Icraf: An Introduction To Agroforestry Diagnosis and Design
Icraf: An Introduction To Agroforestry Diagnosis and Design
Icraf: An Introduction To Agroforestry Diagnosis and Design
ICRAF
The development of the D&D methodology presented in this manual was
supported by agrent from the U.S. Agency for International Development,
Cooperative Agreem'ant No. DAN-5545-A-00-2076-00
J. B.Raintree
Contents
PAGE
Preface itt
What Is agroforestry? 3
Criteria of gxd agroforestry design '3
What is D&D? 4
Who can make use of D&D? 5
Basic procedures 6
Key concepts 8
Sugges-w procedures for natma , research programmes 10
The vlew from the village 18
D&D IN ACTION 37
Illustrations by Terry Hirst
Script by J. B. Paintree & Terry Hirst
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES 51
Preface
it. response to reader feedback on earlier publications In the D&D mantial series, this
manual has been written to answer popular demand for a u:er-frendly introduction to
I RAF's methodology for agroforestry diagnosis and design. It replaces the earlier
6uidellnes for Agroforesltry Diagnosis and Design (ICRAF Working Paper 6) and
represents a new synthesis of the most generally useful and adaptable procedures to
emerge fron, practical applications of the D&D methodology during a five year trial period
in sites around the world.
The key to effective use of the D&D methodology is f1air/fl4y. Although the'baslc logic of
D&D is quite generally applicable, the specific procedures may need to be adapted to fit the
requirements of the user. The elementary D&D concepts and baseline procedures are
presented in the first section on BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES. Within this
section the main concepts are presented in larger, bolder type.
Basic ,rocedures and key concepts are followed by more detailed suggestions on
procedures for national research programmes, with the understanding that these must be
selcted and eo '91edto fit the circumstances. Some of the most Important modifications
of the procedures suggested for formal research programmes arise from creative
adaptations of the methodology by community-based fleldworkers doing Informal.
oarticipatory agroforestry research and development, as discussed In 'The view from the
• illege." Next comes a CASE STUDY EXAMPLE of the open-ended D&D learn'ng
o:ocess, as It was experienced in an agroforestry project in Kenya. The introduction
concludes with D&D IN ACT;ON - a pictorial dramatization of !.he D&D process as it
might be experienced in a national research programme. This section Is quite helpful for
gaining a rapid overview of the D&D process.
Z.ince the development of D&D methods is an open-ended and continuing process, new
methods and case studies are continually appearing in ICRAF's Working Paper eeries and
other publications. This manual attempts to answer the need for an up-to-date, practical
introduction to the methodology at an intermediate level of detail. Readers interested In
more detail may wish to consult the publications listed in the Reference section, For more
advanced and up-to-date methods, case studies and resource materials, Interested users
are referred to the periodically updated ICRAF Publications List and to the ICRAF
Newsletter.
J. B.Raintree
Project Leadser, Agroforestry Diagnosis and Design
BASIC PRINCIPLES
AND
PROCEDURES
What is agroforestry?
Agroforestry is a collective name for land use systems and
technologies in which woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms,
bamboos, etc.) are deliberately combined on the same land
management unit with herbaceous crops and/or animals, either
some form of spatial arrangement or temporal seueince. in
In
agroforestry systems there are both ecological and eoonomic
interactions among the different components.
3
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES An Introduction to Agrororestry Diaqws & Design
What is D&D?
4
BASIC PRINCIPLESAND PROCEDURES
An Introduction to Agrforestry Diagnosis & Design
5
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagows & Design
Basic procedures
The basic logic of the D&D discovery procedure is displaye in the following table. The process can be subdivided
Into smaller steps (e.g. pp. 8-1 4) and used selectively for varying purposes, b,-t the hierarchical logic of D&D
is
quite robust and generally applicable to virtually any problem in technology design. The more detailed procedural
suggestions are best thought of as optional steps for collecting and processing the information needed to answer
the
basic questions shown in the table below. If at any time you feel you are getting "lost in the details," simply
return
to this outline of basic procedures for a reorientation to where you are In the process.
D&D IS AN ITERATIVE PROCESS The basic D&D process Is repeated throughout the project
Implementotion stage to refine the original diagnosis and Improve the
technology design in the light .f new Information from on-farm research
trials, mo a rigidly controlled on-station investigations, and eventual
extension trials In a wider range of sites. As shown In the following
flowchart, the iteratve D&D process provides a basis for close feedback
and complementarity between different project components. By
adjusting the plan of action to new information, the D&D process
becomes self-corrective. In an Integrated agroforestry research and
extension programme, the pivotal decisions are taken In periodic
meetings which evaluate new results and revise the action ;)an
accordingly. The process continues until the design is well optimized and
further refinement is d6emed uneccessary. You can enter the cycle at
any point, but the ultimate fine-tuning and dissemination of the
technology will most likely be accomplished by the farmers themselves.
"
SPREDZ..CNOSTIC
DESCRIPTIONI
FLOWCHART OF REPETITIVE A E Ao
IN A D&D-BASED PROJECT
Key concepts
D&D 1S SYSTEM SPECIFIC The focus of D&D is the land use system. Sinc different
systems are likely to have different problems and potentials, it
follows that each distinctive land 'use system must have Its own
diagnosis and corresponding design.
This does not mean that D&D results are 'site specific* since the
same basic land use system may exist in many sites. The selection
of sites representative of importLnt land use systems is an essential
aspect of the art of O&D.
DEFINITION OF For the purposes of a D&D exercise, a land use system is defined
"THE SYSTEM" FOR as a distinctive combination of three Interrelated factors: the
D&D PURPOSES land resourcss exploited by a particular technology
to satisfy the production objectives of a particular type of
land user.
