0% found this document useful (0 votes)
62 views56 pages

Icraf: An Introduction To Agroforestry Diagnosis and Design

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1/ 56

An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis and Design

ICRAF
The development of the D&D methodology presented in this manual was
supported by agrent from the U.S. Agency for International Development,
Cooperative Agreem'ant No. DAN-5545-A-00-2076-00

Cover photo by Ester Zulberti

International Council for Research in Agroforestry 1986


P.O. Box 30677, Nairobi, Kenya
An Introduction to Agroforestry

Diagnosis and Design

compied and edited by

J. B.Raintree

with contributions from the multidisciplinary staff of

The International Council for Research in Agroforestry

Contents

PAGE
Preface itt

BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES


J. B. Raintrec

What Is agroforestry? 3
Criteria of gxd agroforestry design '3
What is D&D? 4
Who can make use of D&D? 5
Basic procedures 6
Key concepts 8
Sugges-w procedures for natma , research programmes 10
The vlew from the village 18

CASE STUDY EXAMPLE OF THE 23


D&D LEARNING PROCESS
J. B Raintree and D.Rocheleau

D&D IN ACTION 37
Illustrations by Terry Hirst
Script by J. B. Paintree & Terry Hirst

BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES 51
Preface

it. response to reader feedback on earlier publications In the D&D mantial series, this
manual has been written to answer popular demand for a u:er-frendly introduction to
I RAF's methodology for agroforestry diagnosis and design. It replaces the earlier
6uidellnes for Agroforesltry Diagnosis and Design (ICRAF Working Paper 6) and
represents a new synthesis of the most generally useful and adaptable procedures to
emerge fron, practical applications of the D&D methodology during a five year trial period
in sites around the world.

The key to effective use of the D&D methodology is f1air/fl4y. Although the'baslc logic of
D&D is quite generally applicable, the specific procedures may need to be adapted to fit the
requirements of the user. The elementary D&D concepts and baseline procedures are
presented in the first section on BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES. Within this
section the main concepts are presented in larger, bolder type.

Basic ,rocedures and key concepts are followed by more detailed suggestions on
procedures for national research programmes, with the understanding that these must be
selcted and eo '91edto fit the circumstances. Some of the most Important modifications
of the procedures suggested for formal research programmes arise from creative
adaptations of the methodology by community-based fleldworkers doing Informal.
oarticipatory agroforestry research and development, as discussed In 'The view from the
• illege." Next comes a CASE STUDY EXAMPLE of the open-ended D&D learn'ng
o:ocess, as It was experienced in an agroforestry project in Kenya. The introduction
concludes with D&D IN ACT;ON - a pictorial dramatization of !.he D&D process as it
might be experienced in a national research programme. This section Is quite helpful for
gaining a rapid overview of the D&D process.

Z.ince the development of D&D methods is an open-ended and continuing process, new
methods and case studies are continually appearing in ICRAF's Working Paper eeries and
other publications. This manual attempts to answer the need for an up-to-date, practical
introduction to the methodology at an intermediate level of detail. Readers interested In
more detail may wish to consult the publications listed in the Reference section, For more
advanced and up-to-date methods, case studies and resource materials, Interested users
are referred to the periodically updated ICRAF Publications List and to the ICRAF
Newsletter.

J. B.Raintree
Project Leadser, Agroforestry Diagnosis and Design
BASIC PRINCIPLES

AND

PROCEDURES

b3A5IC PRINCIPLE-SAND PROCEDURES An Intr-oduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis & Design

What is agroforestry?
Agroforestry is a collective name for land use systems and
technologies in which woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms,
bamboos, etc.) are deliberately combined on the same land
management unit with herbaceous crops and/or animals, either
some form of spatial arrangement or temporal seueince. in
In
agroforestry systems there are both ecological and eoonomic
interactions among the different components.

Criteria of good agroforestry design


There is no substitute for good design. Agood agroforestry design
should fulfill the following criteria:

PRCPIJCTIYITY There are many different ways to assess the productivity


improvements which are possible with agroforestry- Increused
ouput of tree products, improved yields of associated crops,
reduction of cropping system inputs, Inceased labour efficiency,
diversification of production, satisfaction of basic needs, and other
measures of economic efficiency or achievement of biological
potential.
SUSTAINABILITY By seeking improvements in the "sustainability" of production
systems, agroforestry can achieve its conservation goals
while appealing directly to the motivations of low income farmers,
who may not always be interested in conservation for its own sake.
ADOPTABILITY No matter how technically elegant or environmentally sound
tn
agroforestry design may be, nothing practical is achieved unless
it
is adopted by Its intended users. ThIs means that the technology has
to fit the social as well as the environmental and technical
characteristics of the land use system for which It is designed.

3
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES An Introduction to Agrororestry Diaqws & Design

What is D&D?

DIAGNOSIS AND DESIGN


D&D is a methodology for the diagnosis of land management
problems and design of agroforestry solutions. It was developed
by ICRAF to assist agroforestry researchers and development
fleldworkers to plan and implement effective research and
development projects.
There is a saying in the medical profession that 'Diagnosis should
precede treatment.* Anyone concerned with problem-soling applies
this principle in one way or another. In the work of the automobile
mechanic, the radio repairman, the forester, or the farmer, the ability
to solve a problem begins with the ability to define what the problem is.
A clear statement of the problem Is often all that is needed to suggest a
solution. D&D is simply a systematic approach to the application of thIs
principle in agrotorestry.

The key features of the D&D approach are:

l5P flexibility - D&D is a flexible discovery procedure


which can be adapted to fit the needs and
resources of different users.
speed - D&D has been designed with the option
of a "rapid appraisal" application at the
planing stage of a project with in-depth
followup during project implementation.

repetition - D&D Is an open-ended learning process.


Since initial designs can r!most always be
improved, the D&D pross needn't end
until further improvements are no longer
nessary.

4
BASIC PRINCIPLESAND PROCEDURES
An Introduction to Agrforestry Diagnosis & Design

Who can make use of D&D?


Most problem solvers already use some form of the
basic
D&D. This logic is so fundamental to human problem solving logic of
almost "common sense." The systematic elaboration as to be
and adaotation
of this basic logic to agroforestry which is presented in
this manual
has been developed with three main users In mind:
RESEARCHERS D&D was developed in collaboration with researchers
In national
prngrammes and was initially intended primarily for use
by multi­
disciplinary, and often multi-institutional, teams of scientists.
As
a discovery procedure for identifying the agroforestry-related
needs and potentials of existing land use systems, D&D assists
identification of priorities for development-oriented in the
research.
Toward this eid, the methodology provides a logical,
stepwlse
procedure for collaboration between specialists with
diffe.rent
disciplinary backgrounds and approaches to problem solving.

EXTENSION It Is increasingly recognized that extension workers


AGENTS must aiso be
involved in the research process if research is
to develop
technology that can be extended readily to farmers.
Initially as
members of D&D survey teams and later as collaborators
on-farm trials, extension agents can make important contributionsin
to agroforestry research. As the stock of proven
agroforestry
technolcrj/ increases, extensionists can make direct use
of D&D to
identify agroforestry solutions to local problems.
COMMUNITY overnment fieldworkers, non-government organizations
DEVELOPMENT community-based development catalysts perform an ana other
FIELDWORKERS function in I' lplng local people to play a more active important
role in their
own development. D&D ha applications in grass roots
development
work, not only as a tool for self-help development,
but
basis for communicating local needs and innovations also as a
research and extension institutions. to formal

5
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagows & Design

Basic procedures
The basic logic of the D&D discovery procedure is displaye in the following table. The process can be subdivided
Into smaller steps (e.g. pp. 8-1 4) and used selectively for varying purposes, b,-t the hierarchical logic of D&D
is
quite robust and generally applicable to virtually any problem in technology design. The more detailed procedural
suggestions are best thought of as optional steps for collecting and processing the information needed to answer
the
basic questions shown in the table below. If at any time you feel you are getting "lost in the details," simply
return
to this outline of basic procedures for a reorientation to where you are In the process.

RAL IAGES BASIC QUESTIONS TO ANSWER KEY FACTORS TO CNSIDERNQUIRY


PREDIAGNOSTIC DEFINITION OF THE LAND USE DISTINCTIVE CO'BINATIONS SEEING AND COMPARING
SYSTEM AND SITE SELECTION OF RESOURCES, TECHNXOGY THE DIFFERENT LAND USE
(which system to focus on?) AND LAND USER OBJECTIVES SYSTEMS
HOW DOES THE SYSTEM WORK? PRODUCTION OBJECTIVES AND ANALYSING AND
(how Is it organized, how does It STRATEGIES, ARRANGEMENT DESCRIBING THE SYSTEM
function to achieve its objectives?) OF COMPONENTS
DIAGNOSTIC HOW WELL DOES THE SYSTEM WORK? PROBLEMS INMEETING SYSTEM DIAGNOSTIC INTERVIEWS
(what are its problems. limiting OBJECTIVES (production short- AND DIRECT FIELD
constraints, problem-generating falls, sustalnabIlity problems) OBSERVATIONS
syndromes & intervention points?)
CAUSAL FACTORS. CONSTPAINYS TPUBLESHOOTING THE
AND INTERVENTION POINTS PROBLEM SUBSYSTEMS
DESIGN & HOW TO IMPROVE THE SYSTEM? SPECIFICATIONS FOR PROBLEM ITERATIVE DESIGN
EVALUATION (what Is needed to improve system SCLVING OR PERFCP1ANCE AND EVALUATION
performance?) ENHANCING INTEPVENTIONS OF ALTERNATIVES
PLANNING WHAT TO DO TO DEVELOP AND RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH DESIGN,
DISSEMINATE riE IMPROVED NEEDS, EXTENSION NEEDS PROJECT PLANNING
SYSTEM?
IMPLEMENTATION HOW TO ADJUST TO NEW FEEDBACK FROM ON-STATION REDIAGNOSIS AND
INFORMATION? RESEARCH, ON-FARM TRIALS REDESIGN IN THE LIGHT
AND SPECIAL STUDIES F NEW INFORMATION
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis & Design

D&D IS AN ITERATIVE PROCESS The basic D&D process Is repeated throughout the project
Implementotion stage to refine the original diagnosis and Improve the
technology design in the light .f new Information from on-farm research
trials, mo a rigidly controlled on-station investigations, and eventual
extension trials In a wider range of sites. As shown In the following
flowchart, the iteratve D&D process provides a basis for close feedback
and complementarity between different project components. By
adjusting the plan of action to new information, the D&D process
becomes self-corrective. In an Integrated agroforestry research and
extension programme, the pivotal decisions are taken In periodic
meetings which evaluate new results and revise the action ;)an
accordingly. The process continues until the design is well optimized and
further refinement is d6emed uneccessary. You can enter the cycle at
any point, but the ultimate fine-tuning and dissemination of the
technology will most likely be accomplished by the farmers themselves.
"
SPREDZ..CNOSTIC

DESCRIPTIONI

FLOWCHART OF REPETITIVE A E Ao

ACTIVITIES AND FEEDBACK

IN A D&D-BASED PROJECT

Ore-SITE PEANNINC ON-STATION


7

RESEAXC DISI~(AON REEAC


BASIC PRI NCI PLES AND PROCEDURES An Introduction to Agroforestry Diag1is & Design

Key concepts
D&D 1S SYSTEM SPECIFIC The focus of D&D is the land use system. Sinc different
systems are likely to have different problems and potentials, it
follows that each distinctive land 'use system must have Its own
diagnosis and corresponding design.
This does not mean that D&D results are 'site specific* since the
same basic land use system may exist in many sites. The selection
of sites representative of importLnt land use systems is an essential
aspect of the art of O&D.

