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPH Y

Michael S . Kimmel , Manhood in America: A Cultural History (Ne w York , Oxfor d

University Press , 2005).
George B . Kirsch , Baseball and Cricket: The Creation of American Team Sports,
1838-1872 (Champaign , University o f Illinois Press, 2007).
Peter Levine, A.G. Spalding and the Rise of Baseball: The Promise of American Sport
(New York, Oxford Universit y Press, 1986).
J.A. Mangan an d James Walvin, eds. Manliness and Morality: Middle-Class Mascu-
linity in Britain and America, 1800-ıç40 (Ne w York, St Martins Press, 1987).
Daniel A . Nathan , Saying It's So: A Cultural History of the Black Sox Scandal,
(Champaign, University o f Illinois Press, 2005).
Dana D. Nelson, National Manhood: Capitalist Citizenship and the Imagined Frater-
nity of White Men (Durham, Duke University Press , 1998).
Jean O'Reill y an d Susa n K . Cahn , eds , Women and Sports in the United States: A
Documentary Reader (Boston , Northeastern Universit y Press, 2007).
Michael Oriard , Reading Football: How the Popular Press Created An American
Spectacle (Chape l Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
Ted Ownby, Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation and Manhood in the Rural South,
1865-1920 (Chapel Hill, University o f North Carolina Press, 1993).
John Pettegrew , Brutes in Suits: Male Sensibility in America, 1890-1920 (Baltimore,
Johns Hopkins University Press , 2007).
Steven W. Pope, ed, The New American Sports History: Recent Approaches and Per-
spectives (Champaign , University of Illinois Press, 1996).
Benjamin Rader , American Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Tele-
vised Sports (Uppe r Saddle River, NJ, Prentice Hall, 6th edition, 2008).
Benjamin Rader , Baseball: A History of America's Game (Champaign , University o f
Illinois Press, 2008).
Steven A. Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise
of Sports (Champaign , University o f Illinois Press, 1991).
E. Anthony Rotundo , American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the
Revolution to the Modern Era (New York, Basic Books, 1994).
Jeffrey T . Sammons , Beyond the Ring: The Role of Boxing in American Society
(Champaign, University of Illinois Press, 1990).
Dan Streible, Fight Pictures: A History of Boxing and Early Cinema (Berkeley , Uni-
versity of California Press , 2008).
Martin Summers , Manliness and Its Discontents: The Black Middle Class and the
Transformation of Masculinity, 1900-1930 (Chapel Hill, University of North Caro-
lina Press, 2003).
Jules Tygiel , Past Time: Baseball as History (Ne w York , Oxfor d Universit y Press ,
2001).
Loic Wacquant , Body and Soul: Notebooks of an Apprentice Boxer (Ne w York , Ox-
ford University Press , 2006).
Geoffrey C . Ward, Unforgiveable Blackness: The Rise and Fall of Jack Johnson (Ne w
York, Vintage, 2006).
G. Edwar d White , Creating the National Pastime (Princeton , Princeto n Universit y
Press, 1998).

• 3l6 •
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPH Y

David K . Wiggins, ed, Sport in America: From Wicked Amusement to National Ob-
session Champaign, IL: Human Kinetic s Publishers, 1995) .
David W. Zang, Fleet Walker's Divided Heart: The Life of Baseball's First Black Ma-
jor Leaguer (Lincoln , University of Nebraska Press , 1995).

• 317 •
 Index

The abbreviation "pf " means "prize fighting"

Aaron, Barney, 106,21 1 Baseball, 180 , 209

Absalom! Absalom! (Faulkner) , 35 Battle colors, 42, 75, 92, 118 , 149, 152, 214
The Aeneid (Virgil) , 23 Battle of Hastings. See Lilly-McCoy fight
Alcott, William, 68 Beasley, Tom, 38
Alger, Horatio, 252 Beecher, Henry Ward, 130 , 197, 228
Ali, Muhammad, 159 , 250 Belcher, Jem, 24
Allen, Tom, 169 , 172, 173, 174 Bell. William, 71-7 2
Amateur sports, 185-18 8 Bellows, George, 198
Ambrose, James. See Sullivan, "Yankee" Bell's Life in London, 58 , 70, 150 , 168
American Fistiana, 36 , 38, 45, 47, 70, 71 , Bennett, James Gordon, 62, 83
100, 124,167, 172 , 176 Bennett, James Gordon, Jr., 18 3
American Jocke y Club, 12 6 Bergh, Henry, 228
Anti-bourgeois character o f pf, 107 , 129-147 Bevins, Jim, 45
Apprenticeship system of labor, 131-133 . See Blaine, James G,, 19 8
also Working-clas s Books on pf, 10 0
Aristocracy (English) , 27, 32 Borrow, George, 22
Army of the Potomac's Sixth Corps, 161-16 2 Boston Evening Transcript, 49
Articles of Agreement, 41,42, 87 The Bostonians (James) , 192
Artistic interpretations o f pf, 51 , 197-198 . Boston Pilot, 215
See also Poetic treatments of pf Bourgeois ethic, 67, 98-99, 131 , 139-143,
Art of pf, 250-25 1 146-147, 182^206 , 227, 250-254
The Art of Pugilism (O'Rourke) , 10 0 "The Boxer " (short story), 63
Astor, Vincent, 248 Boxing without a Master (Swift), 10 0
Athletic clubs, 185-186 , 190 , 241-242. See Boyle, Pete, 161
also Upper class Bradley, Dominick, 99, 113-114
Atkinson's Casket, 63 Brady, William, 239
Brahmins. See Upper class
Bachelor subculture, 141-142 , 181 , 208. See Brettle, Bob, 169
also Fancy, the; Male aesthetic of pf ; Brobst, Reverend, 199-20 0
Manliness; Working class Broughton, Jack, 24
Badcock, John, 26 Brown, Edmund Randolph , 16 3
Baer, Max, 11 Browne, Junius Henri, 10 2
Baker, Lew, 117 Buell, Augustus, 162
Barnum, P. T., 183 Buffalo Commercial Advertiser, 11 3
Barrett, G. L., 48 Burgoyne, Gen. John, 101

