Recent Developements in The Archaeology

Recent developments in
the archaeology of Minoan Crete

JAN DRIESSEN & CHARLOTTE LANGOHR
Abstract
This paper summarizes archaeological research on the Bronze Age of the island of Crete during
the last decade. It starts off by highlighting the most important excavations and surveys and the
publication of data through monographs, periodicals, scientific proceedings and other media.
Next it considers how our conventional understanding of Minoan culture has been affected both
by recent research and discoveries and by theoretical and interpretive shifts. Emphasis is placed
on the influence of various social theories that have questioned the focus on centralization at
different scales and increased our appreciation of specific cultural practices and dynamics by
using bottom-up and embodied approaches. As such, chronology, architectural studies, pottery,
cult, iconography and social and political systems are discussed, as are aspects of materiality,
corporeality, performance and gender. Finally, the changes in the academic environments
dealing with Minoan archaeology receive some attention.
Keywords
Minoan – palatial – household – iconography – landscape.
Introduction
This paper is divided into four parts – the first is descriptive and attempts to be
an inventory of work published during the last decade. The second part considers
the most recent valorisation of archaeological finds. The third part is a brief review
of new excavations and surveys whereas the fourth is more of a personal view on
what we have learned on a series of points thanks to this new work. It is only fair
to stress the role the Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP) has played in this
process since both the financial and logistic support have immensely facilitated
research on the Bronze Age, especially but not only of course on Crete. The
constructive role of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism and, where Crete is
concerned, the input of the three archaeological services should also be under-
lined: under great pressure by local developers and discouraged by the recent
dramatic cut-backs, local archaeological authorities have still found the energy and
time to do their job and collaborate in collegial ways with the foreign archaeo-
Pharos 20(1), 75-115. doi: 10.2143/PHA.20.1.3064537

© 2014 by Pharos. All rights reserved.
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76 JAN DRIESSEN & CHARLOTTE LANGOHR
logical schools. This paper may be regarded as a tribute to all field workers who
share a common passion – the archaeology of Minoan Crete.
The last decade has seen the much regretted departure of some highly esteemed
Minoan archaeologists such as Nikos Papadakis, Paul Rehak, Paul Faure, Henri
and Micheline van Effenterre, William Brice, Nicolas Coldstream, Sara
Immerwahr, Jacques Raison, Giovanni Rizza, Yannis Sakellarakis, Olivier Pelon
and Emmett Bennett Jr, to name just a few. Still, the field has flourished
and many young scholars have appeared on the scene. Aegean archaeology has
3469 followers in academia.edu and Aegeus Society,1 an initiative by the younger
generation, was founded in 2009 and already counts 271 members, many of them
declared Minoans. The Minoan Seminar in Athens, an initiative of people such as
Colin Macdonald, Erik Hallager, the late Yannis Sakkelarakis and now Yannis
Papadatos, Efi Sapouna-Sakkelaraki and Lefteris Platon was founded in 2004 and
organizes about 10 lectures a year that attract a large audience.2 It exemplifies the
vivacity of our field and has recently been copied by our Mycenaean colleagues.
Conferences and publications

During the last decade, three International Cretological Congresses have been
held, the latest in 2011 in Rethymnon,3 the previous (tenth) in Chania in 2006
(published in 2011, in Chania)4, the ninth held in Elounda in 2001 (published in
2006, in Iraklion). A much appreciated initiative of the archaeological services
together with the University of Crete was the Archaiologiko Ergo Kritis conference,
the two ones held in 2008 and published rapidly (including in digital form),5 the
last one held in December 2013. There have been many other conferences. Some
of these took place within the framework of Robert Laffineur’s brain child – the
Rencontres égéennes, with e.g. the DAIS volume co-edited by Louise Hitchcock,
and the FYLO volume co-edited by Katarina Kopaka as outstanding.6 The KOS-
MOS conference, thwarted by the Icelandic eruption in 2010 but a success through
1
http://www.aegeussociety.org/en/.
2
http://www.minoanseminar.gr/.
3
During the Cretological Congress at Rethymnon, many colleagues, both senior and junior, reported
on new work taking place in different areas or on the restudy of earlier finds, which illustrates the
vitality of the field. It is impossible to give credit to all of these within the few pages of this paper.
4
Proceedings of the 10th International Cretological Congress (Chania, 1-8 October 2006), Chania,
2011.
5
Andrianakis & Tzachili 2010; Andrianakis, Varthalitou & Tzachili 2012; http://elocus.lib.uoc.gr/
dlib/b/7/c/metadata-dlib-4245a3408ef61562f8ebc14b7569aaec_1287580894.tkl, accessed 15 October 2014.
6
Last Aegaeum conferences published: Laffineur & Hägg 2001, Foster & Laffineur 2003, Laffineur
& Greco 2005, Hitchcock, Laffineur & Crowley 2008, Kopaka 2009. See also Devolder 2015.
97583.indb 76 6/02/15 08:47

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF MINOAN CRETE 77
the virtual assistance of many, has also appeared7 and a PHYSIS conference took
place in Paris in 2012 and has just been published.8 The Sheffield Aegean Round
Tables have been very successful with recently a major conference in honour of
Keith Branigan organized by Maria Relaki and Yiannis Papadatos.9 Thanks to the
Hallagers, the Danish Institute has also been very active with several extremely
interesting volumes, including those recently published on the Minoans in the
central, eastern and northern Aegean and on LM IB pottery.10 An interesting
volume on Political Economies in the Aegean Bronze Age, a meeting held at Talla-
hassee in 2008 with much attention given to Crete, was also published in 2010.11
There have been many other interesting meetings including several at
Southampton,12 Heidelberg (Minoan Realities, 2009; Minoan Archaeology. Chal-
lenges and Perspectives for the 21st Century, 2011)13, Louvain-la-Neuve/Leuven
(Minoan Palaces, 2002; Back to the Beginning, 2008; Destruction, 201114),15 Nicosia
(Parallel Lives, 2005),16 Ierapetra (STEGA: The Archaeology of Houses and House-
holds in Ancient Crete, 2005),17 and Iraklion (Intermezzo, Intermediacy and Regen-
eration in Middle Minoan III Crete, 2008).18 These have been excellent initiatives
and ideally we want more of such workshops focussing on limited timeframes.
There have also been a series of interesting biographies published on Cretan
archaeologists, especially those of the early 20th century,19 and some of our senior
(or departed) colleagues have been honoured by fine tribute volumes (e.g.
Doumas, Immerwahr, Cameron, Poursat, Betancourt, the Shaws, Gesell, War-
ren, Rutter, Muhly, La Rosa, Davaras).20 Next, and again partly thanks to
7
Nosch & Laffineur 2012.
8
Touchais, Laffineur & Rougemont 2014.
9
See also Isaakidou & Tomkins 2008.
10
Respectively, Macdonald, Hallager & Niemeier 2009 and Brogan & Hallager 2011.
11
Pullen 2010.
12
Hamilakis 2002a.
13
Panagiotopoulos & Günkel-Maschek 2012.
14
Out of Rubble, 2012; Late Minoan IIIB Pottery, 2013; Damage Goods, 2013; Too Cold for a
P(a)lace?, 2014.
15
Driessen, Schoep & Laffineur 2002; Schoep, Tomkins & Driessen 2012; Driessen in press a.
16
Cadogan et al. 2012.
17
Glowacki & Vogeikoff-Brogan 2011.
18
Macdonald & Knappett 2013.
19
On Humfry Payne, see Mantis 2009; on John Pendlebury, see Grundon 2007; on Duncan Mac-
kenzie, see Momigliano 1999; on Orsi, Halbherr and Gerola, see Maurina & Sorge 2010; on Theo-
dore Fyfe, see Soar 2009; on Arthur Evans, see MacGillivray 2000; see also Lapatin 2002.
20
For Doumas, see Vlachopoulos & Birtacha 2003; for Immerwahr, see Chapin 2004; for Cameron,
see Morgan 2005; for Poursat, see Bradfer-Burdet, Detournay & Laffineur 2005; for Betancourt, see
Wiener et al. 2006; for the Shaws, see Betancourt, Nelson & Williams 2007; for Gesell, see D’Agata
& Van de Moortel 2009; for Warren, see Krzyszkowska 2010; for Rutter, see Gauß et al. 2011;
for Muhly, see Betancourt & Ferrence 2011; for La Rosa, see Carinci et al. 2011; for Davaras, see
Betancourt & Mantzourani 2012.
97583.indb 77 6/02/15 08:47