THE DIAGNOSIS LEADS The &7od-prn~vlof the diagnostic procedure is a set of functional
TO "SPECIFICATIONS' specifications which tell what the system needs and, in a general
FOR INTERVENTIONS way, how these needs can best be satisfied.
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES
An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis & Design
9
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES An Introduction to Agroforestry D ia Is & Design
For a closer focus on ommunity-based D&D activities, see "The view from the ville."
10
BASIC PRI NCI PLM AND PROCEDURES An Ini uction to Agroforestry Diagnosis& Design
STAGE STEP
PREDIAGNOSTIC I Planning the study A
(FICOIIICAL 7n,O/CIIINIR nic)
2 Regional reconnaissance I I
THEHILL COUNTRY IlIE PLAINSOM ThZLA
3 Land use systems S1l~t"ING A
SEXI. -ILIVESTOCK
1 LAC
r 34ALL
I LAMI •!i pou
F
CAJ.TIVATION VENTj MhC
RAMIC MTATS •FA6 EsTA
AS FrAxs
CULTIVATION
5evtyoftp'Olevs
Afor :!r'ypole nt ial .. =
Relonl regieo tiv... .
4 Site selection P -i, ys n l 2 1 2 . .1 3
io y y reon
Pri 2 3
6 Diagnostic analysis
7 System specifications
[i TECHNOLOGY
OESiGN 8 Candidate technologies
9 Technology specifications
10 Technology design
14 Ch .
Re carC xtension planP1 'X11.;TU) IM:SIACII A FXTLNSION
11
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES An Introduction to Agroforestry DilalIs & Design
I. PREDIAGNOSTIC STAGE
-
Conduct field survey of representative
manegment units to identify
common land use strategies and problems
- Troubleshoot the production systems to
identity causal factors and
contraints
-
Analyze field data to Identify key constraints
and intervention points for
development of system potential
- Assess sustainability problems
13
BASIC PRINCIPLESAND PROCEDURES An Introduction toAgroforestry Diedbosis & Design
14
BASIC PRI NCI PLMND PROCEDURES An IntrmUctlon to Agroforestry Diagnosis & Design
15
BASIC PRINCIPLESAND PROCEDURES An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagris & Design
V. PLANNING STAGE
16
BASIC PRINCIPLESAND PROCEDURES
An Introduction toAgroforestry Diagnosis& Design
17
DASIC PRI NCI PLES AND PROCEDURES An Introduction to Agroforestry Diaqpis & Design
THE TWO CENTERS Not every village will be reched by a formal agroforestry research
OF AOROFORESTRY project on the mcdel of the preceeding section. Indeed, for the
INNOVATION the benefits of national research orogrammes to reach mcst villages
informal pr s of technology diffusion must be ectivated on a
massive scale. Moreover, the villages themselves are important
centers of indigenous agroforestry innovation. Informal sector
community development workers have an significant role to play in
complementing the efforts of formal sector programmes.
Although much of what Is presented in this section is applicable to
on-farm researchers end extension aents in formal programmes,
it is primarily intended for agroforestry catalysts who work
directly with local communities but who are not necessarily part of
a formal research and development programme. Ways ere suggested
for improving the linkages between these two complementary
centers of agroforestry innovation.
ARE YOU A If you are a village extension agent or community development
OMMUNITY-BASED fleldworker already working in a partiular village or regional
FIELDWORKER? community, much of what has been presented in the preceeding
section will seem superfluous or overly formalized for the kindof
work you are As necessary and appropriate as the steps in
A:-
the more elaborated methodology might be for large-scale,
multi-institutional programmes, many of them will be irrelevant
to your. own needs and circumstances. You should feel free to
select and adapt those aspects of the D&D methodology which would
beof rea" use toyou In your own situation. The Basic Procedures
(pages 6-7) will piobably be of most direct use to you as a
guide for your D&D activites.
ADAPTING D&D TO Since you are already working at a particular site, you will have
YOUR OWN NEEDS little use for the Prediagnostic steps concerned with institutional
arrangements, regional reconaissance and site selection. You may
still find it useful, howeer, to make a systematic inventory of the
18
BASIC PRINCIPLEAND PROCEDURES An Introcucton to Agrc-forestry Diagnosis & Design
land use systems and farm types In your area, and for some of these
you may wish plan a more In-depth diagnosis of problems
and
agroforestry potentials.
The same spplies to the formal exercises of the Planning Stag,
Your own planning procedures are likely to be more fluid
and
participatory, particularly if you are working within an Informal
non-government, private voluntary or community-based
organization. Still, any systematic thought you can give to
the
planning of your own informal research and extension activities
is likely to pay off In greater effectiveness of your agroforestry
efforts.
19
BASIC PRINCIPLESAND PROCEDURES An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagrlsis & Design
20
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES
An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis
& Design
21
BASIC PRINCIPLESAND PROCEDURES An Introduction toAroforestry Dlagn & Design
COMMUNITY-BASED R&D
The challenge to all concerned parties, if agroforestry is to have a
significant impact on the rural landscape, Is to get the two
complementary centers of experimentation and technical innovation
working together in a mutually reinforcing relationship. This is
most likely to be successful If botb centers of research and
development activity are strengthened. For the formal sector
research center it should not become a cuestion of who takes the
initiative. In technology generation the initiative is where you find
it (a surprising number of the technologies 'released' by interna
tional research centers have their origin on farmer's fields). The
question, rather, is whether tne effectiveness of the total--formal
and informal--agroforestry R&D effort can be enhanced through
awareness and support of farmers in their own informal research
OF THE D&D
LEARNING PROCESS
process
25
WASE STUDY EXAMPLE An Introduction to Agroforestry DiagWis & Design
agroforestry field trials in a community development setting. As such it. is a uniquely informcitive
source of case material to illustrate the D&D learning process.
