ITU A|Z • Vol 15 No 3 • November 2018 • 71-80

Assimilation of traditional
architecture influenced by the
imported styles

Anton A. KIM1, Vera I. LUCHKOVA2

1
ant.kim@mail.ru • Department of Architecture and Urbanistics, Institute of
Architecture and Design, Pacific National University, Khabarovsk, Russia
2
2000471@pnu.edu.ru • Department of Architecture and Urbanistics, Institute of
Architecture and Design, Pacific National University, Khabarovsk, Russia

Received: July 2016 • Final Acceptance: September 2018

Abstract
The article describes the process of transformation of the local architecture
under the influence of adscititious styles. The principles of forming assimilative
architecture of China at the levels of urban planning, space-planning solutions
and architectural elements are determined. The basic analysis is carried out on the
example of borrowed European forms in Chinese architecture of the late 19th–
early 20th centuries. Furthermore, a similar process in the architecture of Europe
is shown. The main trend of orientalism and its local manifestation of chinoiserie
(Chinese style) is reflected. This is the example of the usage of oriental themes in
doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2018.32032

the western architecture. Besides, we analyzed the processes of borrowing of the

certain techniques of architectural construction at the modern stage of its de-
velopment. The conclusions have also been drawn about the necessity of further
study of this process as well as the importance of reconstruction, restoration and
historical preservation of architecture for future generations.

Keywords
Architecture, Chinoiserie, Eclectic, Sino-western styles, Style formation.
72

1. Introduction considered to be the reminiscence of

One of the factors influencing the traditional Chinese culture in Europe-
development of architectural styles an art and architecture of 17th–19th
along with evolutionary processes was centuries has been studied. The anal-
the formation of new movements in ysis of eclectic styles in the interpre-
construction by means of accultura- tation of Representatives of different
tion and assimilation of the various cultures has shown similarities of bor-
national achievements. The source of rowing.
such transformations for a long time So as to simplify the analysis of the
has been a cultural and technological degree of acculturation of adscititious
exchange at the boundaries of civili- styles and assimilation of traditional
zations. It is often connected with the elements it was decided to consider
changes in the geopolitical world map. architecture separately. It was divid-
The resettlement colonization of Ar- ed in three sections: urban planning,
chaic Greece and cultural symbiosis in space-planning and design. Such an
the formation of Macedonian Empire approach has allowed us to estimate
are the typical examples (Boardman the level of penetration of new ele-
& Hammond, 1982; Walbank, Astin, ments. More than that, it was taken
Frederiksen & Ogilvie, 1984). These into account that the external features
phenomena had an impact on Europe, are more subjected to transformation,
North and Western Africa and partial- while space-planning and urban plan-
ly on South Asia. However, sequential ning features are more conservative.
colonization of Europe and the Medi- Finally, an analysis of the problem
terranean basin by Roman republic and at the current stage of architectural de-
empire had the greatest impact, which velopment has been carried out on the
in many ways formed the vector of ar- example of the leading and peripheral
chitectural development of the area for schools. As a result, the two main ba-
several centuries to go (Walbank, As- sic groups of appearance of “deformed”
tin, Frederiksen & Ogilvie, 1989; Alan, styles factors were found. In the first
Champlin & Lintott, 1996). instance, it was the purpose of seman-
The next integrative stage of Western tics or casual relations of the usage of
culture took place in the early modern elements, techniques, structures, etc.
period. This stage is associated with the The second reason, which is a deriva-
activation of transoceanic colonization tive of the first, relates to the lack of the
and formation of Eurocentric world necessary technical and technological
in 15th–19th centuries (Potter, 1957; base and, as a result, incomprehension
Crawley, 1965). The active expansion of the process of formation of new el-
of European nations had a great im- ements. Both of these trends are com-
pact on the development of culture mon for modernity and the historical
and architecture all over the world. architectural development.
Aside from this, the globalization took
a universal form by 20th century and 3. Data
became one of the patterns in social Literary and internet sources have
development on the modern stage. It been analysed for investigation of
is clear that this phenomenon affect- the problem. When considering Si-
ed stylistic architectural development no-Western architectural styles, the
(Bury, 1960; Hinsley, 1962). researches of V. I. Luchkova, Liu Dap-
ing, N. Arkaraprasertkul, Zhang Jun,
2. Methodology Su’ning Xu, Chun-kwok Chan, Jiawei
The historical examples and modern Gu etc. were taken into consideration.
trends have been examined to study Along with that, the photographic, car-
the phenomenon of architectural ac- tographic and historiographic materials
culturation and assimilation under the have been studied. Full-sized observa-
influence of indistinctive stylistic ideas. tion was carried out as well. The stud-
The brief analysis of the peculiarities of ies of art historians. dominate among
Sino-Western buildings of the middle the works devoted to chinoiserie, such
19th–mid 20th century has been un- as M. A. Neglinskaia, Wu Youfang, G.
dertaken. Chinoiserie style, which is Alm, A. Hyatt Mayor L. Ledderose,