97583.indb 78
78
JAN DRIESSEN
&
CHARLOTTE LANGOHR
Figure 1. Map of Crete with sites mentioned in the text (courtesy of IMS-F.O.R.T.H., Sylvaine Déderix).
6/02/15 08:47
INSTAP, the speed with which both old and new excavations are being published
has accelerated seriously: there is now a whole series of Prehistoric Press Publica-
tions available dealing with Moni Odigitria,21 Archanes,22 Pseira,23 Mochlos,24
Kavousi,25 Monastiraki Katalimata,26 etc., as well as some volumes on the begin-
ning of the Bronze Age,27 the funerary landscape,28 storage systems,29 etc. Certain
series, such as the SIMA and BAR International Series have also welcomed PhDs
by the younger colleagues30 and are a rapid and cheap solution for publication,
as shown by Alexiou and Warren’s volume on the tombs at Lebena31 or Eleni
Nodarou’s ceramic analyses.32 Where excavations are concerned, we may wel-
come the fact that the site of Knossos has seen more publications of material
during the last decade than since Evans published the Palace of Minos.33 Moreo-
ver, Macdonald has written the first history of the site since Pendlebury; unfor-
tunately the book is not easy to acquire.34 The Mission of the Italian School at
Ayia Triada and Faistos has also been particularly active, partly through the
publication of a series Studi di Archeologia Cretese35 and a periodical called Creta
Antica (13 volumes). Sites such as Palaikastro,36 Karfi,37 Petras,38 Syme39 or
Vrokastro,40 have also seen publications. The Institute for Cretan Studies, which
worked at sites such as Gouves, Pitsidia and Smari, has published a fine volume
on the excavations at Eltyna.41 Studies on Malia have occurred in the Etudes
21
Vasilakis & Branigan 2010.
22
Papadatos 2005.
23
Betancourt & Davaras 2003a, 2003b; Betancourt, Davaras & Hope Simpson 2004, 2005; Betancourt
2009a.
24
Soles 2003; Barnard & Brogan 2003; Soles & Davaras 2004; Soles 2008; Smith 2010; Soles &
Davaras 2011.
25
Haggis 2005; Day, Klein & Turner 2009.
26
Nowicki 2008.
27
Betancourt 2009b.
28
Murphy 2011.
29
Christakis 2005, 2008.
30
Vavouranakis 2007; Paschalidis 2009; Papadopoulos 2010.
31
Alexiou & Warren 2004.
32
Nodarou 2011.
33
Panagiotaki 1999; Mountjoy 2003; Cadogan, Hatzaki & Vasilakis 2004; Hatzaki 2005; Macdonald
& Knappett 2007; Momigliano 2007; Hood & Cadogan 2011.
34
Macdonald 2005.
35
La Rosa & Cucuzza 2001; Militello 2001; Palio 2001; Borgna 2003; Palio 2008; Girella 2010.
36
MacGillivray, Driessen & Sackett 2000; Sackett 2006; MacGillivray, Sackett & Driessen 2007;
Knappett & Cunningham 2012.
37
Day 2011.
38
Tsipopoulou & Hallager 2010; Tsipopoulou 2012a.
39
Muhly 2008.
40
Hayden 2003, 2004, 2005.
41
Rethemiotakis, Egglezou & Kritzas 2010.
97583.indb 79 6/02/15 08:47

Crétoises42 and on Chrysokamino as a Hesperia supplement.43 Other major publica-

tion efforts for excavations are those for Kommos by the Shaws44 and Chania by
the Hallagers:45 these sites have extremely detailed excavation accounts – unthink-
able a generation ago – but of immense use for people studying elsewhere in the
island. Both also have offered their visitors more popular accounts which are very
attractive, for Chania by Maria Andreadaki-Vlazaki.46 Aegean Archaeology47 still
continues to publish and at Louvain-la-Neuve we now publish a series called
Aegis.48 We should not forget the continuation of the Corpus der Minoischen und
Mykenischen Siegel with the recent publication of the collection in the Ashmolean49
as well as some more general studies as the one by Olga Krzyszkowska50 and the
detailed studies on Middle Minoan seal stones by Maria Anastasiadou.51 In recent
years there have also been a series of monographs on different aspects of the art
and architecture of Minoan Crete, in different languages,52 including the long
awaited reprint of an updated version of J. Shaw’s Minoan Architecture: Techniques
and Materials.53 There is also a renewed interest in Modernity and the impact of
Minoan archaeology on 20th century attitudes54 and the Knossos tablets continue
to interest a number of scholars.55 The bibliography enumerated in Nestor remains
a very useful instrument.56 Moreover, there is a new ‘Crete from the air’ book,
published in German, with a series of superb photographs.57 Finally, there have
been recent attempts to present general reviews to the educated public, by the
Cambridge and Oxford University Presses58 as well as the Presses Universitaires de
France.59 There is now also a full treatment in Bintliff’s recent comprehensive
study.60 Still, a real text book on Minoan archaeology remains to be written.
42
Poursat & Knappett 2005; Van Effenterre 2009; Poursat 2013.
43
Betancourt 2006.
44
Shaw 2006, Shaw & Shaw 2006, 2012.
45
Hallager & Hallager 2000, 2003, 2011.
46
Andreadaki-Vlazaki 2009.
47
http://www.iaepan.edu.pl/AEA/.
48
Six volumes have already been published, see http://pul.uclouvain.be/collections/aegis/.
49
Boardman & Hughes-Brock 2009.
50
Krzyszkowska 2005.
51
Anastasiadou 2011.
52
Preziosi & Hitchcock 1999; Betancourt 2007; Bevan 2007; Poursat 2008; Marinatos 2010;
McEnroe 2010.
53
Shaw 2009.
54
Hamilakis & Momigliano 2006; Ziolkowski 2008; Gere 2009.
55
Driessen 2000; Bendall 2007; Nosch 2007; Landenius Enegren 2008; Rougemont 2009.
56
http://classics.uc.edu/nestor/index.php/nestorbib.
57
Nollé 2009.
58
Shelmerdine 2008; Cline 2010.
59
Treuil et al. 2008.
60
Bintliff 2012.
97583.indb 80 6/02/15 08:47

Valorisation of finds
Many sites on Crete have been restored and opened to the public with the neces-
sary facilities and most of the Cretan museums have or are being renovated with
temporary exhibitions, as at Iraklion, which has also a marvellous publication by
the Latsis foundation in their Museums Cycle, accessible online61. Part of a fine
coffee table book on the Aegean islands edited by Andreas Vlachopoulos also
deals with Crete.62 A small new museum has also been opened recently near Gazi.
Many excavation teams now invest considerably in the conservation of the archi-
tectural remains and develop visitor schedules, as for example, at Kommos.
Moreover, the dissemination of results to the public has been enhanced through
a series of websites; still too few excavations, however, do this.63 As far as websites
go, Aegeanet remains very useful but Aegeus is adding very relevant information,
including new discoveries. INSTAPEC publishes a newsletter, Kentro, in which
new discoveries are rapidly communicated.64 Finally, there is even a movie featur-
ing Minoan elements.65
Surveys and excavations

