Ray Optics

Optics:-
It is the branch of physics which deals with the study of nature, production and propagation of light. The subject of
optics can be divided into two main branches: ray optics and wave optics.
1. Ray or geometrical optics:-
It concerns itself with the particle nature of light and is based on
(i) The rectilinear propagation of light and
(ii) The laws of reflection and refraction of light.
It explains the formation of images in mirrors and lenses, the aberrations of optical images and the working
and designing of optical instruments.
2. Wave or physical optics:-
It concerns itself with the wave nature of light and is based on the phenomena like
(i) Interference
(ii) Diffraction and
(iii) Polarization of light

Spherical Mirrors :-
A spherical mirror is a reflecting surface which forms part of a hollow
sphere.
Spherical mirrors are of two types:
(i) Concave mirror:-
A spherical mirror in which the outer bulged surface is silvered
polished and the reflection of light takes place from the inner
hollow surface is called a concave mirror.
(ii) Convex mirror:-
A spherical mirror in which the inner hollow sphere is silvered polished and the reflection of light takes
place from the outer bulged surface is called a convex mirror.

Definitions in Connection with Spherical Mirrors:-

1. Pole:-
It is the middle point P of the spherical mirror.
2. Centre of curvature:-
It is the centre C of the sphere of which the mirrors forms a
part.
3. Radius of curvature:-
It is the radius (R = AC or BC) of the sphere of which the
mirror forms a part.
4. Principal axis:-
The line PC passing through the pole and the centre of curvature of the
mirror is called its principal axis.
5. Linear aperture:-
It is the diameter AB of the circular boundary of the spherical mirror.
6. Angular aperture:-
It is the angle ACB subtended by the boundary of the spherical mirror at its
centre of curvature C.
7. Principal focus:-
A narrow beam of light parallel to the principal axis either actually
converges to or appears to diverge from a point F on the principal axis after
reflection from the spherical mirror. This point is called the principal focus
of the mirror. A concave mirror has a real focus while a convex mirror has a
virtual focus
8. Focal length:-
It is the distance (f = PE) between the focus and the pole of the mirror.
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9. Focal plane:-
The vertical plane passing through the principal focus and perpendicular to the principal axis is called focal
plane. When a parallel beam of light is incident on a concave mirror at a small angle to the principal axis, it is
converged to a point in the focal plane of the mirror.

New Cartesian Sign Convention for Spherical Mirrors:-

Relation between f and R:-

According to the law of reflection,
i= r
As AB is parallel to PC,
= i
In BFC, r=
Hence CF = FB
For a mirror of small aperture,
FB FP CF FP
Hence CP = CF + FP = FP + FP = 2FP
Or R = 2f or f=
Or Focal length = X Radius of curvature

Rules for drawing images formed by spherical mirrors:-

(i) A ray proceeding parallel to the principal axis will, after reflection, pass through the principal focus in the
case of a concave mirror and appear to come from focus in the case of a convex mirror.

(ii) A ray passing through the principal focus in the case of a concave mirror, and directed towards the
principal focus in the case of a convex mirror will, after reflection, become parallel to the principal axis.
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(iii) A ray passing through the centre of curvature in the case of concave mirror, and directed towards the

centre of curvature in the case of a convex mirror falls normally ( i = r = 00 )and is reflected back along
the same path.
(iv) For the ray incident at any angle at the pole, the reflected ray follows the laws of reflection.

Mirror formula for concave mirror-

Consider a concave mirror M1M2 of small-aperture. Let be the pole, the principal focus and the centre of
curvature of a concave mirror.
Let be an object placed perpendicular on the principal axis beyond by this an inverted image is formed
between and .
Let us drop perpendicular from on the principal axis.
Now and are similar,
Therefore ………………..(1)
Again, and are similar,
Therefore
But
Therefore ………………..(2)
From eq. (1) and (2), we have

For paraxial rays, that is, when O is very close to (for small aperature), we can put
Thus
Or
From the figure and using coordinate geometry sign convention, we write

But , therefore

Divide both side by

Linear magnification :-
The ratio of the height of the image to that of the object is called linear or transverse magnification or just
magnification and is denoted by m.
m= =

Concave mirror :-
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Fig shows the ray diagram for the formation of image A’B’ of a finite object AB by a
concave mirror.
Now, APB A’PB’
=
Applying the new Cartesian sign convention sign convention, we get
A’B’ = -h2 (Downward image height)
AB = +h1 (Upward object height)
B’P = -v (image distance on left)
BP = -u (object distance on left)s
=
Magnification,
m= =- .