1981 First rapid appraisal D&D survey (Raintree 1982, Yonk 1983)
1981-83 Short-term (3-6 month) "special studies"( in-depth followup to confirm and
1983 Watershed and community level D&D analysis (Rocheleau and Hoek 1984)
1985 - Survey of women's use of gath3red food and medicinal plants (Rocheleau et al.
1 a5)
1985-86 - Survey of local knowledge and scope for domestication of wild food and
medicial plants in AF systems ( in progress)
1985-86 - Exploratory farm trials of home gardens inor porating wild and semi
domesticated leafy vegetables and fruits (in progress)
This outline indicates the typical sequence of phasd research and development activities in a
D&D-based agroforestry project: I) initial rapid appraisal D&D survey, 2) commencement of
field trials of initial "best bet" agroforestry technologies, with 3) conomittant "special studies"
26
CASE STUDY EXAMPLE An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis & Design
Reisuts This method was used in the first trials (during the "short rains" of 1981) with
little success. A dry spell following the onset of the rains killed most of the recently
germinated seedlings. Those trees that survived the dry spell were too weak to survive
through the next dry season.
Q)ncluslon: Since uncertainty in the onset of the rains and mid-season droughts are
common in this area, a better method of establishment had to be found. It was
hypothesized that If the fertility of the seedbed were Improved in the spots where the
leucaena seeds are dropped, growth would be vigorous enough for the seedlings to become
established and survive the next dry season. Innoculation of the seed would probably also
have helped, but this was not adopted for the farm trials because of the lack of access of
local farmers to innoculum.
Method2: Same as method I except that manure and triple superphosphate fertilizer were mixed
with the soil where the tree seeds were placed.
BM.Ui This method was used in the next round of trials (during the "long rains" of
1982,. Although initial seedling growth appeared to be more vigorous, this rainy season
was very short, only 4 weeks, and the survival rates were very low.
Conclusion: Although most trees in this trial failed to establish, lasn;uch as the labour
requirement for this method is still relatively low It was thought to have potential for the
area in sesons of higher rainfall. However, in order to ensure establishment of the alley
cropping trials during the next planting season it was decided to plant sci in
Individually prepared planting holes, rather than pers!st with direct seeding methods.
Even though the labour requirement would be substantially higher, the participating
farmers were becoming discouraged with the low survival rates experienced thus far and
had expressed a willingness to invest more labour in planting if they could be assured of a
reasonable survival rat3.
Method 3 Seedlings were raised in polyethylene bags in a nursery. Meanwhile, planting holes
were prepared during the dry season In rows between the "alleys" where the crops were to be
grown. Manure and triple superphosphate were mixed with the soil in the planting hole and the
seedlings were set out at the beginning of the rains when the crops were planted. The labour
requirement for this method was expected to be high but the survival rate of the seedlings was also
28
CASE STUDY EXAMPLE An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis & Design
C.I.u ,",:
The method has the potential to achisve high survival and growth rates
but
some w,,y would have to be found to reduce the labour requirement.
Methd 4: Farmer-Orginated Desian Imorymelt
As it turned out,
one of the farmers in the 1983 trials did not follow
the directions concerning
preparation of the planting hole during the dry season. Instead, he merely
circular microcatchment of about I in diameter at the planting site during scooped out a shallow
the dry season. After
the first rain, when the soil inside the microoatchment had become soakedandquite
then dug the remainder of the planting hole, mixed in the manure and easy todig, he
phosphate fertilizer, and
planted the seedl Ing.
Results: Survival and growth rates were high and the labour requirement
planting holes was reduced to 1-2 minutes per hole. Adding an estimated 2 for digging the
minutes to scoop
out the shallow microcatchment during the dry season (actual
labour data were
unavailable since the farmer did this operation without the prior
researcher), this brings the total labour to 3 to 4 minutes per plantingknowledge of the
hole, for a total
labour requirement of 10 to 13 hours per 100 m of hedgerow, or 42 to
54 man-dys/ha
(assuming 0.5 m In-row and -4 n between-row spacing and 6 hrs/man-day).
Conclusion: The farmers inncv&"''n reduced the labour requirement for
preparation of
planting holes by 60-70%. Although further reductions would be desirable,
gettingi to be wlthin an acceptable range for farmers who are otherwise Method 4 is
movitvated toadopt
the alley cropplng system, provided they spread out the work of establishing
the system
29
WASE STUDY EXAMPLE An Introduction to Agroforestry Da~is & Design
over a period of several planting seasons. (Which is consistent with the cautious,
experimental way most small farmers adopt new technologies.)
This example illustrates the way in which a specific line of technical inquiry can be
adjusted to
accomodate the learning experience associated with successive cycles of trial-and-error
iterative D&D process. in the
In accordance with scientific method, each progressive design
improvement should be regarded as an "hypothesis" for testing. There is no blame
.wrong"at any point, as long as the approriate corrections are made in subseluent In being
trials.
A similar process of trial-redi: znsls-redesign was applied tc rehabilitation and Improvement of
badly eroded grazing lands in Kathama. In this case, the iterative D&D prccess led, in the
end, not
to the adoption of a set of incremental improvements but to a whole new design approach:
r&///A(tt', oafeistffi trees instead of the planting of new ones. This approach appears the
to have
merit for serverely degraded grazing lands, where drought and degraded site conditions
make it
extremely difficult to establish new trees, but where useful existing tree cover
rehabilitated as a ,'irst step in the improvement process (Vonk 1983a). Later, after can be
tne site has
recovered some of Its condition, silvopastoral enrichment plantings can be made
to increase
diversity and introduce new germplasm. The method has been taken up for further research
in the
nearby Dryland Agroforestry Research Project (Sang et al. 1985a).
