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Research Basics

Table of Contents
1 Research Basics
2 Concepts
2.1 What is Research?
2.2 What is the Scientific Method?
2.3 Empirical Research

3 Definitions
3.1 Definition of Research
3.2 Definition of the Scientific Method
3.3 Definition of Science

4 Steps of the Scientific Method

5 Scientific Elements
6 Aims Of Research
7 Purpose of Research
8 Science Misconceptions

1
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2
 1 Research Basics

The research process deals with the ways and strategies used by researchers to
understand the world around us. This is a guide to basic elements of scientific
research.

Research Basics

Research Methods

Formulating questions, collecting data, testing hypotheses

Experimental Research

Setting up experiments

Research Designs

Different types of designs used in research

Statistics in Research

A guide to statistics in research.

What is Research?

3
What is Research?

Basics of the Scientific Method

What is Empirical Research?

What is the Scientific Method?

Definition of Research

Definition of the Scientific Method

Definition of Science

Steps
Steps of the Scientific Method - The scientific method has a similar structure to an hourglass -
starting from general questions, narrowing down to focus on one specific aspect, then
designing research where we can observe and analyze this aspect.

At last, the hourglass widens and the researcher concludes and generalizes the findings to
the real world.

4
 

Aims of Research
The general aims of research are:

Observe and Describe

Predict
Determination of the Causes
Explain

Purpose of Research - Why do we conduct research? Why is it necessary?

Elements of Research
Common scientific research elements are:

Characterization - How to understand a phenomenon

Decide what to observe about a phenomenon

How to define the research problem
How to measure the phenomenon

Hypothesis and Theory

The research questions before performing research

Almost always based on previous research

Prediction

What answers do we expect?

Reasoning and logic on why we expect these results

Observation or Experimentation

Testing characterizations, hypothesis, theory and predictions

Understanding a phenomenon better
Drawing Conclusions

How to cite this article: 

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Oskar Blakstad (May 6, 2008). Research Basics. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
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6
 2 Concepts

2.1 What is Research?

Research is an often-misused term, its usage in everyday language very different from
the strict scientific meaning.

In the field of science, it is important to move away from the looser meaning and use it only in
its proper context. Scientific research adheres to a set of strict protocols and long established
structures.

Definition of Research

Definition of the Scientific Method

Often, we will talk about conducting internet research or say that we are researching in the
library. In everyday language, it is perfectly correct grammatically, but in science, it gives a
misleading impression. The correct and most common term used in science is that we are
conducting a literature review.

The Guidelines
What is research? For a successful career in science, you must understand the methodology
behind any research and be aware of the correct protocols.

Science has developed these guidelines over many years as the benchmark for measuring
the validity of the results obtained.

Failure to follow the guidelines will prevent your findings from being accepted and taken
seriously. These protocols can vary slightly between scientific disciplines, but all follow the
same basic structure.

7
Aims of Research
The general aims of research are:

Observe and Describe

Predict

Determination of the Causes

Explain

Purpose of Research - Why do we conduct research? Why is it necessary?

Steps of the Scientific Process

The steps of the scientific process has a structure similar to an hourglass - The structure
starts with general questions, narrowing down to focus on one specific aspect, then designing
research where we can observe and analyze this aspect. At last, the hourglass widens and
the researcher concludes and generalizes the findings to the real world.

8
 

Summary of the Elements in Scientific Research

1) Setting a Goal

Research in all disciplines and subjects, not just science, must begin with a clearly defined
goal. This usually, but not always, takes the form of a hypothesis.

For example, an anthropological study may not have a specific hypothesis or principle, but
does have a specific goal, in studying the culture of a certain people and trying to understand
and interpret their behavior.

The whole study is designed around this clearly defined goal, and it should address a unique
issue, building upon previous research and scientifically accepted fundamentals. Whilst
nothing in science can be regarded as truth, basic assumptions are made at all stages of the
research, building upon widely accepted knowledge.

2) Interpretation of the Results

Research does require some interpretation and extrapolation of results.

In scientific research, there is always some kind of connection between data (information
gathered) and why the scientist think that the data looks as it does. Often the researcher looks
at the data gathered, and then comes to a conclusion of why the data looks like it does.

A history paper, for example, which just reorganizes facts and makes no commentary on the
results, is not research but a review.

If you think of it this way, somebody writing a school textbook is not performing research and
is offering no new insights. They are merely documenting pre-existing data into a new format.

If the same writer interjects their personal opinion and tries to prove or disprove a hypothesis,
then they are moving into the area of genuine research. Science tends to use experimentation
to study and interpret a specific hypothesis or question, allowing a gradual accumulation of
knowledge that slowly becomes a basic assumption.

