Many kinds of

oscillatory motion
are sinusoidal in
time, or nearly so,
and are referred to
as simple harmonic
motion.

Oscillations & Waves

03 foda,k iy ;rx.

CONTENTS

03-1 Simple Harmonic Motion –

Spring Oscillations
03-2 Definition of S.H.M.
03-3 Characteristic equation of the
Simple Harmonic
simple harmonic motion
03-4 Simple harmonic motion as a Motion
projection of a uniform (ir, wkqj¾;S p,s;h)
circular motion
03-5 Equation of Displacement
03-6 Displacement – time graph
corresponding to simple
harmonic motion
03-7 Small oscillations of a simple
pendulum

Physics
FOR G.C.E. ADVANCED LEVEL EXAMINATION
2021 THEORY
H. MARIE F. SILVA
M any objects vibrate or oscillate—an object on the end of a spring, a tuning
fork, the balance wheel of an old watch, a pendulum, a plastic ruler held
firmly over the edge of a table and gently struck, the strings of a guitar or piano.
Spiders detect prey by the vibrations of their webs; cars oscillate up and down
when they hit a bump; buildings and bridges vibrate when heavy trucks pass or
the wind is fierce.

Vibrations and wave motion are intimately related. Waves—whether ocean

waves, waves on a string, earthquake waves, or sound waves in air—have as their
source a vibration. Indeed, when a wave travels through a medium, the medium
oscillates (such as air for sound waves).

1 Simple Harmonic Motion – Spring

Oscillations
When an object vibrates or oscillates back and forth, over the same path, each
oscillation taking the same amount of time, the motion is periodic. The simplest
form of periodic motion is represented by an object oscillating on the end of a
uniform coil spring.

We assume that the mass of the spring can be ignored, and that the spring is
mounted horizontally, as shown in Fig. 1a, so that the object of mass m slides
without friction on the horizontal surface. Any spring has a natural length at
which it exerts no force on the mass m. The position of the mass at this point is
called the equilibrium position. If the mass is moved either to the left, which
compresses the spring, or to the right, which stretches it, the spring exerts a
force on the mass that acts in the direction of returning the mass to the
equilibrium position; hence it is called a restoring force. We consider the
Figure 1
common situation where we can assume the restoring force F is directly
proportional to the displacement x the spring has been stretched (Fig. 1b) or
compressed (Fig. 1c) from the equilibrium position:

F = -kx [force exerted by spring] (1)

Note that the equilibrium position has been chosen at x = 0 and the minus sign in
Eq. 1 indicates that the restoring force is always in the direction opposite to the
to the displacement x.

The proportionality constant k in Eq. 1 is called the spring constant for that
particular spring, or its spring stiffness constant (units = N/m). To stretch the
spring a distance x, an external force must be exerted on the free end of the
spring with a magnitude at least equal to

2
MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
 F = +kx [external force on spring] Newton’s second law of
motion states that, the
Note that the force F in Eq. 1 is not a constant, but varies with position.
restoring force acting on an
Therefore, the acceleration of the mass m is not constant.
object is directly
Let us examine what happens when our uniform spring is initially compressed a proportional to the
distance x = -A as shown in Fig. 2a, and then our object of mass m is released on acceleration of the object at
the frictionless surface. The spring exerts a force on the mass that accelerates it that moment. Therefore,
toward the equilibrium position. Because the mass has inertia, it passes the
equilibrium position with considerable speed. Indeed, as the mass reaches the
equilibrium position, the force on it decreases to zero, but its speed at this point
is a maximum, vmax (Fig. 2b). As the mass moves farther to the right, the force on
it acts to slow it down, and it stops for an instant at x = A (Fig. 2c). It then begins
moving back in the opposite direction, accelerating until it passes the
equilibrium point (Fig. 2d), and then slows down until it reaches zero speed at
the original starting point, x = -A (Fig. 2e). It then repeats the motion, moving
back and forth symmetrically between x = A and x = -A.

To discuss oscillatory motion, we need to define a few terms.

 The distance x of the mass from the equilibrium point at any moment is
the displacement (with a + or – sign).
 The maximum displacement—the greatest distance from the
equilibrium point—is called the amplitude, A.
 One cycle refers to the complete to-and-fro motion from some initial
point back to that same point—say, from x = -A to x = +A and back to x
= -A.
Figure 2
 The period, T, is defined as the time required to complete one cycle.
 Finally, the frequency, f, is the number of complete cycles per second.
Frequency is generally specified in hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz = 1 cycle per
second (s-1). Given their definitions, frequency and period are inversely
related:

1 1
f = and T =
T f
(2)

1
For example, if the frequency is 2 cycles per second, then each cycle takes s.
2
Any oscillating system for which the net restoring force is directly proportional
to the negative of the displacement (as in Eq. 1, F = -kx) is said to exhibit
simple harmonic motion (SHM).