The intensity of archaeological work has been considerable during the last decade
and it would be impossible to mention all the sites and give credit to all the exca-
vators. Our review would in any case be hopelessly incomplete and fill more than
the printed space allotted. Moreover, although the local archaeological services
have been extremely active in Crete, the latest Chronika B2 of the Archaiologikon
Deltion in our library dates to 2009 and discusses the work of 2000, so we are not
always aware of what has been found. This has now been remedied by making
a short report, illustrated with fine colour photos, available online through the
61
Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2005; http://www.latsis-foundation.org/megazine/publish/ebook.
php?book=27&preloader=1, accessed 15 October 2014.
62
Vlachopoulos 2006 – a Melissa Publishing House publication, which is bringing out a series of
fine volumes on the archaeology of Greece, both in Greek and English.
63
See, in general, the section ‘excavations & research’ on the Aegeus Society website: http://www.
aegeussociety.org/en/index.php/excavations-and-research/ (accessed 15 October 2014); but also the
web pages on Petras: http://www.petras-excavations.gr/el, Mochlos (http://www.uncg.edu/arc/
Mochlos/first.html), Priniatikos Pyrgos (http://www.priniatikos.net/news.html), Kommos (http://
www.fineart.utoronto.ca/kommos/), Sissi (http://www.sarpedon.be/), Zominthos (http://www.
archaeology.org/interactive/zominthos/), INSTAP Study Center for East Crete (http://www.instaps-
tudycenter.net/index.html), and Laboratory of Geophysical - Satellite Remote Sensing & Archaeo-
environment at Rethymnon (http://www.ims.forth.gr/index_main.php?c=33&l=e&s=&p=1&d=7).
64
http://www.instapstudycenter.net/newsletter/archives.html, accessed 15 October 2014.
65
Atlantis: End of a World, Birth of a Legend (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0113f70; http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=e8hvc0gMUYU).
97583.indb 81 6/02/15 08:47

Ministry’s website.66 To this the reports in the Ergo Kritis67 as well as the Archae-
ological Reports and Chronique de fouilles can be added, now jointly edited by
the British and French Schools at Athens.68 The latter is now also conveniently
accessible online and contains much information which would otherwise only be
available in local newspapers or periodicals. There are some areas where archaeo-
logical research only started during the last decade and it is these that we want to
highlight primarily.
Before exploring Crete itself, we may note that some of the islands located
around it have now been receiving attention, some for the first time since long.
On Gavdos, a team led by Kopaka of the University of Crete has conducted a
survey, finding very early occupational evidence.69 They have carried out excava-
tions at Katalymata near Siopata, a site destroyed by fire and perhaps earthquake
in the Neopalatial period.70 The pottery here shows some surprising and interest-
ing Cycladic influence on which Kopaka reported at an INSTAPEC lecture in
the summer of 2011.71 Vili Apostolakou, with the help of Thomas Brogan and
Philip Betancourt, has worked on Chryssi island where part of a village is being
excavated, almost certainly established to develop murex dye exploitation and pro-
duction from EM II onwards up to LM IB.72 Noteworthy contexts include a stack
of triton shells.
On Crete itself, taking a west-east route, the 25th Eforate led by Andreadaki-
Vlazaki and Anastasia Tzigounaki has done much work within and around
Chania and especially the excavation of warrior tombs of LM II-IIIA1 near the
Plateia Nomarchia may be underlined.73 Even more recently, the discovery of
what may be the west entrance of an early LM IIIB palatial structure was reported
in the Greek press and by Andreadaki-Vlazaki at the Ergo Kritis conference.74 In
a court in front of this entrance sacrifices had taken place involving seeds, sheep/
goats, a pig and two oxen as well as a young woman. A fragment of a Linear B
tablet was also found. Each year that goes by, the dynamism of West Crete with
sites such as Spathi, Stylos, Sybrita (Thronos) during the mature LM III period
becomes more obvious -- this in some contrast to the rest of the island. Eleni
Papadopoulou has been excavating a chamber tomb at Aptera Kalami which was
66
http://www.yppo.gr/0/anaskafes/, accessed 15 October 2014.
67
Andrianakis & Tzachili 2010; http://elocus.lib.uoc.gr/dlib/b/7/c/metadata-dlib-4245a3408ef-
61562f8ebc14b7569aaec_1287580894.tkl, accessed 15 October 2014.
68
http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/.
69
Kopaka & Matzanas 2009; http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/kopaka321/index.html.
70
http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/793/.
71
Kopaka 2011.
72
Apostolakou, Betancourt & Brogan 2010, Apostolakou, Brogan & Betancourt 2012.
73
Andreadaki-Vlazaki 2006, 2010, 18, fig. 5-6.
74
Andreadaki-Vlazaki 2010, 17.
97583.indb 82 6/02/15 08:47

already in use in LM II and continued into LM IIIA.75 In the region of Rethym-

non, she also investigated an extensive chamber tomb cemetery at Maroula
(LM IIIA-B).76 In the same area, Epaminondas Kapranos excavated a LM III
chamber tomb at Pigi containing a larnax and fine LM III pottery.77 As to the
earlier periods, the map once empty of sites, is now gradually been filled with
excavations at Pera Galini and sites on the coast to the west, Kalo Chorafi, Alfa,
Monastiraki, Katevati, Perama and Stavromenos. Again at Pigi, Irini Gavrilaki
has excavated a pithos cemetery (16 pithoi) of MM I date, rare in the west part of
the island.78 At Chamalevri, Andreadaki-Vlazaki has investigated a Prepalatial
(MM IA) perfume workshop which seems to suggest a communal enterprise with-
out palatial involvement.79 Iris Tzachili and colleagues have re-examined the peak
sanctuary of Vrysinas with interesting new finds especially where clay figurines are
concerned (many hundreds were found) but also a fine Cretan-Hieroglyphic seal
stone and a bronze figurine.80 Most finds date to MM III, but MM II and LM IA
are also attested. Gavrilaki has also explored the Gerontospili cave at Melidoni
with some interesting patterns for occupation and ritual deposition between the
Minoan and historical periods.81 Interesting work has taken place at Zominthos
by Iannis and Efi Sapouna-Sakkelaraki and is accessible via the website.82 The
evidence for a pottery workshop dating to LM IA is convincing and some exqui-
site rhytons were found in room 15 of the monumental building. Recent
work concentrating on earlier phases has underlined the monumentality of the
construction at an even earlier stage. That the building played an important role,
including ritual, connected to the Idaean cave seems to be evident.
Moving to Central Crete and the 23rd Eforate, we may mention the excavation
of interesting Neolithic remains at Gazi near Iraklion by Adonis Vasilakis.83 The
same archaeologist excavated what seems to be another example of a Minoan
shipshed at Katsambas immediately east of Iraklion, consisting of at least five
halls, each about 23 m long and 6 m wide.84 Destroyed by fire, they seem to date
to LM II-IIIA. As at Kommos, they probably represent a rebuilding of an earlier
Neopalatial arsenal. Somewhat to the south, Nota Dimopoulou has continued the
excavation and study of the finds in the MM and Neopalatial chamber tombs at
75
Papadopoulou 2010; http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/1869/.
76
Papadopoulou 1997; http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/2825/.
77
Kapranos 2010; http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/1828/.
78
Andreadaki-Vlazaki 2010, 21-22.
79
Andreadaki-Vlazaki 1999.
80
Tzachili 2011.
81
Gavrilaki 2010; http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/1831/.
82
http://www.archaeology.org/interactive/zominthos/ (accessed 15 October 2012).
83
Pilarinou & Vasilakis 2010; http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/779/.
84
97583.indb 83 6/02/15 08:47