3) Replication and Gradual Accumulation

For any study, there must be a clear procedure so that the experiment can be replicated and
the results verified.

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Again, there is a bit of a grey area for observation-based research, as is found in
anthropology, behavioral biology and social science, but they still fit most of the other criteria.

Planning and designing the experimental method, is an important part of the project and
should revolve around answering specific predictions and questions. This will allow an exact
duplication and verification by independent researchers, ensuring that the results are
accepted as real.

Most scientific research looks at an area and breaks it down into easily tested pieces.

The gradual experimentation upon these individual pieces will allow the larger questions to be
approached and answered, breaking down a large and seemingly insurmountable problem,
into manageable chunks.

True research never gives a definitive answer but encourages more research in another
direction. Even if a hypothesis is disproved, that will give an answer and generate new ideas,
as it is refined and developed.

Research is cyclical, with the results generated leading to new areas or a refinement of the
original process.

4) Conclusion

The term, research, is much stricter in science than in everyday life.

It revolves around using the scientific method to generate hypotheses and provide analyzable
results. All scientific research has a goal and ultimate aim, repeated and refined
experimentation gradually reaching an answer.

These results are a way of gradually uncovering truths and finding out about the processes
that drive the universe around us. Only by having a rigid structure to experimentation, can
results be verified as acceptable contributions to science.

Some other areas, such as history and economics, also perform true research, but tend to
have their own structures in place for generating solid results. They also contribute to human
knowledge but with different processes and systems.

How to cite this article: 

Martyn Shuttleworth (Feb 2, 2008). What is Research?. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  

https://explorable.com/what-is-research

10
 2.2 What is the Scientific Method?

The scientific method, as defined by various scientists and philosophers, has a fairly
rigorous structure that should be followed.

In reality, apart from a few strictly defined physical sciences, most scientific disciplines have to
bend and adapt these rules, especially sciences involving the unpredictability of natural
organisms and humans.

In many ways, it is not always important to know the exact scientific method, to the letter, but
any scientist should have a good understanding of the underlying principles.

If you are going to bend and adapt the rules, you need to understand the rules in the first
place.

Empirical
Science is based purely around observation and measurement, and the vast majority of
research involves some type of practical experimentation.

This can be anything, from measuring the Doppler Shift of a distant galaxy to handing out
questionnaires in a shopping center. This may sound obvious, but this distinction stems back
to the time of the Ancient Greek Philosophers.

Cutting a long story short, Plato believed that all knowledge could be reasoned; Aristotle that
knowledge relied upon empirical observation and measurement.

This does bring up one interesting anomaly. Strictly speaking, the great physicists, such as
Einstein and Stephen Hawking, are not scientists. They generate sweeping and elegant
theories and mathematical models to describe the universe and the very nature of time, but
measure nothing.

In reality, they are mathematicians, occupying their own particular niche, and they should
properly be referred to as theoreticians.

Still, they are still commonly referred to as scientists and do touch upon the scientific method
in that any theory they have can be destroyed by a single scrap of empirical evidence.

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The Scientific Method Relies Upon Data
The scientific method uses some type of measurement to analyze results, feeding these
findings back into theories of what we know about the world. There are two major ways of
obtaining data, through measurement and observation. These are generally referred to as
quantitative and qualitative measurements.

Quantitative measurements are generally associated with what are known as ‘hard' sciences,
such as physics, chemistry and astronomy. They can be gained through experimentation or
through observation.

For Example:

At the end of the experiment, 50% of the bacteria in the sample treated with penicillin
were left alive.
The experiment showed that the moon is 384403 km away from the earth.
The pH of the solution was 7.1

As a rule of thumb, a quantitative unit has a unit of measurement after it, some scientifically
recognized (SI) or SI derived unit. Percentages and numbers fall into this category.

Qualitative measurements are based upon observation and they generally require some type
of numerical manipulation or scaling.

As an example, a social scientist interviewing drug addicts in a series of case studies, and
documenting what they see, is not really performing science, although the research is still
useful.

However, if he performs some sort of manipulation, such as devising a scale to assess the
intensity of the response to specific questions, then he generates qualitative results.

On average, the subjects showed an anxiety level of four.

91% of respondents stated that they preferred Hershey bars.

Generally, qualitative measurements are arbitrary, a scale designed to measure abstract

responses and constructs. Measuring anxiety, preference, pain and aggression are some
examples of concepts measured qualitatively. For a small group of long-established tests, the
results are often regarded as quantitative, such as IQ (Intelligence Quotient) and EQ
(Emotional Quotient).

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Both types of data are extremely important for understanding the world around us and the
majority of scientists use both types of data.

A medical researcher might design experiments to test the effectiveness of a drug, using a
placebo to contrast.