DEFINITION OF For the purposes of a D&D exercise, a land use system is defined
"THE SYSTEM" FOR as a distinctive combination of three Interrelated factors: the
D&D PURPOSES land resourcss exploited by a particular technology
to satisfy the production objectives of a particular type of
land user.

This definition contrasts with other commonly used definitions which do


not formally recognize the land user as part of the system. The
difference is more than just semantic, since all three elements are
essential to a functioning land use system. Ir the human element is left
out of the picture it becomes too easy to overlook the objectives
around which the existing land use system is organized. By consciously
attempting to design with the grain of the existing system rather than
against it, the D&D methodology helps to avoid the kind of design error
that results In technically and environmentally feasible but somehow
"non-sdoptable" agroforestry technologies.

THE DIAGNOSIS LEADS The &7od-prn~vlof the diagnostic procedure is a set of functional
TO "SPECIFICATIONS' specifications which tell what the system needs and, in a general
FOR INTERVENTIONS way, how these needs can best be satisfied.
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES
An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis & Design

SPECIFICATIONS SUGGEST This is basically a matching exercise which narrows


'CANDIDATE TECHNOLOGIES' of technical choices to those prototype technologies down the range
which are
hypothetically capable of meeting the specifications.
'TECHNOLOGY SPECI FICATIONS' The design is not complete until the "nuts and
COMPLETE THE DESIGN bolts" of the selected
technologies have been specified, i.e. the ctual
choice of component
species, spatial arrangements, management practices,
etc.
THE DESIGN REVEALS The attempt to arrive at ap agroforestry design
RESEARCH NEEDS AND relevant to the
needs of the diagnosed systenH isa practical way
EXTENSION OPPORTUNITIES of exposing the geps
In technical knowledge. Research and extension
designed to develop and implement the envisaged programmes
are likely to be more relevant and cost-effective.technical solutions

IF AT FIRST YOU DON'T Complete success on the first round of D&D


SUCCEED, TRY AND is an unrealistic
expectation. There Is a saying in the engineering
TRY AGAIN profession that
"the first one never works." There are exceptions to this
facetious generalization, of course, but It is
true that prototype
technologies can aimost always be improved.
The aim of the initial

round of D&D is not to arrive at the "perfect solution,"


but slmply

to start the research and development


the right direction and to provide a concreteprocess moving
In
focus for further
design improvements.
The very act of introducing a new technology changes
the diagnosed
situation and necessitates at least one more round
of
evaluate the impact of the intervention on the system. diagnosis to
this will suggest ideas for design improvements. In most cases
Longer exposure
to the land use system in the course of the project
result in a deepening of the initial diagnosis and will inevitably
may even suggest a
whole new aoproach to design. Creative inputs
from farmers may
not be forthcoming until after they have been
exposed to the
experimental technology for some time.

9
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES An Introduction to Agroforestry D ia Is & Design

Suggested procedures for national research


programmes
This section presents a schematc overview and a detailed step-by-step outline of the full
set of D&D procedures for formulation of coordinated national research and extension
programmes.
Since the implementation of such programmes may involve multi-institutional collaboration
and long term committment of significant financial and institutional resources, a more
elaborat and formal version of the D&D methodology is usually required.
Although the procedures outlined in this section follow the'logic of the "basic procedures"
shown on pages 6-7, they represent a more detailed subdivision of the basic stages into steps
with additional subroutines for collecting and processing the information needed to answer
the key decision questions of each stage.
This outline is best thought of es a of a "prototype methdology" or provisional blueprint for
large-scale, nationally coordinated D&D activities. As with all D&D applications, the
suggested procedures should to be used selectively and adapted to fit the requirements of
particular programmes. Adapted versions of these guidelines are currently being
implemented by participating countries in ICRAF's Agroforestry Research Network for Africa
(AFRENA).

For a closer focus on ommunity-based D&D activities, see "The view from the ville."

10
BASIC PRI NCI PLM AND PROCEDURES An Ini uction to Agroforestry Diagnosis& Design

STAGE STEP
PREDIAGNOSTIC I Planning the study A
(FICOIIICAL 7n,O/CIIINIR nic)

2 Regional reconnaissance I I
THEHILL COUNTRY IlIE PLAINSOM ThZLA
3 Land use systems S1l~t"ING A
SEXI. -ILIVESTOCK
1 LAC
r 34ALL
I LAMI •!i pou

F
CAJ.TIVATION VENTj MhC
RAMIC MTATS •FA6 EsTA
AS FrAxs
CULTIVATION
5evtyoftp'Olevs
Afor :!r'ypole nt ial .. =
Relonl regieo tiv... .
4 Site selection P -i, ys n l 2 1 2 . .1 3

io y y reon
Pri 2 3

Selet. lind ur 5yoLen I '

If DIAGNOSTIC 5 Diagnostic survey

6 Diagnostic analysis

7 System specifications

[i TECHNOLOGY
OESiGN 8 Candidate technologies

9 Technology specifications

10 Technology design

IV EVALUATION & REDESIGN Ii E.-ante evaluation & redesign j


12 Suitability classification PrCOyI:NDATIO,, DO"AtNS

V PLANNING :3 Ilecarcl, ncieds

14 Ch .
Re carC xtension planP1 'X11.;TU) IM:SIACII A FXTLNSION

VI ItPL E EN TA TION IS Prn ,am me Im ple nentalIon I r .sI:A1,C


l 9 IN O MA 7tON NCTi ORI
UR.

(Adapted from Young 1985)

11
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES An Introduction to Agroforestry DilalIs & Design

I. PREDIAGNOSTIC STAGE

STEP 1. PLANNING THE STUDY


- Identify objectives
- Specify area to be covered
- Identify collaborating institutions and staff
- Select and adapt D&D methods to be used
STEP 2. REGIONAL RECONAISSANCE
- Identify, map and describe major land units and population distribution

STEP 3. IDENTIFICATION AND PRELIMINARY


DESCRIPTION OF LAND USE SYSTEMS
- Differentiate and describe important land use systems
- Make a preliminary assessment of their constraints & problems
- Make a preliminary assessment of their agroforestry potential

STEP 4. SITE SELECTION


- Select land use systems for priority attention based on:
(I) severity of problems

(11; aeoforo3try potential

(111) regional represantiUvcness


- Select sites representative of the chosen systeims for in-depth D&D
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES
An Introduction toAgroforestry Diagnosis
& Design

II. DIAGNOSTIC STAGE

STEP 5. DIAGNOSTIC SURVEY

-
Conduct field survey of representative
manegment units to identify
common land use strategies and problems
- Troubleshoot the production systems to
identity causal factors and
contraints

- In-vestigate interactions between


and within managment units and proosses
In the general landscape

STEP 6. DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS

-
Analyze field data to Identify key constraints
and intervention points for
development of system potential
- Assess sustainability problems

STEP 7. SPECIFICATIONS FOR APPROPRIATE


INTERVENTIONS
- List system specifications:
(I) Functional specificatIons for Interv6ntions
(11) Design constraints
(11) Desirable attributes of new technology
(Iv) Overall development strategy for
the system

13
BASIC PRINCIPLESAND PROCEDURES An Introduction toAgroforestry Diedbosis & Design

III. TECHNOLOGY DESIGN STAGE

STEP 8. IDENTIFICATION OF CANDIDATE TECHNOLOGIES


- List feasible technologies which meet the system specifications
- Select and prioritize the most promising technologies and combinations

STEP 9. DETAILED TECHNOLOGY SPECIFICATIONS


- Make a detailed list of desirable attributes of each of the selected
technologies (component characteristics, mngt. considerations, etc.)
- Prioritize the attributes or this list in the light of the total knowledge of the
diagnosed system

STEP 10. TECHNOLOGY DESIGN


- For each specific technology, give detailed answers to each of the following
questions:
(1) What functions should each intervention eddress?
(II) At what location within the farm or general landscape should these
functions be performed?
(I1) What component or combination of components (plant/animal species
& varieties) are the best choices for performing these functions?
(Iv) How many of each component are required to meet production
targets?
(v) What precise arrangement of components is envisaged? (give details
of spatial and temporal associations of components at a given location)
(vl) What management practices are required to achleve the desired
performance characteristics?
- Take note of all design Questions to which the D&D team is presently unable
to give satisfactory answers (these are topics for further consultation or
research)
- Synthesize all of the above into an integrated design for an agroforestry
system which best answers the needs and potentials of the existing land use
system (consider stepwise Introduction of component technologies if the full
system is likely to be too much for local farmers to adopt all at once)

14
BASIC PRI NCI PLMND PROCEDURES An IntrmUctlon to Agroforestry Diagnosis & Design

IV. EVALUATION AND REDESIGN STAGE

STEP 1 1. EX-ANTE EVALUATION & REDESIGN


- Check land users' response to the design proposal (optional
D&D
verification survey)
- Conduct a preliminary eyaluation of the agroforestry design,
compare with
present land use and non-agroforestry alternatives In terms
of:
(1) productivity (biological potential, economic efficiency &
diversity o
production)
(II) sustuinabllity (environ. Impact, resource conservatlcn)
Cill) adoptability (fulfllment of felt needs, cultura! compatability,
social
distribution of benefits)
- Return to design stage actvles to make modifications suggested
by the
prelIm inary evaluation

STEP 12. SUITABILITY CLASSIFICATION


- Summarize system evaluations for each of the designed agroforestry
systems and develop classification of suitability for wider cpplication
- Combine these classifications into suitability maps and tables
for the study
area/region as awhole (define prelimlnary'recomendation domain")

UP Note: Results of ex-ante evaluation and preliminary suitability


tion should be considered provisional until validated classifica­
by field experience at
the impiementation stage. Strictly speaking, favorable
evaluation at this
stage merely indicates that a particular technology
Is worth developing and
testing.

15
BASIC PRINCIPLESAND PROCEDURES An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagris & Design

V. PLANNING STAGE

STEP 13. STATE OF KNOWLEDGE REVIEW AND ASSESSMENT OF


RESEARCH NEEDS
- Assess readiness of each of the designed technologies for direct extension
and/or need for further research
- Compile integrated list of rebearch needs, including:
(I) Need for furthor D&D (pre-project follow-up and/or monitoring o
field trials during project Implementation)
(11) On-farm trials of candidate technologies
- farmer managed trials to assess adoptability and elicit farmer's
own design ideas
- researcher managed trials to evaluate experimental variables under
(Ili) On-station Investigations under controlled conditions to obtain detailed
Information on component Interactions, response to management.
germplasm screening, etc.

