Unit V States of Matter - 9 hrs

Syllabus;Introduction-three states of matter, intermolecur forces- definition, types-dipole-dipole, dipole-

induced dipole and London (dispersion) forces- a brief account with examples. Thermal energy- intermolecular
forces v/s thermal interactions .

Gaseous state: characteristics (mention), gas laws: Boyle’s law and Charles’ law - Statements, mathematical
forms , graphs (P v/s V ,V v/s T). Kelvin temperature scale, absolute zero-concept. Gay Lussac’s Law (P, T
relationship) - statement, mathematical

form, graph. Avogadro law - Statement, mathematical form, Avogadro constant, STP conditions, molar volume.
Ideal gas: definition, ideal gas equation –derivation(from gas laws), gas constant R-value in SI units to be
calculated, value of R in Latm K–1mol–1 to be mentioned. Relation between molar mass and density. Dalton’s law
of partial pressures - statement, mathematical form , aqueous tension and pressure of dry gas to be
mentioned, relation between partial pressure of a gas and its mole fraction. Numerical problems on gas laws and
ideal gas equation ,only. Kinetic molecular theory of gases: assumptions, kinetic energy and molecular speeds
(average, most probable, root mean square) - an elementary idea. Behaviour of real gases- deviations from ideal
behaviour, graph of PV v/s P, causes for deviation and conditions for ideal behavior. van der Waals equation,
compressibility factor (Z) - expression and its significance. Boyle temperature or Boyle point. Liquifaction of
gases - critical temperature, critical volume, critical pressure- meaning. (isotherms of CO 2 is not included) .
Liquid state: vapour pressure, normal and standard boiling points. Surface tension and viscosity: definition
and SI units (no mathematical derivations)
There are three states of matter. They are solid, liquid and gas.

Inter molecular forces:

Inter molecular forces was first proposed by Johannes Vander Wall.
The forces of attraction and repulsion between atoms or molecules are called intermolecular forces.
They exist in all states of matter. These forces do not include electro static force of attraction and
repulsion.
Inter molecular forces are weak forces. Present even in solids and liquids.

Types of Inter molecular forces:

1) Dipole – Dipole forces
2) Dipole – Induced dipole forces
3) Dispersion or London forces
4) Hydrogen bonding

1) Dipole – Dipole forces: (Keesom Forces)

These forces suggested by Keesom in1912.
These forces occurs in molecules having a permanent dipole (HCl, H2O, NH3). These molecules
have positive and negative poles. The ends of the dipoles possess partial charges and these partial charges
are less than unit electric charge. (less than 1.6  10 – 19 C). Positive end of one molecule attracts negative
end of another molecule. This type of attractive force between positive end of a one molecule with a
negative end of the another molecule is termed as Keesom forces. Greater the dipole moment greater the
forces of attraction. Attractive force decreases as the distance between the poles increases.

2) Dipole – Induced dipole forces:

These forces proposed by Debye in 1920: These forces operate between polar molecules having a
permanent dipole and a molecule not having permanent dipole. Permanent dipole of a polar molecule
induces dipole in a non-polar molecule. This is because the electron cloud of the non-polar species gets
deformed due to the electric field of the polar molecule. This results in the shift of gravity of the negative
charge relative to the nuclear charge and results in the formation of an induced dipole.

3) Dispersion or London forces:

Dispersion or London forces proposed by Fritz London in 1930.
Atoms and non-polar molecules are electrically symmetrical. Electronic cloud is these molecules
symmetrically distributed and there in no dipole moment in these molecules. The liquefaction of noble
gases and non-polar molecules suggest that there are intermolecular forces of attraction. This is due to
momentarily developed dipole.

Let us consider two atoms of a noble gas close to each other. Each atom is uncharged because of
symmetrical distribution of electron cloud. But due to the motion of electrons, for a fraction of time,
distribution of electrons in one atom ‘A’ becomes unsymmetrical. (Electron cloud is more on one side).
This develops a temporary dipole or instantaneous dipole. This disturbs the electron distribution in atom B
and includes an instantaneous induced dipole. Now the temporary dipoles attracts each other. These forces
of attraction are called London forces or dispersion forces.