Convex mirror:-
Figure shows the formation of image A’B’ of a finite object AB by a convex
mirror.
Now, A’B’P ABP
=
Applying the new Cartesian sign convention, we get
A’B’ = +h2, AB = +h1
PB’ = +v, BP = -u
=
Magnification, m= =- .

Linear Magnification in terms of u and f:-

The mirror formula is
+ =
Multiplying both sides by u, we get
1+ =
Or - =1- =
m=- =
Linear magnification in terms of v and f:-
As
+ =
Multiplying both sides by v, we get
+1=
Or - =1- =
m=- =

Spherical aberration :-
The inability of a spherical mirror of large aperture to bring all the rays of wide beam of light falling on it to focus at a
single point is called spherical aberration.
Spherical aberration can be reduced by following methods:
1. By using spherical mirrors of small apertures.
2. By using stoppers so as to cut off the marginal rays.
3. By using parabolic mirrors.
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Uses of parabolic mirrors:-

1. A concave parabolic mirror can focus a wide parallel beam to a single point. This property is used by dish
antennas to collect and bring to focus microwave signals from satellites.
2. When a source of light is placed at the focus of a paraboloidal mirror, the reflected beam is accurately
parallel and is thrown over a very large distance. Due to this property, paraboloidal mirrors are used as
reflectors in search lights, car head light, etc.
3. They are used in astronomical telescopes of large aperture for overcoming spherical aberration.

Refraction of light:
The phenomenon of the change in the path of light as it passes obliquely from one transparent medium to another is
called refraction of light.

Laws of refraction of light:-

First law: The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface at the point of incidence all lie in the
same plane.
Second law: The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence and the sine of the angle of refraction is constant for a
given pair of media.
= 1 2 (constant)

Refractive index:-
The refractive of a medium for a light of given wavelength may be defined as the ratio of the speed of light in
vacuum to its speed in that medium.
Refractive index =
Or =
Refractive index in terms of wavelength:-
Since the frequency (v) remains unchanged when light passes from one medium to another, therefore,
=
Relative refractive index:-
The relative refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1 is defined as the ratio of speed of light ( ) in
medium 1 to the speed of light ( ) in medium 2 and is denoted by 1 2.
1
Thus 2=

Factors on which the refractive index of a medium depends:-

1. Nature of the medium.
2. Wavelength of the light used.
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3. Temperature.
4. Nature of the surrounding medium.

Cause of refraction of light:-

The bending of light or refraction occurs due to the change in the speed of light as it
passes from one medium to another.

Principle of reversibility of light:-

The principle states that if the final path of a ray of light after it has suffered several
reflections and refractions is reversed, it retraces its path exactly.
Consider a ray of light AB incident on a plane surface XY, separating rarer
medium 1 (air) from denser medium 2 (water). It is refracted along BC.
Let angle of incidence,
ABN = i
And angle of refraction,
CBN’ = r
From Snell’s law of refraction
=1 2 ……(1)
Suppose a plane mirror is placed perpendicular to the path of ray BC. This reverses the beam along its own path.
Therefore, for the reversed ray, we have
Angle of incidence, CBN’ = r
Angle of refraction, ABN = i
Again, from Snell’s law
=2 1 ……(2)
Multiplying equations (1) and (2), we get
X = 1 2X 2 1
Or 1=1 2X
2
1 or 1
2=

Refraction through a rectangular glass slab:-

Shift in the path of light on emerging from a refracting medium with parallel faces is called lateral displacement.
Lateral shift is the perpendicular distance between the incident and emergent rays, when light is
incident obliquely on a refracting slab with parallel faces.

Expression for lateral displacement:-

Let t be the thickness of the slab and and x, the lateral displacement of the emergent ray. Then from right BEC, we
have
= sin (i – r) or x = BC sin (i – r)
From right BEC, we have
= cos r or BC = =
x= sin (i – r) …..(1)
= [sin i cos r – cos r sin i]
=t* +
From Snell’s law,
= or sin r =

And cos r = √ =√
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Hence x = t[ ]
( )

[ ]
Clearly, x tends to a maximum value when i 900, so that sin i = 1 and cos i 0. Thus
Xmax = t sin 900 = t
i.e., the displacement of the emergent ray cannot exceed the thickness of the glass slab.