STEP 14. RESEARCH AND EXTENSION PLAN


- Develop overall plan of action, detailing:
(I) Individual research Investigations
(II) Extension activities
(111) Integration of research and extension goals and activities
(Iv) Collaboretion Inresearch & extension networks

16
BASIC PRINCIPLESAND PROCEDURES
An Introduction toAgroforestry Diagnosis& Design

VI. IMPLEMENTATION STAGE

STEP 15. IMPLEMENTATION OF R&D


AND EXTENSION ACTIVITIES
- Continue to apply the iteratlve
D&D process to refine prototype gro­
forestry systems on the basis of feedback from
research end extension
experifence (rediagnosis and redesign)
- Institutionalize communication channels between
different programme
components (hold periodic meetings to pool experience,
developments and modify the plan of action in the assess new
light of new experience)

17
DASIC PRI NCI PLES AND PROCEDURES An Introduction to Agroforestry Diaqpis & Design

The view from the village

THE TWO CENTERS Not every village will be reched by a formal agroforestry research
OF AOROFORESTRY project on the mcdel of the preceeding section. Indeed, for the
INNOVATION the benefits of national research orogrammes to reach mcst villages
informal pr s of technology diffusion must be ectivated on a
massive scale. Moreover, the villages themselves are important
centers of indigenous agroforestry innovation. Informal sector
community development workers have an significant role to play in
complementing the efforts of formal sector programmes.
Although much of what Is presented in this section is applicable to
on-farm researchers end extension aents in formal programmes,
it is primarily intended for agroforestry catalysts who work
directly with local communities but who are not necessarily part of
a formal research and development programme. Ways ere suggested
for improving the linkages between these two complementary
centers of agroforestry innovation.
ARE YOU A If you are a village extension agent or community development
OMMUNITY-BASED fleldworker already working in a partiular village or regional
FIELDWORKER? community, much of what has been presented in the preceeding
section will seem superfluous or overly formalized for the kindof
work you are As necessary and appropriate as the steps in
A:-
the more elaborated methodology might be for large-scale,
multi-institutional programmes, many of them will be irrelevant
to your. own needs and circumstances. You should feel free to
select and adapt those aspects of the D&D methodology which would
beof rea" use toyou In your own situation. The Basic Procedures
(pages 6-7) will piobably be of most direct use to you as a
guide for your D&D activites.
ADAPTING D&D TO Since you are already working at a particular site, you will have
YOUR OWN NEEDS little use for the Prediagnostic steps concerned with institutional
arrangements, regional reconaissance and site selection. You may
still find it useful, howeer, to make a systematic inventory of the
18
BASIC PRINCIPLEAND PROCEDURES An Introcucton to Agrc-forestry Diagnosis & Design

land use systems and farm types In your area, and for some of these
you may wish plan a more In-depth diagnosis of problems
and
agroforestry potentials.
The same spplies to the formal exercises of the Planning Stag,
Your own planning procedures are likely to be more fluid
and
participatory, particularly if you are working within an Informal
non-government, private voluntary or community-based
organization. Still, any systematic thought you can give to
the
planning of your own informal research and extension activities
is likely to pay off In greater effectiveness of your agroforestry
efforts.

The heart of the D&D methology--the iterative process


of
diagnosis, design and evaluation--is potentially very relevant
to the effectiveness of your agroforestry work, though perhaps
not
in the style suggested by the more formal procedures.
IN-DEPTH DIAGNOSIS In general, there will be much less pressure to conform to the
time
constraints of an Initial "rapid appraisal" D&D. By living
and
working In close and continuous contact with your community
may already possess a deeper diagnostic understanding of the you
land
use problems of your area, and your ommunication with
the
inhabitants Is probably far better, than what could be achieved
within the time frame of a short term exercit.e by even the
most
experienced and sensitive D&D teem from outside the community.

Still, your perceptions might be sharpened by a more systematic


application of the diagnostic logic and selpctlve use of some of
diagnostic tools. Also, if you are working without the benefit the
of
multidisciplinary team, you may find it helpful to consult witha
outside experts on certain aspects of your diagnosis or design.
If
there is a formal agroforestry project dealing with a similar
u-e system, it may be particularly relevant to compare their land
results with your own.

19
BASIC PRINCIPLESAND PROCEDURES An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagrlsis & Design

LOCAL Although close interaction with the intended users of technology is


PARTICIPATION an,Integral part of all D&D-based projects, as acommunity-based
fIeldworker you may find yourself in a position to implement this
principle with more thoroughness than many externally-based
researchers. You may lack the sophisticated techniques and
resources of formal research institutions, but your ability
maximize local participation in the development and testing to of
agroforestry innovations may give you the advantage with respect
to the "adoptability" of the new technologies. And ultimately, given
the overriding importance of adoption, you may have greater impact
on the local agroforestry scene.
INTERACTIVE The way to take advantae of your opportunities In this respect Isto
DIAGNOSIS & DESIGN take a thoroughly interactive approach to diagnosis and design.
The principle that "diagnosis should preceed treatment" still holds
as a requirement for accountability in technolcfy generation, but
once you begin tIe iterative cycle of diagnosis and design the
process becomes circular. "Diagnosis by treatment" Is apractical
expedient employed by medical doctors whenever they cannot
Immediately confirm their diagnostic susoicions prior to
treatment. Ifthe treatment works the diagnosis ws correct.
PERTURBATION This practice has a parallel in agroforestry in the form of small
EXPERIMENTS
interventions undertaken to se how the system
responds. If the
farmers show interest in adopting a particular problem-solving
technology, then this is evidence that the problem is real and
Important in the minds of the local people--providing, of course,
that they are not adopting it for some other reason. In any case,
such "perturbation expariments" are signficant insofar as they may
uncover previously unsuspected problems or local development
priorities.
Close monitoring of farmer-originated innovations, modifications
of prototype technologies, and the reasons behinld farmer adoption
behaviour not only provides important diagnostic clues but may
also be a rich source of ideas for design improvements.

20
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES
An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis
& Design

FARMERS AS Although It is rarely given full recognition


EXPERIMENTERS researchers in developing countries, by university educated
it is an undeniable fact that
farmers themselves are active
experimentors. Informal
experimental research has b--n a
continuous feature of the farming
scone since the dawn of agriculture.
Without it we would have none
of our contemporary crops and,
indeed, very little agricultural
technology at all
Even when farmers adopt a technology
developed by a research
station, they tend to do Ita 9rimrt&11y--step
a little corner of their land. In the by cautious step on
process it Is usually dteto
fit the farmer's circumstances. Ultimately,
not only that of research scientists, It is their thlnkft
change in land use practice can which must be daveloped before
come
"alternative" to what formal researchers about. This is not an
do, but a necessary and
complementary step in the sequence
processes. Ifthis step is ni)t completed, of rural development
sits on the shelf and nothing practical then the technolovsimply
is acmplished.
TWO-WAY Increasingly, researchers in developing
INFORMATION reach out to farmers through on-farm countries are trying to
FLOW number of sites in which they experimenation, but the
can work Is severely limited
and the "partnership" is still somewhat
one-sided. Even In the
best-intentioned programmes the
couched reveals a lingering "center language in which this activity is
farmers and "bring back" information bias." Scientists "goout" to the
to help them decide how best
to make their technologies more relevent
farmers still have relatively little to their clients needs, but
their own research and development scope for direct expression of
priorities. What Is neded to
make the partnership successful
Is
which information about technologya communication channel In
and research needs and
priorities flows with equal ease in
both directions.
THE COMMUNITY-BASED
As national agroforestry research
FIELD WORKER AS programmes get underway there
will be an expanding stock of research
INFORMATION BROKER results, germplasm dnd
new prototype technology to draw
upon in applying agrforestry to

21
BASIC PRINCIPLESAND PROCEDURES An Introduction toAroforestry Dlagn & Design

community development problems. Extension services will


undoubtedly be called upon to play agreater role in getting the new
technology out to potential users, but it is unlikely that they
alone will be able to handle the potential volume of information
and they tend still to be limited by a one-way approach to the flow
of information. Informal sector fieldworkers have a useful role to
play in obtaining relevant Information and technologies for their
communities and, on the other side, in providing formal agencies
with better access to information on local research and development
priorities and technical innovations originating within their
commuidties. D&D concepts may provide a kind of "lingua franca"
for this work.

COMMUNITY-BASED R&D
The challenge to all concerned parties, if agroforestry is to have a
significant impact on the rural landscape, Is to get the two
complementary centers of experimentation and technical innovation
working together in a mutually reinforcing relationship. This is
most likely to be successful If botb centers of research and
development activity are strengthened. For the formal sector
research center it should not become a cuestion of who takes the
initiative. In technology generation the initiative is where you find
it (a surprising number of the technologies 'released' by interna­
tional research centers have their origin on farmer's fields). The
question, rather, is whether tne effectiveness of the total--formal
and informal--agroforestry R&D effort can be enhanced through
awareness and support of farmers in their own informal research

and development activities.

This is where community-based fleldworkers--in the role of


development catalysts, information brokers translating between
different knowledge systems and, in some cases, leaders of
informal R&D teams--can make a signficant contribution
to the realization of aroforestry's poential in rural development.
In the hands of a skilled change agent, the D&D methodology may
prove to be a useful tool for the job, particularly if coupled with an
effective information network.
22
CASE STUDY EXAMPLE

OF THE D&D

LEARNING PROCESS

CASE STUDY EXAMPLE


An Intfoduction toAgroforestry Diagnosis& Design

Case study example of the D&D learning

process

J.B. Raintree and D.E. Rocheleau

In the course of presenting the D&D methodology In workshops


and training courses over the past
5 years, we have found that nothing works quite as well
as a case study for conveying aconcrete
idea of the kind of learning process that occurs within the
D&D framework. in keeping with the
abreviated format of this introductory manual, however,
we
study report. Rather, we shall draw selectively from will not attempt to present a full case
a particular body of case material to
illustrate, in a concrete form, two of the main features
of
and self-corrective nature of the D&D learning process, the D&D methodology: I ) the iterative
and 2) the range of concerns--both
technical and social--which an agroforestry project using
the D&D methodology may be expected
to encounter.
THE KATHAMA CASE STUDY
The case chosen for this purpose is the Kathama
Agroforestry Project, located In the
subhumid/samiarid midlands of Machaks Distict, Kenya.
and maintained by ICRAF as a testing ground for exploratory This research site has been developed
studies in D&D and related
methodologies. The basic idea behind the methodology work
Given the practical Intent of D&D, the work carried out in Kathama was to "learn by doing."
at the site naturally involved a certain
amount of technology generating" research, but the technological
as somewhat incidental to the methodological lessons which results have tended to be viewed
have been garnered from the activity
and which are its main rationale. Although tne Kathama
experience has provided a number of
Important leads and pilot experleices with new aroforestry
development of agroforest-y technology for the mixed farm technology, the full-scale systematic
Ing systems of the area has been taken
up by the largEr and more formally organized Dryland
Agroforestry Research Project in the
district, involvir,g collaboration between ICRAF, the
Katumani National Dryland Agricultural
Research Station and the Kenya Agr'cultural Research institute
(KARl).
Despite the Informal character of the research activities
D&D field site, it is one of the few places in the world at Kathama, as ICRAF'S oldest continuous
with 5 years of experience with

25
WASE STUDY EXAMPLE An Introduction to Agroforestry DiagWis & Design

agroforestry field trials in a community development setting. As such it. is a uniquely informcitive
source of case material to illustrate the D&D learning process.