At the time of the initial farm-level D&D exercise it was recocnized that not
ell of the
agroforestry related problems within the area could be assigned to individual farms,
nor could
they adequately be addressed by farm level designs alone. It was felt, in particular,
that the
erosion problems experienced on many of the farms had at least part of their origin
in wider
landscape patterns and prces3s, and that the runoff from individual farms had effects
on other
farms in the area. Although the initial round of agroforestry trials with farmers was
individual farm Interventions, it was also recognized that the household was not the onlyfocused on
scical
unit capable of carrying out agroforestry' trials. Two "special studies" were undertaken
to provide
insights into possibilities for broadening the diagnosis and design to ; /ari r- tln-fam
sa/.e:
1) An Investigation into the activities of existing self-help groups in the community,
to see
whether they had any potential for agroforestry development (Wyjngaarden 1983b);
and 2) a
.V1tr1stWdlol 0s'9//e of erosion patterns, leading to a general lanescape design for a more
broadly conceived approach to erosion control (Hcek 1983).
30
CASE STUDY EXAMPLE An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis & Design
It was anticipated that these two, seemingly rather distinct, areas of concern might in fact be
mutually reinforcing: the study of existing community organizations might sugggest ways of
organizing farmers to implement larger-thin-farm scale agroforestry designs required for
effective erosion control. When the watershed and community scale D&D activity was
systematically taken up in Phase 2 of the project, itwas discovered that "vLmN/s f6/etv's were
much stronger and had much wider implications for the organization of agroforestry projects than
originally hypothesized. This will be illustrated by a brief review of the lessons learned about the
role of neighborhood self-help groups in the development of agroforestry potentials at the Kathama
research site (the case material Is drawn from Rocheleau 1984 and 1985).
The first indication that larger-than-household scale social organizations were more than just a
potential to be tapped for larger-than-farm scale designs--but in fact an essential factor in the
sudcessful implementation of even farm-lewlagroforestry designs--was brought to light in
connection with water problems a= iated with the raising of seedlings for the on-farm trials. Of
the ten farmers in the first round of on-farm agroforestry trials, three tried to produce seedlings
on their own farms in orde, to expand the experimental plantings. Two of the three failed in this
effort and others refrained from trying because of a shortage of water for the seedlings caused Dy
difficulty of access to permanent water during the dry season. The one farmer who suceeded had a
private spring on his own farm. It was realized then that, for most families, access to water
involves use of public water source-, often at great distance from the fam.
Also, while most of the par'icipants in the initial set of farm trials happened to be men, the
traditional expectation regarding the division of household labour gave primary responsibly for
transporting water for the nursery see" 'ngs to women. However, there were no clear guarantees
that the women would share directly in tne fruits of the labour they provided to the men's tree
plant'ng activities. When hard pressed by other chores and the generally difficult conditons of the
drought period, many women were reluctant to put in the long hours of water hauling required to
ensure survival of the sajlincs.
This observatiai :intcc Up two preconditions for successful nurseries: I) the need to involve
women as indviCual Deneficiaries of tree planting actlvities and as co-planners of any activity
Involving tteir cvwn laz, cur (i.e. in general, the need to ensure that individuals, whatever' their
social identi:y, wcul. tenefit from the fruits of their own labour), and 2) the desirability of
'31
CASE STUDY EXAMPLE An Introduction to Agroforestry Diag~is & Design
organizing the nursery work as a group activity located near a permanent water source on the
farm of one of the group members. Recalling the finding of the "'specialstudy" on local self-help
groups that most of the active groups in the area were women's groups, it was recognized that such
groups constituted the natural social unit around which the nursery groups could be organized. It
proved to be a relatively easy matter for the community to set up the required groups on a
neightbrhood basis and to find a permanent water source (usually a spring on one of the group
memter's farms) near which to locate the nursery. As it turned cut, although the women's
self-help groups formed the nucleus of the neighborhood nursery groups, the groups did not not
restrict their membership to \':omen only. Men also participate.
Tc carry out the objectives of Phase 2 of the project, a small catchment within the local watershed
was selected for a pilot study with the following specific objectives:
In the cours"e of setting up the nursery groups It was discovered that the traditional self-help
groups were not "communal" in nature and not primarily focused on "public works" (despite
occasional mobilization by village ajthorities for conservation works), but rather, small
neighborhood-based associations primarily intended for reciprocal and rotational labour exchange
for the benefit of individual member households. When approached by the researcher to work on
critical agroforestry-conservation sites within the overall watershed plan, they agreed to do so
but only on the basis of a negotiated exchange of 15 tree seedlings (a multi-species "sampler
package") in return for carrying out this work. In the subsequent sson, while some of the
groups continued to ask for ed'ice on placement and construction of soil conservation works, they
gave first priority to nursery construction and plant propagation activities. The self-defined
objectives of the nursery groups centered nn collective production of fruit, fodder, fuelwood and
timber trees for use by the individual members on their own farms.
Once the the participants in the nursery activities could see what the new trees and shrubs lockec
like and how they performed in new niches on their farms, they were better able to choose tree
species (both exotic & indigenous) to meet their na,ids, and to consider alternative planting
arrangements and management techniques. Thus, the provision of seedlings for private use to and
32
CASE STUDY EXK-1 PLE
An Introduction to Agroforestry
Diagnosis & Design
COMPLEMENTARY ON-STATION
RESEARCH
Of all ol the agroforestry technologies
the most experimental. The main in the on-farm trials In Kathama,
alley cropping is clearly
research questions center on 1)alternative
for fodder rather than mulch uses of tree herbage
in mixed farming systems of the
competition for soil moisture dry
between hedgerws and the associated troplcs and 2) the effects of
crops (Ssekabemoe 1985).
The first question is of the type
that can only be answered by on-farm
farmers' response to the experimental trials, inasmuch as It Is the
system, which has to be monitored. technology, Inthe context of
The second question, however, the prevailing land use
requires en investigation Of
33
CASE STUDY EXAMPLE An Introduction to Agroforestry Diag is & Design
plant and soil Interactions which might best be taken up on the research
station, where more
complex and rigorously controlled experimental designs and sophisticated
monitoring techniques
are easier to carry out.