Real and apparent depths:-

It is on account of refraction of light than the apparent depth of an object placed in denser medium is less than the
real depth.
Figure shows a point object O placed at the bottom of a beaker filled with water. The rays OA and Ob starting from
O are refracted along AD and BC, respectively. These rays appear to diverge from point I.
So I is the virtual image of O. Clearly, the apparent depth AI is smaller than the real depth AO. That is why a water
tank appears shallower or an object placed at the bottom appears to be raised.
From Snell’s law, we have
= = = =
As the size of the pupil is small, the ray BC will enter the eye only if B is close to A. Then
BI AI and BO AO
=
Or Refractive index =
Or Apparent depth =
As the refractive index of any medium (other than vacuum ) is greater than unity, so the apparent depth is less
than the real depth.

Normal shift :-
The height through which an object appears to be raised in a denser medium is called normal shift. Clearly
Normal shift = Real depth – Apparent depth
Or d = AO – AI = AO -
= AO ( )
Or d=t( )

Critical angle-
The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction in the rarer medium is 90 0 is called
critical angle of the denser medium and is denoted by i c.

Total internal reflection-

The phenomenon in which a ray of light travelling at an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle from denser
to a rarer medium is totally reflected back into the denser medium is called total internal reflection.
Necessary conditions for total internal reflection:-
1. Light must travel from an optically denser to an optically rarer medium.
2. The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical angle for the two media.

Relation between critical angle and refractive index:-

From Snell’s law,
2
= 1
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When i = ic’ r = 900. Therefore,

= 1/1 2 or 1
2=

If the rarer medium is air, then 1 = 1 and 2 = (say) and we get

=

Applications of total internal reflection:-

1. Sparkling of diamond
2. Mirage
3. Totally reflecting prisms
4. Optical fibers

Totally reflecting prism:-

A right-angled isosceles prism, i.e., a 450-900-450 prism is called a totally reflecting prism.
These prisms may be used in three ways:
(i) To deviate a ray through 900

(ii) To invert an image with deviation of rays through 1800

(iii) To invert an image without deviation of rays. (Erecting prism)

Advantages of totally reflecting prisms over plane mirrors:-

1. In prisms, the light is totally reflected, while there is always some loss of intensity in case of plane mirrors.
2. The reflecting properties of prisms are permanent, while these are affected by tarnishing in case of plane
mirrors.
3. No multiple images are formed in prisms, while a plane mirror forms a number of faint images in addition to
a prominent image.

Optical fibres:-
An optical fibre is a hair-thin long strand of quality glass or
quartz surrounded by a glass coating of slightly lower reflected
index. It is used as a guided medium for transmitting an optical
signal from one place to another.
Construction:-
An optical fibre consists of three main parts:
(i) Core:- The central cylindrical core is made of high
quality glass/silica/plastic of refractive index 1 and
has a diameter about 10 to 100 m.
(ii) Cladding:- The core is surrounded by a glass/plastic jacket of refractive index 2 < 1. In a typical optical
fibre, the refractive indices of core and cladding may be 1.52 and 1.48 respectively.
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(iii) Buffer coating:- For providing safety and strength, the core cladding of optical fibres is enclosed in a
plastic jacket.
Applications of optical fibres:-
1. As a light pipe, optical fibres are used in medical and optical examination.
2. They are used in transmitting and receiving electrical signals in telecommunication.
3. They are used for transmitting optical signals and two dimensional pictures.
4. In the form of photometric sensors, they are used for measuring the blood flow in the heart.
5. In the form of refractometers, they are used to measure refractive indices of liquids.

Spherical Lenses:-
A lens is a piece of a refracting medium bounded by two surfaces, at
least one of which is a curved surface.
Lenses can be divided into two categories:
(i) Convex or converging lens:-
It is thicker at the centre than at the edges. It converges a
parallel beam of light on refraction through it. It has a real
focus.
Types of convex lens:
(a) Double convex or biconvex lens-
In this lens, both surfaces are convex.
(b) Planoconcave lens-
In this lens, one side is convex and the other is plane.
(c) Concavoconvex-
In this lens, one side is convex and the other is concave.
(ii) Concave or diverging lens:-
It is thinner at the centre than at the edges. It diverges a parallel beam of light on refraction through it. It
has a virtual focus.
Types of concave lenses:-
(a) Double concave or biconcave lens.-
In this lens, both sides are concave.
(b) Planoconcave lens-
In this lens, one side is plane and the other is concave.
(c) Convexoconcave lens-
In this lens, one side is convex and the other is
concave.