CHRONOLOGY OF D&D ACTIVITIES AT THE SITE


Prior Research
1980-81 A study of the role of trees in locnl farming systems (Gielen 1982) and a
botanical survey of local tree & shrub species (Fliervoet 1982)

Phase I: Farm Leel D&D

1981 First rapid appraisal D&D survey (Raintree 1982, Yonk 1983)

1981-83 On-farm trials of prototype agroforestry technologies (Vonk 1983a,b,c)

1981-83 Short-term (3-6 month) "special studies"( in-depth followup to confirm and

explore critical aspects of the initial "rapid appraisal" D&D)

- Wood fuel consumption survey (WiJngaarden 1983a)

- Potential role of self-help organizations in agroforestry (Wijngaarden 1983b)

- Nutrient balance of soils in Iocal cropping system (N ssen 1984)

- Measurement of stickwood increment in grazing lands (Boer 1984)


- Landscape analysis and watershed design study (Hock 1983)
1984 Study of soil moisture depletion in the alley cropping system (Ssekabembe 1984)
PHASE It: Watershed and Conmunitv Level D&D

1983 Watershed and community level D&D analysis (Rocheleau and Hoek 1984)

1983-86 On-site trials of agroforestry landscape interventions ( Rocheleau 1984, 1985)

1984-86 "Special studies"

1984 - .5uj'v-'y of household use of off-farm land (Cantor 1984)

1985 - Survey of women's use of gath3red food and medicinal plants (Rocheleau et al.

1 a5)
1985-86 - Survey of local knowledge and scope for domestication of wild food and
medicial plants in AF systems ( in progress)
1985-86 - Exploratory farm trials of home gardens inor porating wild and semi­
domesticated leafy vegetables and fruits (in progress)

This outline indicates the typical sequence of phasd research and development activities in a
D&D-based agroforestry project: I) initial rapid appraisal D&D survey, 2) commencement of
field trials of initial "best bet" agroforestry technologies, with 3) conomittant "special studies"
26
CASE STUDY EXAMPLE An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis & Design

to confirm and explore critical aspects of the initial D&D results


in greater depth. Feedback from
sucoessive rounds of agroforestry trials, together with the
results of the in-depth diagnostic and
design studies at the site and parallel investigations on research
self-corrective learning process by which the D&D process stations, all provide Inputs to the
gradually approaches an an optimized
set of agroforestry technologies and supportive social structures
for a given land use system.
At the Kathama site, a phased approach was also followed in
design. (This needn't be the case in all projects, since both applying the two scales of diagnosis and
of these as well as other scales could be
covered in the Initial D&D application.) Phase I of
the Kathama project concentrated on
"farm-level" agroforestry Interventions. The experience
larger-than-farm "watershed and community" scale D&D forat this scale suggested the need for a
general landscape interventions. The
methods for this approach were developed and implemented
in Phase 2. A third phase Is being
planned which focuses on regional and national scale analysis
of marketing and processing
potentials for agroforestry cash crops.

As examples of the concrete concerns which come up during


the
learning are presented--one dealing with a central technical D&D process, two specific lines of

problem, the other with a crucial


aspect of the social organization of agroforestry activities at
the site.
PHASE 1: FARM LEVEL D&D
Tree establishment methods under drought conditions
The case material for this example is taken from Yonk (1
983a:j2-85). Inasmuch as all of the
diagnostically derived agroforestry interventions depended
upon the successfull establishment of
trees, little could be acomplished until the problems of tree
establishment under the prevailing
drought conditions could be solved. Initially the emphasis in
the
methods of tree establishment that involved a minimal change farm trials was on labour-saving
practice, as it was anticipated that this would be a requirement in the farmers' normal cropping
for adoption of novel technologies
like alley cropping. Consequently, dz'-x't methods were used in the initial alley cropping
trials.
hee,
_ : Leucaena seeds were scarified and then planted In
simply follcwing along behind the plough and dropping the appropriately ,;paced furrows by
seeds in the furrow. The seeds were
covered with soil by the moldboard plough on the next pass when
the adjacent furrow was made. No
special seed bed preparation was done beyond the normal ploughing
for the maize crop.
CASE STUDY EXAMPLE An Introduction to Agrolorestry Diag is & Design

Reisuts This method was used in the first trials (during the "short rains" of 1981) with
little success. A dry spell following the onset of the rains killed most of the recently
germinated seedlings. Those trees that survived the dry spell were too weak to survive
through the next dry season.

Q)ncluslon: Since uncertainty in the onset of the rains and mid-season droughts are
common in this area, a better method of establishment had to be found. It was
hypothesized that If the fertility of the seedbed were Improved in the spots where the
leucaena seeds are dropped, growth would be vigorous enough for the seedlings to become
established and survive the next dry season. Innoculation of the seed would probably also
have helped, but this was not adopted for the farm trials because of the lack of access of
local farmers to innoculum.

Method2: Same as method I except that manure and triple superphosphate fertilizer were mixed
with the soil where the tree seeds were placed.

BM.Ui This method was used in the next round of trials (during the "long rains" of
1982,. Although initial seedling growth appeared to be more vigorous, this rainy season
was very short, only 4 weeks, and the survival rates were very low.

Conclusion: Although most trees in this trial failed to establish, lasn;uch as the labour
requirement for this method is still relatively low It was thought to have potential for the
area in sesons of higher rainfall. However, in order to ensure establishment of the alley
cropping trials during the next planting season it was decided to plant sci in
Individually prepared planting holes, rather than pers!st with direct seeding methods.
Even though the labour requirement would be substantially higher, the participating
farmers were becoming discouraged with the low survival rates experienced thus far and
had expressed a willingness to invest more labour in planting if they could be assured of a
reasonable survival rat3.

Method 3 Seedlings were raised in polyethylene bags in a nursery. Meanwhile, planting holes
were prepared during the dry season In rows between the "alleys" where the crops were to be
grown. Manure and triple superphosphate were mixed with the soil in the planting hole and the
seedlings were set out at the beginning of the rains when the crops were planted. The labour
requirement for this method was expected to be high but the survival rate of the seedlings was also
28
CASE STUDY EXAMPLE An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis & Design

expected to be significantly higher than the previous methods. A labour


bottleneck at planting
time could be avoided by preparing the planting holes during the letter
part of the dry season,
when there is little competition for labour.
Result: This method was used during the next planting season (the
1983) with considerable success. High survival and growth rates were "short rains" of
acheived in many
of the trials. However, the total labour requirement was very high due
to the digging of
the planting holes during the dry season when the soil was herd. 7
to
required to dig a single hole, depending on the clay content of the soil. 14 minutes was
At an average
In-row spacing of 0.5 m, this works out to between 23 and 46 man-hours
hedgerow, or 96 to 192 man-duys oer hectare (assuming 4 m spacing per 100 m of
between hedgerows
and a 6 hour workday for this kind of heavy labour).

C.I.u ,",:
The method has the potential to achisve high survival and growth rates
but
some w,,y would have to be found to reduce the labour requirement.
Methd 4: Farmer-Orginated Desian Imorymelt

As it turned out,
one of the farmers in the 1983 trials did not follow
the directions concerning
preparation of the planting hole during the dry season. Instead, he merely
circular microcatchment of about I in diameter at the planting site during scooped out a shallow
the dry season. After
the first rain, when the soil inside the microoatchment had become soakedandquite
then dug the remainder of the planting hole, mixed in the manure and easy todig, he
phosphate fertilizer, and
planted the seedl Ing.

Results: Survival and growth rates were high and the labour requirement
planting holes was reduced to 1-2 minutes per hole. Adding an estimated 2 for digging the
minutes to scoop
out the shallow microcatchment during the dry season (actual
labour data were
unavailable since the farmer did this operation without the prior
researcher), this brings the total labour to 3 to 4 minutes per plantingknowledge of the
hole, for a total
labour requirement of 10 to 13 hours per 100 m of hedgerow, or 42 to
54 man-dys/ha
(assuming 0.5 m In-row and -4 n between-row spacing and 6 hrs/man-day).
Conclusion: The farmers inncv&"''n reduced the labour requirement for
preparation of
planting holes by 60-70%. Although further reductions would be desirable,
gettingi to be wlthin an acceptable range for farmers who are otherwise Method 4 is
movitvated toadopt
the alley cropplng system, provided they spread out the work of establishing
the system

29
WASE STUDY EXAMPLE An Introduction to Agroforestry Da~is & Design

over a period of several planting seasons. (Which is consistent with the cautious,
experimental way most small farmers adopt new technologies.)

This example illustrates the way in which a specific line of technical inquiry can be
adjusted to
accomodate the learning experience associated with successive cycles of trial-and-error
iterative D&D process. in the
In accordance with scientific method, each progressive design
improvement should be regarded as an "hypothesis" for testing. There is no blame
.wrong"at any point, as long as the approriate corrections are made in subseluent In being
trials.
A similar process of trial-redi: znsls-redesign was applied tc rehabilitation and Improvement of
badly eroded grazing lands in Kathama. In this case, the iterative D&D prccess led, in the
end, not
to the adoption of a set of incremental improvements but to a whole new design approach:
r&///A(tt', oafeistffi trees instead of the planting of new ones. This approach appears the
to have
merit for serverely degraded grazing lands, where drought and degraded site conditions
make it
extremely difficult to establish new trees, but where useful existing tree cover
rehabilitated as a ,'irst step in the improvement process (Vonk 1983a). Later, after can be
tne site has
recovered some of Its condition, silvopastoral enrichment plantings can be made
to increase
diversity and introduce new germplasm. The method has been taken up for further research
in the
nearby Dryland Agroforestry Research Project (Sang et al. 1985a).

PHASE 2: WATERSHED AND COMI UNITY LEVEL D&D

At the time of the initial farm-level D&D exercise it was recocnized that not
ell of the
agroforestry related problems within the area could be assigned to individual farms,
nor could
they adequately be addressed by farm level designs alone. It was felt, in particular,
that the
erosion problems experienced on many of the farms had at least part of their origin
in wider
landscape patterns and prces3s, and that the runoff from individual farms had effects
on other
farms in the area. Although the initial round of agroforestry trials with farmers was
individual farm Interventions, it was also recognized that the household was not the onlyfocused on
scical
unit capable of carrying out agroforestry' trials. Two "special studies" were undertaken
to provide
insights into possibilities for broadening the diagnosis and design to ; /ari r- tln-fam
sa/.e:
1) An Investigation into the activities of existing self-help groups in the community,
to see
whether they had any potential for agroforestry development (Wyjngaarden 1983b);
and 2) a
.V1tr1stWdlol 0s'9//e of erosion patterns, leading to a general lanescape design for a more
broadly conceived approach to erosion control (Hcek 1983).