However, she might perform in depth case studies on a few of the subjects, a pilot study, to
ensure that her experiment has no problems.

The Scientific Method is Intellectual and Visionary

Science requires vision, and the ability to observe the implications of results. Collecting data is
part of the process, and it also needs to be analyzed and interpreted.

However, the visionary part of science lies in relating the findings back into the real world.
Even pure sciences, which are studied for their own sake rather than any practical application,
are visionary and have wider goals.

The process of relating findings to the real world is known as induction, or inductive reasoning
, and is a way of relating the findings to the universe around us.

For example, Wegener was the first scientist to propose the idea of continental drift. He
noticed that the same fossils were found on both sides of the Atlantic, in old rocks, and that
the continental shelves of Africa and South America seemed to fit together.

He induced that they were once joined together, rather than joined by land bridges, and faced
ridicule for his challenge to the established paradigm. Over time, the accumulated evidence
showed that he was, in fact, correct and he was shown to be a true visionary.

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Science Uses Experiments to Test Predictions
This process of induction and generalization allows scientists to make predictions about how
they think that something should behave, and design an experiment to test it.

This experiment does not always mean setting up rows of test tubes in the lab or designing
surveys. It can also mean taking measurements and observing the natural world.

Wegener's ideas, whilst denigrated by many scientists, aroused the interest of a few. They
began to go out and look for other evidence that the continents moved around the Earth.

From Wegener's initial idea of continents floating through the ocean floor, scientists now
understand, through a process of prediction and measurement, the process of plate tectonics.

The exact processes driving the creation of new crust and the subduction of others are still not
fully understood but, almost 100 years after Wegener's idea, scientists still build upon his
initial work.

Systematic and Methodical

Scientists are very conservative in how they approach results and they are naturally very
skeptical.

It takes more than one experiment to change the way that they think, however loud the
headlines, and any results must be retested and repeated until a solid body of evidence is

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built up. This process ensures that researchers do not make mistakes or purposefully
manipulate evidence.

In Wegener's case, his ideas were not accepted until after his death, when the amount of
evidence supporting continental drift became irrefutable.

This process of changing the current theories, called a paradigm shift, is an integral part of the
scientific method. Most groundbreaking research, such as Einstein's Relativity or Mendel's
Genetics, causes a titanic shift in the prevailing scientific thought.

Summary
The scientific method has evolved, over many centuries, to ensure that scientists make
meaningful discoveries, founded upon logic and reason rather than emotion.

The exact process varies between scientific disciplines, but they all follow the above principle
of observe - predict - test - generalize.

How to cite this article: 

Martyn Shuttleworth (Jun 26, 2009). What is the Scientific Method?. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/what-is-the-scientific-method

15
 2.3 Empirical Research

Empirical Research can be defined as "research based on experimentation or

observation (evidence)". Such research is conducted to test a hypothesis.

The word empirical means information gained by experience, observation, or experiment. The
central theme in scientific method is that all evidence must be empirical which means it is
based on evidence. In scientific method the word "empirical" refers to the use of working
hypothesis that can be tested using observation and experiment.

Empirical data is produced by experiment and observation.

Objectives of the Scientific Research Process

Capture contextual data and complexity
Identify and learn from the collective experience of others from the field
Identification, exploration, confirmation and advancing the theoretical concepts.
Further improve educational design

Objectives of the Empirical Research

Go beyond simply reporting observations
Promote environment for improved understanding
Combine extensive research with detailed case study
Prove relevancy of theory by working in a real world environment (context)

Reasons for Using Empirical Research Methods

Traditional or superstitional knowledge has been trusted for too long
Empirical Research methods help integrating research and practice
Educational process or Instructional science needs to progress

Advantages of Empirical Methods

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 Understand and respond more appropriately to dynamics of situations
Provide respect to contextual differences
Help to build upon what is already known
Provide opportunity to meet standards of professional research

In real case scenario, the collection of evidence to prove or counter any theory involves
planned research designs in order to collect empirical data. Several types of designs have
been suggested and used by researchers. Also accurate analysis of data using standard
statistical methods remains critical in order to determine legitimacy of empirical research.

Various statistical formulas such uncertainty coefficient, regression, t-test, chi-square and
different types of ANOVA (analysis of variance) have been extensively used to form logical
and valid conclusion.

However, it is important to remember that any of these statistical formulas don't produce proof
and can only support a hypothesis, reject it, or do neither.

Empirical Cycle
Empirical cycle consists of following stages:

1. Observation
Observation involves collecting and organizing empirical facts to form hypothesis
2. Induction
Induction is the process of forming hypothesis
3. Deduction
Deduct consequences with newly gained empirical data
4. Testing
Test the hypothesis

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 with new empirical data
5. Evaluation
Perform evaluation of outcome of testing

References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_research

How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Sep 21, 2009). Empirical Research. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  

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18
 3 Definitions

3.1 Definition of Research

In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of
data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge.