Definitions in connection with spherical lenses:-

(i) Centre of curvature (C) :-
The centre of curvature of the surface of a lens is the centre of the
sphere of which it forms a part. Because a lens has two surfaces, so it
has two centres of curvature.
(ii) Radius of curvature (R):-
The radius of curvature of the surface of a lens is the radius of the
sphere of which the surface forms a part.
(iii) Principal axis (C1C2) :-
It is the line passing through the two centres of curvature of the lens.
(iv) Optical centre:-
If a ray of light is incident on a lens such that after refraction through
the lens the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray, then the point
at which the refracted ray intersects the principal axis is called the optical centre of the lens.
(v) Principal foci and focal length:-
First principal focus:-
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It is a fixed point on the principal axis such that rays starting from this point (in convex lens) r appearing
to go towards this point (in concave lens), after refraction through the lens, become parallel to the
principal axis.
Second principal focus:-
It is a fixed point on the principal axis such that the light rays
incident parallel to the principal axis, after refraction through the
lens, either converge to this point (in convex lens) or appear to
diverge from this point (in concave lens).
(vi) Aperture:-
It is the diameter of the circular boundary of the lens.

Cartesian sign convention for spherical lenses-

Refraction at a convex spherical surface:

APB is a convex refracting surface which separates a rarer medium of refractive index 1 from a
denser medium of refractive index 2. Let P be the pole, C be the centre of curvature and R = PC be the radius of
curvature of this surface. Suppose a point object O is placed on the principal axis in the rarer medium. Starting from
the point object O, a ray ON is incident at an angle i. After refraction, it bends towards the normal CN at an angle of
refraction r. Another ray OP is incident normally on the convex surface and passes undeviated. The two refracted
rays meet at point I. So I is the real image of point
object O.
Draw NM perpendicular to the principal axis. Let
be the angles, shown in fig.
In NOC, I is an exterior angle, therefore,
i=
Similarly, from NIC, we have

Or r=
Suppose all the rays are paraxial. Then the angles
i,r, , and will be small.
α tan α = [ P is close to M]
tan =
And tan =
From Snell’s law of refraction,
1 sin i = 2 sin r
As i and r are small, so
Sin i i and sin r r
1i = 2r
Or 1 [ = 2[ - ]
Or 1* + = 2 * +
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Or 1* + = 2 * +
Or + =
Using new Cartesian sign convention, we find
Object distance, OP = -u
Image distance, PI = +v
Radius of curvature, PC = +R
+ =
Or - =
NOTE :- If first medium is air, then 1= 1 and 2= , we have

Spherical concave Surface:-

In Fig. APB is a concave refracting surface separating two media of refractive indices 1 and 2 .
Let
P = Pole of the concave surface APB
C = Centre of curvature of the concave surface
O = Point object placed on the principal axis
I = Virtual image of point object O
In NOC, is an exterior angle, therefore
or i =
Similarly, from NIC, we have
Suppose all the rays are paraxial. Then the angles i, r, , , and
will be small.
tan = [ M is close to P]
tan =
tan =
From Snell’s law of refraction,
1 sin i = 2 sin r
As i and i are small angles, so
Sin i i and sin r r
1i = 2r
Or 1[ ] = 2[
Or 1 * += 2* +
Or 1 * += 2* +
Or - + =
Using new Cartesian sign convention, we find
Object distance, OP = -u
Image distance, IP = -v
Radius of curvature, CP = -R
+ =
Or - =

Lens maker’s formula:-

This formula relates the focal length of a lens to the refractive index of the lens material and the radii of curvature of
its two surfaces.

Lens maker’s formula for a double convex lens:-

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For refraction at surface ABC, we can write the relation between the object distance u, image distance v1 and radius
of curvature R1 as
- =
…(1)
The relation between the object distance v1, image
distance v and radius of curvature R2 can be written as
- =
…(2)
Adding equations (1) and (2), we get
- =
( )* +
or * +* + …(3)
If the object is placed at infinity (u = ), the image will be formed at the focus, i.e., v = f. Therefore,
* +* + …(4)
This is lens maker’s formula.
When the lens is placed in air, 1 = 1, and 2 = . The lens maker’s formula takes the form:
* +
From equations (3) and (4), we have
=
This is the time lens formula which gives relationship between u, v and f of a lens.