• 319 •
 INDEX

Burke, James "Deaf," 42, 43, 44-45 The Complete Art of Boxing (Sharpies) ,
Burns, Jem, 32 100
Burns, Patrick, 41,4 6 Comstock, Anthony , 18 2
Burns, Tom, 92 Conkling, Roscoe, 197 , 198, 220
Butchers, 85, 137 Connors, Michael "Shanghai," 17 1
Byrne, Simon, 42 The Contrast (Tyler) , 252
Byron, George Gordon, Lord, 25, 30 Conway, Jack, 17 4
Corbett, James J., 199 , 238, 239, 240, 241,
Cahan, Abraham , 226 242-245
Canada: fights in, 104 , 113-114 , 117-11 9 "Corinthians," 19 . See also the Fancy
Capitalist ethos , 13 2 Corruption i n pf, 169-17 0
Caunt, Benjamin, 8 0 in England, 31 , 151, 166
Caunt, Robert, 82-8 3 fixed fights, 31, 172-17 3
Ceremonial element s of pf, 38 , 87-88. See gratuitous violence, 45, 46-47, 171 , 173 —
also Battle colors; Challenges; Cham- 174
pionships, awarding of newspaper coverage of, 176-17 7
Challenges, publication of , 99-10 0 outlaw status of pf and, 171-17 2
by John C. Heenan, 116 , 148 ruthlessness, 17 7
by J. L. Sullivan, 210, 216, 218, 238 See also Street gang s
by Y. Sullivan, 86-8 7 Costello. Billy, 174
Chambers, Arthur, 21 3 Creek, Philip , 161
Championships, awarding of, 95 , 105, 230-231 Crib, Tom, 19-22 , 34, 50
Chandler, Tommy, 169 , 209 Cribb Club, 199
Chandler, Zackary, 19 8 Criticism o f pf :
Channing, William Ellery , 13 0 atavism concerns , 90
Chaplin, Charlie, 248 class bias in, 64
Charleston Mercury, 5 3 hedonism concerns , 64
Chicago Daily Tribune, 24 3 by middle class, 59, 67-68, 13 9
Choynski, Joe, 222, 243 by middle class in England, 29, 31-32
Christian Advocate, 9 6 mobs, preoccupation with , 96
Cincinnati Re d Stockings, 209 in newspapers, 59-63, 73, 78-79, 111-112 ,
Civil War, 160-16 4 120-122,223
Clay, Charles E. , 201 public moralit y concerns , 62, 64, 79
Cleary, Mike, 233 republicanism concerns , 59—61, 64
Cobbett, William, 3 0 ring deaths and, 77-8 0
Coburn, Joe, 105 , 114, 166 , 168-169, 170, satanic image s in, 79
173, 174 in short stories, 63
College athletics, 185 , 188, 191. See also social disruptio n concerns , 61
Athletic clubs; Sports, upper-clas s by upper class, 59
support fo r and youth, 10 2
Collins, Charlie, 172 See also Middle class; Upper class
Color line in pf, 218 , 238-239 Cruikshank, George , 21, 25, 30, 51
Columbian Sentinel, 4 8 Cruikshank, Rober t Isaac , 21, 25, 28
Commercial Athleti c Club, 19 9 Cultural aspect s of pf, 26-27 , 29-30, 107 -
Commercialization o f pf : 108, 129-147 , 251. See also Ethnic con-
athletic clubs and, 241-24 2 flicts: specific social classes
business orientation, 241-242 , 249 Cunningham, "Dad, " 110 , 117
emphasis on entertainment, 25 1 Currier an d Ives, 150 , 153 , 158
marketing of fighters, 221-222 Cusick, James, 123 , 148
promoters and, 205
promotion o f manliness, 253 Dailey, Pete, 172
published challenges, 10 0 Dana, Charles A., 197 , 220, 226
rules of pf and, 205 Darwinism, 18 9
sparring exhibition s and, 106-10 7 Davis, Richard Harding, 19 7
touring b y fighters, 105-106, 219-221 Dawson, Daniel L., 200-20 1
working-class culture and, 129-13 3 Deaths from pf , 73-80 , 173-17 4