1 1
α α
London forces ( Dis tan ce betweeen int eracting particles)6 (r )6

Thermal Energy:
It is the energy of body due to motion of its atoms or molecules. It is directly proportional to
temperature. It is a measure of average kinetic energy. This movement is also called thermal motion

Inter molecular forces VS Thermal energy:

Inter molecular forces keep the molecules together whereas thermal energy tends to keep them apart.
The three states of matter are due to the competition between thermal and molecular interaction
energy.
In gases molecules have negligible inter molecular attraction but thermal energy is more. In liquids
there is a balance between attractive forces and thermal energy. Therefore molecules in liquids cannot
become completely free. In solids the molecular interaction are very strong but thermal energy is
minimum.
Predominance of Molecular Interaction energy
GAS  LIQUID  SOLID
Predominance of Thermal energy
Gas laws:
Boyle’s law:
It is state that “The volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure at
constant temperature.”
1 1
Vα or V =k 1 or PV =k 1
Mathematically, it is writer as P P at constant temperature, where k1 is a
constant.
Effect of pressure on volume of a gas
Boyle’s law can be represented graphically by plotting pressure along y-axis and volume along
x-axis. It is to be noted that V decreases as P increases. However, the product PV always remains
unchanged at a given temperature. Since temperature is kept constant, these graphs of P versus V are
called ‘isotherms’.

Charles’ law:
“The volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to absolute temperature at constant
pressure.”
V
V =k 2 T or =k 2
Mathematically, it is written as VT at constant pressure. T a constant at constant
pressure.

Absolute zero temperature: The temperature at which the

volume of a gas would become zero is taken as absolute zero.
It is also called zero Kelvin.  –273.150C is called absolute zero
temperature. (–273.150C = ‘0’K).
The graphs of volume of the gas versus temperature at
constant pressure are called ‘isobars’.
V
=k
According to Charles’ law, T 2 where T is Kelvin scale.
V1 V2
=
It can also be written as T 1 T2

Gay Lussac’s law:

Ii is state that pressure of a given mass of gas is
directly proportional to absolute temperature at constant
volume.
P  T, if volume is kept constant. P = k 3. T or
P
=k
T 3 a constant, if volume is constant.
The graph of pressure along y-axis and temperature
(Kelvin) along x-axis is a straight line passing through the
origin. Its slope represents k3.
P1 P2
=
Gays Lussac’s law can also be written as T 1 T 2 , if
volume is constant.

Avogadro’s law:
It state that equal volumes of all gases and vapours contain equal number of molecules under
similar conditions of temperature and pressure.
Example: 1dm3 of H2, CH4, CO2 – all contain the same number of molecules. If temperature and pressure
are same.
2dm3 of H2, CH4 etc. will contain twice the number of molecules as above under similar conditions.
Combined gas law:
1
Vα
According to Boyle’s law P
at constant T. According to Charles’ law, V  T at constant P.
According to Avogadro’s law, V  n, at constant T and P.

nT nT
Vα or V =R . or PV =nRT 1
Combining them, P P where R is a constant.
This is called ‘combined gas equation’. The constant ‘R’ does not change by changing temperature,
pressure, volume, no. of moles of the gas. Hence, it is called ‘universal gas constant.’
Value of R.
PV
PV =nRT R=
nT

1) In litre atmosphere/ kelvin/ mole.

At 273.15 K and 1 atm, 1 mole of a gas has a volume 22.4L.

(1 atm ) (22 .4 L)
∴ R= =0. 0821 L atm K−1 mol−1
(1 mole ) (273. 15 K )

2) In SI units.
Under S.T.P conditions, i.e. at 273.15 K temperature and 105Nm-2 pressure (105Nm-2 = 1bar) 1 mole
of a gas has a volume of 22.71 dm3.
If n = 1 mole, T =273.15K, P = 105Nm-2 , V = 0.02271 m3.

(105 Nm−2 ) (0 .02271 m3 )

∴ R= =8 .314 Nm mol−1 K −1 .
(1 mole) (273.15 K )
∴ R=8.314 JK mol .
−1 −1

3) IN litre. bar/kelvin/mole:
If n = 1 mole, T =273.15K, P = 1bar, V= 22.7L.