Lens maker’s formula for a double concave lens:-

The relation between object distance u, image distance v1 and radius of curvature R1 as
- = …(1)
The relation between object distance v1, image distance v and radius of curvatureR2 can be written as
- = …(2)
Adding equations (1) and (2), we get
- =( )* +
or * +* +
If the object is placed at infinity, the image will be formed at the focus,
i.e., v = f. so,
* +* +
This is lens maker’s formula.
When the lens is placed in air, 1 = 1, and 2 = . The lens maker’s
formula takes the form:
* +
If an object is placed at infinity, then the image is formed at the focus i.e., v = f, so
This is lens maker’s formula.
When the lens is placed in air, 1 = 1 and 2 = . The lens maker’s formula takes the form:

Rules for drawing images formed by spherical lenses:-

(i) A ray from the object parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through the second principal
focus F2 (in a convex lens, as shown in fig) or appears to diverge (in a concave lens, as shown in fig) from
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the first principal focus F1.

(ii) A ray of light passing through the first principal focus (in a convex lens, as shown in fig) or appearing to
meet at it (in a concave lens, as shown in fig) emerges parallel to the principal axis after refraction.
(iii) A ray of light, passing through the optical centre of the lens, emerges without any deviation after
refraction, as shown in fig

Thin lens formula:-

Thin lens formula is a mathematical relation between the object distance u, image distance v and focal length f of a
spherical lens. This relation is:

- =
In words , we can say that
- =
This formula is valid for both convex and concave lenses for both real and virtual images.

Derivation of thin lens formula for a convex lens:-

Consider an object AB placed perpendicular to the principal
axis of a thin convex lens between its F’ and C’. A real,
inverted and magnified image A’B’ is formed beyond C on the
other side of the lens.
A’B’O and ABO are similar,
…(1)
Also A’B’F and MOF are similar,

But MO = AB,
…(2)
From (1) and (2), we get
= =
Using new Cartesian sign convention, we get
Object distance, BO = -u
Image distance, OB’ = +v
Focal length, OF = + f
=
Or vf = - uv + uf or uv = uf – vf
Dividing both sides by uvf, we get

Derivation of thin formula for a concave lens:-

Suppose O be the optical centre and F be the principal focus of
concave lens of focal length f. AB is an object placed perpendicular to
its principal axis. A virtual, erect and diminished image A’B’ is formed
due to refraction through the lens.
As A’B’O ABO
…(1)
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Also A’B’F MOF

But MO = AB, therefore

…(2)
From (1) and (2), we get
= =
Using new Cartesian sign convention, we get
BO = -u, B’O = -v, FO = - f
=
Or vf = uf - uf or uv = uf – vf
Dividing both sides by uvf, we get

This proves the thin lens formula for a concave lens.

Linear magnification:-
The linear magnification produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the size of the image formed by the lens to the
size of the object. It is denoted by m. Thus
m= =
Convex lens:-
Fig shows a ray diagram for the formation of image A’B’ of a
finite object AB by a convex lens.
Now AOB A’OB’

Applying the new Cartesian sign convention, we get

A’B’ = -h2 (Downward image height)
AB = +h1 (Upward object height)
OB = -u (Image distance on left)
OB’ = +v (Image distance on right)
or
Magnification, m =
Concave lens:-
Fig shows the formation of a virtual image A’B’ of a finite object AB by a concave lens.
Now AOB A’OB’

Applying the new Cartesian sign convention, we get

A’B’ = +h , AB = +h1
OB’ = -v, OB = -u

Magnification, m =
Linear magnification in terms of u and f:-
The thin lens formula is
- =
Multiplying both sides by u, we get
–1= or =1+ =
m= =
Linear magnification in terms of v and f :-
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The thin lens formula is

- =
Multiplying both sides by v, we get
1- = or m= =1- =
Hence m = = =

Power of a lens:-
The power of a lens is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it converges or
diverges a beam of light falling at unit distance from the optical centre.
In figure, a beam of light is incident at distance h from the optical centre O of a
convex lens of focal length f . It converges the beam by angle .
Clearly, tan =
If h = 1, then tan = or P=
SI unit of power:-
The SI unit of power is dioptre, denoted by D. If f = 1 m,then
P= = 1m-1 = 1 dioptre (D)
One dioptre is the power of a lens whose principal focal length is 1 metre.