30
CASE STUDY EXAMPLE An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis & Design

It was anticipated that these two, seemingly rather distinct, areas of concern might in fact be
mutually reinforcing: the study of existing community organizations might sugggest ways of
organizing farmers to implement larger-thin-farm scale agroforestry designs required for
effective erosion control. When the watershed and community scale D&D activity was
systematically taken up in Phase 2 of the project, itwas discovered that "vLmN/s f6/etv's were
much stronger and had much wider implications for the organization of agroforestry projects than
originally hypothesized. This will be illustrated by a brief review of the lessons learned about the
role of neighborhood self-help groups in the development of agroforestry potentials at the Kathama
research site (the case material Is drawn from Rocheleau 1984 and 1985).

Role of neighborhor d sslf-help groups

The first indication that larger-than-household scale social organizations were more than just a
potential to be tapped for larger-than-farm scale designs--but in fact an essential factor in the
sudcessful implementation of even farm-lewlagroforestry designs--was brought to light in
connection with water problems a= iated with the raising of seedlings for the on-farm trials. Of
the ten farmers in the first round of on-farm agroforestry trials, three tried to produce seedlings
on their own farms in orde, to expand the experimental plantings. Two of the three failed in this
effort and others refrained from trying because of a shortage of water for the seedlings caused Dy
difficulty of access to permanent water during the dry season. The one farmer who suceeded had a
private spring on his own farm. It was realized then that, for most families, access to water
involves use of public water source-, often at great distance from the fam.

Also, while most of the par'icipants in the initial set of farm trials happened to be men, the
traditional expectation regarding the division of household labour gave primary responsibly for
transporting water for the nursery see" 'ngs to women. However, there were no clear guarantees
that the women would share directly in tne fruits of the labour they provided to the men's tree
plant'ng activities. When hard pressed by other chores and the generally difficult conditons of the
drought period, many women were reluctant to put in the long hours of water hauling required to
ensure survival of the sajlincs.

This observatiai :intcc Up two preconditions for successful nurseries: I) the need to involve
women as indviCual Deneficiaries of tree planting actlvities and as co-planners of any activity
Involving tteir cvwn laz, cur (i.e. in general, the need to ensure that individuals, whatever' their
social identi:y, wcul. tenefit from the fruits of their own labour), and 2) the desirability of

'31
CASE STUDY EXAMPLE An Introduction to Agroforestry Diag~is & Design

organizing the nursery work as a group activity located near a permanent water source on the
farm of one of the group members. Recalling the finding of the "'specialstudy" on local self-help
groups that most of the active groups in the area were women's groups, it was recognized that such
groups constituted the natural social unit around which the nursery groups could be organized. It
proved to be a relatively easy matter for the community to set up the required groups on a
neightbrhood basis and to find a permanent water source (usually a spring on one of the group
memter's farms) near which to locate the nursery. As it turned cut, although the women's
self-help groups formed the nucleus of the neighborhood nursery groups, the groups did not not
restrict their membership to \':omen only. Men also participate.

Tc carry out the objectives of Phase 2 of the project, a small catchment within the local watershed
was selected for a pilot study with the following specific objectives:

I) to develop AF methods for implementation, monitoring & evaluation of watershed and


community scale group projects
2) to build rapport with 'he groups and assess their organizational and technical capabilities
and potential
3) to modify the agroforestry designs and implementation plans to fit -2

In the cours"e of setting up the nursery groups It was discovered that the traditional self-help
groups were not "communal" in nature and not primarily focused on "public works" (despite
occasional mobilization by village ajthorities for conservation works), but rather, small
neighborhood-based associations primarily intended for reciprocal and rotational labour exchange
for the benefit of individual member households. When approached by the researcher to work on
critical agroforestry-conservation sites within the overall watershed plan, they agreed to do so
but only on the basis of a negotiated exchange of 15 tree seedlings (a multi-species "sampler
package") in return for carrying out this work. In the subsequent sson, while some of the
groups continued to ask for ed'ice on placement and construction of soil conservation works, they
gave first priority to nursery construction and plant propagation activities. The self-defined
objectives of the nursery groups centered nn collective production of fruit, fodder, fuelwood and
timber trees for use by the individual members on their own farms.

Once the the participants in the nursery activities could see what the new trees and shrubs lockec
like and how they performed in new niches on their farms, they were better able to choose tree
species (both exotic & indigenous) to meet their na,ids, and to consider alternative planting
arrangements and management techniques. Thus, the provision of seedlings for private use to and
32
CASE STUDY EXK-1 PLE
An Introduction to Agroforestry
Diagnosis & Design

by the group members was stimulus


the potential role of agroforestry and precondition to &dramatic
on their farms. Once they hed expansion of awareness about
the agroforestry possibilities begun teke an active interest
of their farms, they gave insightful in
in the on-farm trials. The nursery suggestions for improvements
diagnosis of felt needs and potentials. activities also provided an Important
By providing a range of tree spc;iestool for sharpening the
monitoring the preferences for to choose from and by
different trees, the researcher
of the participants' actual perception was able to get a better indication
of farm needs anddevelopment
priorities.
Out of this consultation and
testing came a suggested change
Inter,;ropping for mulch (the of emphasis from hedgerow
"green manure" strategy behind
hedgerow intercropping for fodder the initial alley cropping trials)
and fruit, with wider spaceing to
few farmers maintained their between hedgerows. Although
interest in widely spaced hedgerows a
expressed a preference for cattle for mulch, most farmers
trees in grazing land to Increase pen-composting of tree biomass from fencerows
the supply of "manure" for and dispersed
croplands (a modification of the subequent application to their
traditional "brown manure" strategy).
The focus of group activitie
on propagating trees in small
accompanied by an active search neighbor hc-d nurseriec was
members' needs and priorities for new tree species compatible
One focus of this collecting activity with the individual group
vegetables, wild fruits and exotic was on indigenous leafy
cropping systems, emerging home drought-resistant marketable fruit compatible with
garden prototypes, and/or hedgerow local food
farm boundaries or hedgerows plantings (living fences on
tree-based pesticides available on internal fleld borders).
In the area, carried out with Another search was focused on
the help of foresters and local
her bal Ists.

COMPLEMENTARY ON-STATION
RESEARCH
Of all ol the agroforestry technologies
the most experimental. The main in the on-farm trials In Kathama,
alley cropping is clearly
research questions center on 1)alternative
for fodder rather than mulch uses of tree herbage
in mixed farming systems of the
competition for soil moisture dry
between hedgerws and the associated troplcs and 2) the effects of
crops (Ssekabemoe 1985).
The first question is of the type
that can only be answered by on-farm
farmers' response to the experimental trials, inasmuch as It Is the
system, which has to be monitored. technology, Inthe context of
The second question, however, the prevailing land use
requires en investigation Of

33
CASE STUDY EXAMPLE An Introduction to Agroforestry Diag is & Design

plant and soil Interactions which might best be taken up on the research
station, where more
complex and rigorously controlled experimental designs and sophisticated
monitoring techniques
are easier to carry out.
Since both kinds of information are needed, the question for research planners
is not which type of
rbwsarch to undertake, but in what order they should be taken up. There are
is that, for highly experimental technologies, a workable prototype should two arguments: One
first be developed
on-station before submitting it to farmer trial in order to minimize the farmers'
risk. The other,
and opposite, argument is that it may take a long time to develop a rigorously
researched prototype
technology on-station and that before committing resources to a long
researchers should first c'yff/m that the technolcg has real relevance term investigation
to the felt reeds of the
intended users. This can best be accomplished through a kind of "perturbation
on-farm to see how the farmers respond to an Initial "best bet" design. Another experiment"
side of the second
argument is that farmer-originated modifications may suggest "adoptability-enhancing"
attributes of the technology which should be incorporated into the prototype
research before it
goes too far down the wrong road.
There Is no universally "correct" resolution to this issue, but the Kathama
experience suggests
that it may be possible to take up both kinds of investigations s/mut1//1wsl<.
on-farm trials of the initial "best bet" design were getting underway in Kathama, Thus, while the
a more basic set
of phased investigations into the alley cropping technology were started
in the on-station
component of the nearby Dryland Agoforestry Research Project (Sang et
al. I 985b). Not long
after this, a third set of related investigations was initiated on the ICRAF
field station. It is too
early to cite conclusive results, but these three sets cf investigations
are proving to be
complementary to each other, and together they are capable of providing a better
basis for the next
generation of dryland alley cropping tchnololgv- for the area than any of them
alone.
From the Kathama trials we have learned that for alley crcpping to be adortable
to farmers with an
animal-based approach to fertility maintenance in mi,"ad farming systems
(the tritIlonal"brown
manure" strategy), emphasis should be given to the production of fodder
hedgerows. The farmers most likely to have an abiding interest in mulchin the alley cropping
and green-manure
production (the new "green manure" strategy) are those with insufficient
grazing land to support
enough livestock to supply the manure needs of their fields. Farmers of either
type with astrong
interest in cash crops would like to incorporate marketable tree crops into
their alley crop-ing
hedgerows. Thus, the farm trials have provided a basis for cautiou. optimism
regarding the
appropriateness of certain functional aspects of the basic alley cropping concept
and suggested the

34
CASE STUDY EXAMPLE
An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis&
Design
kinds of design modifications which
would be needed to ensure widespread
farmers. The most important modifications adoption by local
green m.nure trees (to avoid moisture are: 1) widening of the spacing between
competition during drought periods) heigerowsof
multiple rows in the hedgerow design with the possibility of
Insted of green manure trees In the to compenzate for the wider spacing, 2) fodder or fruit trees
hedgerows ( I.e. ame jasic spatial arrangement
functions), and 3) pen-omposd ng with different
of wooy biomss and leaf material
farm and surrounding landscape ( i.e. from other locations on the
same function w!th different spatial
arrangement).
The initial set of on-statllon alley
cropping Investigations in the DrylandAgroforestry
Project focused on assessing the effects Research
on yields of maize and bean crops of
different tree species, with the green green manure from 3
been quite positive for Zeca1na&lr4omWpWl manure grown separatoy from the
crops.
T 'mfrialiarorrmf/ While providing and 6azrle simf and somewhat less Results have
quantitative data cn the beneficial positive for
per se, these experiments shed no effects of green manure
manure prodiction In heaierows. light on the potential competitive
Nevertheless, encouraged by these effects of // sftu green
which predict a net beneficial effect results and by estimates
on crop yields, the project rv.earhers
out to on-farm trials for further
experiments on the full alley cropping have dcided to move
.roduction of applied green manure). system (with /7 sft

Meanwhile, on the !CRAF Field Station


nearby, quite a different kind of
established using "systematic" and experiment has been
In-row and between-row spacing of "geometric" designs. By providing date on optimal
leucaena trees In the alley cropping ranges for
experimental layouts have the potential system,
these kinds of

to fill an Important gap in the information


optimize the design. On-farm research required to
this climate zone, the between-row in Kathama has provided qualitative
spacing should be wider than the original indications that, for
early alley cropping trials, but this 3.5-4 m used in the
trials. Since the experiments on thevariable is difficult to investigate systematically in on-farm
above-ground microclimatic as wellICRAF station are also fully instrumented for monitoring of
complement the farmers' observationsas soil moisture arid fertility, they will be able to
with quantitativo data on shelter
components of the total comple. effects and other
of plant-plant and plant-soil interactions
cropping in dryland farming systems. involved in alley
It Is expected that these basic Investigations
contribute to the development of robust will also
experimental methodologies for use
in the on-farm trials.