Poros.85 Some exquisite seal stones, golden rings and a discoid were found in these
tombs.86 These were presented by Dimopoulou and Giorgos Rethemiotakis at the
2011 Cretological Congress87 and repeat well-known religious scenes known from
Akrotiri, Knossos and Chania, a mix of the seated Goddess, the Master Impres-
sion and the Mother on the Mountain. Rethemiotakis also continued work at
Galatas, especially outside the palace. The excavation of Building 6 yielded a
Minoan Hall, a lustral basin as well as a unique shrine model with a seated god-
dess figure within.88 Good evidence for catastrophic events (probably earthquake)
were found in Building 1, dated to MM IIIA and LM IA respectively.89 More
fragments of figurative wall painting dating to MM IIIA were discovered and the
excavator believes that this was the great era of the site, when the palace was
constructed. Poppy Galanaki and Vance Watrous have done a survey of the Gal-
atas area90 and more detailed reports are now published on the Pediada survey by
Nikos Panagiotakis.91 We may also add the important archaeological research that
has accompanied the preparation for the Aposelemi dam at Avdos under the
direction of Maria Mavraki-Balanou. At the 2010 Ergo Kritis conference and the
2011 Cretological Congress, she has reported on the excavation of a series of sites
dating especially to the Proto- and Neopalatial period at Ayios Konstantinos,
Mesochorio, Armi and Kefali. The British School at Athens did some excavation
work at Knossos (Little Palace, Eleni Hatzaki)92 but has especially collaborated
with the Eforate for survey. Indeed, the Knossos Urban Landscape Project
(KULP) directed by Maria Bredaki, Andonis Vasilakis and Todd Whitelaw has
succeeded in clarifying much of the site’s history through intensive survey.93 Study
continues on Neolithic Knossos (Peter Tomkins, Valasia Isaakidou)94 and on
different areas of the Palace and houses (Macdonald, Knappett, Mathioudaki).95
The Italian School under direction of La Rosa has worked especially at Faistos
and Ayia Triada. It has now become clear that most of the impressive and monu-
mental buildings at Ayia Triada date to the advanced LM IIIA2 phase, including
85
86
Dimopoulou 2010.
87
Dimopoulou 2011; Rethemiotakis 2011.
88
Rethemiotakis 2010; http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/2778/.
89
90
Watrous 2007; http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/266/, ib. /786/.
91
Panagiotakis 2003.
92
93
Bennet et al. 2008; http://www.ai-journal.com/article/view/ai.1006, http://chronique.efa.gr/index.
php/fiches/voir/2815/.
94
Tomkins 2007a, 2007b, 2012; Isaakidou 2006, 2008.
95
Macdonald & Knappett 2007; Knappett, Macdonald & Mathioudaki forthcoming.
97583.indb 84 6/02/15 08:47

the Stoa.96 Interesting funerary deposits were found in the cemetery.97 Survey has
also taken place around the palace at Faistos, directed by Mario Benzi in collabo-
ration with the 23rd Eforate,98 a follow-up of the larger survey of the Western
Messara by Watrous, Hadzi-Vallianou and Blitzer.99 No further excavation work
has taken place at Kommos but great progress was made in site preservation,
publication and making available the excavation archives.100 Building X has just
been published.101 Vasilakis and Kostas Sbonias have been involved in the Trypeti
survey in the very south of the island.102 Work has also resumed in the Skoteino
cave103 and Kamares cave,104 while recently a fine volume on the Tsoutsouros cave
by Kanta and Davaras has appeared.105
In East Crete, the 24th Eforate has done much work in different places. Chrysa
Sofianou and Brogan, for example, have excavated several Neopalatial houses at
Papadiokampos, a harbour site between the Mirabello and Siteia bays.106 A thick
layer of Theran ash close to the buildings may explain the partial demise of the
settlement. Interesting soil flotation results were obtained and plentiful informa-
tion was recovered for the reconstruction of the Minoan diet (limpets).107 At
Mesorrachi Skopi, near Siteia, Papadatos and Sofianou have excavated an EM IA
Prepalatial tholos tomb, one of the earliest known.108 At Pacheia Ammos, Aposto-
lakou excavated a rock shelter filled with late Prepalatial pottery at Alatsomouri
and a series of rock-cut basins or vats close by at Pefka, dating to MM IIB,
associated with murex shells and hence probably a purple dye installation.109 In
collaboration with the Eforate, Norbert Schlager has continued his survey work in
the south-east area of the island.110 Here, at Livari, Sofianou excavated a circular
tomb (dating to EM IB-MM IA) and rock shelters.111 The tomb surprises because
96
Cucuzza 2003; Privitera 2008; Cucuzza & Hellnerr 2009; http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/
fiches/voir/788/.
97
La Rosa 1998, 2000.
98
http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/789/ib. /1820/, ib. /1917/; ib. /2821/.
99
Watrous, Hadzi-Vallianou & Blitzer 2004.
100
https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle.1807/3004, accessed 15 October 2014.
101
Shaw & Shaw 2012.
102
Sbonias & Farinetti 2011.
103
Tyree, Kanta & Lewis Robinson 2008; Tyree et al. 2009.
104
Van de Moortel 2006, 2011; http://www.cig-icg.gr/node/293?language=en, accessed 15 October
2014.
105
Kanta & Davaras 2011.
106
Sofianou & Brogan 2009; Brogan, Sofianou & Morrison 2011; http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/
fiches/voir/254/; ib. /761/; ib. /1792/.
107
Sofianou & Brogan 2010.
108
http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/2802/; Papadatos & Sofianou 2013.
109
Apostolakou 2008; http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/767/; ib. /768/.
110
111
97583.indb 85 6/02/15 08:47

of the presence of much burned human bone.112 A conference to celebrate 25 years

of excavation at Petras was held in October 2010.113 Papadatos, who was involved
in several of these excavations, also worked with Metaxia Tsipopoulou on the
Final Neolithic/Prepalatial settlement at Petras-Kefala where the transition
between the two phases is well attested.114 A rock shelter close by contained grave
goods and many redeposited bones,115 its use having started in EM I when Cycladic
influences are noted. On the north slope of Petras-Kefala work has concentrated
in the cemetery where Tsipopoulou and Betancourt have excavated almost a dozen
house-tombs of MM IB-IIA date (i.e. before the palace was built).116 The grave
goods comprise gold and silver objects, seal stones, stone vases and much pottery.117
The LM III Chalasmenos excavations also directed by Tsipopoulou are at the
publication stage.118. The Minoan Roads Team led by Stella Chrysoulaki worked
at different places in the very east of the island, especially at Choiromandres,119
Karoumes,120 and in the Zakros region.121 At Choiromandres, a Prepalatial rural
shrine may have been turned into a Protopalatial guardhouse which was converted
into a Neopalatial farmhouse.122 Both at Palaikastro and Zakros, the teams are
studying for publication, but at the former a new series of archaeological cam-
paigns has been undertaken since 2013 under the direction of Carl Knappett,
Alexandra Livarda and Nicoletta Momigliano.123
INSTAPEC is instrumental each summer in bringing Cretan archaeologists
together for a series of lectures, followed by a reception and free drinks, much
appreciated by the younger members of the different excavation teams that flock
to the island. Apart from this, considerable work, backed by INSTAPEC, has
taken place around the Isthmus of Ierapetra. Many of the excavations and surveys
such as those at Kavousi-Vronda and Kastro, Azoria, Pseira, Mochlos and Vrokas-
tro are at advanced publication stage. The site of Kefali Afroditis, excavated by
Theodore Eliopoulos in 1996 was studied by Betancourt, yielding some of our
oldest examples of pithoi, some with relief decoration and dating to EM I.124 Off
112
Triantaphyllou 2009.
113
Tsipopoulou 2012a.
114
Papadatos 2008; Tsipopoulou 2010; Nodarou 2012; Papadatos 2012; http://chronique.efa.gr/
index.php/fiches/voir/1793/.
115
Triantaphyllou 2009, 2012.
116
Betancourt 2012; Tsipopoulou 2012b.
117
Ferrence, Muhly & Betancourt 2012; Krzyszkowska 2012.
118
See already Tsipopoulou 2004, 2011.
119
120
121
122
123
See the last volume on Palaikastro, Knappett & Cunningham 2012.
124
Betancourt 2008; http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/764/.
97583.indb 86 6/02/15 08:47