• 320 •
 INDEX

Decline of pf (1840s), 80-81 pf's bridgin g of, 67 , 249-250

Decline of pf (1870s), 169-17 8 Protestant-Catholic enmity , 11 3
"Defense o f Pugilism" (Cobbett), 30 Y. Sullivan's career and, 70-7 3
Democracy o f the ring, 66 See also Working clas s
Dempsey, Jack, "The Nonpareil," 222, 241 "Eulogy o f Boxing and Cock Fighting "
Dempsey, William Harriso n "Jack, " 159 , 248 (Knight), 57
Diagoras, 22
Dixon, George "Little Chocolate," 204, 222, Fancy, the, 19 , 28-29, 98-108, 129-147 , 254
243 See also English priz e fighting, working
Donaldson, John, 210 class appeal fo r
Donnelly, Billy, 170 Faulconer, John, 36
Donovan, Mike, 197 , 199, 200, 209, 221, Faulkner, William, 35
232, 234, 235, 239, 243 Feminization o f society, 192-194 , 201-20 2
Dougherty, Hugh, 174 Fig, James, 24
Dowling, Francis, 150 , 155 "The Fight" (Hazlitt), 25-26
Dowling, Vincent, 26 Fighters:
Dreiser, Theodore, 245-24 6 alcohol consumption durin g fights, 234
Duane, "Dutch" Charlie, 109 , 123 biographies of, 22 2
Dueling, 54, 81,99-100 charitable activities by, 124-125, 165
Dwyer, Dan, 209 colors of, 42 , 75, 92, 118 , 149, 152,
214
Eakins, Thomas, 197-19 8 as heroes an d champions, 69, 122-123,
Earp, Wyatt, 16 5 129-147, 177-178 , 224-227, 249
Edison, Thomas A., 183 immigrant fighters, 42, 44-47, 134-137,
Egan, Pierce, 19-20 , 26-27, 36, 51 169
Elliott, Jimmy, 170 , 174 , 218 marketing of , 129,221-22 2
English prize fighting: newspaper interviews with, 215
aristocracy's interes t in , 27, 32 occupations of , 45-46 , 85, 137
Crib-Molineaux fights, 19-2 2 politics, involvement in, 125 , 126-127,
cultural aspects of, 26-3 0 135
decline of, 30-33 , 151 , 166 postboxing careers, 123-12 7
Hickman-Neate fight, 25-26 sparring, involvement in, 50
labor's attitude toward, 30 titles for, 10 5
male aesthetic of, 2 7 touring by, 105-106 , 219-221
middle-class opposition to , 29, 31-32 See also Trials of fighters; specific fighters
national hono r and, 20-2 2 Finnegas, Harry, 99, 105
origins of, 2 3 Fire brigades, volunteer, 133-13 4
outlawing of, 3 2 Fitzgerald, Con, 16 6
peak of grandeur, 2 6 Fitzsimmons, "Ruby" Robert, 222, 241
popularity of, 22 , 24 Fixed fights, 31, 172-173
rules, development of, 2 4 Flannagan, Robert, 45
in the 1700s , 24 Flood, John, 211,212
social equality through , 29-30, 67 Flynn, J. William, 213
Y. Sullivan's fights, 70 Football, 18 0
as urban phenomenon, 23-24, 27-2 9 Ford, Barney, 99, 173
working class appeal for , 29, 32 Ford, Mike, 172
Ethnic conflicts : Ford, William, 73
economic change and, 13 6 Fox, Richard Kyle , 181, 183, 211, 215, 218,
English-American enmity , 80, 165-166. See 219, 222, 227, 229, 230-231, 242
also Heenan-Sayers fight France, 51, 229-23 0
Irish-American enmity , 71, 110. See also Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper, 117, 119,
Sullivan, "Yankee"-Hyer fight 120,150-151,199,236
Irish-English enmity , 42, 44-45, 46, 70-71, Franklin, Benjamin , 25 2
82-83 Frank Merriwell at Yale, 183
North-South enmity , 166 , 168 Freeman, Charles , 80-8 1
pf as channel for, 87 , 136-13 7 Friery, Barney, 173