Equivalent focal length and power of two thin lenses in contact:-

As shown in figure, let L1 and L2 be two thin lenses of focal length f1 and f2 respectively, placed coaxially in contact
with one another. Let O be a point object on the principal axis
of the lens system.
Let OC1 = u. In the absence of second lens L2, the
first lens L1 will form a real image I’ of O at distance C1 I’ = v’.
Using thin lens formula,
…..(1)
The image I’ acts as a virtual object (u = v’) for the second lens
L2 which finally forms its real image I at distance v. Thus
..….(2)
Adding equations (1) and (2) , we get
…….(3)
For the combination of thin lenses in contact, If f is the equivalent focal length, then
…..(4)
From equations (3) and (4), we find that

Equivalent power,
P = P1 + P2
For n thin lenses in contact, we have

Equivalent power,
P = P1 + P2 + P3 +…….Pn

Thin lenses separated by a small distance:-

As shown in fig, consider two thin lenses L1 and L2 of focal
lengths f1 and f2, respectively. The two lenses are placed
coaxially, distance ‘d’ apart.
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Suppose a ray OA traversing parallel to the principal axis is incident on lens L 1. It is refracted along AF, F being the
second principal focus of L1. The deviation produced by L1 is
tan =
The emergent ray is further refracted by second lens L2 along BF’. Since the incident ray OA is parallel to
the principal axis, F’ should be second principal focus of the combination. The deviation produced by the second lens
L2 is
tan =
The final emergent ray BF’, when produced backwards, meets the incident ray at point D. Obviously, is the final
deviation produced. A single thin lens placed at C will produce the same deviation as by the combination of two
lenses. Thus distance CF’ is the second focal length the combination. If f is the focal length of the combination, then
=
It is obvious from Fig., that
δ= +
= +
As AC1F BC2 F, therefore, we have
= or =
Or h2 = . h1
Hence = + . h1
Or
In terms of powers of the lenses,
P = P1 + P2 – d. P1. P2

Prism:-
A prism is a wedge shaped portion of a transparent refracting medium bounded by two plane faces inclined to each
other at a certain angle.
The two plane faces (ABED and ACFD) inclined to each other are
called refracting faces of the prism.
The line (AD) along which the two refracting faces meet is called
the refracting edge of the prism.
The third face (BCFE) of the prism opposite to the refracting
edge is called the base of the prism.
The angle A included between the two refracting faces is called
angle of the prism.
Any section of the prism cut by a plane perpendicular to the refracting edge is called principal section of the prism.

Refracting through a prism:-

From the quadrilateral AQNR, A + QNR = 1800
From the triangle QNR,
r + r’ + QNR = 1800 A = r + r’
Now, from the triangle MQR, the deviation produced by the prism is
= MQR + MRQ = (i – r) + (i’ – r’)
Or = deviation at the first face + deviation at the
second face
= (i + i’) – (r – r’)
Or = i + i’ – A or i + i’ = A +
When a prism is in the position of minimum deviation, a ray of light passes symmetrically (parallel to the base)
through the prism so that
i = i’ , r =r’ , = m
As A + = i + i’
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A+ m =i+i or i =
Also A = r +r’ = r + r = 2r
r=
From Snell’s law, the refractive index of the material of the prism will be

= or =

Deviation produced by a prism of small angle:-

For refraction at face AB, we have
For refraction at face AB, we have
= = i= r
For refraction at face AC, we have
= = I’ = r’
Hence deviation produced by the prism is
= i + i’ – A = r + r’ – A
= (r + r’) – A = A – A
[ r + r’ = A]
Or =( )A

Dispersion of white light:-

The phenomenon of splitting of white light into its component
colours on passing through a refracting medium is called
dispersion of light. The pattern of the coloured bands
obtained on the screen is called spectrum.

Cause of dispersion:-
Dispersion takes place because the refractive index of the
refracting medium is different for different wavelengths.

Angular dispersion and dispersive power:-

The angular separation between the two extreme colours (violet and red ) in the spectrum is called the angular
dispersion.
Angular dispersion
=
=( 1) A - ( 1) A = ( )A
Dispersive Power is the ability of the prism material to cause
dispersion. It is defined as the ratio of the angular dispersion
to the mean deviation.
Dispersive power,

=
Or =

Scattering of light:-
This is the phenomenon in which light is deflected from its path due its interaction with the particles of the medium
through which it passes.
Two types of scatterings :
1. Elastic or Rayleigh scattering:-
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When the size ‘a’ of the scattering particles is much smaller than the wavelength ‘ ’ of incident light, there is
no exchange of energy between the incident light and the scattering particles. Consequently, there is no
change in the frequency or wavelength of the scattered light. This type of scattering is called elastic or
Rayleigh scattering. It obeys Rayleigh’s law of scattering.
2. Inelastic scattering:-
When the size of the scattering particles is much greater than the wavelength of incident light i.e., a>>λ,
there is interchange of energy between incident light and the scattering particles. Consequently, the
scattered light has a frequency or wavelength different from that of incident light. This type of scattering is
called inelastic scattering. For Example, the Raman effect and Compton effect.