(1 bar) (22.7 L)
∴ R= =0.0831 L . bar K−1 mol−1 .
(1 mole) (273.15 K )

Dalton’s law of partial pressure:

In a mixture of gases which do not react with one another, total pressure of the mixture of the
mixture is equal to the sum of the individual gases.
P = p1 + p2 + p3 where P = Total pressure of the mixture,p1 + p2 + p3 represent partial pressure of the
individual gases.

Relationship between partial pressure and mole fraction:

Consider a mixture containing n1 mole of gas A and n2 mole of gas B in a vessel of volume V. Let
the individual partial pressure be pA and pB and the total pressure be P.
nRT
PV =nRT P=
V
Where ‘n’ represents total number of moles.

n1 RT
P A= .... .......... .(1)
Partial pressure of gas A is V
 n2 RT
P B=
.... . .. .. ......(2)
Partial pressure of gas B is V
According to Dalton’s law, total pressure of the mixture, P = PA+PB

n1 RT n 2 RT
P= +
V V
RT
P=(n1 +n 2 ) . .. .... . .. .. ... .(3)
V
From equation (1) and (3)
PA n n
=
P n 1 +n2
or P A =
( n1 +n2) P

From equation (2) and (3)

PB n n2
= 2 or P B=
P n 1 +n2 (
n 1 +n2
P
)
In general, partial pressure = mole fraction  total pressure.

Aqueous tension (f):

Gases like methane, nitrogen etc are generally collected over water. During this, a little water
vaporizes. The gas collected over water contains a mixture of molecules of water vapour and the
molecules of the gas. The experimentally measured pressure of the mixture would be the sum of the
partial pressure of the gas and partial pressure of water vapour.
Ptotal =P H O +P x
2

Pressure due to saturated water vapour at a given temperature is called aqueous tension (f).
∴ Ptotal =f +P x where p represents the pressure of dry gas.
x

Pressure of dry gas, Px =(P total −f )

Aqueous tension increases on increasing temperature.

Kinetic theory of gases:

Postulates of the theory are as follows:
1. All gases are made up of a large number of very small particles called molecules.
2. The gas molecules move randomly in all possible directions with different velocities in straight
lines. The direction of motion changes when they collide with other molecules or with the walls of
the container.
3. The collisions between the gas molecules and their collisions with the walls of the container are
perfectly elastic i.e. there is no loss of kinetic energy during such collisions.
4. The molecules are so small that their individual volume is negligible as compared to the total
volume of the gas.
5. There is no force of attraction or repulsion between the molecules of a gas.
6. The pressure of the gas is due to the collisions of the molecules upon the walls of the container.
7. The average kinetic energy of the molecules is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

Deviation of real gases from ideal behavior:

Amalgam and other’s studied the behaviors of real gases under different conditions of temperature
& pressure. They have observed that the real gases fail to obey the Boyle’s & Charles’s law under all
conditions of temperature & pressure.
 The deviation of real gases from Boyle’s law can be illustrated by plotting the graph of ‘PV’
against ‘P’ at constant temperature for a number of gases.

A
graph
of PV
– P of

different gases The graph of PV v/s P

of O2 gas at different
at constant temperature. temperatures.
For an ideal gas obeying Boyle’s law, PV is a constant at constant temperature.
 The graph of PV v/s P at constant temperature should be straight line & parallel to pressure axis.
The figure reveals the following facts.
1) No real gas gives a straight parallel to pressure axis.
2) For gases like CO2 , N2 , O2 etc. the value of ‘PV’ shows a decrease reaches a minimum
value & increases regularly as pressure increases.
3) In case of hydrogen & helium, the value of ‘PV’ goes on increasing with increase in
pressure from the beginning.
Thus real gases show considerable deviation from ideal behavior at high pressures.
In general, it is further observed that at low temperatures the deviation is more than that at high
temperatures.
Further, at very low pressures and at very high temperature, there is a great tendency for a real gas
to show ideal behavior.