Reading a factual book of any sort is a kind of research. Surfing the internet or watching the
news is also a type of research.

Science does not use this word in the same way, preferring to restrict it to certain narrowly
defined areas. The word ‘review’ is more often used to describe the learning process which is
one of the underlying tenets of the rigid structures defining scientific research.

The Scientific Definition

The strict definition of scientific research is performing a methodical study in order to prove a
hypothesis or answer a specific question. Finding a definitive answer is the central goal of any
experimental process.

Research must be systematic and follow a series of steps and a rigid standard protocol.
These rules are broadly similar but may vary slightly between the different fields of science.

Scientific research must be organized and undergo planning, including performing literature
reviews of past research and evaluating what questions need to be answered.

Any type of ‘real’ research, whether scientific, economic or historical, requires some kind of
interpretation and an opinion from the researcher. This opinion is the underlying principle, or
question, that establishes the nature and type of experiment.

The scientific definition of research generally states that a variable must be manipulated,
although case studies and purely observational science do not always comply with this norm.

How to cite this article: 

19
Martyn Shuttleworth (Oct 3, 2008). Definition of Research. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/definition-of-research

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 3.2 Definition of the Scientific Method

Whilst any definition of the scientific method is always a little difficult, due to the vast
number of scientific disciplines and subtypes, there are a few basic fundamentals that
are common to them all.

Scientific Definitions
Various dictionaries and online resources give a strict definition of the scientific method,
relating the scientific process from beginning to end.

Whilst these definitions are useful, they are very narrow and lead to many of the
misunderstandings where the general public believes that science is infallible, and that
scientists are always right.

Here, we will try to break down some of these barriers and find a milder definition of the
scientific method that is a little more 'user friendly.'

Taking some dictionary definitions:

"The principles and empirical processes of discovery and

demonstration considered characteristic of or necessary for scientific
investigation, generally involving the observation of phenomena, the
formulation of a hypothesis concerning the phenomena,
experimentation to demonstrate the truth or falseness of the
hypothesis, and a conclusion that validates or modifies the hypothesis."

From: answers.com

"Sciences: Rigorous, systematic approach, designed to eliminate bias

and other subjective influences in the search, identification, and
measurement or validation of facts and cause-effect relationships, and
from which scientific laws may be deduced."

From: businessdictionary.com

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The Definition of the Scientific Method - The Holy Grail of
Ultimate Proof
The definition of the scientific method, even amongst many scientists, is seen as some holy
grail of science that achieves absolute and unarguable proof.

Lawyers and advertisers proudly boast about the scientific method, believing that it provides
irrefutable proof. CSI: Miami shows how forensic scientists take a skin cell and extract the
DNA, using their findings to convict the bad guy.

Whilst I love CSI: Miami, this definition of the scientific method is flawed, and it does not take
into account how scientists actually work. Scientists are fully aware of what they are trying to
achieve through their research, and are usually aware of the inbuilt inaccuracies and artifacts
in their work.

The Hollywood depictions portray scientists as infallible, but this is simply not true and it never
has been. Courtrooms also carry an inbuilt bias, because the burden of proof is always 'of
beyond reasonable doubt.'

In science, there is no reasonable doubt, no black and white, and even the most established
theory can be challenged and falsified as part of the scientific process.

The other problem with the scientific method is that many disciplines cannot follow it exactly,
especially social and behavioural sciences and, most notoriously, psychology. The damage
wreaked by Freud, where he claimed to know ALL of the answers, still resonates amongst
modern psychology and has tarnished the image of the discipline.

The Incorrect Definition of the Scientific Method - The

Strawman Cometh
There is a lot of publicity about the definition of the scientific method, taking up many inches of
newsprint and thousands of webpages.

Creationists constantly attempt to debunk evolution, claiming that it is incomplete and flawed.
Miscarriages of justice revolve around the fact that juries took the testimony of 'expert
scientific witnesses' to be true beyond reproach.

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Ultimately, these misapplications of the definition of the scientific method reflect back upon
science, and scientists must do a much better job of explaining that science does not deal in
absolutes.

Creationists attacking the fact that any scientific theory must adapt and grow completely miss
the point, whether deliberately or inadvertently, and attack science for being infallible, when it
has never claimed to find irrefutable proof of anything.

Sadly, this strawman argument is what captures the imagination of the public. Personally, I
believe that the basic definition of the scientific method should be taught in science lessons;
too many pupils learn the skills for designing and performing experiments but never learn the
reasoning behind it.