Rayleigh’s law of scattering:-

According to Rayleigh’s law of scattering, the intensity of light of wavelength λ present in the scattered light is
inversely proportional to the fourth power of λ, provided the size of the scattering particles are much smaller than λ
. Mathematically,
I [For a << ]
Thus the scattered intensity is maximum for shorter wavelengths.

Daily life phenomena based on scattering of light:-

1. Blue colour of the sky
2. Reddishness at sunset and sunrise
3. Clouds appear white
4. Danger signals are red

Optical instruments:-
Optical instruments are the devices which make use of mirrors, lenses and prisms and are primarily used to extend
the range of vision of human eye.

Accommodation:-
Accommodation is the ability or property of the eyelens due to which it can change its curvature or focal length so
that images of objects at various distances can be formed on the same retina.

Power of accommodation :-
The power of accommodation of the eye is the maximum variation of its power for focussing on near and far
(distant) objects. For a normal eye, the power of accommodation is about 4 dioptres.

Persistence of vision:-
The phenomenon of the continuation of the impression of an image on the retina for some time even after the light
from the object is cut off is called persistence of vision.

Defects of vision :-
A normal eye can see objects clearly at any distance between 25 cm and infinity from the eye. Sometimes, a human
eye gradually loses its power of accommodation. Then we cannot see the objects clearly. Our vision becomes
defective. There are mainly four common defects of vision which can be corrected by the use of suitable eye glasses.
These defects are:
1. Myopia or near-sightedness.
2. Hypermetropia or far-sightedness.
3. Presbyopia.
4. Astigmatism.

Myopia or short-sightedness:-
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It is a vision defect in which a person can see nearby objects clearly

but cannot see the distant objects clearly beyond a certain point.
This defect is common among children.
Cause of myopia:-
This defect arises due to either of the following two reasons:
(i) The eyeball gets elongated along its axis so that the
distance between the eyelens and the retina becomes
larger.
(ii) The focal length of the eyelens becomes too short due
to the excessive curvature of cornea.
Correction of myopia:-
A myopia eye is corrected by using a concave lens of focal length
equal to the distance of the far point F from the eye.
Calculation of focal length and power of correcting lens in myopia:-
Let x be the distance of the actual far point from the eye and hence
from the concave lens placed close to the eye. The rays coming
from infinity, after refraction through the concave lens, appear to
come from the far point F.
u=- , v = -x, f = ?
By lens formula,
+0=- .
Required focal length, f = -x
Required power, P= =-
The negative sign shows that the correcting lens is a concave lens.

Hypermetropia or long-sightdness:-
It is a vision defect in which a person can see the distant objects
clearly but cannot see the nearby objects clearly.
Causes of hypermetropia:-
This defect arises due to either of the following two reasons:
(i) The eyeball becomes too small along its axis so that
the distance between the eyelens and the retina is
reduced.
(ii) The focal length of the eyelens becomes two large
resulting in the low converging power of the
eyelens.
Correction of hypermetropia:-
A hypermetropia eye is corrected by using a convex lens of
suitable focal length.
Calculation of focal length and power of correcting lens in
hypermetropia.:-
Refer to fig. Let y = d idstance of the near point N’ from the
defective eye. Now the near point N of the normal eye is at
distance D = 25 cm. The object placed at N forms its virtual
image at N’ due to the convex lens.
u = -D, v = -y, f=?
By lens formula

Required focal length, f=

Required power, P= =
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As y > D, so both f and D are positive. That is the correcting lens must be a convex lens.

Presbyopia :-
This defect is similar to hypermetropia i.e., a person having this defect cannot see nearby objects distinctly, but can
see distant objects without any difficulty. This defect differs from hypermetropia in the cause by which it is
produced. It usually occurs in elderly persons. Due to the stiffening of the ciliary muscles, the eyelens loses flexibility
and hence the accommodating power of the eyelens decreases. Like hypermetropia, this defect can be corrected by
using a convex lens of suitable focal length.

Astigmatism:-
It is a defect of vision in which a person cannot simultaneously see both the horizontal and vertical views of an
object with the same clarity. This defect can occur
alongwith myopia or hypermetropia.