Causes for the deviation of real gases from ideal behavior:

Vander Waal pointed out that the deviation of real gases from ideal behavior is due to the following two
wrong assumptions of kinetic theory of gases.
1) There is no intermolecular forces of attraction b/w the molecules.
2) The actual volume of the molecules is negligible compared to the total volume occupied by the gas.
At high pressure and at low temperature these assumptions do not holds good. In real gases these are
attractive forces b/w the molecules particularly at high pressure & low temperature. The same amount
of the gas will occupy a smaller volume so that the volume of the molecules will become more
important & con not by neglected.
At low pressure & at high temperature the volume of the molecules and the attractive forces b/w the
molecules are negligible and the gases behavior almost ideally.
Vander Waal’s equation for real gases:
Vader Waal modified the ideal gas equation PV = RT by applying suitable pressure and volume
corrections, the modified equation is the real gas equation.
1.Pressure correction: The pressure of a gas is due to the collisions
of molecules on the walls of the container.
Consider a molecule ‘x’in the bulk of the gas. It is attracted by the
neighboring molecules equally in all directions. Therefore, there
is no net resultant attractive force on the molecule.
Now consider a molecule ‘y’ about to strike the wall. It is
attracted only by the molecules behind it and thus it is pulled
away from the wall. As a result, it strikes the wall with a lower
velocity and exerts a lower pressure.
Thus, the observed pressure becomes less than the ideal pressure,
i.e. P observed < P ideal
 Pidela = P observed+ Pi
Where ‘ Pi’is the pressure correction factor.
The ‘Pi’ isproportional to the number molecules colliding against the walls of the container and also
number of molecules present in the bulk pulling them inwards. Both these numbers are directly
proportional to the density.
2
∴ Pi α d
1 1
Pi α 2 ∵ d α
V [ V ]
a
Pi = 2
V where ‘a’ is the proportionality constant
a
[
∴ P ideal = Pobs +
V2 ]
2. Volume correction:
The volume available for the gas molecules to move within a container is always less than the
volume of the container ‘V observed’
Because, of the space occupied by the molecules themselves.
Vander Waal suggested that a correction factor ‘b’ should be subtracted from ‘V observed’ to get an ideal
volume. i.e Videal = ( Vreal – b )
After applying the above two corrections, the equation PV = RT becomes

( P + Va ) ( V − b ) = RT
2

This is the real gas equation for one mole of the gas
an 2
And
( )
P + 2 (V − nb ) = nRT
V
This is the real gas equation for ‘n’ moles of the gas.
Differences between ideal and non ideal (real) gases.
Ideal gas Real gas
1 Obeys both Boyle‟s and Charle‟s law at all T Does not obey Boyle‟s and Charle‟s law
and P at all P and T.
2 Obeys ideal gas equation PV=nRT. Does not obey ideal gas equation
PV=nRT
 3 There are no intermolecular force of There are weak van der Waal‟s force of
attraction between gas molecules. attraction between gas molecules.
4 Volume of gas molecules is negligible when Volume of the gas molecules cannot be
compared to the total volume occupied by the ignored when compared to the total
gas. volume occupied by the gas at high
pressure.
5 Cannot be liquefied Can be liquefied

Compressibility factor:
The deviation of real gases from ideal behavior can be measured in terms of compressibility factor,
Z. The compressibility factor is defined as “the ratio of ‘PV’ to nRT”
PV V
ie. Z= real = real
nRT V ideal
For an ideal gas Z=1 at all temperature and pressure because PV=nRT.
The deviation of real gases form ideal behavior can be explained with the group of ‘Z’ verses P.
For an ideal gas, the graph of ‘Z’ verses ‘P’ will be straight line parallel to pressure axis.
For gases which deviate from ideally, value of ‘Z’ deviates from unity.
At very low pressure, all gases have Z  1 and behave almost ideally because at low pressure
occupied by the gas in so large so that volume of the molecules can be neglected.
It is further observed that at highest temperatures real gases behave almost ideally.
Boyle’s temperature: It is the temperature at which the gases obey the gas that over a wide range of
pressures.