Every science student should know the basic reasoning of Popper, Feyerabend and Kuhn.

The Definition of the Scientific Method and Pseudoscience

With this concession, people will be able to understand that science is not perfect and does
not claim to be. The definition of the scientific method is a strict protocol dictating the
underlying philosophy behind scientific research.

However, people must also be aware that many sciences cannot follow the scientific method
exactly, due to the difficulty of defining reliability and validity.

This, more than anything, will begin to dampen down the animosity between scientists and
non-scientists and also make scientists much more approachable.

Of course, when pseudoscientists boast that their latest scam is 'tested by the scientific
method,' then this becomes an extremely difficult process.

How to cite this article: 

Martyn Shuttleworth (Nov 18, 2009). Definition of the Scientific Method. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/definition-of-the-scientific-method

23
 3.3 Definition of Science

The definition of science is the observation, identification, description, experimental

investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomena. It is in particular used in
activities applied to an object of inquiry or study. [Ref]

According to Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, the definition of science is

"knowledge attained through study or practice,"

or

"knowledge covering general truths of the operation of general laws,

esp. as obtained and tested through scientific method [and] concerned
with the physical world."

Here are some other common definitions of science:

Branch of knowledge or study dealing with a body of facts or truths systematically

arranged and showing the operation of general laws: the mathematical science
Systemic knowledge of the physical or material world gained through observations and
experimentation
Systematized knowledge in general
Any of the branches of natural or physical sciences
A particular branch of knowledge
Knowledge, as of facts or principles; knowledge gained by systematic study
Skill, esp. reflecting a precise application of facts or principle; proficiency

The word Science comes from Latin word "scientia" meaning "knowledge" and in broadest
sense it is any systematic knowledge-base or prescriptive practice being capable of resulting
in prediction. This is why science is termed as highly skilled technique or practice.

However, in more contemporary terms, science is a system of acquiring knowledge based on

scientific process or method in order to organize body of knowledge gained through research.

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Science remains a continuing effort on the part of human being to discover and increase
knowledge through research. Scientist make observations, record measureable data related
to their observations, analyze the information in hand in order to construct theoretical
explanations of phenomenon involved.

The methods involve in scientific research include making hypothesis and do experimentation
to test the hypothesis under controlled conditions. In this process, scientists publish their
works so other scientists can do similar experiments in may be different conditions to further
strengthen the reliability of results.

Scientific fields are broadly divided into natural sciences (to study natural phenomenons) and
social sciences (to study human behavior and societies). However, in both of these divisions,
the knowledge must be obtained through observations and capable of being tested for its
validity by other researchers working under similar conditions. There are some other
disciplines like health science and engineering that are grouped into interdisciplinary and
applied sciences.

Most scientific investigations use some form of the scientific method. A scientific method tries
to explain the events of nature in reproducible way and allow using these reproductions to
form predictions.

Scientists make observations of natural phenomenon and than through experimentation they
try to stimulate natural events under controlled conditions. Based on observations, a scientist
may generate a model and then attempt to describe or depict the phenomenon in terms of

25
mathematical or logical representation. Scientist will than gather the empirical evidence and
will generate his/her hypothesis to explain the phenomenon.

This description is used to form predictions which in turn will be tested by experiment or
observations using scientific method. Evaluations are made which may prove hypothesis
acceptable or discard it altogether or recommend modifications.

How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Jun 16, 2009). Definition of Science. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  

https://explorable.com/definition-of-science

26
 4 Steps of the Scientific Method

The steps of the scientific method were developed over millennia, since the time of the
ancient Greek and Persian philosophers.

Whilst there are always minor variations between different scientific disciplines, they all follow
the same basic path.

General Question
The starting point of most new research is to formulate a general question about an area of
research and begin the process of defining it.

This initial question can be very broad, as the later research, observation and narrowing down
will hone it into a testable hypothesis.

For example, a broad question might ask 'whether fish stocks in the North Atlantic are
declining or not', based upon general observations about smaller yields of fish across the
whole area. Reviewing previous research will allow a general overview and will help to
establish a more specialized area.

Unless you have an unlimited budget and huge teams of scientists, it is impossible to
research such a general field and it needs to be pared down. This is the method of trying to
sample one small piece of the whole picture and gradually contribute to the wider question.

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Narrowing Down
The research stage, through a process of elimination, will narrow and focus the research area.

This will take into account budgetary restrictions, time, available technology and practicality,
leading to the proposal of a few realistic hypotheses.

Eventually, the researcher will arrive at one fundamental hypothesis around which the
experiment can be designed.

Designing the Experiment

This stage of the scientific method involves designing the steps that will test and evaluate the
hypothesis, manipulating one or more variables to generate analyzable data.