Simple Microscope:-
A simple microscope or a magnifying glass is just a
convex lens of short focal length, held close to the
eye.
When the final image is formed at the least
distance of distinct vision-
Magnifying power:-
The magnifying power of a simple microscope is
defined as the ratio of the angles subtended by the image and the object at the eye, when both are at the least
distance of distinct vision from the eye. Thus,
Magnifying power
=
Magnifying power,
m= = [ are small angles]
= = [ A’’B’ = AB]
= =
Or m=
Let f be the focal length of the lens. As the image is formed at the least distance vision from the lens, so
v = -D
Using this lens formula,
=
We get,
Or = +
Or
m=1+
Thus shorter the focal length of the convex lens, the greater is its magnifying power.
When the final image is formed at infinity:-
Magnifying power:-
m= = [ are small]
from fig
tan =
from fig
tan =
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m=
Or m=

Compound microscope:-
A compound microscope is an optical device used to see magnified images of tiny objects. A good quality compound
microscope can produce magnification of the order of 1000.
1. Objective:-
It is a convex lens of very short focal length f0 and small aperture. It is positioned near the object to be
magnified.
2. Eyepiece or ocular:-
It is a convex lens of comparatively larger focal length f0 and larger aperture than the objective (fe > f0 ). It is
positioned near the eye for viewing the final image.

(a) When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision:-
m= = = = . = m0 m e
Here m0 = =
As the eyepiece acts as a simple microscope, so
= =1+
m= ( )
As the object AB is placed close to the focus F 0 of the
objective, therefore, u0 -f0
Also image A’B’ is formed close to the eyelens whose
focal length is short, therefore v0 L + the length of the
microscope tube or the distance between the two lenses
m0 = =
m=- ( )

When the final image is formed at infinity:-

Magnification due to objective, m0 = =
Angular magnification due to eyepiece, me =
Total magnification when the final image is formed at
infinity,
m = m 0 X me = - X
Obviously, magnifying power of the compound microscope
is large when both f0 and fe are small.

Astronomical telescope :-
It is a refracting type telescope used to see heavenly bodies like stars, planets, satellites, etc.
(a) When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision:-
As the object is very far off, the angle
subtended by it at the eye is practically
equal to the angle subtended by it at
the objective. Thus
A’OB’ =
Also, let A’’EB’’ =
Magnifying power,
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m= [ are small]
=
According to the new Cartesian sign convention,
OB’ = + f0 = focal length of the objective
B’E = -ue = distance of A’B’ from the eyepiece, acting as an object for it
m=-
Again, for the eyepiece :
u = - ue and v = -D
As

Or + ( )
Hence m=- ( )
(b) When the final image is formed at infinity : (Normal adjustment)-
As the object is very far off, the angle substended by it at the eye is practically equal to the angle
subtended by it at the objective.
Thus
A’OB’ = α
And let A’EB’ = β
Magnifying power,
m= =
[ α, β are small angles]
= =
Applying new Cartesian sign
convention,
OB’ = + f0 = Distance of A’B’ from the objective along the incident light
B’E = - fe = Distance of A’B’ from the eyepiece against the incident light
m=-

Reflecting Telescopes :-
1. Newtonian reflecting telescope:-
It consists of a large concave mirror of large focal length as the
objective, made of an alloy of copper and tin.
A beam of light from the distant star is incident on the
objective. Before the rays are focussed at F, a plane mirror inclined at
450intercepts them and turns them towards an eyepiece adjusted
perpendicular to the axis of the instruments. The eyepiece forms a
highly magnified, virtual and erect image of the distant object.
2. Cassegrain reflecting telescope:-
It consist of a large concave paraboloidal (primary) mirror
having a hole at its centre. There is a small convex (secondary)
mirror near the focus of the primary mirror. The eyepiece is placed on the axis of the telescope near the hole
of the primary mirror.
Let f0 be the focal length of the objective and fe that of the
eyepiece.
For the final image formed at the least distance of distinct
vision,
m= ( )
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For the final image formed at infinity,

m= =

Advantages of a reflecting type telescope:-

1. A concave mirror of large aperture has high gathering power and absorbs very less amount of light than the
lenses of large apertures. The final image formed in reflecting telescope is very bright. So even very distant
or faint stars can be easily viewed.
2. Due to large aperture of the mirror used, the reflecting telescope have high resolving power.
3. As the objective is a mirror and not a lens, it is free from chromatic aberration (formation of coloured image
of a white object).
4. The use of paraboloidal mirror reduces the spherical aberration (formation of non- point, blurred image of a
point object).
5. A mirror requires grinding and polishing of one surface only. So it costs much less to construct a reflecting
telescope of equivalent optical quality.
6. A lens of large aperture tends to be very heavy and, therefore, difficult to make and support by its edges. ON
the other hand, a mirror of equivalent optical quality weighs less and can be supported over its entire back
surface.