Since both kinds of information are needed, the question for research planners
is not which type of
rbwsarch to undertake, but in what order they should be taken up. There are
is that, for highly experimental technologies, a workable prototype should two arguments: One
first be developed
on-station before submitting it to farmer trial in order to minimize the farmers'
risk. The other,
and opposite, argument is that it may take a long time to develop a rigorously
researched prototype
technology on-station and that before committing resources to a long
researchers should first c'yff/m that the technolcg has real relevance term investigation
to the felt reeds of the
intended users. This can best be accomplished through a kind of "perturbation
on-farm to see how the farmers respond to an Initial "best bet" design. Another experiment"
side of the second
argument is that farmer-originated modifications may suggest "adoptability-enhancing"
attributes of the technology which should be incorporated into the prototype
research before it
goes too far down the wrong road.
There Is no universally "correct" resolution to this issue, but the Kathama
experience suggests
that it may be possible to take up both kinds of investigations s/mut1//1wsl<.
on-farm trials of the initial "best bet" design were getting underway in Kathama, Thus, while the
a more basic set
of phased investigations into the alley cropping technology were started
in the on-station
component of the nearby Dryland Agoforestry Research Project (Sang et
al. I 985b). Not long
after this, a third set of related investigations was initiated on the ICRAF
field station. It is too
early to cite conclusive results, but these three sets cf investigations
are proving to be
complementary to each other, and together they are capable of providing a better
basis for the next
generation of dryland alley cropping tchnololgv- for the area than any of them
alone.
From the Kathama trials we have learned that for alley crcpping to be adortable
to farmers with an
animal-based approach to fertility maintenance in mi,"ad farming systems
(the tritIlonal"brown
manure" strategy), emphasis should be given to the production of fodder
hedgerows. The farmers most likely to have an abiding interest in mulchin the alley cropping
and green-manure
production (the new "green manure" strategy) are those with insufficient
grazing land to support
enough livestock to supply the manure needs of their fields. Farmers of either
type with astrong
interest in cash crops would like to incorporate marketable tree crops into
their alley crop-ing
hedgerows. Thus, the farm trials have provided a basis for cautiou. optimism
regarding the
appropriateness of certain functional aspects of the basic alley cropping concept
and suggested the
34
CASE STUDY EXAMPLE
An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis&
Design
kinds of design modifications which
would be needed to ensure widespread
farmers. The most important modifications adoption by local
green m.nure trees (to avoid moisture are: 1) widening of the spacing between
competition during drought periods) heigerowsof
multiple rows in the hedgerow design with the possibility of
Insted of green manure trees In the to compenzate for the wider spacing, 2) fodder or fruit trees
hedgerows ( I.e. ame jasic spatial arrangement
functions), and 3) pen-omposd ng with different
of wooy biomss and leaf material
farm and surrounding landscape ( i.e. from other locations on the
same function w!th different spatial
arrangement).
The initial set of on-statllon alley
cropping Investigations in the DrylandAgroforestry
Project focused on assessing the effects Research
on yields of maize and bean crops of
different tree species, with the green green manure from 3
been quite positive for Zeca1na&lr4omWpWl manure grown separatoy from the
crops.
T 'mfrialiarorrmf/ While providing and 6azrle simf and somewhat less Results have
quantitative data cn the beneficial positive for
per se, these experiments shed no effects of green manure
manure prodiction In heaierows. light on the potential competitive
Nevertheless, encouraged by these effects of // sftu green
which predict a net beneficial effect results and by estimates
on crop yields, the project rv.earhers
out to on-farm trials for further
experiments on the full alley cropping have dcided to move
.roduction of applied green manure). system (with /7 sft
AS
D&D IN ACTION
(1) (2)
IT ISLATE EVENING. TWO SMALL GROUPS OF PEOPLE MEET ON THE 2ND FARJIER (mopping his brow): IDONT KNOW WHAT IT IS. IT'S
ROAD TO THE VILLAGE. EVERYONE LOOKS VERY TIRED AS IFTHE VERY LAND IS TIPED AND HAS GiVEN UP THE STkUGGLE!
ISr FARMER (heavily loaded wilh firewood): GREETINGS. IST FA~RMER (laughing wryly): THEN IT IIUST FEEL LIKE ME! WE
NEIG-BOR. HOW DID THE DAY GO WITH YOU. WH,- S THE NEWS NOW SET OFF EARLY THIS I1CNNING TO COLLECT THIS FIPEWOO AND
THAT THE RAINS HAVE COME? EVEN SO IT WILL CNLY LAST A DAY C SO.
2KD FAR1?R (lowerlng his hoe): GREETINGS . . . BUT THIS IS A 2ND FARMER (sighing dooply): I DCNT KNOW WHAT TO DO
SAD DAY FOR ME. THAT FIELD !HAD FINISHED TERRACING . . . THE THE YIELDS SEEM TO BE LESS EACH SEASON. THAT'S WHY THEY TOLD
PATH THAT WENT ACROSS IT HAS COLLAPSED INTO A DEEP GULLY! METO BUILD TERRACES . . ALL THAT WO.KI AND NOW? HUH!
ITS ALL RUINED.. . SOMETIrlES I JUST FEEL LIKE MOVING AWAY'
IST FARIIERE: AIEE, NEIGHBRI WHAT ISHAPPENING TO US? THE IST FARMER: AWAY TO WHERE? WHO CAN FIND NEW LANU?
SAMlE THING HAS HAPPENED ON THE NEXT RIDGE, AND THEY DONT
THINK T-EY'L GET A CROP THIS YEARI SOMETHING HAS GONE WRNCG 2ND FARMER: YOUTPE RIGHT. OF COURSE... AH. WELL. BY
SCMEiERE. TOOIRROW&ILL BE READY TO START PLANTING, AS USUAL.