321
 INDEX

Fuller, William, 50-51 , 52 , 53-54, 99 Heenan, John C, 114 , 115 , 116, 124 , 135,
Furman, Gabriel, 53 160
death of, 16 6
Gambling: King fight, 165-16 6
middle-class ideal s and, 64, 68, 139-14 0 as national hero , 158-15 9
J. Morrissey a s gambler-businessman , See also Heenan-Sayer s fight; Morrissey-
125-126 Heenan fight
Morrissey-Heenan fight, 11 8 Heenan-Sayers fight, 148-15 7
J. L. Sullivan-Corbett fight, 243 Hennessey, David, 232
J. L. Sullivan-Kilrain fight, 233 Herbert, William Henry , 68
J. L. Sullivan-Ryan fight, 213, 214 "Hibernian crowing, " 71
Y. Sullivan-Hyer fight, 94 Hicken, Harry, 174 , 176
working-class attitud e toward, 139-14 0 Hickman, Tom "The Gas-man," 24, 25-2 6
See also specifi c fights Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, 130 , 160
Gans, Joe, 222 Hill. Harry, 183 , 184
Gardner, Orvill e "Awful," 11 1 Historical consciousnes s o f pf, 38-39 , 99,
Gazette of the United States, 5 9 101
Geoghegan, Owney, 17 4 Hogan, Ben, 174
Geographical bas e of pf, 82 , 104-105 , 165, Hogarth, William, 30
220-221 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Jr., 191-19 2
George IV, King of England, 2 6 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Sr.. 130 , 149,
Gericault, Theodore, 51 194-195
Giddings, Franklin, 18 7 Homoerotic elements of pf. See Male aes-
Giddings, Jim, 99 thetic of pf, Manlines s
Hone, Philip, 53, 78, 95-96
Gloves, use of, 47-56 , 203-205, 220-224,
Honest Hearts and Willing Hands (play) ,
238
221,237
Godfrey, Captain , 2 4
Honor. See National hono r and pf; Persona l
Godkin, E. L., 239
honor
Golden, Jaspar J., 74
Horrigan, Denny , 114 , 162
"The Good Time Coming" (Queen), 103
Horse racing, 12 6
Goss, Joe, 169 , 174,209,21 1 Hudson, J., 49
Greek priz e fighting, 22, 23 Humphries, Richard, 24 , 27
Greeley, Horace , 79 Hyer, Jacob, 38
Gregson, Bob , 24 Hyer, Tom, 39, 71, 84, 99, 104 , 110 , 112,
Gribben, Harry, 99, 114 , 137 134, 135,24 9
Grievance resolutio n throug h pf , 81 , 89 , death of, 123-12 4
162-163 See also Sullivan , "Yankee"-Hyer fight
Guest, Douglass , 51
Gully, John, 24 Iconography o f the ring, 149-15 0
Immigrants:
Hall, G.Stanley, 197,20 0 fighters among, 42, 44-47, 16 9
Hamilton, Alexander, 45, 109 Irish, 83, 85
Hammond, Ned, 40-41, 5 0 tensions re, 39-46, 83, 85, 136-13 8
Hammond, Vincent , 70 working-class status , 131-13 2
Harding, William Edgar , 177 , 212, 229, 233 See also Ethnic conflict s
Harper's New Monthly Magazine. 120-12 1 Ingham, Charles Cromwell , 51 , 52
Harper's Weekly, 122, ' 149, 150 , 186, 223
Harriman, W. Averill, 248 Jackson, Andrew, 68
Harrington, Bill, 45, 46, 12 4 Jackson, "Gentleman" John, 24, 25, 31
Harris, Dooney, 169,21 1 Jackson, Peter, 222. 238, 243
Hart, Jimmy, 99. 105 James, Ed, 17 7
Hart, Peter G., 46 James, Henry, 19 2
Hastings, Bill "Dublin Tricks," 165 Jefferson, Thomas , 59
Hatfield, Bill , 45, 50 Jeffries, Jim . 19 7
Hat i n the ring tradition, 42 Jerolomon, Jim, 13 4
Hazlitt, William, 25-2 6 Jerome, Lawrence, 197 , 220