3
MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
 1
E = m (0)2
2

1 2 1 2
+ kA, = kA.
2 2
(4a)

Thus, the total mechanical

energy of a simple harmonic
F = ma ,where m is the mass of the object.
oscillator is proportional to
Hence, the square of the amplitude.
At the equilibrium point, (Fig.
F = - kx
4b), all the energy is kinetic:
ma = -kx
1
E = m
k 2
a=- x
m
1 1
(vmax)2 + k 02 = = m
k k 2 2
since is a constant, ω 2 = . Then,
m m (vmax)2, (4b) where
vmax is the maximum speed
a = - ω 2x
during the motion (which
This is a mathematical relationship in simple harmonic motion. occurs at x = 0). At
intermediate points (Fig. 4d),
2 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion the energy is part kinetic and
part potential; because energy
To stretch or compress a spring, work has to be done. Hence potential energy is
is conserved (we use Eqs. 3 and
stored in a stretched or compressed spring. Elastic potential energy is given by
4a),
1 2
PE = kx.
2

The total mechanical energy E is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies,

1 1 2
E = m v2 + kx, (3)
2 2

where v is the speed of the mass m at a distance x from the equilibrium position.

SHM can occur only if friction is negligible so that the total mechanical energy
E remains constant. As the mass oscillates back and forth, the energy
continuously changes from potential energy to kinetic energy, and back again
(Fig. 4). At the extreme points, x = -A and x = A (Fig. 4a, c), all the energy is
stored in the spring as potential energy (and is the same whether the spring is
compressed or stretched to the full amplitude).At these extreme points, the mass
stops for an instant as it changes direction, so v = 0 and

4 Figure 4
MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
 v = ± vmax

x2
√( 1−
A2
. )
(5b)

This gives the velocity of the

object at any position x. The
object moves back and forth, so
its velocity can be either in the
+ or - direction, but its
magnitude depends only on its
position x.

1 1 2 1 2
m v2 + kx = kA.
2 2 2
(4c)

From this conservation of energy equation, we can obtain the velocity as a

function of position. Solving for v2, we have

k 2 2 k 2 x2
2
v =
m
(A – x ) =
m
A 1− 2
A ( ) .

1 1 2
From Eqs.03–4a and 03–4b, we have m v2max = k A . so v2max = (k / m) A2 or
2 2

k
vmax =
√ m
A. (5a)

Inserting this equation into the equation just above it and taking the square root,
we have

5
MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
 Let us calculate the
magnitude of the x
component of the velocity
vmax, which is labeled v in
Fig. 5. The two triangles
involving θ in Fig. 5a are
similar, so

v
v max
=

√ A 2−x 2
A
o
r

3 The Period and v

Sinusoidal m

Nature of SHM a

Period and Frequency –

Derivation
x2
We can derive a formula for the period of simple harmonic motion (SHM)
by comparing SHM to an object rotating uniformly in a circle.
√
.
1−
A2

Consider a small object of mass m revolving counterclockwise in a circle of

vmax =
radius A, with constant speed vmax on top of a table as shown in Fig. 5. As
viewed from above, the motion is a circle in the xy plane. But a person who 2 πA
= 2πAf.
looks at the motion from the edge of the table sees an oscillatory motion T
back and forth, and this one-dimensional motion corresponds precisely to
simple harmonic motion.
We solve for the period T
in terms of A:

6
MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
 2 πA
T = .
v max
From Eq. 5a, A/vmax = √ m/k . Thus
m
T = 2π
√ k
,

(7a)
The period depends on the mass m and the spring stiffness constant k, but
not on the amplitude A.

We can write the frequency f = 1/T using (Eq. 2):

1 1 k
f =
T
=
2π √ m
.

(7b)

Position as a Function of Time

We now use the reference circle to find the position of a mass undergoing
simple harmonic motion as a function of time. From Fig. 5, we see that cos θ
= x/A, so the projection of the object’s position on the x axis is

x = A cos θ. The mass in the reference

circle (Fig. 5) is rotating
with uniform angular
velocity ω . We then can
write θ = ωt , where θ is
in radians. Thus

x = A cos
ωt .