Liquefaction of gases:
The gases can be liquefied by decrease of temperature or increase of pressure or by the combined
effect of both. However the effect of temperature is more important than the pressure.
Thomas Andrews studied the pressure volume-temperature relations in gaseous and liquid states of
CO2. He measured the variation of volume of CO 2 with pressure at various constant temperature and
plotted isotherms of CO2 gas at different temperature.
Andrews observed that at high temperatures isotherms look like that of an ideal gas and the gas
cannot be liquefied even at very high pressure. As the temperature is lowered, the shape of the curve
changes and more deviation form ideal behavior can be observed.

It is clear that at 500C, the isotherm of CO2 is very

similar to that for ideal gas. It was observed that at 30-98 0C,
carbon dioxide remains gas up to 73 atmospheric pressure,
liquid CO2 appears for the first time. This is the highest
temperature at which liquid CO2 is observed. This temperature is
the “critical temperature”. Further increase of pressure simply
compress the liquid carbon dioxide and the curve represent
compressibility of the liquid. It is observed that even a slight
compress results in step rise in pressure indicating very low
compressibility of the liquid.
Below 30-980C, the behavior of the gas on compression is
quite different, for example, at 21.50C the isotherm ABCD
consists of three parts. At point ‘A’, CO2 is gas. The volume of
the gas decreases along AB as the pressure increases up to B. At
point B, liquid of a particular volume appears. Further
compression does not change the pressure. Liquid and gaseous ‘CO 2’ co-exist and further application of
pressure result in the condensation of more gas until the point ‘C’ is reached. So, the horizontal portion
BC indicates that there is a considerable change in volume with a very small change in pressure indicating
process of liquefaction. At ‘C’ when the condensation is completed. The isotherm rises steeply as there is
a little change in volume of the liquid as pressure. In other words, the reduction in volume from C to D
corresponds to very high pressure required to compress to liquid into a smaller volume.
Andrews also concluded that all the gases under compression at constant temperature show. The
behavior similar to behavior of carbon dioxide.

Critical constant:
Critical temperature (Tc):- It is temperature above which a gas cannot be liquefied by applying pressure.
Critical pressure (Pc):-It is the minimum pressure required to cause liquefaction at critical temperature.
Critical Volume (Vc):- It is the volume occupied by one mole of a gas at critical temperature and critical
pressure.

Liquid state
Liquid state is the state of the substance in which the constituent particles (atom/molecules) are held
together by moderate intermolecular forces.
General properties of liquids
1. Liquids have definite volume but no definite shape.
2. The molecule of a liquid can pass over one another, so liquids flow.
3. The molecules in liquids are quite close so that under normal conditions, liquids are denser than gases.
Special properties of liquids
(a) Vapour pressure
The pressure exerted by the vapours over the surface of the liquid at equilibrium at a given
temperature is known as equilibrium vapour pressure or saturated vapour pressure.
Boiling point:
The temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to atmospheric pressureis called
boiling point. At 1 atm pressure, boiling temperature is called normal boiling point. If the pressure is 1
bar, then the boiling point is called standard boiling point of the liquid.
Boiling point of water:
Pressure unit Boiling point of Terms used
1. Atmospheric water
100°C Normal boiling
pressure
2. 1 bar pressure 99.6°C point
Standard boiling
1.013 atmosphere = 1 bar. Therefore, normalpoint boiling point is
b)always
Surface higher.
tension (y)
• Surface tension is defined as the downward force experienced by the molecule of a liquid
perpendicular to the plane of its surface.
• Surface tension is also defined as the energy required to increase the surface area of the liquid by
one unit.
• Unit of surface tension (y): Kg s2 or Nm-1
The phenomenon of surface tension may be explained as follows this molecule A in the interior of
the liquid is equally attracted on all sides and net effect is zero. Whereas, the molecule B near the surface
is attracted inwards. This unbalanced attractive forces acting downwards tend to reduce the surface to a
minimum.
It is well known that forces of attraction tend to decrease the energy of the system. In the present
case, the attractive forces are more in the bulk of the liquid than at the surface. Therefore, the molecules
in the bulk are associated with lower energy than those at the surface. The molecules tend to move from a
state of higher energy to a state of lower energy. As a consequence of this transfer, the molecules at the
surface is less than that in the bulk. The distance between any two molecules at the surface becomes
greater than that in the bulk. Consequently, the surface
molecules tend to move closer to one another in order to
acquire normal distance between them as before. It is for this reason that drops of a liquid are spherical in
shape. As a result of the tendency to contract, surface of a liquid behaves as if it were in a state of tension.
The force that tends to contract the surface of a liquid is known as surface tension.