• 322 •
 INDEX

Jerome, Leonard W., 126 McLewee, Col. Frederick, 239

Johnson, Col. Ransom, 68 Madden, Billy, 45, 211,220
Johnson, Jack, 196 , 248 Male aesthetic of pf, 27 , 65, 74-75, 92,
Johnston, Charlie, 233 140-142, 168 , 201
Jones, Aaron, 15 1 Manliness, 13 , 101, 140-147, 198-202 ,
252-253
Kearney, Edward, Jr., 239 Marciano, Rocky, 250
Keats, John, 30 Marquis of Queensbury rules , 56
Keily, Harry P., 235 English adoption, 16 6
Kelly, Manny, 46, 74 pf's adoption , 202-206, 210-211, 218-224,
Kensett, George, 40-41, 50,74,76-77 , 238-239
99 Marti, Jose, 213
Kilrain, Jake (Joseph Killion), 199 , 222, Massachusetts Sentinel, 59
230-235, 242 Masterson, Bat, 165 , 233
King, Tom, 165-16 6 Mellon, Andrew, 248
Knight, R. Payne, 57-58 Mencken, Adah Isaacs, 116 , 149
Mendoza, Daniel, 24
Middle class:
Lane, Hammer, 70
Langan, Jack, 24, 47 acceptance of pf, 158-159 , 194-206 , 216-
Laville, Jimmie, 162 225,250-254
Lazarus, Harry, 114 , 162, 173, 174 attitude toward gambling, 64-68,77, 139 -
Lazarus, Izzy, 99, 113 140
Lazarus, Johnny, 17 2 criticism of pf, 59 , 67-68, 76-81, 102-103 ,
Lears, Jackson, 18 9 107-108, 119-122 , 139-146 , 223
Leonard, Benny, 11 , 250 criticism of pf (in England), 29, 31-32
Life and Battles of Yankee Sullivan, The, 10 0 fascination wit h urban underground , 182 -
184
Life in London (Egan) , 51, 98
sexual identity concerns, 140-141 , 192-19 4
Lilly, Chris, 73-76, 81, 104 , 123
support for sports, 192-19 4
Lilly-McCoy fight, 73-81
See also Upper class
Lindsay, Vachel, 247
Military an d pf, 159-16 4
Lippincotťs Monthly, 200-20 1 Milwaukee Sentinel and Gazette, 10 0
Literary Magazine and American Register, 57 , Mitchell, Charlie, 228, 229-230, 232-233,
60
234, 238,239
Locker-Lampson, Frederick , 15 5 Mix, Tom, 248
Lodge, Henry Cabot, 18 8 Molineaux, Tom, 19-21 , 34-36, 50-51
London, Jack, 19 8 Moneghan, Johnny, 105-10 6
London Sportsman, 16 6 Montgomery, John, 10 6
Louis, Joe, 11 , 159 Moreland, Sandy, 171
Morris, Robert, 76
MacAuliffe, Jack , 222, 243 Morrissey, John "Old Smoke," 115, 135,
McCann, Tom, 10 9 152, 165
McCleester, John "Country," 71, 73, 76-77, early years, 108-11 0
88, 89,90, 92, 134 , 160 gambling interests, 125-12 6
McCoole, Mike, 166 , 168-169, 170 , 174 Harrington benefit, 124-12 5
McCoy, Pete, 221 involvement in horse racing, 12 6
McCoy, Tom, 73-76, 78-79 as legendary character, 122-12 3
MacDonald, Jack, 16 6 political career, 125 , 126-127
Mace, Jem, 169,172-173 , 221, 227 Poole fight, 113
McGovern, Terry, 222 retirement from th e ring, 122
McGrath, William, 17 4 Y. Sullivan fight, 110-112
McGraw, John, 248 Thompson fight, 110
MacKey, Johnny, 99, 105 violent temperament of, 112-11 3
McLain, John, 45 Morrissey-Heenan fight, 114, 116-122
McLane, Andrew, 46,47,6 6 Muldonado, Epitacis "Muchach," 174
MacLaughlin, Paudeen, 117 Muldoon, William, 231,23 3