The experiment should be designed with later statistical tests in mind, by making sure that the
experiment has controls and a large enough sample group to provide statistically valid results.

Observation
This is the midpoint of the steps of the scientific method and involves observing and recording
the results of the research, gathering the findings into raw data.

28
The observation stage involves looking at what effect the manipulated variables have upon
the subject, and recording the results.

Analysis
The scope of the research begins to broaden again, as statistical analyses are performed on
the data, and it is organized into an understandable form.

The answers given by this step allow the further widening of the research, revealing some
trends and answers to the initial questions.

Conclusions and Publishing

This stage is where, technically, the hypothesis is stated as proved or disproved.

However, the bulk of research is never as clear-cut as that, and so it is necessary to filter the
results and state what happened and why. This stage is where interesting results can be
earmarked for further research and adaptation of the initial hypothesis.

Even if the hypothesis was incorrect, maybe the experiment had a flaw in its design or
implementation. There may be trends that, whilst not statistically significant, lead to further
research and refinement of the process.

The results are usually published and shared with the scientific community, allowing
verification of the findings and allowing others to continue research into other areas.

Cycles
This is not the final stage of the steps of the scientific method, as it generates data and ideas
to recycle into the first stage.

The initial and wider research area can again be addressed, with this research one of the
many individual pieces answering the whole question.

Building up understanding of a large area of research, by gradually building up a picture, is

the true path of scientific advancement. One great example is to look at the work of J J
Thomson, who gradually inched towards his ultimate answer.

How to cite this article: 

29
Martyn Shuttleworth (Jan 19, 2008). Steps of the Scientific Method. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/steps-of-the-scientific-method

30
 5 Scientific Elements

Whilst there can be slight variations between the exact structure and type of study
between the various scientific disciplines, there are certain key scientific elements that
all must possess to some degree.

These elements have evolved over the centuries, and they have become accepted by both
scientists and philosophers of science as sound basic principles.

Observations and Review

The initial scientific element is to evaluate and observe possible subjects for experiment.

This can be through direct observation or by reviewing literature, and other sources, building
upon earlier research.

For example, Thomson knew a little about the properties of 'cathode rays', but wanted to
delve further. Darwin's observation of Galapagos Finches led to his groundbreaking theory
and further investigation by later scientists.

Hypothesis
Ideally, any research must begin with a testable hypothesis, which can be proved or disproved.

This hypothesis should be realistic and consider the technology and methods available.
Generating a hypothesis should involve looking for the simplest possible explanation for a
natural occurrence or phenomena.

Despite the slight differences between the various research techniques, this is the most
fundamental of the scientific elements.

All scientific methods rely on a hypothesis as the main underlying principle and tool for
establishing recognized proofs.

Predictions

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This stage is where a researcher attempts to predict the expected results of their experiment.

The prediction should be an extension of the hypothesis and express a degree of opinion
about what the findings should uncover.

Ideally, the prediction should also set out ways in which the results can be analyzed and
tested statistically.

Experiment and Measurement

True science requires some type of numerical measurement, which provides quantifiable and
analyzable data.

This analysis takes into account the uncertainty and inherent errors built into any scientific
methodology.

This is the final stage because, if the experiment has been well constructed, a valid answer
will have been generated. Using the basic scientific elements ensures that usable knowledge
about a process emerges from the initial observations of phenomena.

Whether the prediction is proved or not, further experiments feed back into this process, by
refining the initial hypothesis or by generating more accurate predictions.

Variations
There are many variations on these elements, covering the broad range of science, with this
rigid structure tending to be more strongly adhered to by life and natural sciences.

Social sciences may place more emphasis upon the observation and prediction stage, whilst
physicists may observe and predict without experimental proof, relying upon pure
mathematics to provide answers.

However, all science relies upon this basic formula for theory and hypothesis to be accepted
as ultimate proof, separating science from pure philosophy.

How to cite this article: 

Martyn Shuttleworth (Apr 21, 2008). Scientific Elements. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/scientific-elements

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 6 Aims Of Research

Observe and Describe

Predict
Determination of the Causes
Explain

Introduction
The ultimate aims of research are to generate measurable and testable data, gradually
adding to the accumulation of human knowledge.

Ancient philosophers believed that all answers could be achieved through deduction and
reasoning rather than measurement.

Science now uses established research methods and standard protocols to test theories
thoroughly.

It is important to remember that science and philosophy are intertwined and are essential
elements of human advancement, both contributing to the way we view the world. Scientific
research, however, allows us to test hypotheses and lay solid foundations for future research
and study.

No theory or hypothesis can ever be completely proved or disproved, but research enables us
to make valid assumptions about the universe.

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This gradual accumulation of knowledge dictates the overall direction of science and
philosophy.