(8a)

Furthermore, since the

angular velocity ω
(specified in radians per
second) can be written asω
= 2 πf , where f is the
frequency, we then write

7
MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
 x = A cos (2π f t). (8b)

or in terms of the period T,

x = A cos (2π t/ T). (8c)

Notice in Eq. 8c that when t = T (that is, after a time equal to one period), we
have the cosine of 2π (or 3600), which is the same as the cosine of zero. This
makes sense since the motion repeats itself after a time t = T.

Because the cosine function varies between 1 and -1 Eqs. 8 tell us that x
varies between A and -A as it must. If a pen is attached to a vibrating mass as
a sheet of paper is moved at a steady rate beneath it (Fig. 6), a sinusoidal
curve will be drawn that accurately follows Eqs. 8.
Figure 6

Sinusoidal Motion

Velocity and Acceleration as Functions of Time

Figure 7

Figure 8

8
MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
 damped harmonic
4 The Simple Pendulum motion. The damping is
The displacement s of the pendulum along the arc is given by s = lθ, where θ generally due to the
is the angle (in radians) that the cord makes with the vertical and l is the resistance of air and
length of the cord (Fig. 9). If the restoring force is proportional to s or to θ,
the motion will be simple harmonic. The restoring force is the net force on
the bob, which equals the component of the weight (mg) tangent to the arc:

F = - mg sin θ,

The minus sign here, as in Eq. 1, means the force is in the direction opposite
to the angular displacement θ. Since F is proportional to the sine of θ and not
to θ itself, the motion is not SHM. However, if θ is small, then sin θ is very
nearly equal to θ when the angle is specified in radians. Figure 9

F = -mg sin θ ≈ -mg θ.

Substituting s = lθ, or θ = s/l, we have

mg
F ≈ - s.
l

Thus, for small displacements, the motion can be modeled as being

approximately simple harmonic, because this approximate equation fits
Hooke’s law, where in place of x we have arc length s. The effective force
constant is If we substitute into Eq. 6a, we obtain the period of a simple
pendulum:

m m
T = 2π
√ k
= 2π
√ mg/l
or

l
T = 2π
√ g
. [θ small]

(9a)

The frequency is f = 1/T, so

1 g
f =
2π √ l
. [θ small] (9b)

5 Damped Harmonic Motion

The amplitude of any real oscillating spring or swinging pendulum slowly
decreases in time until the oscillations stop altogether. Figure 10 shows a
typical graph of the displacement as a function of time. This is called

9 energy that is
to internal friction within the oscillating system. The
MRS. H. MARIE F.Figure
SILVA 10
dissipated to thermal energy results in a decreased amplitude of oscillation. BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
6 Forced Oscillations; Resonance
When an oscillating system is set into motion, it oscillates at its natural
frequency (Eqs. 7b and 9b). However, a system may have an external force
applied to it that has its own particular frequency. Then we have a forced
oscillation.

Curve A represents light damping and curve B heavy damping. When the
external driving frequency f is near the natural frequency, f ≈ f0, the
amplitude can become large if the damping is small. This effect of increased
Figure 11
amplitude at f ≈ f0 is known as resonance. The natural oscillation
frequency f0 of a system is also called its resonant frequency.

A simple illustration of resonance is pushing a child on a swing. A swing,

like any pendulum, has a natural frequency of oscillation. If you push on the
swing at a random frequency, the swing bounces around and reaches no
great amplitude. But if you push with a frequency equal to the natural
frequency of the swing, the amplitude increases greatly. At resonance,
relatively little effort is required to obtain and maintain a large amplitude.

Exercises
1 Simple Harmonic Motion
1. A mass is oscillating on a frictionless surface at the end of a horizontal
spring. Where, if anywhere, is the acceleration of the mass zero (see Fig.
2)?
(a) At x = -A (d) At both x = -A and x =
+A
(b) At x = 0 (e) nowhere.
(c) At x = +A

2. If an oscillating mass has a frequency of 1.25Hz, it makes 100

oscillations in
(a) 12.5 s (b) 125 s (c) 80 s (d) 8.0 s.

3. When a family of four with a total mass of 200 kg step into their 1200-kg
car, the car’s springs compress 3.0 cm. What is the spring constant of the
car’s springs (Fig. 3), assuming they act as a single spring? How far will
the car lower if loaded with 300 kg rather than 200 kg?

4. Which of the following forces would cause an object to move in simple

harmonic motion?
(a) F = -0.5x2 (b) F = -2.3y (c) F = 8.6x (d) F = -4θ

Figure 3
10
MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
 2 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion
5. Suppose the spring in Fig. 4 is stretched twice as far (to = 2A). What
happens to the energy of the system, the maximum velocity of the
oscillating mass, the maximum acceleration of the mass?