• 323 •
 INDEX

"Muscular Christianity," 180 . See also Sport s New York Illustrated News, 15 1
Myer, Billy, 243 New York Illustrated Times, 93
New York Magazine, 6 0
Nation, The, 239 New York Mercury, 16 9
National hono r and pf, 20-22 , 80, 149 , 152, New York Morning Express, 7 3
157-159 New York Spectator, 6 1
National Intelligencer, 4 8 New York Sporting Magazine, 5 8
National Police Gazette, 83 , 88, 89, 175 , 181 , New York Sun, 94 , 213
184, 203, 211, 213, 215, 222, 236, 239, New York Sunday Mercury, 9 5
244. See also Fox, Richard Kyle New York Times, 100 , 112, 122, 125, 144,
Neale, Ned, 32 150, 157 , 215, 235, 245, 248
Neate, William, 25-2 6 New York Tribune, 78-79, 100 , 111, 117 ,
Neighborhood focu s o f pf, 39-40 , 132-13 6 120, 127
Nelson, J. A., 16 5 New York World, 235, 239
New Englander, 10 2 Night clubs, 182
New Jersey Emporium and True American, Night fights, 37, 38,211, 243-24 5
66 Nile's Weekly Register, 68
New Jersey State Gazette, 6 7 Norris, Frank, 19 7
New Orleans Daily Picayune, 100 , 232, 241, North American Review, 201
242 Norton, Michael, 138 , 172
New Orleans Times-Democrat, 215 , 241,
243-244 O'Baldwin, Ned, 169 , 170, 172, 173
Newspapers: O'Brien, Hugh , 231
British influence on , 40-4 1 O'Donnell, Pat,4 7
coverage of pf: Coburn-McCool e fight, 168, O'Donnell, Tom, 81, 89-90, 91
169; conventions re, 39; first instance Oelricks, Herman, 19 7
of, 39 ; focus on corruption, 176-177 ;
O'Hagan, Jim, 47
Heenan-Sayers fight, 149-151 ; increase
Olympic Club, New Orleans, 238-24 5
in, 41-42, 121-122 ; Morrissey-Heena n
fight, 120-122 ; profits, concerns re, Olympic Club, San Francisco, 19 9
61-62; J. L. Sullivan-Corbett fight, O'Neal, Hugh , 16 5
239, 243-244; J. L. Sullivan-Kilrai n "On Pugilism," 60
fight, 232, 235; J. L. Sullivan-Rya n Oral culture of pf, 98-9 9
fight, 213-214, 215; Y. Sullivan-Hyer O'Reilly, John Boyle, 201-202
fight, 92-94 Orem, Con, 165 , 174
criticism of pf, 59-63 , 73, 78-79, 111-112, Organized athletics , 18 0
120-122, 223 Origins of pf in America, 36-4 7
hypocrisy of , 61 O'Rourke, M, , 162
interviews with fighters, 215 O'Rourke, Samuel , 44, 100
nostalgia for early days of pf, 17 7 Osborn, Duffield, 20 1
sparring, attitude toward, 48-4 9 Outing, 201
sporting newspapers , 181 Outlawing o f pf, 11 , 107-108
sports coverage by, 100 , 181 effect o n corruption i n pf, 171-17 2
support for pf, 42 , 58, 81, 100-104, in England, 32
200-201, 239 . See also National Police fighters' politica l involvemen t and, 135
Gazette; New York Clipper ineffectiveness of , 10 4
See also specific title s in Massachusetts, 103-10 4
New World, 73 in New Jersey, 66-6 7
New York Athletic Club, 186 , 190, 199 in New York, 10 4
New York Clipper, 100-103 , 111 , 114, 116, reforms and , 228
169, 171, 176. See also Queen , in the South, 212-213
Frank J. L. Sullivan-Kilrain fight, and, 236-23 7
New Yorker, 6 3 See also Prevention o f fights attempted;
New York Evening Mirror, 96 Trials of fighters
New York Evening Post, 39 , 49, 61, 111 Overs, George, 70
New York Herald, 42, 44, 62, 78, 83, 100,
125, 243. See also Bennett, Jame s Paddock, Tom, 151
Gordon Palmerston, Lord, 15 2

• 324 •
 INDEX

Parker, Jem. 99 Revival of pf (1880s):

Percy, General the Earl. 35 artists and, 197-19 8
Perry, William, 80 , 151 background for , 185-19 4
Personal honor: concept of, 142-144 , feminization concern s and, 201-20 2
253-254 necessity of reforms, 20 2
Phelan, Jim, 44, 45, 106 newspaper's support for, 200-20 1
Phelps, William Lyon, 245 respectable spectators, 19 7
Pindar, 22 Roosevelt and , 196-19 7
Plays about pf, 51,98 , 221,237 theologians' suppor t for, 199-20 0
Poetic treatments of pf, 23 , 95, 103, 120-121, upper-class support for, 194-195 , 198-19 9
148-149, 155-156, 157 , 216, 235, 247 Rich, Charles, 232
Politics and pf, 125 , 126-127, 135 , 170 Richmond, Bill , 24, 35-36, 50
Poole, William, 113 , 124, 134 , 135 Rickard, Tex, 248
Porter, William T., 58, 62, 78 Riis, Jacob, 182
Porter's Spirit of the Times, 42, 45, 58, Ring: specifications for , 88
62-63, 72 , 78, 80-81, 91 , 95, 100, 176
Roberts, Johnny, 10 5
Prevention o f fights, attempted:
Roman prize fighting, 22-23
legal efforts, 170-171,22 8
Roosevelt, Theodore, 188 , 195-197, 198 , 200,
Lilly-McCoy fight, 74
J. L. Sullivan-Kilrain fight, 232 203. See also Upper class
J.L.Sullivan-Ryan fight, 213 Roper, James, 49
Y. Sullivan-Hyer fight, 91-92 Ruggles, Charles R., 77
See also Outlawing of pf Rules of pf :
Price, Ed, 99, 105, 106-107, 168 Broughton's rules, 24
Promoters, 99, 133-134 , 205, 219-220 effect o n commercialization o f pf, 20 5
Pulitzer, Joseph, 239 London Priz e Ring Rules, 75
referees an d umpires, 45
Queen, Frank, 100-103 , 106 , 116, 125, 171, ritual, concerns re, 88
176 in Y. Sullivan-Hyer fight, 87-88
See also Marquis of Queensbury rule s
Rankin, S . S., 113-11 4 Rupert, Jacob, 248
Reed, Jem, 47, 66 Rusk, Matt, 99
Referees, 45, 173, 242. See also specific fights Ruth, Babe, 248
Reform o f pf : Ryan Paddy , 174,210,211-21 5
acceptance o f pf due to, 241-242 Ryan, Tommy, 222
adoption o f marquis of Queensbury rules , Rynders, Isaiah, 109 , 135
202,204-206
championship fights and , 238-241 Saloons, 70, 81, 82, 98-99, 133-134 , 183 . See
continuation o f outlawing efforts, 22 8 also Working class.
effect o n spectators, 224 Sandow, Eugene, 187
elimination o f bare-knuckle boxing, 201 Sanford, James , 41, 46, 50, 74, 99
fighters' advantage s from, 22 2 San Francisco, "popular tribunal" of, 12 3
referees and , 242 Saratoga Associatio n fo r the Improvement of
retention of underworld flavor, 222-223, 224, the Breed of Horses, 12 6
251
Saratoga race track, 12 6
J. L. Sullivan's suppor t for , 223-22 4
Sargent, Dudley A., 188 , 207
upper class and, 194-20 6
Sargent, Harry, 219
weight classifications, 24 2
See also Middle class; Sullivan, John L - Sayers, Thomas, 148 , 151-152, 154-15 5
Corbett fight; Upper class Schwab, Charles, 248
Regan, James, 99 Secor, Tom, 71
Religious opposition t o pf, 67-68 , 79, 104, Seton, Ernest Thompson, 193 , 246-247
120-122, 146-147 , 182-18 5 Seward, William, 15 9
Renaud, Bud, 232 Sexual identity :
Republicanism, 30 , 59-61, 64, 68 in the middle class, 140-14 1
Revival of pf (1850s), 81-82, 98 pf and, 201-20 2
Revival of pf (1860s), 165 sports and, 187 , 192-194