Observation and Description

The first stage of any research is to observe the world around us and to ask questions about
why things are happening.

Every phenomenon in the universe has a reason behind it, and the aims of research are to
understand and evaluate what is happening.

However simple the phenomenon or however easy it appears to be to generate logical and
intuitive answers, scientific research demands rigorous testing for a truth to be accepted.

Describing the overall behavior of the subject is the first stage of any research, whether it is a
case study or a full-blown 'true experimental design'.

Read more about descriptive research here.

Predict
This stage is where you must make a statement of intent and develop a strong hypothesis.
This must be testable, with aims of research being to prove or disprove this statement.

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At this stage, you may express your personal opinion, favoring one side or the other. You
must make a statement predicting what you expect the final answer to be.

You must, however, keep an open mind and understand that there is a chance that you may
be wrong. Research is never about right or wrong but about arriving at an answer, which
improves our knowledge of natural processes.

Determination of the Causes

This is often the 'business end' for many areas of scientific research and is where one of the
predictions is tested, usually by manipulating and controlling variables. The idea is to generate
numerical data that can determine the cause with one of the many statistical tests.

For example, a small-scale global warming study might study Antarctic ice cores to determine
the historical levels of carbon dioxide throughout history. In this experiment, time would be the
manipulated variable, showing how levels of the greenhouse gas have changed over time.

Statistical procedures are then utilized to either prove or disprove the hypothesis and
prediction.

Of course, very little research gives such a black and white answer, but opens up new areas
of potential study and allows scientists to focus on a specific direction.

Explain
After determining the causes, the next layer of the research process is to try to find possible
explanations of 'Why?' and 'How?' things are happening.

For most areas, this stage involves sifting through and reviewing earlier studies about similar
phenomena. Most research is built upon the work of previous researchers, so there should be
a wealth of literature resources available.

If we look at a topical example, Global Warming is an area with which most of us are familiar
and has been the subject of thousands of studies. Intuitively, most of us would state that
humanity pumping carbon dioxide into the atmosphere is responsible for a worldwide rise in
temperatures.

The aims of research may be to establish 'What are the underlying causes and relationships
between the different processes fueling this trend?' In most cases, it is necessary to review
earlier research and try to separate the better quality sources from the inaccurate or poorly
designed studies.

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It is equally important to take into account any opposing points of view and accept that they
may be equally valid. Explanation is about coming up with viable reasons and you must try to
be as objective and unbiased as possible.

For example, in the case of global warming, there is an opposing view that temperature rises
are natural and that the effect of human society is making little difference.

At this stage, personal opinion must be put aside and both sides of the debate must be given
equal credence.

New Directions
Whatever the final answer, it can be used to promote a healthy debate and discussion about
the validity of the results.

The aims of research can then be fine-tuned, or may serve to open up new areas of interest.
Either way, the store of human knowledge has been enriched and increased.

Bibliography
Bauer, H.H. (1994). Scientific Literacy and the Myth of the Scientific Method. Urbana, IL:
University of Illinois Press

Kuhn, T. (1996). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (3rd Ed.). Chicago, IL: University of
Chicago Press

Popper, K. (2002). The Logic of Scientific Discovery (2nd Ed.). London, UK: Routledge

How to cite this article: 

Martyn Shuttleworth (Jan 23, 2008). Aims Of Research. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/aims-of-research

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 7 Purpose of Research

The purpose of research can be a complicated issue and varies across different
scientific fields and disciplines. At the most basic level, science can be split, loosely,
into two types, 'pure research' and 'applied research'.

Both of these types follow the same structures and protocols for propagating and testing
hypotheses and predictions, but vary slightly in their ultimate purpose.

An excellent example for illustrating the difference is by using pure and applied mathematics.
Pure maths is concerned with understanding underlying abstract principles and describing
them with elegant theories. Applied maths, by contrast, uses these equations to explain real
life phenomena, such as mechanics, ecology and gravity.

Pure Scientific Research

Some science, often referred to as 'pure science', is about explaining the world around us and
trying to understand how the universe operates. It is about finding out what is already there
without any greater purpose of research than the explanation itself. It is a direct descendent of
philosophy, where philosophers and scientists try to understand the underlying principles of
existence.

Whilst offering no direct benefits, pure research often has indirect benefits, which can
contribute greatly to the advancement of humanity.

For example, pure research into the structure of the atom has led to x-rays, nuclear power
and silicon chips.

Applied Scientific Research

Applied scientists might look for answers to specific questions that help humanity, for example
medical research or environmental studies. Such research generally takes a specific question
and tries to find a definitive and comprehensive answer.

The purpose of research is about testing theories, often generated by pure science, and
applying them to real situations, addressing more than just abstract principles.