ITU A|Z • Vol 15 No 3 • November 2018 • A. A. Kim, V. I. Luchkova

 73

Figure 1. Sino-western styles: 1) diaolou (Jiangmen, Guangdong province); 2) weilou in

sino-western style (Meizhou, Guangdong province); 3) qilou (Haikou, Hainan province), 4)
shikumen (Shanghai); 5) Chinese baroque (Harbin, Heilongjiang province).
Zhu Ying, etc The fundamental analy- tze River with the city center in Shang-
sis was based on cartographic and pho- hai and Guangzhou Bay, presented by
tographic materials. The contemporary the city of Guangzhou, Hong Kong and
planning stage has been studied with Macau (Luchkova & Kim, 2016).
the help of analysis the found trends in A number of new styles have been
the works of P. Schumacher, Iu. S. Ian- developed in these areas. The com-
kovskaia, L. Sklair, S. P. Pomorov, and mon feature of these new styles that
others. The phenomenon of imitation originate from the mutual integration
of global trends in design without un- of the two cultures is partial assimila-
derstanding or use of their technology tion of traditional Chinese architectur-
and methodology has been analyzed al principles and techniques and their
on the basis of factual material of edu- replacement by European. The Chi-
cational course design and actual plan- nese baroque has developed in Man-
ning activity. churia (Levoshko & Kirichkov, 2016;
Ivanova & Kradin, 2014; Yu, 2005; Yo,
4. Results 2013; Cao, Dian Zhang, Ying Zhang &
4.1. Sino-western styles Xu, 2012; Qi Li & Daping Liu, 2013),
The historical context of the emer- in Shanghai—shikumen (Ren, 2008;
gence of China assimilative styles lies Arkaraprasertkul & Williams, 2015;
in the development of Sino-Western Liang, 2008; Arkaraprasertkul, 2009,
relations, poured out in the Opium Chan, 2014), in the southern provinces
Wars (1840–1842, 1856–1860), fol- such styles as trade qilou (Jun Zhang,
lowed by the opening of state borders 2015; Ho Yin Li & DiStefano, 2016; Gu,
(Twitchett & Mote, 1998; Fairbank, 2014; Yang & Jia, 2010; Quan & Hou,
1978; Fairbank & Kwang-Ching Liu, 2008), fortification diaolou (The State
1980; Zhang & Fan, 2003). This process Administration of Cultural Heritage of
predetermined the development of the the People’s Republic China [SACH],
international settlement on the territo- 2006; Batto, 2006; Kuah-Pearce & Jin,
ry of the Qing Empire which lead to the 2012; Zhou, 2003; Zhao, 2010; Luch-
build up of the Western architecture in kova, 2011) and community-based Si-
China. As a result, the three main ar- no-Western weilou (Qui, 2001; Jiang,
eas of Western influence were marked: 2006; Kim & Luchkova, 2016). The
Chinese Eastern Railway with the cen- activation of these processes in south-
ter in Harbin, the estuary of the Yang- ern China is conditioned by the high