• 325
 INDEX

Sexual identit y (com.) "strenuous life" concept, 18 8

in the working class, 140-14 3 theologians' suppor t for , 179-18 0
See also Manliness ; Women therapeutic ethic of, 183 , 185
Shanfroid, Henry , 74 upper-class support for, 130 , 185-189,
Sharpies, William, 10 0 191-192
Sharpless, George, 69 violence and, 144-14 5
Sheridan, John, 49 Sports That Kill (Talmage), 179
Short stories about pf, 63 , 197-19 8 Spring, Tom, 24
Skelly, Jack, 204, 243 Stevens, John Cox, 68
Slack, Jack, 50 St. Mery, Moreau de , 37-38
Slade, Herbert, 221,22 7 Street gangs, 85-87, 133 , 134-135, 141-144,
Slave fights, 34-35 172-177
Slavin, Frank P., 238, 239 "Strenuous life " concept, 185-19 4
Smith, Al, 221 Strong, George Templeton, 77-78, 152
Smith, Dan Bendigo, 17 3 Success ethic, 108 , 138-13 9
Smith, Jack, 99 Sullivan, Catherine, 208
Smith, Randall, 46 Sullivan, John L. , 196,217,25 0
Somerendyke, Jake, 45 attitude toward bare-knuckl e boxing , 218
Sparring: challenges by, 210, 216, 218, 238
distinct fro m pf , 47-48 , 53 death of, 24 6
dueling, comparison with , 54 early years, 207-20 8
emphasis on self-defense, 48 , 54 European tour , 229-23 0
Fuller's career in, 50-51, 53-5 4 first prize fight, 210
health an d fitness through, 48-4 9 Flood fight, 211,212
instruction in , 48-4 9 Fox, relations with, 211
involvement o f prize fighters, 50 income of, 22 0
opposition to , 49-50, 55 indictment of , 236-23 7
social acceptabilit y of , 49 , 53 involvement i n semiprofessional sports ,
by soldiers, 161 208-209
upper-class appeal, 54-5 6 as legendary figure, 215-216, 226-227,
violence alleviated through , 53-5 4 245-247
Sparring exhibitions , 50, 106-107 , 116 , 209 marketing of , 221-22 2
Spirit of the Times. See Porter's Spirit of the medical assessmen t of , 20 7
Times; Wilkes, George; Wilkes' Spirit of Mitchell fights, 228, 229-230
the Times physical dissipation , 228-23 0
Sporting Press . See Newspaper s public fascinatio n with , 224-22 6
Sports: show busines s career, 221, 237-238
American antipath y toward , 68 Slade fight, 227, 228
athletic clubs and, 185-186 , 19 0 sparring exhibitions, 209
bourgeois suspicion of , 68 , 102-103, support fo r reform o f pf. 223-22 4
130-131 tours by, 211,219-22 0
business orientation of , 180-18 1 as transcendent symbol , 227
Civil War and, 159-16 1 Wilson fight, 218-219
college athletics, 185 , 188, 191 Sullivan, John L.-Corbet t fight, 239-245
commercialization, 130 , 179-18 5 Sullivan, John L.-Kilrain fight, 230-236
consumerism and , 181-18 3 Sullivan. John L.-Ryan fight, 211-216
Darwinism and , 18 9 Sullivan, Mike, 207-20 8
English, 26-2 9 Sullivan, "Yankee," 84, 104 , 134, 135
justifications for , 102-10 3 British fights, 70
leadership developed through, 191-19 2 Caunt fight, 82-83
middle-class suppor t for, 192-19 4 crossethnic popularit y of , 72-7 3
"moral equivalent of war" concept, 18 8 death of, 12 3
newspaper coverage of, 100 , 181 early America n fights, 70-72
organized athletics , 18 0 Lilly-McCoy fight, 73-76
resistance t o feminization, 192-19 4 Morrissey fight, 110-11 2
sexual identity and, 187 , 192-19 4 saloons of, 70 , 81, 8 2
social acceptance of, 102-10 3 trial of, 76-7 7