6. Suppose the spring in Fig. 4 is compressed to x = -A, but is given a push

to the right so that the initial speed of the mass m is v0. What effect does
this push have on the energy of the system, the maximum velocity, the
maximum acceleration?

7. A spring stretches 0.150m when a 0.300-kg mass is gently suspended

from it as in Fig.11–3b. The spring is then set up horizontally with the
0.300-kg mass resting on a frictionless table as in Fig.4. The mass is
pulled so that the spring is stretched 0.100m from the equilibrium
point, and released from rest. Determine: the spring stiffness constant
k; the amplitude of the horizontal oscillation A; the magnitude of the
maximum velocity; the magnitude of the velocity v when the mass is
0.050 m from equilibrium; and the magnitude of the maximum
acceleration of the mass.

8. For the simple harmonic oscillator of Exercise 3, determine the total

energy, and the kinetic and potential energies at half amplitude (x = ±
A/2).

3 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM

9. A spider of mass 0.30g waits in its web of negligible mass (Fig.11–6). A
slight movement causes the web to vibrate with a frequency of about 15
Hz. Estimate the value of the spring stiffness constant k for the web. At
what frequency would you expect the web to vibrate if an insect of mass
0.10g were trapped in addition to the spider?

10. A large motor in a factory causes the floor to vibrate up and down at a
frequency of 10Hz. The amplitude of the floor’s motion near the motor is
about 3.0mm. Estimate the maximum acceleration of the floor near the
motor.

11. The displacement of an object is described by the following equation,

where x is in meters and t is in seconds:

x = (0.30 m) cos(8.0t).

Determine the oscillating object’s amplitude, frequency, period,

maximum speed, and maximum acceleration.

4 The Simple Pendulum

11
MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
 6. A pendulum has a
period of 1.85s on
Earth. What is its period
12. If a simple pendulum is taken from sea level to the top of a high mountain
on Mars, where the
and started at the same angle of 5°, it would oscillate at the top of the
acceleration of gravity
mountain
is about 0.37 that on
(a) slightly slower; (d) not at all—it would stop;
Earth? (3.041 s)
(b) slightly faster; (e) none of these.
(c) at exactly the same frequency;

13. A geologist uses a simple pendulum that has a length of 37.10 cm and a
frequency of 0.8190 Hz at a particular location on the Earth. What is the
acceleration due to gravity at this location?

Problems
1. An object undergoing simple harmonic motion takes 0.25 s to travel from
one point of zero velocity to the next such point. The distance between
those points is 36 cm. Calculate the period, frequency, and amplitude of
the motion. (0.50 s, 2.0 Hz, 18 cm)

2. What is the maximum acceleration of a platform that oscillates at

amplitude 2.20 cm and frequency 6.60 Hz? (37.795 ms-2)

3. A 0.12 kg body undergoes simple harmonic motion of amplitude 8.5 cm

and period 0.20 s. What is the magnitude of the maximum force acting on
it? If the oscillations are produced by a spring, what is the spring
constant? (10.057 N, 118.315 N/m)

4. A block is on a horizontal surface (a shake table) that is moving back and

forth horizontally with simple harmonic motion of frequency 2.0 Hz.The
coefficient of static friction between block and surface is 0.50.How great
can the amplitude of the SHM be if the block is not to slip along the
surface? (0.032 m)

5. An automobile can be considered to be mounted on four identical springs

as far as vertical oscillations are concerned. The springs of a certain car
are adjusted so that the oscillations have a frequency of 3.00 Hz. What is
the spring constant of each spring if the mass of the car is 1450kg and the
mass is evenly distributed over the springs? What will be the oscillation
frequency if five passengers, averaging 73.0 kg each, ride in the car with
an even distribution of mass? (1.287 × 105 N/m, 2.681 Hz)

12
MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
7. What is the period of a simple pendulum 47cm long on the Earth, and
when it is in a freely falling elevator? (0 s)

8. Find the mechanical energy of a block–spring system with a spring

constant of 1.3 N/cm and an amplitude of 2.4 cm. (3.744 × 10-2 J)

9. An oscillating block–spring system has a mechanical energy of 1.00 J, an

amplitude of 10.0 cm, and a maximum speed of 1.20 m/s. Find the spring
constant, the mass of the block, and the frequency of oscillation. (200
N/m, 1.389 kg, 1.910 Hz)

10. When the displacement in SHM is one-half the amplitude xm, what
fraction of the total energy is kinetic energy and potential energy? At
what displacement, in terms of the amplitude, is the energy of the system
half kinetic energy and half potential energy? (0.75, 0.25, xm/√ 2)

13
MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.