Pseira island, Elpida Hadjidaki has explored a MM IIB shipwreck.125 Considerable

excavation work has taken place at Mochlos by Jeffrey Soles and Costis Davaras.
After earlier excavations, study and publication, excavations resumed in 2005 and
concentrated on clearing areas within the Neopalatial town that had not been
excavated before.126 Thus, a theatral area below Building B2, the so-called ceremo-
nial building, was explored.127 Between Blocks B and C large segments of the
Prepalatial settlement were identified with a destruction at the very end of
EM IIB, contemporary with the destructions at Palaikastro and Fournou Korifi.128
Some exceptional finds were made, including a bronze dragonfly and a superb
ivory box showing adorants in front of a seated goddess.129 At Gournia, Watrous
has found a series of very long walls near the coast in the area of Sfoungaras which
may date to the Neopalatial period and could conceivably represent a fortification
system, which, however, strangely leaves the shipsheds outside.130 The latter are
assumed to have been destroyed by tsunami action. Survey publication is con-
tinuing131 and recent excavations took place within the town and palace.132 Prini-
atikos Pyrgos, excavated by mixed Irish, Greek and American teams, has now
become an Irish excavation under the direction of Barry Molloy.133 The remains
are not well preserved, but there is very interesting diachronic occupation span-
ning the entire Minoan period and some evidence may relate to the Santorini
eruption.134 The Ayios Charalambos cave, originally explored by Davaras, has now
been fully excavated in collaboration with Betancourt, with over 10,000 human
bones catalogued (at least 400 individuals) probably brought here from some ear-
lier resting place.135 There are interesting figurines, seal stones and musical instru-
ments dating to the Prepalatial up to MM IIB phase. To stay in Lasithi, some
limited work has taken place at Karfi by Saro Wallace for the British School at
Athens where a violent LM IIIC burnt destruction was identified as well as a
possible fortification wall.136 Again in Lasithi, a fine LM IIIA tholos tomb was
excavated by Apostolakou and Kanta at Magoulas/Kaminaki with a series of fine
125
Bonn-Muller 2010; http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/275/.
126
http://www.uncg.edu/arc/Mochlos/scene.html; http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/175/;
ib. /176/; ib. /253/; ib. /758/; ib. /1791/; ib. /1909/; ib. /2816/.
127
Soles 2009.
128
Soles 2009, 10.
129
Soles 2005, 12, fig. 3; Soles & Davaras 2010, 1-2, fig. 1.
130
Watrous 2010, 2012; http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/766/; ib. /1783/.
131
Haggis et al. 2012.
132
http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/1910; ib. /2860/; ib. /4551/.
133
http://www.priniatikos.net/; http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/773/; ib. /2003/
134
Molloy et al. 2014.
135
http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/2827/; ib. /259/; ib. /776/.
136
http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/777/; ib. /1789/; ib. /1913/.
97583.indb 87 6/02/15 08:47

objects, including a female ivory figurine, faience beads and seal stones.137 At
Malia, the École Française d’Athènes under direction of Maia Pomadère excavated
a Neopalatial building in an area called Secteur Pi where earlier Pre- and Protopa-
latial levels also came to light.138 Finally, we may close this review by mentioning
the Belgian School at Athens’ excavations on the Buffo or Ayios Antonios Hill at
Sissi which took place between 2007 and 2011.139 On a strategically placed hill
on the coast, we found a cemetery of house-tombs dating to EM II-MM II, a
Neopalatial settlement with workshops, elite buildings and perhaps even the
remains of a court-centered building with a court of about 22 by 10 m, oriented
north-south, and a Postpalatial building with large column halls and a shrine.
As to Minoans outside Crete, we may add that ‘Minoan’ frescoes are found in
even more spots in the Eastern Mediterranean, including Kabri, Avaris-Tell el-Dabʼa,
Alalakh and Qatna. In Avaris some fragments may be restorable into a figure
resembling the Knossian priest-king,140 while the publication of the fragments
from the Qatna palace show the impact Minoan style had on the Levant.141
Moreover, in the region of Çeşme, Turkey, new excavations have underlined the
Minoan presence here especially during the Proto-and Neopalatial periods.142
All excavations now include a considerable part of scientific analyses (including
petrography, lead isotope, residue analysis, etc.), archaeozoological study, environ-
mental work, study of stone tools and physical anthropology and it is without
doubt within these fields that most progress has been made. Recording has been
improved through the use of site computers, digital photography in many forms
and the integration within GIS contexts, both for surveys and excavations. Finally,
the organisation of small workshops on specific sites and regions within the island
may be mentioned and often these too have been published.143
Recent developments
If asked whether these new excavations have changed our way of looking at things
dramatically, there is no hesitation in answering positively. Granted, in many
instances they confirm earlier notions. They have helped to fill in frustrating gaps
137
Whitley et al. 2007, 103.
138
Pomadère & Langohr 2007; Pomadère 2008, 2009; Gomrée, Langohr & Pomadère 2012; http://
chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/261/; ib. /774/; ib. /1370/; ib. /1956/.
139
See www.sarpedon.be, and Driessen et al. 2009, 2011, 2012.
140
von Rueden 2011b.
141
von Rueden 2011a.
142
Şahoğlu 2007, 2009.
143
We may mention the workshops on Petras (http://www.petras-excavations.gr/en/home/confer-
ences; Tsipopoulou 2012a) and Malia (Pomadère & Zurbach 2007), but several other ones have taken
place (e.g. on the Messara, the Amari valley, etc.).
97583.indb 88 6/02/15 08:47

in the archaeological map, have added material for badly known periods, and have
mitigated too extreme positions. Moreover, they have influenced the way we look
at this evidence, how we approach it and what methods we use. By integrating
field data, we have been able to develop bottom-up approaches, in which social
theory and anthropological parallels play a more important role. We have become
prehistorians! It is hence more some of the interpretative shifts that we would next
like to consider. We underline that this is a personal view which may not always
be shared by all.
It is for instance obvious that centralization has been questioned, and this at
various scales, and that redistribution – once a password – is now no longer seen
as universally valid for each phase of palatial development; commensality seems to
be the key-word.
If we consider, for example, a major issue such as the ancestry of the Minoan
palace, research at the two major centres, Knossos and Faistos, has traced back the
institutionalizing of specific social practices involving feasting and ritual activity
in larger open areas within the settlement to the advanced Final Neolithic peri-
od.144 Although still somewhat controversial, the discovery of specific types of
pottery (including some considered ritual), large butchering deposits and open
areas with special floors seem to announce specific social practices. These open
areas seem progressively to have been formalized during the EM period and it
seems acceptable that by EM IIB, at Knossos, Faistos and Malia, large central and
west courts already existed with subsidiary buildings in which the equipment for
these communal ritual activities which involved consumption was stored. It can
be argued that such practices also took place within smaller scale settlements such
as Vasiliki and Fournou Korifi and that related practices, but involving especially
libations, served as integrative mechanisms in the funerary domain. That some-
thing exceptional happened at the end of the Prepalatial period leading to an
acceleration during MM IB is still evident. The rate and scale by which settle-
ments were transformed seems to have differed considerably from one site to
another, however. At Knossos, the monumentalisation seems more like a gradual
process, whereas at Faistos and Malia, large-scale levelling operations followed by
construction activities resulted in the construction of entirely new monumental
complexes. Elsewhere, palatial buildings would be constructed either in MM IIA
(Petras, Monastiraki), MM IIB (Kommos), MM IIIA (Galatas) or even later in
the Neopalatial period (Gournia, Zakros) when also Faistos was reconstructed.
In several cases, it has also become clear that we have somewhat misjudged
the organic unity which these buildings present during LM I by projecting it back
to the Middle Bronze Age. Now, we know that these first palaces took time to
144
Tomkins 2012 (Knossos); Todaro & Di Tonto 2008; Todaro 2012 (Faistos).
97583.indb 89 6/02/15 08:47