38
D&D INACTION
An Intr(ucton to Agroforestry Diagnols& Design
(3)
(4)
3g
)&D INACTION An Introduction to Agroforestry Dignosis & Design
- ,rI
(s) (6)
AN INTER-AGENCY AGRcFRESTRY TASK FORCE WAS SET UP AND IT IN THE CONFERENCE ROOM THE MEETING IS CALLED TO ORDER...
WASNT LONG BEFORE ITS FIRST MEETING ...
FIELD OFFICER: WHATS THIS MEETING ALL ABOUT? IVE GOT DIRECTOR: GOOD MORNING IT'S NICE TO SEE YOU ALL HERE
TOGETHER. I KNOW THIS IS A BUSY TIME FO YOU, BUT FORGET AL
URGENT WORK TO DO. . . WHAT IS THIS V&D BUSINESS ANYWAY? THAT! AS YOU KNOW. YCJ ARE HERE BECAUSE YOUVE BEEN
NOMINATED BY YOUR DIVISIONS TO WCOK TOGETHER ON A PECT
I ST RESEARCHER: DONT BE ALAPIED, THEY SAY ITS NOTHING THE HIGHEST PRIORITY. .. THE MINISTER WANTS US TO DO MC~q 71
MORE THAN A PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH TO AGRCOORESTRY.. HELP THE FARMERS AND HE HAS INSTRUCTED THIS TASK FORCE T-
A LITTLE MORE SYSTEMATIC THAN USUAL PERHAPS. . CARRY OUT A D&D' EXERCISE. . . THE PURPOSE C THIS MEET!.',-,
TO LEARN 'WHAT THIS D&D PROCESS' IS ALL ABOUT AND TO V.2VC(
2ND RESEARCHER: OH YEAH, IVE HEARD THAT ONCE YOU PUT OUT A PLAN FOR INTERDISCIPLINARY COOPERATION...
THIS D&D' PROCESS INTO MOTION YOU START TO REDWINE THE VERY
MEANING OF WORK! WEVE ENVITED A TEAM HERE FROM ICPAF TO SHO US HICV %E CAN
GO ABOUT IT . . .
FIELD OFFICER: WHAT? ... WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY THAT?
40
(7) (8)
IT ISN'T LONG BEFORE THE TASK FORCE BEGINS WORK ON THE HAVING FAMILIARIZED THEMSELVES WITH THE PREDIAGNOSTIC DATA
PREDIAGNOSTIC STAGE ...
AND DEFINED A FOCUS FOR THE FIELD SURVEY. D&D TEAM TAKES TO
THE FIELD TO CARRY OUT THE DIA6NOSTIC SURVEY
IST RESEARCHER: THESE ARE THE BEST MAPS
OF THE STUDY
...
AREA WE HAVE. AND HERE ARE SCE REPORTS WEVE COLLECTED I ST RESEARCHER: WELL. HERE'S THE FAk .
WHICH CONTAIN USEFUL BASELINE INFORMATION . . . ARE YOU SURE
THIS ONE IS TYPICAL OF THE LAND USE SYSTEM WE ARE SUPPOSED TO
ARE THERE IN THE STUDY AREA. ANYWAY? YOU KNOW THAT AREA.
FIELD OFFICER: IT SHOULD BE. LET'S TALK TO THE FARM1ER AND
GEORGE, WHAT DO YOU THINK?
FIND OUT. . . HERE SHE COMES NOW!
FIELD OFFICER: WELL. ITS HAPD TO SAY . . . BUT THE FARMS IN
2ND RESEARCHER: SHE?. . . I DIDN'T EXPECT THE FARMER TO
THIS AREA ALL HAVE A PRETTY SIMILAR CROPPING PATTERN. ..
BE A WOMAN!
OVER HERE THEY TEND TO HAVE MORE LIVESTOCK..
IST RESEARCHER: REALLY! YOU DON" GET OUT MUCH, DO YOU?
3RD RESEARCHER: WHERE ARE THOSE GUIDELINES FOR THE PRE-
DIAGNOSTIC STAGE? WEVE GOT TO BE SYSTEMATIC ABOUT THIS!
41
(9) (10)
TO GREET THE FARMER AND START THE INTERVIEW.. tST RESEARCHER (to field oricer): THERE CERTAINLY SEEMS TO
BE ALOT OF SHEET EROSION HERE. . . AND LOOK! OVER THERE A
FIELD OFFICER: WED LIKE TO TALK WITH YOU ABOUT YOUR GULLY ISBEGINNING TO FORM .
FAIING PRACTICES AND PROBLEMS. THERE MAY BE SOMETHING
OUR RESEARCHERS CAN DO TO HELP. .. 2ND RESEARCHER (to rarmer): WHAT ABOUT FIREWOOD AND
FODDER FOR YOUR LIVESTOCK?... DO YOU ALWAYS HAVE ENOUGH?
FARMER: WEVE ALREADY GOT SEEDS AND FERTILIZER.
42
D&D INACTION An introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis& Design
4
41("l. 'IL ~ '4
(I )
(12) [THE D&D TEAM ON THE WAY BACK TOTHE LAND ROVER)
LATER THAT EVENING. THE D&D TEAM REASSEMBLE TO COM"PARE
I ST RESEARCHER: YOU KNOW. THESE LAST FEW DAYS OF
43
(13) (14)
SO. . AFTER A COLPLE OF WEEKS IN THE FIELD. THE TEAM RETURNS 3RD RESEARCHER: RIGHT! THEN WE CAN DPAW UP A LIST
TO THE CITY TO SEGIN TIE DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS ... OF TUNCTIONAL SPECIFICATIONS' FOR WHAT EACH OF THE
INTERVENTIONS SHOULD DO FOR THE SYSTEM . . . THIS IS THE FINAL
IST RESEARC!ER (standlng aL the blackbcard): LETS BEGIN BY LINK TO THE DESIGN...