• 326 •
 INDEX

Sullivan, "Yankee"-Hyer fight, 83, 85-96 120-122, 129-131 , 139-143 , 146-147,

Support for pf : 179-185, 191-194 , 250-254. See also
critics criticized, 56-5 7 Middle class
by military, 159-16 4 Violence of pf, 2 6
by newspapers, 58, 81, 200-201 gratuitous violence, 45,46-47, 171,
Queen's efforts re , 100-10 3 173-174
by theologians, 199-20 0 reflects working-class life, 27, 144-14 5
by upper class, 57-59, 194-195 , 198-199, Virgil, 23
220, 248-24 9 Virtues of pf, 65-66 , 89-91, 101-10 2
by working class, 129-14 7
See also Virtues of pf Walker, Francis, 191
Swift, Owen , 10 0 Walling, George, 85-86
Wain, Robert, 54-5 5
Talmadge, Norma, 248 Walsh, Mike, 132, 135
Talmage, T. DeWitt, 179-180 , 182 Ward, Jem, 42
Taylor, Steve, 210,221 Weight classifications, 24 2
Telescope, 49 Wellington, Duke of, 10 1
Thackeray, William Makepeace, 15 5 Whitney, Harry Payne , 248
Therapeutic ethi c of sports, 183 , 185 Whitney, William C, 19 8
Thompson, George, 88-89, 91,110 Whole Art of Boxing with Instructions in the
Timony, Patrick, 8 8 Manly Art of Self-Defense, 10 0
Titles for fighters, 105 Wilde, Oscar, 18 3
Tovee, William, 99 Wilkes, George, 150 , 155
Training regimens, 89-91, 116 , 139, 231 mikes' Spirit of the Times, 152 , 157, 169,
Trainor, Mike, 106,16 2 176
Wilson, Ed, 166
Travers, William R., 126,22 0
Wilson, Tug, 218-219
A Treatise on the Useful Science of Defense
Winrow, Joe, 81, 89
(Godfrey), 2 4
Wolcott, Joe, 222
Trials of fighters :
Women, 141-142 , 192-19 4
Lilly-McCoy fight trial, 76-77 Wood, Fernando, 125 , 135
Morrissey's trial, 112 Wood, N. W., 161
J. L. Sullivan's trial, 236-23 7 Woods, Johnny "Cockey," 209
Troy Evening Times, 12 1 Working class:
Tunney, Gene, 11 , 159, 248 attitude toward gambling, 139-14 0
Tyler, Royall, 252 attitude toward money, 139
bachelor subculture, 141-142 , 181,20 8
Underground economy of pf, 46 , 138-14 0 capitalist ethos and, 132
Upper class: decline of apprenticeship system, 61,
criticism o f pf, 5 9 131-133
English aristocracy, 27, 32 ip England, 29, 32
fascination wit h pf, 130-13 1 gender and, 140-14 4
loss of ideals by, 191 growth of, 13 1
slumming, 182-184,19 7 immigrants' statu s as, 131-13 2
sparring's appeal for, 54-5 6 importance of male relationships, 142
support for pf, 57-59 , 194-195 , 198-199, importance of saloons, 133-13 4
220,248-249 isolation of, 67-6 8
support for sports, 130 , 185-189,191-19 2 leisure interests of, 13-14 , 133, 180
See also Middle class personal honor, concept of, 142-14 4
Urban growth , 131 pf's appea l for, 29, 32,132, 137-139 ,
209-210
Vanderbilt, William K., 197 , 228 pf's character drawn from, 12 9
Vanderzee, Abraham, 44,4 5 political involvement by, 135
Vanity Fair, 149-150 poverty of, 14 4
Van Wyck, Frederick, 13 0 preference for participatory sports , 181
Victoria, Queen of England, 15 2 sexual identity throug h the pf, 141-14 2
Victorian culture, 64-68, 90-91,101-104, sources of self-esteem, 133-13 5

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 INDEX

Working class (cont.) workplac e affiliation s of , 136-13 7

street culture, 127-14 7 see also Ethnic conflicts .
J. L. Sullivan, lov e for, 225-22 6 Workplac e concep t of pf, 137-138 . See also
types of workers, 13 2 Workin g class
unity through pf, 13 8 Wormald , Joe, 169 , 170, 172
violence i n daily life . 144-14 5
voluntary association s of , 133 , 134-135 Yekl (Cahan), 226
as "wage slaves," 13 1 Youn g Men's Christian Association, 18 0

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