AS

D&D IN ACTION

An Illustrated Scenario of the Process


D&D INACTION An Introduction to Agroforestry DTJnosis & Design

(1) (2)

IT ISLATE EVENING. TWO SMALL GROUPS OF PEOPLE MEET ON THE 2ND FARJIER (mopping his brow): IDONT KNOW WHAT IT IS. IT'S
ROAD TO THE VILLAGE. EVERYONE LOOKS VERY TIRED AS IFTHE VERY LAND IS TIPED AND HAS GiVEN UP THE STkUGGLE!

ISr FARMER (heavily loaded wilh firewood): GREETINGS. IST FA~RMER (laughing wryly): THEN IT IIUST FEEL LIKE ME! WE
NEIG-BOR. HOW DID THE DAY GO WITH YOU. WH,- S THE NEWS NOW SET OFF EARLY THIS I1CNNING TO COLLECT THIS FIPEWOO AND
THAT THE RAINS HAVE COME? EVEN SO IT WILL CNLY LAST A DAY C SO.

2KD FAR1?R (lowerlng his hoe): GREETINGS . . . BUT THIS IS A 2ND FARMER (sighing dooply): I DCNT KNOW WHAT TO DO
SAD DAY FOR ME. THAT FIELD !HAD FINISHED TERRACING . . . THE THE YIELDS SEEM TO BE LESS EACH SEASON. THAT'S WHY THEY TOLD
PATH THAT WENT ACROSS IT HAS COLLAPSED INTO A DEEP GULLY! METO BUILD TERRACES . . ALL THAT WO.KI AND NOW? HUH!
ITS ALL RUINED.. . SOMETIrlES I JUST FEEL LIKE MOVING AWAY'

IST FARIIERE: AIEE, NEIGHBRI WHAT ISHAPPENING TO US? THE IST FARMER: AWAY TO WHERE? WHO CAN FIND NEW LANU?
SAMlE THING HAS HAPPENED ON THE NEXT RIDGE, AND THEY DONT
THINK T-EY'L GET A CROP THIS YEARI SOMETHING HAS GONE WRNCG 2ND FARMER: YOUTPE RIGHT. OF COURSE... AH. WELL. BY
SCMEiERE. TOOIRROW&ILL BE READY TO START PLANTING, AS USUAL.

38
D&D INACTION
An Intr(ucton to Agroforestry Diagnols& Design

(3)

(4)

NOT FAR AWAY THE SAME


CPBLES
WERE BEING DISCUSSED AT THE
ISTRICT DEVELOPMENT OFFICE... MEANHAILE, BACK IN THE CAPITOL CITY
URGENT DISCUSSIONS WERE
TAKING PLACE AT THE HIGHEST LEVEL
...

FIELD OFFICER: WE OBVIOUSLY GOT


ON TO THE TERRAC!NG TOO
LATE. BUT WHAT ELSE CULD WE 0? MINISTER'S VOICE: GENTLEMEN.
THIS WHOLE THING DIDN'T IF THIS CONTINUES THE COUNTRY
WILL BE IN SERIOUS TRUBLEI AGROFORESTRY
START YESTERDAY! SEEMS A PROMISING
APPROACH BUT WE CANT V,AT YEARS FOR
PRACTICAL RESULTSI
2ND OFFICER: WELL, IT'S ALL LITERALLY
GOING DOwN HILL NOW! WE
LOOKAPPOINTED
BUT AT LEAST WEVE GOT ENOUGH INTO WAYSTHIS NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON AGROFOESTRY
OF SPEEDING TO
UP INTER-AGENCY COLLABORATION
SEED AND FERTILIZER FOR THIS ON
AGPOFCPSTRY RESEARCH. WHAT ARE
YOUR RCOMENDATIONS?
SEASON...

FIELD OFFICER: BUT THAT'S NOT


THE ANSWER, IS IT? WE NEED COMIIMITTEE
NOE THAN THAT! . . . WHAT HAVE HOW DIFFICULTCHAIRMAN: WELL. MR. MINISTER, WE ALL KNOW
IT IS TO GET AGRICULTURALISTS
YOU HEARD AJT THIS NEW AND FORESTERS TO
APPROACH? COLLABOROATE ON ANYTHINGI BUT
WEVE FOLLOWED UP ON THE
CONTACTS WITH ICRAF AND WE
THINK WE OUGHT TO GIVE THIS "D&D"
2ND OFFICER: IT ISN'T REALLY SO BUSINESS A TRY.
AREA HAVE BEEN DOING ScIETIHING NEW, IS IT? FARIERS IN THIS
LIKE THAT FOP A LONG TIME.
'o'HOKNOWS? WITH A LITTLE RESEARCH MINISTER: ALPIGHT THEN GENTLEMEN.
SUPPORT IT MIGHT GO A I WANT TO SEE THIS 'D&D"
IN ACTION!
LCNG WAY...

3g
)&D INACTION An Introduction to Agroforestry Dignosis & Design

- ,rI

(s) (6)
AN INTER-AGENCY AGRcFRESTRY TASK FORCE WAS SET UP AND IT IN THE CONFERENCE ROOM THE MEETING IS CALLED TO ORDER...
WASNT LONG BEFORE ITS FIRST MEETING ...

FIELD OFFICER: WHATS THIS MEETING ALL ABOUT? IVE GOT DIRECTOR: GOOD MORNING IT'S NICE TO SEE YOU ALL HERE
TOGETHER. I KNOW THIS IS A BUSY TIME FO YOU, BUT FORGET AL
URGENT WORK TO DO. . . WHAT IS THIS V&D BUSINESS ANYWAY? THAT! AS YOU KNOW. YCJ ARE HERE BECAUSE YOUVE BEEN
NOMINATED BY YOUR DIVISIONS TO WCOK TOGETHER ON A PECT
I ST RESEARCHER: DONT BE ALAPIED, THEY SAY ITS NOTHING THE HIGHEST PRIORITY. .. THE MINISTER WANTS US TO DO MC~q 71
MORE THAN A PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH TO AGRCOORESTRY.. HELP THE FARMERS AND HE HAS INSTRUCTED THIS TASK FORCE T-
A LITTLE MORE SYSTEMATIC THAN USUAL PERHAPS. . CARRY OUT A D&D' EXERCISE. . . THE PURPOSE C THIS MEET!.',-,
TO LEARN 'WHAT THIS D&D PROCESS' IS ALL ABOUT AND TO V.2VC(
2ND RESEARCHER: OH YEAH, IVE HEARD THAT ONCE YOU PUT OUT A PLAN FOR INTERDISCIPLINARY COOPERATION...
THIS D&D' PROCESS INTO MOTION YOU START TO REDWINE THE VERY
MEANING OF WORK! WEVE ENVITED A TEAM HERE FROM ICPAF TO SHO US HICV %E CAN
GO ABOUT IT . . .
FIELD OFFICER: WHAT? ... WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY THAT?

40

D&D INACTION An Int7roduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis & Desfgn

(7) (8)
IT ISN'T LONG BEFORE THE TASK FORCE BEGINS WORK ON THE HAVING FAMILIARIZED THEMSELVES WITH THE PREDIAGNOSTIC DATA
PREDIAGNOSTIC STAGE ...
AND DEFINED A FOCUS FOR THE FIELD SURVEY. D&D TEAM TAKES TO
THE FIELD TO CARRY OUT THE DIA6NOSTIC SURVEY
IST RESEARCHER: THESE ARE THE BEST MAPS
OF THE STUDY
...
AREA WE HAVE. AND HERE ARE SCE REPORTS WEVE COLLECTED I ST RESEARCHER: WELL. HERE'S THE FAk .
WHICH CONTAIN USEFUL BASELINE INFORMATION . . . ARE YOU SURE
THIS ONE IS TYPICAL OF THE LAND USE SYSTEM WE ARE SUPPOSED TO

2ND RESEARCHER: HOW MANY DIFFERENT LAND USE SYSTEMS DIAGNOSE?

ARE THERE IN THE STUDY AREA. ANYWAY? YOU KNOW THAT AREA.
FIELD OFFICER: IT SHOULD BE. LET'S TALK TO THE FARM1ER AND
GEORGE, WHAT DO YOU THINK?
FIND OUT. . . HERE SHE COMES NOW!
FIELD OFFICER: WELL. ITS HAPD TO SAY . . . BUT THE FARMS IN
2ND RESEARCHER: SHE?. . . I DIDN'T EXPECT THE FARMER TO
THIS AREA ALL HAVE A PRETTY SIMILAR CROPPING PATTERN. ..
BE A WOMAN!
OVER HERE THEY TEND TO HAVE MORE LIVESTOCK..
IST RESEARCHER: REALLY! YOU DON" GET OUT MUCH, DO YOU?
3RD RESEARCHER: WHERE ARE THOSE GUIDELINES FOR THE PRE-
DIAGNOSTIC STAGE? WEVE GOT TO BE SYSTEMATIC ABOUT THIS!

41

D&D INACTION An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagi Os & Design

(9) (10)

TO GREET THE FARMER AND START THE INTERVIEW.. tST RESEARCHER (to field oricer): THERE CERTAINLY SEEMS TO
BE ALOT OF SHEET EROSION HERE. . . AND LOOK! OVER THERE A
FIELD OFFICER: WED LIKE TO TALK WITH YOU ABOUT YOUR GULLY ISBEGINNING TO FORM .
FAIING PRACTICES AND PROBLEMS. THERE MAY BE SOMETHING
OUR RESEARCHERS CAN DO TO HELP. .. 2ND RESEARCHER (to rarmer): WHAT ABOUT FIREWOOD AND
FODDER FOR YOUR LIVESTOCK?... DO YOU ALWAYS HAVE ENOUGH?
FARMER: WEVE ALREADY GOT SEEDS AND FERTILIZER.

2ND RESEARCHER: WELL YES. . . BUT PERHAPS THERE IS


SCtETHING ELSE. . . WOULD YOU MIND SHOWING US AROUND YOUR
FARM? WE CAN TALK AS WE GO.

42
D&D INACTION An introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis& Design

4
41("l. 'IL ~ '4

(I )
(12) [THE D&D TEAM ON THE WAY BACK TOTHE LAND ROVER)
LATER THAT EVENING. THE D&D TEAM REASSEMBLE TO COM"PARE
I ST RESEARCHER: YOU KNOW. THESE LAST FEW DAYS OF

NOTES AND MULL OVER THEIR FIRST DAY OF FIELDWORK . . .


SURVEY
HAVENT REALLY TUJED UP ANY NEW INFCR1ATION.

EVERYTHING WEVE LEARNED SEEMS TO ADD UP TO A PRETTY

I ST RESEARCHER: YOU KNOW.I KEEP WONDERING HOW ALL THAT


CONSISTENT PICTURE OF THE PkOBLEMS ON THESE FARMS.

RUNOFF WE SAW UP ON THE RIDGE TODAY IS AFFECTING THE FARrMIRS


FURTHER DOWN THE SLOPE . . .