construct, spanning sometimes different ceramic phases (MM IB, MM IIA-B,

MM III) and were initially less regular. With the possible presence of a palataki
at Sissi, at least in the Neopalatial period, and one at Protoria-Damatri, excavated
by Irini Antonakaki in the Eastern Messara, others undoubtedly at Chania and
Archanes and at the complex at Zominthos, it can be expected that more and
more similar buildings will be found in the future. Again, scale and pace seem
essential. The variety and number of central buildings, once seen as representing
a well circumscribed category, is now seen as a continuum between the most
simple and most elaborate. Explaining the qualitative leap to monumentality at
the end of the 20th century BC remains difficult and many still see some ex oriente
lux at work. That certain oriental external symbolic influences were operational
seems indeed acceptable, but to assume that this ‘palatial package’ also included
specific forms of cult and government, as some have claimed, seems difficult to
accommodate with the actual evidence. That some type of central authority must
have accompanied many of the architectural, urban, organizational and productive
developments during the early Middle Bronze Age also seems acceptable and is
generally agreed. That this central authority must have been embodied by an
individual residing within the palaces rather than by a collective power based at
these palaces – more often now termed court centres or court buildings – is a
point of discussion which influences the way the function of the palaces is appre-
ciated. This is where things become tricky because attempts have also been made
to understand Minoan society and its composition. Here the bottom-up approach
has been essential and instrumental ideas were acquired thanks to the integration
of survey work such as that for the Kavousi area,145 but also through a better
understanding of the possible social practices at work. This understanding espe-
cially applies to the Final Neolithic and Prepalatial periods at Faistos146 and
Knossos,147 and to the later Protopalatial148 and Neopalatial periods.149 Moreover,
it has been aided by the success of household studies in our field, an immediate
result of the 2005 STEGA conference focussing in a diachronic way on this aspect
for Crete.150 Attention has now incrementally been given to the social unit that
is usually, but not necessarily, co-resident, and joins forces to assure its own
maintenance and intergenerational reproduction. For the Neolithic – both on
Crete and the Greek Mainland – Halstead and Tomkins have explored the inter-
play between community-related larger scale supra-household organisation and
145
Haggis 2005.
146
Todaro & Di Tonto 2008; Todaro 2012.
147
Tomkins 2007a, 2012.
148
Schoep 2006, 2010.
149
Wright in Shaw & Shaw 1996, 195-198; Hamilakis 2002b.
150
Glowacki & Vogeikoff-Brogan 2011.
97583.indb 90 6/02/15 08:47

individual households, reflected in architectural structures.151 Each of these could

have existed at varying scales. A progressive isolation of households as independ-
ent, socio-economic and political units is suggested, an evolution completed
according to some at the beginning of the Prepalatial period. These independent
households, Whitelaw has argued, would have been formed by nuclear families
and would have been the essential unit throughout Minoan history. Now, whereas
such nuclear families certainly existed at every level and time of Minoan history,
the existence of a more important and intermediate level of co-residential corpo-
rate grouping dubbed Houses has been suggested by one of the present authors,
following Lévi-Strauss’ sociétés à maison.152 Judging from the large scale of many
Minoan residential complexes between the Late Neolithic and LM IIIC and the
localised palimpsestic rebuilding, time after time, often repeating the same plan,
an inter-generational investment by strong social groups is detected. The link
between such corporate groups and the funerary domain, but also specific types
of production and consumption, is now being investigated. To this can be added
a renewed interest in the basic relationships, based on gender, age and status that
regulated the members and groupings within Minoan society. Hence, rather than
a traditional hierarchical organisation with an almost superimposed, esoteric
priest-king, a faceless elite and an even more discrete lower class, a more varied
and dynamic social structure is now suggested, in which both hierarchical and
heterarchical elements were interwoven in a more hybrid way.
In this hypothesis, the palaces or court centres are more regarded as a backdrop
for the enactment or performance of the social and ritual practices of interaction
that were essential for the reproduction of societal relations, and as a political
arena where corporate groups actively engaged, and where the roles of groups and
specific individuals within these groups were acknowledged. If we allow for status
differences related to age and gender within these corporate groups and, to some
degree, between them, the differential distribution of exceptional material culture
as noted by Borja Legarra Herrero in the funerary domain finds a convincing
explanation.153 A hypothesis such as this looks for parallels within Cretan history
of the Archaic period rather than in the Near East. One of the hypotheses offered
is that Minoan society would have been matrilocally organised along matrilinear
descent lines, which would explain the size of residential structures as well as the
importance of women in ritual and religious iconography.154 In any case, a new
151
Halstead 1992, 54; Tomkins 2004, 2010.
152
Levi-Strauss 1982.
153
Legarra Herrero 2009, 2012.
154
Driessen 2012a, 2012b.
97583.indb 91 6/02/15 08:47

generation of scholars is focussing on the identification of kinship as expressed

through material culture.
Such a vision has obvious impacts on the redistributive character of the central
buildings and already asks for a reassessment of the recently expressed views in the
special AJA issue by Galaty, Nakassis and Parkinson155 in which Kostas Christakis,
adhering to more traditional views, underlines that ‘what has been described as
redistribution was, in most cases, nothing other than a constant movement of
goods upward, mobilized to support elites and their retainers’.156 New excavations
have illustrated how large-scale community storage may already have taken place
outside the centralised buildings from an early phase onwards (Gazi, Kefali
Afrodite and perhaps storage pits at Final Neolithic Chania) and in any case,
during the Protopalatial Period there is as much evidence for large-scale storage
outside as within the palaces, in each case connected to larger residential com-
plexes or open courts. This connection continues into the Neopalatial period. If
we connect this storage to patterns of non-resident sealing practices, as attested for
example at Faistos, a more dynamic, collaborative effort can be recognised with
a more subtle interplay between both bottom-up contributions and top-down
distributions. Mobilisation of specific goods would then have happened with the
specific intention to organise large-scale communal events with a highly ritualised
character. This has now been documented for all periods of Minoan history: for
the Neolithic by Tomkins and Todaro,157 for the Prepalatial period by Catapoti
and Relaki,158 for the Middle Minoan period by Macdonald and Knappett, Haggis
and Schoep,159 for the Neopalatial by Tsipopoulou and Letesson,160 and for the
Postpalatial by D’Agata and ourselves.161 The intimate link between the produc-
tion (and consumption) of elite material culture and the existence of a centralised
controlling mechanism has also been mitigated: the petrographic study of Kamares
ware by Day and Wilson162 for example, has underlined how much of the exqui-
site pottery consumed at Protopalatial Knossos was produced in south-east Crete
– the backyard of Faistos. Likewise, Knappett has stressed the identity between
largely locally produced shapes and decorative patterns at Myrtos Pyrgos and
Malia-Quartier Mu,163 whilst Donald Haggis has used the differentiation in deco-
155
Galaty, Nakassis & Parkinson 2011.
156
Christakis 2011, 197.
157
Tomkins 2004, 2007a, 2012; Todaro 2012; Todaro & Di Tonto 2008.
158
Catapoti 2006, 2011; Relaki 2009, 2012.
159
Macdonald & Knappett 2007; Haggis 2007; Schoep 2006, 2010.
160
Tsipopoulou 2002; Letesson 2009; Letesson & Driessen 2008.
161
D’Agata 2001; Driessen, Farnoux & Langohr 2008.
162
Day & Wilson 1998.
163
Knappett 1999.
97583.indb 92 6/02/15 08:47