Factors affecting surface tension (y)

• The magnitude of surface tension of a liquid depends on
(i) Attractive forces between the molecules
When these forces are large, the surface tension is large.

(ii)Temperature
Increase in temperature results in increase in kinetic energy of the molecules. The intermolecular
forces of attraction decreases and hence surface tension also decreases.
Some characteristic features of surface tension
• Surface tension gives spherical shape to drops of a liquid because spheres occupy minimum surface
area and hence minimum energy and maximum stability.
• The tendency of a liquid to rise into narrow pores is called capillary action. The liquid rises in the
capillary tube due to surface tension. This phenomenon is observed in the plants where water raises
through the bark and reach the leaves.
• Stretching property of the liquid is due to surface tension.
(c) Viscosity
The resistance offered by one moving layer of the liquid over the successive layers is known as
viscosity. When a liquid flows over a fixed surface, the layer of the molecules in the immediate contact of
the surface is stationary. There is a regular increase in velocity in passing from one layer to the next upper
layer. This is known as laminar flow. When a particular layer is considered, the layer above it accelerates
its flow whereas the layer below it retards its flow.
du
Let the velocity of the layer at a distance dz is du, then velocity gradient is dz . The force responsible
tomaintain the flow of the layers is directly proportional to the area (A) of contact of layers and velocity
 du 
 .
gradient  dz 
du
f  A.
i.e. dz
du
F  A
dz , where ri = coefficient of viscosity. dz
Coefficient of viscosity () :
du
F  A
dz ,
When, A = 1m2, du = 1 ms-1, dz = 1 m
1
1
 F
du
A
Then,- dz
1
  N.
ms 1
m2 
m
=Nm s -2

Coefficient of viscosity  is defined as the force acting per unit area of the liquid when the velocity
gradient is one unit.
Factors affecting viscosity
The magnitude of viscosity is directly proportional to the intermolecular attractive forces like hydrogen
bonding, van der Waal’s forces and is inversely proportional to temperature.
Intermolecular attractive forces would pull the molecules closer so that viscosity increases. Increase in
temperature increases the kinetic energy of the molecules. This results in decrease in intermolecular
attractive forces. Therefore, viscosity decreases.

Important questions
1) Name the intermolecular forces present among HCl molecules.
Dipole-Dipole attractive forces.
2) Give an example for induced dipole-induced dipole forces
H2, N2, O2, Ne, He etc.,
3) Give an example for dipole-induced dipole attractive forces.
Water and Neon, Water and Helium, HCl and N2
4) State Boyle’s law. Give its mathematical expression.
Boyle‟s law states that “at constant temperature, the pressure of affixed amount of gas
is inversely proportional to its volume”.
Mathematically, P α 1/V at constant T
or P = k/V
5) State Charle’s law. Write its mathematical expression.
Charle‟s law states that “at constant pressure,, the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature”.
Mathematically, V α T at constant P
or V/T = k.
6) What is absolute zero temperature?
The lowest hypothetical or imaginary temperature (-273.15 0C) at which volume of any
gas becomes zero is called absolute zero temperature.
7) State Gay-Lussac’s law. Write its mathematical expression.
It states that “the pressure of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature at constant volume.”
Mathematically, P α T at constant V for a given mass of gas.
8) State Avogadro’s law. Give its mathematical expression.
Avogadro‟s law states that “equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules”. Or
Avogadro‟s law can also be stated as “the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its
number of moles as long as the temperature and pressure are kept constant”.
Mathematically, V α n at constant P & T
or V = kn at constant P& T.
9) What is an ideal gas?
A gas which obeys Boyle‟s law, Charle‟s law and Avogadro‟s law at all temperature and
pressure is called an ideal gas.
10) Derive ideal gas equation.
1
Vα
According to Boyle’s law Pat constant T.
According to Charles’ law, V  T at constant P.