Assimilation of traditional architecture influenced by the imported styles

74

population density of territory and the ly reinforced concrete and metal frame
active development of the western set- (Kuah-Pearce & Jin, 2012; Jun Zhang,
tlements. 2015). The new construction materials
The impact of the Western architec- had the greatest impact on mid-rise
ture has not changed radically local ur- and high-rise constructions, primarily
ban-planning processes. The most no- diaolou, Chinese baroque and partially
ticeable changes took place in Harbin. qilou. More than that, the new materi-
In this city quite a chaotic urban-build- als allowed to increase the constructing
ing way in the beginning has been re- speed of the objects.
placed by Europeanised city blocks. The introduction of Western-style
However, such a change is probably oc- floor layout and differentiation in the
curred under the direct control of Rus- number of storeys also came up (Luc-
sian engineers (Kradin, 2010). Gen- hkova, 2011). However, this trend
eral trends contained in a significant manifested itself mostly in Harbin,
increase of urban density. Due to this where only the galleries (that had been
fact, the traditional structure based on formed along with a common court-
hutong and siheyuan has transformed yard) remained from the traditional
due to the reduction of the area of the planning structure (Qi Li & Daping
courtyard (shikumen) (Arkaraprasert- Liu, 2013). The trend was less com-
kul, 2009) or the complete rejection of mon in the other styles and most of
it (qilou, diaolou) (Zhang, 2015; Luch- the buildings were based on the trans-
kova, 2011). The transformation of the formed versions of traditional layouts
European courtyards that formed out of premises. A further acculturation
of different buildings of Chinese ba- was likely to be prevented by the termi-
roque is pretty interesting (Qi, Daping, nation of development of assimilative
2011). In China they have taken a form style in the mid 20th century.
of a common Chinese courtyard. One may talk of almost a complete
The reduction of the area of building assimilation while analyzing the fa-
in the rural areas took place consider- cades of buildings. As early as the first
ing the increase of number of storeys of stages of development, the substitution
diaolou (SACH, 2006) and in the case of traditional decoration by the West-
of weilou their area and planning have ern occurred. The violations in propor-
not changed (Jiang, 2016). The con- tions, tectonics and canons of classical
struction continued to be conducted European architectural details is a dis-
on the principles of feng shui. Weilou tinctive feature of Sino-Western build-
is not different from traditional build- ings. Order and arcade systems and
ings. At the same time, diaolou located volutes were used most frequently. The
in the northern part of the settlements, approach to bas-relief and high-relief
forming a kind of “mountain,” which images whose excess decoration was a
corresponds both to the principles of distinctive feature of all the styles ex-
feng shui and requirements of fortifi- cept for shikumen is interesting. In ad-
cation (Luchkova & Kim, 2016). Sub- dition to the non-canonical, or too nat-
sequently, the tower complexes were uralized Western floral garlands and
left aside the settlements which was geometric compositions, traditional
not typical for the traditional planning Chinese composition scenes, in some
(Luchkova, 2011). cases, based on the classical Chinese
Space-planning structure, as in paintings, usually depicting birds and
the case of urban planning, for a long scenery, had also been applied (Bat-
time has not changed a lot, except for to, 2006; Gu, 2014; Kim & Luchkova,
the above mentioned transformations 2016).
under the influence of exogenous fac- In addition to the assimilation of tra-
tors (high urban density, protection ditional East Asian elements there was
from attacks, etc.) and, as a rule, had a process of integration them into the
some counterparts in traditional build- Western styles. This technique had the
ings (Gu, 2014; Kuah-Pearce & Jin, greatest development during the ex-
2012). The significant changes have tinction of Sino-western course, where
appeared under the introduction of such a synthesis was often targeted.
Western building structures, especial- However, this trend started to appear

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 75

Figure 2. Chinoiserie: 1) Trianon de porcelain in Versailles (France); 2) Chinese pavilion in

Drottningholm (Sweden); 3) Chinese village in Tsarskoye Selo (Russia).
even on the stage of development. In assimilative architecture of China, in
addition to mentioned before galleries Europe professional architects took
of Chines baroque that developed from part in design process.
the balconies, such examples are found The consequences were almost a
in diaolou where the parapet of ter- complete absence of any Chinese tech-
race was transformed into the wall of niques in building compositions of
spirits (yinbi), or the likeness of moon park and garden complexes. Chinese
gate (yueliangmen). The design of the village in the Alexander Park in Tsar-
pediment and platband above the en- skoye Selo in Russia, built for the Em-
try gates of shikumen and window ap- press Catherine II in the 1780s (Milam,
ertures in diaolou, weilou, shikumen in 2012; Gamsa, 2017; Golosova, 2010)
some cases were designed in the form and its inverse image—Chinese pavil-
of stylized Chinese traditional roof or ion in Drottningholm in Sweden, built
pailou gate (Luckova & Kim, 2016). at the order of King Adolf Frederick
in 1750–1760-ies (Alm, 2002; Neg-
4.2. Chinoiserie linskaia, 2012) are the examples. Both
The reverse process was happening complexes were subject to the princi-
in Europe, where since the mid 17th ples of building regular gardens, that
century chinoiserie began to develop were popular during the period of their
and reached the peak in the 18th cen- construction, and are included in the
tury. This style is one of the branches structure of the rest of European parts
of orientalism. It covers various aspects of parks (Ledderose, 1991).
of the arts and crafts and architecture A similar approach can be seen in
(mainly the series of palaces and gar- structure and space-planning aspects.
dens and interiors). The basis of the The impossibility of a detailed study
style was the usage of the stylistic fea- of traditional Chinese architecture led
tures of Chinese culture, which were to the fact that constructed buildings
usually interpreted within a frame- completely followed the structure of
work of European baroque, rococo and the traditional European buildings of
classicism (Youfang, 2000; Ying, 2009; that period. The layout is usually dom-
Almazan Tomas, 2003, Hyatt Mayor, inated by enfilade scheme or a single
1941). hall for smaller pavilions was used.
The development of this style was Such typical Chinese features as the
occurring, in contrast to the Chi- dougong and post-and-girder roof sys-
nese-Western architecture, without di- tem were not applied. The introduction
rect contact with the samples of Tianx- of a stylized pagoda structures, that
ia architecture. Architects were mostly was purely decorative, was one of the
to be content with illustrative images relative innovations (Ledderose, 1991,
(the situation was aggravated with due Golosova, 2010).
regard to isolationist foreign policy of Decoration was the main method of
China during that time period) to cre- imitation of a Chinese construction.
ate a palace and park complexes, while This fact corresponds to the trends of
the objects of arts and crafts were still Sino-Western architecture. Trianon de
reaching Europe via East India compa- porcelaine (1670–1671) in Versailles
nies (Decker, 1759). However, unlike (France), built by the order of King