2ND RESEARCHER: I AGREE. PERHAPS IT'S TIME TO GO BACK TO


FIELD OFFICER: WELL. . WHY DON'T SOM'E OF US GO DOWN THE CITY AND ANALYZE OUR FINDINGS CAREFULLY. . . THE ANALYSIS
WILL REVEAL IF THERE ARE ANY GAPS IN OUR INFORMATION.
THAT WAY TOIORROW AND TALK TO THE PEOPLE THERE?. . . THE
REST OF THE TEAM CAN CONTINUE WITH THE FARMS UP ON THE RIDGE.
3RD RESEARCHER: RIGHT. WE CAN ALWAYS COME BACK OUT
HERE
-TO CHECK ON SPECIFIC POINTS . . .

43

D&D INACTIfl, An Introduction to Agroforestry DiaWsis & Design

(13) (14)
SO. . AFTER A COLPLE OF WEEKS IN THE FIELD. THE TEAM RETURNS 3RD RESEARCHER: RIGHT! THEN WE CAN DPAW UP A LIST
TO THE CITY TO SEGIN TIE DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS ... OF TUNCTIONAL SPECIFICATIONS' FOR WHAT EACH OF THE
INTERVENTIONS SHOULD DO FOR THE SYSTEM . . . THIS IS THE FINAL
IST RESEARC!ER (standlng aL the blackbcard): LETS BEGIN BY LINK TO THE DESIGN...
WR1TING DOWN THE PROBLEMS WEVE IDENTIFIED... AND THEN WE
CAN MAKE A LIST OF ALL THE FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO EACH Of FIELD OFFICER: , WAIT!. . WE1ZE ALL ANXIOUS TO GET ON WITH
THE PROBLEMS... THE DES;GN. BUT FIRST LETS NOT FORGET TO LIST THE DESIGN

2ND RESEARCHER: CONSTRAINTS'... TO REMIND US WHAT WE SHOULD NOT DO IFWE


AFTER THAT WE CAN WEIGH THE DIFFERENT HOPE TO COME UP WITH A DESIGN THAT CAN BE ADOPTED BY THE
FACTORS A)D IDENTIFY THE MAIN CONSTRAINTS. THESE NAY FARMERS!
SU66EST 1.EVERA6E POINTS' WHERE SPECIFIC AGROFORESTRY
INTERVENTIONS COULD MAKE A DIFFERENCE...

44
D&D INACTION An Ii uction to Agroforestry Diagnosls & Design

(15)

ONCE THE TEAM1 HAS APRVED AT A r1Cki OR LESS COiIPLETE SET


OF
3RD RESEARCHER: THAT WILL DEPEND UPON WHAT SORT OF
SPECIFICATIONS, THE DESIGN STAGE BEGINS. . . IT ISN-T
LONG SPACING AND MANAGMENT SYSTEM WE ARE THIK.NG OF USING.
BEFCVE TH!EY ARE WRESTLING WITH THE SPECIFICS OF THE DESIGN.
LETS NOT BE TO GUICK TO J. TO CONCLUSIONS...
1ST RESEARCHER: HMN . .. ALRIGHT, WHY DONT WE COMBINE
4TH RESEARCHER: I AGREE... NOV THAT WE KNOW WHAT
FODDER PRODUCTION WITH EROSION CONTROL INTO A MULTIPURPOSE
VERE LOOKING FOR ITS TIME TO FIND OT WHAT THAT NEW
HEDGEROW DESIGN FOR PLANTING ALONG THE CONTOURS INTHE
MULTIPURPOSE TREE UNIT IN THE FORESTRY DIVISION HAVE COME
CROPLAND?. . . I MEAN. THE ESSENCE OF THIS IS MULTIPURPOSE UP
WITH INTHEIR FIELD TRIALS. SHALL I CONTACT THEM?. . .AND
DESIGN, ISN" IT?
WHILE WERE AT IT WHY DONT WE GET BACK TO THE LIVESTOCK

2ND RESEARCHER: THATS RIGHT. . . SO WHICH TREE OR RESEARCH GROUP OVER AT THE UNIVERSITY...
SHRUB
SPECIES WILL BEST SUIT THE PLRPOSES HERE?

45
D&D INACTION An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis& Design

(1

(17)
AND SO THE PROCESS CONTINUES AND A PRELItINAJY EVENTUALLY THE EMRYONIC DESIGN REACHES THE STAGE WHERE

AGRCOCOSTRY DE31GN STARTS TO EMERGE.


ITS READY FOR THE EX-ANTE EVALUATION.

DIRECTOR (entering the room):


IST RESEARCHER: WELL... IT LOOKS AS IF WE HAVE ARRIVED
HOW IS IT GOING?. .. HEY. THAT LOOKS LIKE AN INTERESTING
AT A PRETTY GOCO OVERALL DESIGN... BUT LET'S EVALUATE IT
AGRO OESTRY SYSTEM. .. DOES IT SATISFY ALL OF THE DESIGN
CAREFULLY NOW AND SEE IF WE CAN FIND WAYS TO IMPROVE IT.
SPECIFICATIONS?
IST RESEARCHER: WELL. 2ND RESEARCHER: UH . I DON'T THINK IFS OUT OF ORDER TO
. I THINK WE MIGHT NEED TO SUGGEST THAT WE SHOULD ALSO CONSIDER WHETHER
CONSIDER SOME MORE BOUNDARY PLANTINGS TO REALLY DEAL WITH THERE ARE A Y
NON-AGROFORESTRY ALTERNATIVES THAT MIGHT DO A BETTER J0'
THE FIREWOCO PROBLEM . . . BUT I THINK WERE GETTING THERE!

2ND RESEARCHER. WERE GOING BACK CUT TO THE FIELD AGAIN FIELD OFFICER: YES, OF CCURSE, BUT DON'T FORGET WE NEED TO
GO BACK UT THE FIELD AGAIN TO TEST OUR PROPOSALS WITH A
TOMORROW TO CHECK UR IDEAS WITH SOME OF THE FAPIIERS AND
LARGER SAMPLE OFFARIERS . . . A;'TER ALL. THEY ARE THE ONES
GET THEIR INPUT. . .
WHO WILL MAKE THE FINAL DECISION ABOUT WHETHER TO ADORT THE
TECHNOLOGY OR NOT.

46
D&D INACTION
An Infljucton to Agroforestry Dignosis & Design

(16)

(19)

DIRECTOR: YOU PEOPLE ARE GOING TO


WECK MY PETROL BUDGET! FINALLY A PROTOTYPE DESIGN FOR AN
OK.ONE MCP FIELD TRIP...
IS COMPLETED AND A MEETING IS HELD IMPROVED
BUT AFTER THAT I WANT YOU TO LAND USE SYSTEM
SPEND MORE TIME DEFINING THE ECCrENDATION TO FORMIULATE A PLAN OF
DOMAIN* FOR THIS ACTION FOR THE FOLLOW UP ACTITIVIES..
TECHNOLOGY. I MEAN. . WOULD HOPE THAT THIS SYSTEM COULD
BE RELEVANT TO FARIMERS WITH SIMILAR PROBLEMS IN OTHER AREAS
OF THE COUNTRYI IVE GOT TO JUSTIFY I ST RESEARCHER: FIRST WE NEED
THE EXPENDITURES. TO CONSIDER WHICH OF THE
TECHNOLOGIES IN THE DESIGN ARE READY
FOR IMMEDIATE EXTENSION.
RESEARCHER: YES SIR, WE ALL AGREE! AND WHICH OF 7HEM ARE GOING TO NEED FURTHER
INFACT WE HAD THAT IN I MEAN. WE WANT THE FARIMER TO PARTICIPAE RESEARCH..
MIND RIGHT FROM THE START WI-HEN WITH US IN THE
WE SELECTED THIS STUDY AREA.
R&D PROCESS. BUT WE CANT ASK THIn
IT ISREALLY QUITE REPRESENTATIVE TO TAKE TOO fANY RISKSI
OF A LARGE PORTION OF THE
HILLY REGION. . . NOW THAT OUR DESIGNS
ARE TAKING CONCRETE 2ND RESEARCHR: YES. ON THE RESEARCH
FORM WE HAVE A BETTER IDEA OF EXACTLY SIDE. WE SHOULD PLAN
WHERE.. .
FOR ION FART TRIALS TO GET EARLY
FEEDBACK FROM ThT FARERS
ON SUITABLE TECHNOLOGIES. AND MORE
CONTROLLED 'ON STATION"
INVESTIGATIONS TO GIVE US HARD INFORMATION
ON ASPECTS OF THE
DESIGN WE ARE NOT SO SURE ABOUT..

47

D&D INACTION An Introduction to Agroforestry Diagnosis& Design

(20) (21)

3RD RESEARCHER: RIGHT, THEN WE CAN GO ON TO MAKE AN ALL THROUGH THE IMPLEMENTATION STAGE THE ITERATIVE D&D
INT-ZSPATED PLAN OFACTION. WITH OUTLINES FOR SPECIFIC PROCESS CONTINUES . .. THE DIAGNOSIS DEEPENS AS ON-FARM
RESEARCH I'.VESTIGATIONS, EXTENSICON ACTIVITIES AND . . . RESEARCHERS REALLY GET TO KNOW~ THE AREA .. FARMERS
PROVIDE FEEDBACK THROUGH THE FARM TRIALS AND SUGGEST
4TH RESEARCHEP: WELL. YES . . . TO GET THE PROJECT OFF TO IMPORTANT DESIGN INNOVATIONS OFTHEIR OW'N ...
A GOO START WELL NEED TO COMIE UP WITH SPECIFIC SUGGESTIONS
ABOUT EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS. BUT WE SHOUL.D LEAVE ENOUGH RESEARCHER: WH-AT HAPPENED DURING THE HEAVY RAIN LAST
FLEXIBILITY FOR THE IMPLEMENTERS OF THE PROJECT TQ WORK OUT WEEK? WAS THERE MUCH RUNOFF? DID THE HEDGEROWS CONTA IN IT'
THE DETAILS FOR THEMSELVES. . . AND TO MODIFY THE PLANS AS
THEY GO ALONG. -YOU KNOW HOW SCIENTISTS ARE . . . FARMIER: PRETTY WELL . . . BUT WHEN IT WAS VEP.Y HEAVY, I'l
BROKE THROUGH THE HEDGEPOW IN SOMIE SPOTS . . .I WAS THINKING
OF PUTTING SOME EXTRA FODDER GRASS ALONG THE T)P HERE. DO
YOU THINK THAT WOULD HELP HOLD THE SOIL?

RESEARCHER: H-MM . . . MAYBE. LETS TRY IT AND SEE!