WR1TING DOWN THE PROBLEMS WEVE IDENTIFIED... AND THEN WE
CAN MAKE A LIST OF ALL THE FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO EACH Of FIELD OFFICER: , WAIT!. . WE1ZE ALL ANXIOUS TO GET ON WITH
THE PROBLEMS... THE DES;GN. BUT FIRST LETS NOT FORGET TO LIST THE DESIGN
44
D&D INACTION An Ii uction to Agroforestry Diagnosls & Design
(15)
2ND RESEARCHER: THATS RIGHT. . . SO WHICH TREE OR RESEARCH GROUP OVER AT THE UNIVERSITY...
SHRUB
SPECIES WILL BEST SUIT THE PLRPOSES HERE?
45
D&D INACTION An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis& Design
(1
(17)
AND SO THE PROCESS CONTINUES AND A PRELItINAJY EVENTUALLY THE EMRYONIC DESIGN REACHES THE STAGE WHERE
2ND RESEARCHER. WERE GOING BACK CUT TO THE FIELD AGAIN FIELD OFFICER: YES, OF CCURSE, BUT DON'T FORGET WE NEED TO
GO BACK UT THE FIELD AGAIN TO TEST OUR PROPOSALS WITH A
TOMORROW TO CHECK UR IDEAS WITH SOME OF THE FAPIIERS AND
LARGER SAMPLE OFFARIERS . . . A;'TER ALL. THEY ARE THE ONES
GET THEIR INPUT. . .
WHO WILL MAKE THE FINAL DECISION ABOUT WHETHER TO ADORT THE
TECHNOLOGY OR NOT.
46
D&D INACTION
An Infljucton to Agroforestry Dignosis & Design
(16)
(19)
47
(20) (21)
3RD RESEARCHER: RIGHT, THEN WE CAN GO ON TO MAKE AN ALL THROUGH THE IMPLEMENTATION STAGE THE ITERATIVE D&D
INT-ZSPATED PLAN OFACTION. WITH OUTLINES FOR SPECIFIC PROCESS CONTINUES . .. THE DIAGNOSIS DEEPENS AS ON-FARM
RESEARCH I'.VESTIGATIONS, EXTENSICON ACTIVITIES AND . . . RESEARCHERS REALLY GET TO KNOW~ THE AREA .. FARMERS
PROVIDE FEEDBACK THROUGH THE FARM TRIALS AND SUGGEST
4TH RESEARCHEP: WELL. YES . . . TO GET THE PROJECT OFF TO IMPORTANT DESIGN INNOVATIONS OFTHEIR OW'N ...
A GOO START WELL NEED TO COMIE UP WITH SPECIFIC SUGGESTIONS
ABOUT EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS. BUT WE SHOUL.D LEAVE ENOUGH RESEARCHER: WH-AT HAPPENED DURING THE HEAVY RAIN LAST
FLEXIBILITY FOR THE IMPLEMENTERS OF THE PROJECT TQ WORK OUT WEEK? WAS THERE MUCH RUNOFF? DID THE HEDGEROWS CONTA IN IT'
THE DETAILS FOR THEMSELVES. . . AND TO MODIFY THE PLANS AS
THEY GO ALONG. -YOU KNOW HOW SCIENTISTS ARE . . . FARMIER: PRETTY WELL . . . BUT WHEN IT WAS VEP.Y HEAVY, I'l
BROKE THROUGH THE HEDGEPOW IN SOMIE SPOTS . . .I WAS THINKING
OF PUTTING SOME EXTRA FODDER GRASS ALONG THE T)P HERE. DO
YOU THINK THAT WOULD HELP HOLD THE SOIL?
48
D&D INACTION
An IiWItductlon to Agroforestry Dianosis
& Da=Inn
A '
(22)
(23)
MEANN-HILE, BACK ON THE RESEARCH
STATION... FUNDAMENTAL
INVESTIGATIONS CARRIED OUT UNDER THROUGHOUT THE IMPLEMENTATION
MOPE CONTROLLED EXPERIMEN- STAGE. PERIODIC MEETINGS ARE
TAL CONDITIONS ARE BEGINNING TO HELD TO POOL INFORMATION FROI THE
YIELD INTERESTING RESULTS.
ON-FARI AND ON-STATION
RESEARCH... TO "EDIAGNOSE" AND "REDESIGN" IN
THE LIGHT OF
iST RESEARCHER:
AS YOU KNOW WEVE THE NEW INFORMATION. AND TO REVISE
BEEN MONITORING THE PLAN... AND UPDATE THE ACTION
VARIOUS PLANT-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS
LOOK L!KE THERE" A SIGNIFICANT WIND AND ITS BEGINNING TO
SHELTER COMPONENT TO THE I ST RESEARCHER: AND
YIELD IM1PROVEMENTS OBSERVED WITH SO. TO CONCLUDE OUR REPORT ON
SYSTEMlO CRCS IN THE HEDGEROW THE
ON-FARM TRIALS. THE NEW HEDGEROW DESIGN IS PERFORMING WELL
-A RA S H E 'HD E O EINI EF R'lGW L
IN REDUCING EROSION.
. . BUT THE FARMERS
STILL DONT HAVE
2ND RESEARCHER: REALLY? ... ENOUGH FODDER FOR THEIR ANIMALS.
FERTILITY EFFECTS? THATS INTIEPESTING!
IN ADDITION TO THE SOIL
WEVE BEEN TURNING UP DIRECTOR: ALRIGHT THEN.
SCME PROMIISING NEW FUEL AND FODDER LETS APPOINT A WORKING GROUP
SPECIES INOUR REGIONAL TO LOOK INTO THE POSSIBILITY OF INCORPORATING
SCREENING TRIALS. .