Assimilation of traditional architecture influenced by the imported styles

76

Louis XIV is one of the first examples. environment, or else be harmful at all.
It showed the Chinese style through At the urban-planning and construc-
porcelain tiles and flowerpots in pseu- tive-planning level unwarranted use
do-Chinese style, as well as in interior is easier to regulate through exposing
design (Ying, 2009; Neglinskaia, 2012). some legal restrictions. However, im-
The characteristic bend of the East age component affecting the non-con-
Asian roofs, poorly expressed in first structive elements, which in the course
buildings and exaggerated in some lat- of a violation of semantics also lose
er constructions, started to appear in their original meaning and context, is
the buildings of the late 18th century. almost not subject to any control. Sim-
The roof covering was usually made ilar problems arise in the development
of metal sheet instead of glazed tile. of projects in the national or pseu-
The Europeanized figures of dragons do-historical styles, where instead of
(chiwen) on the ridge of a roof and conscious stylization often occur gross
roof joints, or any replacing them or- violations, primarily related to the se-
namental shapes were less often used. mantics of the architectural style.
In general, the dragons theme was one The second type has arisen due to
of the most popular, they were used in the integration of the design process
low relief, as the brackets and other ar- and computer systems, actively devel-
chitectural elements. The compositions oping over the last decades. Creation
based on Chinese painting became of digital, fractal and partly non-linear
stucco motifs or the pseudo-Chinese architecture implies understanding of
geometric patterns (Ledderose, 1991; the algorithms of their constructions,
Thomas, 2009). based on systems of patterns, mathe-
matical formulas, hierarchical regular-
4.3. Modern period ities, etc (Schumacher, n. d., Pomorov,
The modern development of archi- 2014). These areas require from archi-
tecture in many ways erased the tradi- tects partial rethinking of design sys-
tional boundaries and entered the stage tem and increasing the infusion of ma-
of globalization (Knox & Pain, 2010; terial resources, which is quite difficult
Sklair, 2006). When saving national for the peripheral schools. The result
schools, an increasing role is played by is an attempt to copy these methods,
international global trends. In this con- which is particularly common in con-
text, the leading architectural schools ceptual design. However, such an ap-
with manifest objects and oriented in proach in the absence of understand-
the same direction peripheral schools ing of the fundamental laws in most
are standing out (Iankovskaia, 2006). cases leads to unsatisfactory results.
The biggest problem here is copying In summary, the observed trends are
the techniques and methods of modern consistent with the processes discussed
construction of architectural environ- above in Sino-Western style and chi-
ment without taking into account as- noiserie, which is also where the lack of
sumptions that had influenced the ap- knowledge of semantics and structural
plication of some items in the original elements lead to free interpretation and
project (Miljacki & Reeser Lawrence, transformation of borrowed elements.
2013). In this line stands out as a direct In this process partial or complete loss
copying due to the lack of preliminary of traditional (national) characteristics
analysis, and due to the limitations of a occurs in historical and contemporary
technical nature at the level of design. architecture under the borrowing.
The first type relates generally to
the more classical forms, when during 5. Conclusions
designing climatic, demographic, eco- The result of the study was identi-
nomic, environmental, and other con- fying patterns of assimilation of tra-
ditions are not taken into account. ditional architecture under the influ-
These conditions allow to judge the ap- ence of external factors. Decorative
propriateness of the use of this or that elements, facades composition were
method. The consequence of this is the exposed to the highest transformation,
use of individual elements, which as while constructive and layout struc-
a result may not work in a particular ture were, as a rule, undergoing suffi-

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 77

Table 1. Influence of the imported style on the local architecture.

ciently prolonged impact, or they were (2nd ed.) Cambridge, England: Cam-
transformed during the introduction bridge University Press. doi:10.1017/
of the unknown building materials or CHOL9780521264303
technology, which were foreign to lo- Alm, G. (2002). Kina slott — boken
cal construction culture. Urban plan- om ett omistligt kulturarv [China Pa-
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ITU A|Z • Vol 15 No 3 • November 2018 • A. A. Kim, V. I. Luchkova