48

D&D INACTION
An IiWItductlon to Agroforestry Dianosis
& Da=Inn

A '

(22)
(23)
MEANN-HILE, BACK ON THE RESEARCH
STATION... FUNDAMENTAL
INVESTIGATIONS CARRIED OUT UNDER THROUGHOUT THE IMPLEMENTATION
MOPE CONTROLLED EXPERIMEN- STAGE. PERIODIC MEETINGS ARE
TAL CONDITIONS ARE BEGINNING TO HELD TO POOL INFORMATION FROI THE
YIELD INTERESTING RESULTS.
ON-FARI AND ON-STATION
RESEARCH... TO "EDIAGNOSE" AND "REDESIGN" IN
THE LIGHT OF
iST RESEARCHER:
AS YOU KNOW WEVE THE NEW INFORMATION. AND TO REVISE
BEEN MONITORING THE PLAN... AND UPDATE THE ACTION
VARIOUS PLANT-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS
LOOK L!KE THERE" A SIGNIFICANT WIND AND ITS BEGINNING TO
SHELTER COMPONENT TO THE I ST RESEARCHER: AND
YIELD IM1PROVEMENTS OBSERVED WITH SO. TO CONCLUDE OUR REPORT ON
SYSTEMlO CRCS IN THE HEDGEROW THE
ON-FARM TRIALS. THE NEW HEDGEROW DESIGN IS PERFORMING WELL
-A RA S H E 'HD E O EINI EF R'lGW L
IN REDUCING EROSION.
. . BUT THE FARMERS
STILL DONT HAVE
2ND RESEARCHER: REALLY? ... ENOUGH FODDER FOR THEIR ANIMALS.
FERTILITY EFFECTS? THATS INTIEPESTING!
IN ADDITION TO THE SOIL
WEVE BEEN TURNING UP DIRECTOR: ALRIGHT THEN.
SCME PROMIISING NEW FUEL AND FODDER LETS APPOINT A WORKING GROUP
SPECIES INOUR REGIONAL TO LOOK INTO THE POSSIBILITY OF INCORPORATING
SCREENING TRIALS. .
SOME OF THOSE
NEW HIGH-YIELDING FODDER SHRUBS
INTO IN HEDGEROW DESIGN...

49

D&D INACTI ON
An Inkroduction to Agrotor t'y Di.']n . i

(24)
FIELD OFFICER: MR. CHAIRMAN. .. PERHAPS I COULD TAKE THIS
OPPORTUNITY TO MENTION THAT SOME OF THE WOMEN INTHE AREA
APE STILL COMPLAINING ABOUT THE DISTANCE THEY HAVE TO
WALK
TO GATHER FIREWOCO...

DIRECTOR: WELL. LETS HOPE THE WORKING GROUP ON WINDBREAK


DESIGN HAS DEVELOPED A SUSTAINABLE HARVESTING SCHEME
FOP
iUELWOCO FROM THE WINDBREAKS. . . WEIL HAVE THEIR
REPORT
RIGHT AFTER THE BREAK . . . THEN, SINCE IT DEALS WITH A
RELATED CONCERN, WELL HEAR THE REP, r rN WAYS INWHICH
CUSTOMARY TENURE REGULATIONS COULD BE ADAPTED TO SUPPOPT
TREE PLANTING ON COMMON LAND ...

TO BE CONTINUED
BIBLIOGRAPHIC

REFERENCES

51 5L IOGRAPiwREFERENCES
An Introduction to Agroforesry Diagnosis
& Design

Bibliographic References

Boer, E. I 9E4. Measuring stickwood


increment in grazed and non-grazed woodlands.
Forestry Department. Wageningen
Cantor, J. 1984. Survey of off-farm University. Wageningen.
land use by thirty-one households in
watershed, Kathama Sublocation, Machakos the sample
Carlowitz, P.G. Yon. 1984. Multipurpose District, Kenya. ICRAF. Nairobi.
trees and shrubs: opportunities and limitations.
ICRAF Working Paper No. 17. ICRAF.
Depommier, D. 1984. Note de synthese Nairobi.
sur ]a "D&D methodology," une methodologie
diagnostic et de conception de systems de
Fernandes, E.C.M. 1985. Considerations agroforestiers. ICRAF. Nairobi.
for the planning, Implementation and
of on-fari experimentation in agroforestry evaluation
ferming systems. ICRAF Working Paper
No. 35. ICRAF. Nairobi.
FlIervcet, E. 1982. An Inentory of Trees and Shrubs In the
Machakos District, Kenya. Wageningen Northern Division of
Agricultural University and ICRAF.
Wageningen and Nairobi.
Gielen, H. 1982. Report on an Agroforestry
Survey in Three Villages of Northern
Machaks. Waeningen Agricutlural
Hcek, A. van den. 1983. Landscape Planning University and ICRAF. Wageningen and
Nairobi.
and Design of Watersheds in the Kathema
Agroforestry Project, Kenya. Department
of Landscape Architecture and Planning.
Waningen Agricultural University.
Hcekstra, D.A. 1984. Agroforestry Wagenngen.
systems for the semi-arid areas of Machakos
District, Kenya. ICRAF Working Paper
Hcekstra, D.A. 1985. The use of econmics No. 19. ICRAF. Nairobi.
In diagnosis and design of agroforestry
systems. ICRAF Working Paper No. 29.
Huxley, P.A. 1984. The basis for selection, ICRAF. Nairobi.
management and evaluation of multipurpose
trees: an overview. ICRAF Working
Huxley, P.A. (Ed.). 1983. Plant Research Paper No. 25. ICRAF. Nairobi.
Huxley, P.A. and P.J. Wood. Technology andAgroforestry. ICRAF. Nairobi.
and research considerations in ICRAF's
and design procedures. ICRAF Working diagnosis
ICRAF. 1982. Concepts and procedures Paper No. 26. ICRAF. Nairobi.
for diagnosis of existing land management
and design of agroforestry technology: systems
a preliminary version for comment.
Collaborative and Special Projects Programme
and Agroforestry Systems
Programme. ICRAF. Nairobi.

53
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES An Introduction to Agroforesry DInosis & Design

ICRAF. 1983a. Guidelines for agroforestry diagnosis and design. ICRAF Working Paper
No. 6. ICPAF. Nairobi.
ICRAF. 1983b. Resources for Agroforestry Diagnosis nnd Design. ICRAF Working Paper
Nc. 7. ICRAF. Nairobi.
Lundgren, B. 1982. Introduction. Agroforestry Systems 1( 1): 3-6.
Lundgren, B. andJ.B. Raintree. 1983. Sustained agroforestry. In.. B. Nestel (Ed.).
Agricultural Research for Development: Potentials and Challenges in Asia. ISNAR.
The Hague.
Nair, P.K.R. 1985. Classification of agroforestry systems. ICRAF Working Paper No. 28.
ICRAF. Nairobi.
Nair, P.K.R., E.C.M. Fernandes and P.N. Wambugu. 1984. Multipurpose leguminous trees
and shrubs for agroforestry. Agroforestry Systems 2(3): 1,45- 163.
N~ssen, 0. 1983. Nutrient Cycle Study of the Cultivated Area and a Study on the Use of
Manure in the Kathama Research Area. Department of Soil Fertility and Plant
Nutrition. WNgeningen Agricultural University. Wgeningen.
Raintree, J.B. 1982. A methodology for diagnosis and design of agroforestry land
management systems. ICRAF. Nairobi.
Raintree, J.B. 1983a. Preliminary diagnosis of land use problems and agroforestry
potentials in Northern Mbere Division, Embu District, Kenya. ICRAF Working Paper
No. 1. ICPAF. Nairobi. t
Raintree, J.B. 1983b. Stategles for enhancing the adoptability of agroforestry
innovations. Agroforestry Systems 1(3): 173-187.
Raintree, .B. 1984. A diagnostic approach to agrofore5try dsign. In.-K.F. Wiersum
(Ed.). Stratgies and Designs for Afforestation, Reforestation and Tree Planting.
Pudoc. Wgeningen.
Raintree, .3. and F.Torres. 1985. Agroforestry research in farming systems
perspecive: the ICRAF approch. ICRAF Working Paper No. 39. ICRAF. Nairobi.
Rocheleau, D. 1984. Land use planning with rural farm households and onmmunities:
participatory egroforestry research. Presented to the Workshop on the Role of

Sociologists and Anthropologists in Farming Systems Research. ARPT and Cl MMYT.

Lusaka.

Rocheleau, D. 1985. On-site trials of agroforestry landscape interventions. ICRAF.


Nairobi.
Rocheleau, D.andA. van den Hoek. 1984. The application of ecosystems and landscape
analysis in agroforestry diagnosis and design: a case stuy/from Kathama Sublocation,
Machakos District, Kenya. ICRAF WrrKng Paper No. I 1. ICRAF. Nairobi.
-A
IB L IOGRAPHIC-REFERENCES n Introduction to Agroforesry Diagnosis & Design

Rocheleau, D. et al. 1985. Survey of women's use of gathered food and medicinal plants.
ICRAF. Nairobi.
Sang, F.K. arap, DA. Hcekstra and R. Okumu. 1985a. Preliminary results of on-station
green manure trials with leaves from Zeuc7en eux ,9h0, 06sSILm6&and
fe/Ymina9~r.4~'//.1 Research Report No. I. Dryland Agroforestry Research
Project. ilahakos, Kenya.
Sang, F.K. arae,, D A. H1cekstra and R. Mwendandu. 1985b. Rehabilitation of 2alant:,
p, ,4.-mY 1t//lis and CompAora fr/cana in the grazing land: preliminary
results P-earc, ReDort No. 2. Dryland Agroforestry Research Project. Machaks,
Kenya.
Ssekanembe. C. 1984. Study of soil moisture depletion in the alley cropping system.
ICRAF airooi
Steppler,HA 982 An Identity and strategy for agroforestry. /n: L.H. MacDonald
(Ed.). Agroforestry in the African Humid Tropics. United Nations University.
Tokyo.
Steppier, H.A. end J. Raintree. 1983. The ICRAF research strategy in relation to plant
science re- __rch in agroforestry. In. P.A. Huxley (Ed.). Plant Research and
Agroforestry. ICRAF. Nairobi.
Torres, F. 1985 Networking for the generation of agroforestry technologies in Africa.
;CRAF Working Paper No. 31. ICRAF. Nairobi.
Torres, F and j.B. Paintree. 1984. Agroforestry syitems for smallholder upland
farmers in a land reform area of the Philippines: the Tabango case study. ICRAF
Working Paper- No. 18. ICRAF. Nalrubi.
,one., R.B. 1983a. Report on a Metncdology and Technolo' Generating Exercise.
Wageringen agricuitural University. Wageningen.
Vonk, R.5. 1983b. A Study on Possible Agroforestry Tree Species for the KathamaArea.
Department of Silviculture. Wagenir.gen Agricultural University. Wagenlngen.
vork, R.B ! 983c. Tne Effect of Different Mulch Treatments on the Growth of Maize and
5ears ;r, a ri Cropping System. Department of Tropical Crop Science.
'agenir~gen Agr iculturai University. Wageningen.
vIjncaarden, . van. 1983a Patterns of Fuel Gathering and Use. Department of Forestry
Management. W'ageningen Agricutlural University. Wageningen.
W;jngaarden, J. van. 1983b. Agricultural self-help groups and their potential role In
agroforestry. Wareningen Agricultural University. Wageningen.
Young, A. 1985. Land evoluatIon and agroforestry diagnosis and design: towards a
r concfliat ion cf prc'.xures. Soil Survey and Land Evaluation 5( 3): 61 -76.

55

You might also like

pFad - Phonifier reborn

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.

Note: This service is not intended for secure transactions such as banking, social media, email, or purchasing. Use at your own risk. We assume no liability whatsoever for broken pages.


Alternative Proxies:

Alternative Proxy

pFad Proxy

pFad v3 Proxy

pFad v4 Proxy