rative styles shown by the Petras Lakkos deposit to reconstruct a dynamic social
engagement between different groups.164
This hypothesis naturally also affects our ways of appreciating the existence of
larger scale political organisations. In the past, maps of regionally discrete identical
material culture were used to draw up different polities, backed up by Thiessen
polygons. This is how Renfrew, Cherry, Cadogan, Wiener, Whitelaw and Warren
felt relatively confident in seeing more or less equal ‘Peer’ Protopalatial polities,
developing into a Knossian empire during the Neopalatial. However survey data
have shown how different regions of the island followed different trajectories,
making generalisations for each period unlikely. In contrast, recently material cul-
ture distribution and a variety of other spatial techniques including cost analyses
were used by Andy Bevan to reconstruct the Knossian state.165 In this he is backed
up by new studies on the so-called look-alike sealings by Yuval Goren and Dia-
manthis Panagiotopoulos.166 It is clear now that rather than look-alikes, they are
impressions by one and the same ring. Clay analyses have moreover confirmed the
Knossian origin of the identical sealings found at LM IA Akrotiri and LM IB Ayia
Triada, Zakros and Sklavokampos. The survey data also underline the sheer
importance of Neopalatial Knossos and the loss of an integrated site hierarchy in
the regions around Faistos and Malia.167 This could imply their demotion at the
same time as integration into a wider, Knossian-led framework. If we combine
these conclusions with the iconographic figurative boom that occurs between MM
III and LM I which, as clearly underlined by Fritz Blakolmer,168 follows a well-
organised coded and interrelated system of propaganda, it seems clear that,
between the Proto- and Neopalatial period, certain mechanisms of selection were
introduced that are also reflected by architectural developments as has been shown
by Letesson.169 Knossos has indeed become the most important centre of the
island by far during LM I. But did it become the political capital of the island?
Rather than thinking in palatial territories, we feel that other more social and
symbolic means of interaction seem at work, but this is a challenge for the future.
Where do religion and cult fit in? The discovery of the Mochlos ivory box, the
shrine model with seated goddess from Galatas, as well as a new series of gold
rings from Poros recently presented at the 2011 Cretological Congress by Dimo-
poulou and Rethemiotakis, and a gold foil bezel from Sfendoni by Papadopoulou
(this last one dated to LM IIIA), largely repeat the well known Minoan religious
164
Haggis 2007.
165
Bevan 2010.
166
Goren & Panagiotopoulos 2009.
167
Driessen 2001, 56; Watrous, Hadzi-Vallianou & Blitzer 2004 (Faistos); Puglisi 2007 (Malia).
168
Blakolmer 2010.
169
Letesson 2009.
97583.indb 93 6/02/15 08:47

iconography of the Seated Goddess and the outstretched arm – the commanding
gesture as shown especially on the Master Impression of Chania – for a superior
male person. Detailed studies by Christine Morris and Alan Peatfield incorporat-
ing peak sanctuary rituals have argued for a more shamanistic and experiential
form of Minoan religion, implying trances, altered states and ecstasy, at the same
time stressing its performative nature.170 This would explain elements of scale,
pace and the relative paucity of a codified symbolism during the earlier periods.
Apart from a few strong symbols such as horns and double axes, it must be stressed
that, for the earlier periods, either a taboo on representation existed or that anthro-
pomorphisation of divine figures occurred only during LM I and may have been
limited to two-dimensional representations. In any case, this anthropomorphisa-
tion may have been regarded as awkward by some, which could explain the violent
iconoclastic destruction of the Palaikastro Kouros. It is also for the Neopalatial
period (but not only) that more detailed studies have appeared concentrating on
aspects of gender, corporeality and what is now called an archaeology of the senses
and of performance. As such more attention has gone to the body, as a symbol,
artefact, metaphor or medium, or with the notion of embodiment, the past as
lived sensual experience; with explorations by people such as Iannis Hamilakis,
Lucy Goodison and Anna Simandiraki-Grimshaw but also a series of young schol-
ars.171 The experiential aspect is perhaps most clearly expressed by the 3D visualisa-
tion of Archanes tombs as done by Kostas Papadopoulos,172 but similar efforts are
being done on Akrotiri173 and GIS allows specific phenomenological experiences
to be corroborated, as shown by Soetens for peak sanctuaries.174
If we look at more mundane aspects of our field, it may be worth briefly dis-
cussing the absolute chronology of the Santorini eruption. Despite recent claims
in connection with the C14 dating of an olive trunk found within the krater
on Santorini to 1621-1605 BC at one sigma, we tend to follow Wiener’s175 lucid
argument, who has underlined the flaws of such dating. Taking into account a
vast array of evidence, he sticks to a 1525 BC date, the advanced LM IA phase, a
date which agrees with more traditional views and Egyptian sources. The impact
of this eruption has been constantly on the mind of Minoanists. As mentioned,
new good evidence for tefra deposition has been brought to light at Papadiokam-
pos and perhaps at Priniatikos Pyrgos, the latter site being the most western till
now where considerable deposits have been found. Despite our efforts we did not
170
Peatfield & Morris 2012.
171
Hamilakis 2008; Hamilakis, Pluciennik & Tarlow 2002; Goodison 2001, 2009, 2012; Simandi-
raki-Grimshaw 2010; German 2005; Soar 2010.
172
Papadopoulos 2010.
173
Paliou 2011; Paliou, Wheatley & Earl 2011.
174
Soetens et al. 2003; Soetens 2006.
175
Wiener 2010.
97583.indb 94 6/02/15 08:47

find any at Sissi (yet). A paper in Journal of Archaeological Science by Bruins,

MacGillivray, Synolakis and others176 on potential tsunami deposits at Palaikastro,
moved quite some waves (so to speak) but needs more detailed geomorphological
backup and regional contextual study before it can be explained as such, rather
than caused by a flashflood coming down the hills at the time of the eruption.
Papers such as this, that by Floyd McCoy and other catastrophe scenarios (includ-
ing the one that destroyed Bronze Age Athens)177 reconstructing monster waves
seem more influenced by the Boxing Day and Japan tsunamis than by reliable
archaeological data. As to the final destructions, the just published LM IB confer-
ence178 has made it clear that LM IB was a longer phase than the one generation
once assumed by Mervyn Popham.179 LM IB subphases have been recognized
especially at Mochlos, Palaikastro but perhaps also at Kommos.180 Archaeomag-
netic data for Malia suggest contemporary destructions in the palace and town.181
Gorokhovich and Ulmman suggest earthquake damage to aquifers and changes in
groundwater supplies as a potential reason for the collapse.182 We may add that,
in a recent paper in Antiquity, Knappett and colleagues, using computational net-
work analysis, suggest that the Minoan collapse at the end of LM IB would be a
result of an incremental increase in exchange costs to maintain the commercial
network following the disappearance of Santorini as a key node in the network,
whereby the sites would concentrate their exchange/trade into fewer, stronger
links at the expense of the weaker links.183 The recent paper in Climate of the Past
by Tsonis and colleagues184 on climate change and the demise of Minoan civiliza-
tion seems still not enough founded on real data to be useful.
The discussion of the following period, that of the assumed Mycenaean pres-
ence on Crete and the establishment of a Linear B administration at Knossos,
seems to have quietened down a bit. In view of the strong Mycenaean (meaning
Mainland) character of the warrior burials at Chania, starting in LM II, which
adds to the changes known from Knossos, few would doubt that this was when
major changes happened. Even if the number of Mycenaean migrants may have
been limited, their presence was instrumental in turning the previous largely
ceremonial centre at Knossos into a power house with a blatant economical
and political role.185 Argyro Nafplioti’s conclusion that negative evidence from
176
Bruins et al. 2008.
177
McCoy & Heiken 2000; Novikova, Papadopoulos & McCoy 2011.
178
Brogan & Hallager 2011.
179
Popham 1967, 339.
180
Barnard & Brogan 2011; Hemingway, MacGillivray & Sackett 2011; Rutter 2011.
181
Downey 2011.
182
Gorokhovich & Ulmman 2010.
183
Knappett, Evans & Rivers 2008.
184
Tsonis et al. 2010.
185
Driessen & Langohr 2007; Langohr 2009, 181-185..
97583.indb 95 6/02/15 08:47