According to Avogadro’s law, V  n, at constant T and P.

nT nT
Vα or V =R . or PV =nRT
Combining them, P P where R is a constant.
This is called ‘combined gas equation’. The constant ‘R’ does not change by changing
temperature, pressure, volume, no. of moles of the gas. Hence, it is called ‘universal gas constant.’
11) State Dalton’s law of partial pressure. Give its mathematical expression.
It states that “ the total pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reacting gases is equal to
the sum of the partial pressures of all the component gases at constant temperature”.
Mathematically it is expressed as P = p1+p2+p3…….pn

12) Give the postulates of Kinetic molecular theory of gases.

The postulates of kinetic molecular theory of gases are
a) Gases are made up of extremely small particles called molecules.
b) The gaseous molecules moves randomly in the form of straight line.
c) The collisions between the gaseous molecules are perfectly elastic.
d) The pressure of the gas is due to the collision of gaseous molecules on the
walls of the container.
e) There are no intermolecular forces of attraction between the molecules of a
gas.
f) The volume of a gas molecule is negligible compared to the volume occupied by
the gas.
g) The average kinetic energy of gas molecules is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature.
13) What are the causes for the deviations of real gases from ideal behavior?
The deviation of real gases from ideal behavior is due to wrong assumptions made in the
kinetic theory of gases. These are
a) There is no force of attraction between the gas molecules.
 b) Volume of the gas molecule is negligible when compared to the volume of gas.

If assumption (a) is correct, the gas will never liquefy. But gases liquefy when cooled and
compressed. The assumption (b) can be true only when volume of the gas is large and
pressure is very low, and hence volume of the molecules cannot be neglected.

14) What are the conditions under which gases deviate from ideal behaviour?
Under high pressure and low temperature, real gases show more deviations from ideal
behaviour.
15) Give the differences between ideal and non ideal (real) gases.

Ideal gas Real gas

1 Obeys both Boyle‟s and Charle‟s law Does not obey Boyle‟s and
at all T Charle‟s law
and P at all P and T.
2 Obeys ideal gas equation PV=nRT. Does not obey ideal gas
equation
PV=nRT
3 There are no intermolecular There are weak van der Waal‟s
force of force of
attraction between gas molecules. attraction between gas molecules.
4 Volume of gas molecules is negligible Volume of the gas molecules
when compared to the total volume cannot be ignored when
occupied by the gas. compared to the total volume
occupied by the gas at high
pressure.
5 Cannot be liquefied Can be liquefied

16) Write vander Waals equation for n mole of gas & 1 mole of gas?

an 2
( P+
V2 ) ( V − n b ) = nRT
for n mole of a gas.

( P + Va ) ( V − b ) = RT
2
for 1 mole of a gas.
17) Define compressibility factor (Z). What is the value of compressibility
factor Z in an ideal gas and non-ideal (real gas)?
It is defined as the ratio of product pV and RT
Mathematically, Z = PV/nRT
For ideal gas, Z = 1
For real gas, Z > 1 or Z < 1.
18) Define Boyle temperature or Boyle point.
The temperature at which a real gas obeys ideal gas laws over an appreciable range of
pressure is called Boyle temperature or Boyle point.
 19) Define i) Critical temperature (Tc.)ii)Critical pressure (Pc) iii)Critical volume
(Vc)
Critical temperature: It is defined as the temperature above which a gas cannot be
liquefied by applying pressure.
Critical Pressure: It is defined as the minimum pressure required to cause liquefaction of
a gas at critical temperature.
Critical Volume: It is the volume occupied by one mole of a gas at critical temperature
and critical pressure.
20) Define boiling point.
The temperature at which the vapour pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure is
called the boiling point.
21) Define surface tension. What is its SI unit?
Surface tension is defined as the force acting per unit length perpendicular to the
imaginary line drawn on the surface of liquid. The SI unit of surface tension is Nm -1.
22) Define viscosity of a liquid. Give the SI unit of coefficient of viscosity.
Viscosity of a liquid is a measure of resistance to flow which arises due to the internal
friction between the layers of fluid as they slip one another while liquid flows.
SI unit of coefficient of viscosity is Nsm-2 or kg m-1 s-1

Prakash C K, MDR P U College, ChikkamagaluruH 17