SOME OF THOSE
NEW HIGH-YIELDING FODDER SHRUBS
INTO IN HEDGEROW DESIGN...
49
D&D INACTI ON
An Inkroduction to Agrotor t'y Di.']n . i
(24)
FIELD OFFICER: MR. CHAIRMAN. .. PERHAPS I COULD TAKE THIS
OPPORTUNITY TO MENTION THAT SOME OF THE WOMEN INTHE AREA
APE STILL COMPLAINING ABOUT THE DISTANCE THEY HAVE TO
WALK
TO GATHER FIREWOCO...
TO BE CONTINUED
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
REFERENCES
51 5L IOGRAPiwREFERENCES
An Introduction to Agroforesry Diagnosis
& Design
Bibliographic References
53
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES An Introduction to Agroforesry DInosis & Design
ICRAF. 1983a. Guidelines for agroforestry diagnosis and design. ICRAF Working Paper
No. 6. ICPAF. Nairobi.
ICRAF. 1983b. Resources for Agroforestry Diagnosis nnd Design. ICRAF Working Paper
Nc. 7. ICRAF. Nairobi.
Lundgren, B. 1982. Introduction. Agroforestry Systems 1( 1): 3-6.
Lundgren, B. andJ.B. Raintree. 1983. Sustained agroforestry. In.. B. Nestel (Ed.).
Agricultural Research for Development: Potentials and Challenges in Asia. ISNAR.
The Hague.
Nair, P.K.R. 1985. Classification of agroforestry systems. ICRAF Working Paper No. 28.
ICRAF. Nairobi.
Nair, P.K.R., E.C.M. Fernandes and P.N. Wambugu. 1984. Multipurpose leguminous trees
and shrubs for agroforestry. Agroforestry Systems 2(3): 1,45- 163.
N~ssen, 0. 1983. Nutrient Cycle Study of the Cultivated Area and a Study on the Use of
Manure in the Kathama Research Area. Department of Soil Fertility and Plant
Nutrition. WNgeningen Agricultural University. Wgeningen.
Raintree, J.B. 1982. A methodology for diagnosis and design of agroforestry land
management systems. ICRAF. Nairobi.
Raintree, J.B. 1983a. Preliminary diagnosis of land use problems and agroforestry
potentials in Northern Mbere Division, Embu District, Kenya. ICRAF Working Paper
No. 1. ICPAF. Nairobi. t
Raintree, J.B. 1983b. Stategles for enhancing the adoptability of agroforestry
innovations. Agroforestry Systems 1(3): 173-187.
Raintree, .B. 1984. A diagnostic approach to agrofore5try dsign. In.-K.F. Wiersum
(Ed.). Stratgies and Designs for Afforestation, Reforestation and Tree Planting.
Pudoc. Wgeningen.
Raintree, .3. and F.Torres. 1985. Agroforestry research in farming systems
perspecive: the ICRAF approch. ICRAF Working Paper No. 39. ICRAF. Nairobi.
Rocheleau, D. 1984. Land use planning with rural farm households and onmmunities:
participatory egroforestry research. Presented to the Workshop on the Role of
Lusaka.
Rocheleau, D. et al. 1985. Survey of women's use of gathered food and medicinal plants.
ICRAF. Nairobi.
Sang, F.K. arap, DA. Hcekstra and R. Okumu. 1985a. Preliminary results of on-station
green manure trials with leaves from Zeuc7en eux ,9h0, 06sSILm6&and
fe/Ymina9~r.4~'//.1 Research Report No. I. Dryland Agroforestry Research
Project. ilahakos, Kenya.
Sang, F.K. arae,, D A. H1cekstra and R. Mwendandu. 1985b. Rehabilitation of 2alant:,
p, ,4.-mY 1t//lis and CompAora fr/cana in the grazing land: preliminary
results P-earc, ReDort No. 2. Dryland Agroforestry Research Project. Machaks,
Kenya.
Ssekanembe. C. 1984. Study of soil moisture depletion in the alley cropping system.
ICRAF airooi
Steppler,HA 982 An Identity and strategy for agroforestry. /n: L.H. MacDonald
(Ed.). Agroforestry in the African Humid Tropics. United Nations University.
Tokyo.
Steppier, H.A. end J. Raintree. 1983. The ICRAF research strategy in relation to plant
science re- __rch in agroforestry. In. P.A. Huxley (Ed.). Plant Research and
Agroforestry. ICRAF. Nairobi.
Torres, F. 1985 Networking for the generation of agroforestry technologies in Africa.
;CRAF Working Paper No. 31. ICRAF. Nairobi.
Torres, F and j.B. Paintree. 1984. Agroforestry syitems for smallholder upland
farmers in a land reform area of the Philippines: the Tabango case study. ICRAF
Working Paper- No. 18. ICRAF. Nalrubi.
,one., R.B. 1983a. Report on a Metncdology and Technolo' Generating Exercise.
Wageringen agricuitural University. Wageningen.
Vonk, R.5. 1983b. A Study on Possible Agroforestry Tree Species for the KathamaArea.
Department of Silviculture. Wagenir.gen Agricultural University. Wagenlngen.
vork, R.B ! 983c. Tne Effect of Different Mulch Treatments on the Growth of Maize and
5ears ;r, a ri Cropping System. Department of Tropical Crop Science.
'agenir~gen Agr iculturai University. Wageningen.
vIjncaarden, . van. 1983a Patterns of Fuel Gathering and Use. Department of Forestry
Management. W'ageningen Agricutlural University. Wageningen.
W;jngaarden, J. van. 1983b. Agricultural self-help groups and their potential role In
agroforestry. Wareningen Agricultural University. Wageningen.
Young, A. 1985. Land evoluatIon and agroforestry diagnosis and design: towards a
r concfliat ion cf prc'.xures. Soil Survey and Land Evaluation 5( 3): 61 -76.
55
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