strontium isotope ratio analysis (87Sr/86Sr) suggests that all Knossians were locally
born suffers from being based on too small a sample to be acceptable.186 As to the
date of the final destruction of the palace at Knossos and its Linear B administra-
tion, the present authors now prefer an advanced LM IIIA2 date, which better
agrees with some of the observations made by Hatzaki in the Knossos Pottery
handbook.187 As such the destruction would be contemporary with destructions
and abandonments observed in the Messara, especially at Ayia Triada, and at sites
such as Chondros Viannou, Palaikastro, Zakros and perhaps at Malia. Most of the
latter sites were reoccupied on a smaller scale afterwards, but the disappearance of
the palace at Knossos and its pottery workshops was probably the reason why ini-
tially styles developed at a much slower pace and why LM IIIA2/B(1) are often
grouped together. In any case, local ceramic workshops were very active during LM
IIIA2, which may suggest an increased regionalism already before the final destruc-
tion.188 Petrographic analyses on LM IIIA-B material from Chrysokamino, Moch-
los and Petras by Nodarou, for example, have shown how all three sites share
common traditions of pottery production both in the selection of raw materials
and the clay recipes used for the domestic coarse and fine vessels.189 They have,
however, entirely different and selective consumption patterns when it comes to
imports, with Chrysokamino importing from the South Coast and the Gournia/
Kalo Chorio area, Mochlos importing from Palaikastro and Central Crete, and
Petras from all different regions. Hence proximity seems not the guiding principle
here. Moreover, they do not import from each other. This reinforces the idea that
the sociopolitical organization of East Crete was far more fragmented and that this
part of the island, having perhaps a preference for smaller polities, followed a dif-
ferent trajectory from Central and West Crete.190 Such work needs to be done for
all periods of the island and both at local, regional and interregional scale, since it
may eventually help us to understand better the territorial organization.
What has also become clear is that many sites were already destroyed or
abandoned after the first half of LM IIIB (Kommos, Malia, Sissi, Gouves,
Amnissos),191 and that the few sites that remain occupied or, most probably, were
reoccupied later on in LM IIIB like Palaikastro and Sissi saw their occupation
drastically reduced and considerably changed. Only Chania seems to have survived
these times relatively un-shattered, at least till well into the 12th century BC. By
1200 BC, sites that have defensible positions thrive and we have learned a lot about
these in recent years, thanks to the excavations of Chalasmenos, Kavousi-Vronda,
186
Nafplioti 2008.
187
Hatzaki 2007, 223, 225, 233.
188
Langohr in press.
189
Nodarou 2007.
190
Jusseret, Sintubin & Langohr 2013.
191
Langohr 2009, 195-218.
97583.indb 96 6/02/15 08:47

Kastro and Azoria, Vasiliki Kefala and the re-examination of Karfi but also
Thronos-Sybrita, Chania and Chamalevri.192 Wallace’s book gives a recent account
of this process.193 Many of these sites suffer again during LM IIIC and it is interest-
ing in this regard to mention the recent report on Kastrokefalo near Iraklion by
Kanta and Kontopodi.194 The site, well defended, has yielded a ‘fenestrated razor’
of Italian origin as well as a Naue II sword and cooking pots. It looks more like a
military barracks than a normal settlement. Clay spools, typical for LM IIIC habi-
tation sites on Crete and in the Near East were absent moreover, reinforcing the
military hypothesis. Such clay spools are now more and more seen as a sign for Sea
People migrations.195 The presence of a large deposit of such spools at Sissi in a LM
IIIB context196 may suggest that the migration process started earlier and was partly
responsible for the difficult times on Crete during the mature LM IIIB whereas,
by LM IIIC, normal life albeit having drastically changed, had started again. Cli-
matic changes may also be involved in this process.197 Somehow, the destruction of
LM IIIA2 Knossos and the success of LM IIIB Chania still need to be fitted into
this process.
Finally, a few words on the academic environment in which Minoan archaeol-
ogy is being produced. Traditional centres such as Oxford, Cambridge, London,
Paris, New York and even Bristol remain active, but it is clear that new groups
have emerged, abroad at Sheffield, Toronto, Heidelberg and Louvain, but espe-
cially within Greece itself, at the Universities of Athens and Thessaloniki and in
Rethymnon, at the University and the Institute of Mediterranean Studies, and at
INSTAPEC. More and more collaborations take place, either in the field or in
projects carried forward by the European Union. The economic crisis will certainly
have its impact, both on the pace of excavation and publication but also on the
number of practitioners. Still, as long as we can rely on INSTAP, our field faces
an even more exciting future than the sketch we have presented here.
J. DRIESSEN
C. LANGOHR
Université Catholique de Louvain
Jan.Driessen@uclouvain.be
Charlotte.Langohr@uclouvain.be
192
Tsipopoulou 2004, 2011 (Chalasmenos); Day, Klein & Turner 2009 (Kavousi-Vronda); Coulson
et al. 1997; Mook 2004 (Kavousi-Kastro); Haggis et al. 2007, 696-705 (Azoria); Eliopoulos 2004
(Vasiliki Kefala); Wallace 2005; Day 2011 (Karfi); D’Agata 1999, 2001, 2003, in press (Thronos-Sy-
brita); Hallager & Hallager 2010 (Chania); Andreadaki-Vlazaki & Papadopoulou 2005 (Chamalevri).
193
Wallace 2010.
194
Kanta & Kontopodi 2011.
195
Yasur-Landau 2011.
196
Gaignerot-Driessen 2012, 72-74.
197
Moody 2005.
97583.indb 97 6/02/15 08:47

Acknowledgements
Jan Driessen would like to thank J. Bintliff and the Netherlands Institute at
Athens for inviting him to the Athens meeting and the authors thank the follow-
ing for sharing their research: V. Apostolakou, T. Brogan, P.P. Betancourt,
T. Cunningham, F. Gaignerot-Driessen, D. Haggis, E. Hallager, B. Molloy,
Y. Papadatos, C. Sofianou, J. Soles, M. Tsipopoulou and T. Whitelaw. Charlotte
Langohr is a postdoctoral researcher of the F.R.S.-FNRS.
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Recent Developements in The Archaeology

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Recent developments in

the archaeology of Minoan Crete

Minoan – palatial – household – iconography – landscape.

Pharos 20(1), 75-115. doi: 10.2143/PHA.20.1.3064537

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Conferences and publications

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Crétoises42 and on Chrysokamino as a Hesperia supplement.43 Other major publica-

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Surveys and excavations

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already in use in LM II and continued into LM IIIA.75 In the region of Rethym-

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of the presence of much burned human bone.112 A conference to celebrate 25 years

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Pseira island, Elpida Hadjidaki has explored a MM IIB shipwreck.125 Considerable

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construct, spanning sometimes different ceramic phases (MM IB, MM IIA-B,

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individual households, reflected in architectural structures.151 Each of these could

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generation of scholars is focussing on the identification of kinship as expressed

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find any at Sissi (yet). A paper in Journal of Archaeological Science by Bruins,

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(eds), Αρχαιολογικό Έργο Κρήτης 1, Πρακτικά της 1ης Συνάντησης, Ρέθυμνο,

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DOWNEY, W.S. 2011. Archaeomagnetic directional determinations on various archaeologi-

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GRUNDON, I. 2007. The Rash Adventurer: A Life of John Pendlebury, London.

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University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology and the Archaeo-

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LEGARRA HERRERO, B. 2012. The construction, deconstruction and non-construction of

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M. Andrianakis & I. Tzachili (eds), Αρχαιολογικό Έργο Κρήτης 1, Πρακτικά της

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ŞAHOĞLU, V. 2007. Çeşme-Bağlararası: a new excavation in Western Anatolia. In:

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SOFIANOU, C. & T.M. BROGAN 2010. Μινωικός οικισμός Παπαδιόκαμπου Σητείας.

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