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Applied scientific research can be about finding out the answer to a specific problem, such as
'Is global warming avoidable?' or 'Does a new type of medicine really help the patients?'

Generating Testable Data

However, they all involve generating a theory to explain why something is happening and
using the full battery of scientific tools and methods to test it rigorously.

This process opens up new areas for further study and a continued refinement of the
hypotheses.

Observation is not accurate enough, with statistically testable and analyzable data the only
results accepted across all scientific disciplines. The exact nature of the experimental process
may vary, but they all adhere to the same basic principles.

Scientists can be opinionated, like anybody else, and often will adhere to their own theories,
even if the evidence shows otherwise. Research is a tool by which they can test their own,
and each others' theories, by using this antagonism to find an answer and advance
knowledge.

The purpose of research is really an ongoing process of correcting and refining hypotheses,
which should lead to the acceptance of certain scientific truths.

Whilst no scientific proof can be accepted as ultimate fact, rigorous testing ensures that proofs
can become presumptions. Certain basic presumptions are made before embarking on any
research project, and build upon this gradual accumulation of knowledge.

How to cite this article: 

Martyn Shuttleworth (Aug 2, 2008). Purpose of Research. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  

https://explorable.com/purpose-of-research

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 8 Science Misconceptions

Science misconceptions are a common misbelief, where a semi-truth or falsehood is

perpetuated as scientific fact.

There are many reasons for misconceptions, many arising from bad science, but some from
an oversimplification of the truth and others from urban myths that everybody thinks that they
know.

Many people, even science teachers, do not fully understand the nature of science, and
incorrectly portray the aims of research, and what science can actually achieve.

The main reason for this is that the philosophy of science is woefully neglected most scientific
education curricula, and many scientists learn how to do experiments, but with little
understanding of why, and the basic underlying processes defining the very nature of science.

Common Science Misconceptions

For example, how many times, when you were a kid, did you see children's stories or
schoolbooks with pictures of penguins and polar bears living happily at the North Pole? This is
a misconception; polar bears certainly inhabit the artic, but no penguin has ever been there -
they only live in the Southern Hemisphere.

Another famous misconception is that water draining from the bath will drain anticlockwise in
the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere, due to the Coriolis Effect.
This is untrue, but is perpetuated in scientific textbooks as fact. These are examples of
science misconceptions that people are ingrained with and which they may carry on into
adulthood.

Some misconceptions are understandable - either they oversimplify complicated concepts, or

they over generalize.

In children, certainly, they often construct a view of the world and are reluctant to give it up,
however much contrary evidence. This is a normal part of growing up to understand the world
and understand the underlying principles.

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The problem is that these views often remain, and are never reviewed, so many people leave
school still possessing an incorrect view of the world.

Adult Science Misconceptions

More serious is when adults, often including scientists, take these misconceptions on board
and propagate them as truth.

Sometimes, pseudoscience becomes a misconception, where if something is publicized

enough times, the general public believes it to be true.

One of the most common science misconceptions, still apparent in debate and in the media, is
that science can provide ultimate proof, and that any process that science uncovers must be
regarded as truth.

Science never achieves 'proof', even the most well known and basic principle is always
subject to falsification, with even a single piece of evidence to the contrary able to destroy a
theory.

Unfortunately, many experts still try to portray scientific findings as 'proof' or 'truth'. Any well-
trained scientist would never make such a mistake, which can have serious consequences.

For example, courtrooms are one area where jurors often believe that because an expert is a
scientist, with a PhD, they know everything. This is not the case, and there is never an
agreement within science, nor is science always right.

Accepted principles may change over time, and be replaced by new ones as a paradigm shifts.

A PhD does not a good scientist make, because they vary in quality and subject, although it is
generally a reasonable guide. This has lead to some serious miscarriages of justice, where
jurors have taken the evidence presented by a science 'expert' as true and incorrectly
convicted an innocent person.

The pediatrician, Roy Meadow, became notorious for incorrectly applying statistics to Sudden
Infant Death Syndrome, which led to countless mothers being incorrectly convicted of murder
and neglect.

Science misconceptions can have grave consequences when lives and freedom are at stake,
a long way removed from the polar bears example.

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Science cannot answer anything, especially metaphysical questions about the existence of
God, or the nature of ethics and morality. They are philosophical areas, and the creation
debate is a good example.

Evolution cannot prove or disprove the existence of God, only give model about an underlying
process in the universe. Neither can Intelligent Design - apart from being very shaky science,
it uses the bible, the verification of which can never be proved.

How to cite this article: 

Martyn Shuttleworth (Jul 27, 2009). Science Misconceptions. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/science-misconceptions

Thanks for reading!

Explorable.com Team

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