Unit II - Motivation

Motivation has been derived from the word “Motive”. Motive

defined as an inner state of our mind that moves or actives or
energizes and directs our behaviour towards our goals.

Motivation – the process that motivates a person into action and

induces him to continue the course of action for the
achievement of goals.

Motivation refers to the way in which urges, drives, desires,

striving, aspirations or needs direct, control or explain the
behaviour of human being.

Motivation

Performance P = f (E, A, M)

E = environment A = ability M = motivation

Motivation theories

1. Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory

2. McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory

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Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory

1. Physiological Needs: These needs are basic to human life

and include food, clothing, shelter, air, water and other

necessities of life. They exert tremendous Influence on
human behaviour. Entrepreneur also being a man needs to,
meet his physiological needs for survival. Hence, he / she is
motivated to work in the enterprise to have economic
rewards to meet the basic needs.

2. Safety and Security Needs: After satisfying the

physiological needs, the next needs felt are called safety
and security needs. These needs find expression such
desires as economic security, and protection from physical
dangers. Meeting these needs requires more money and,
hence, the entrepreneur is prompted to work more in

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 his/her enterprise. Like physiological needs, these become
inactive once they are satisfied.

3. Social Needs: Man is a social animal. These needs,

therefore, refer to belongingness. All individuals want to be
recognized and accepted by others. Likewise, an
entrepreneur is motivated to interact with fellow
entrepreneurs, his employees and others.

4. Esteem Needs: These needs refer to self-esteem and self-

respect. They include such needs which indicate self-

confidence, achievement, competence, knowledge and
independence. In case of entrepreneurs, the ownership and
self-control over enterprise satisfies their esteem needs by
providing them status, respect, reputation and
independence.

5. Self-Actualisation: The final step under the need

hierarchy model is the need for selfactualisation. This refers
to self-fulfilment. The term self-actualisatior (was coined by
Kurt Goldstein and means to become actualized in what
one is potentially good at. An entrepreneur may achieve
self-actualization in being a successful entrepreneur.

In Maslow's theory, needs are arranged in a lowest to the

highest hierarchy. The second need does not dominate unless
the first is reasonably satisfied, and the third need does not
dominate until the first two needs have been reasonably
satisfied. This process goes on till the last need. This is because

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man is never satisfied. If one need is satisfied another need
arises. Once a need is satisfied, it ceases to be a motivating
factor. For entrepreneurs, it is mainly social, esteem and self-
actualisation needs which motivate them to work more and
more for satisfying them.

McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory

1. Need for Affiliation: These refer to needs to establish and

maintain friendly and warm relations with others.

2. Need for Power: These mean the one's desire to

dominate and influence others by using physical objects
and actions.

3. Need for Achievement:This refers to one's desire to

accomplish something with own efforts. This implies one's

will to excel in his/her efforts.

McClelland also suggests that these three needs may

simultaneously be acting on an individual. But, in case of an
entrepreneur, the high need for achievement is found
dominating one. In his view, the people with high need for
achievement are characterized by the following:

i. They set moderate, realistic and attainable goals for them.

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 ii. Prefer to situations in which they can find solutions for
solving personal responsibility.

iii. They need concrete feedback on how well they are doing.

iv. They have need for achievement for attaining personal

accomplishment.

v. They look for challenging tasks.

Motivating Factors
1. Internal Factors
i. Desire to do something new
ii. Educational background
iii. Occupational background or experience
2. External Factors
i. Government assistance and support
ii. Availability of labour and raw material
iii. Encouragement from big business houses
iv. Promising demand for the product.

Motivating Factors [Murthy et al.]

a. Ambitious factors
b. Compelling factors
c. Facilitating factors

FACTORS WHICH PROMPTED THE NEW ENTREPRENEURS

TO ENTER ENTREPRENEURSHIP

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I. Factors Intrinsic to Entrepreneurs:
1. Enterprising Attitude
2. Training/education in such kind of production
3. Previous experience in the same or related line
II. Factors Extrinsic to Entrepreneurs:
1. Shortage of demand for product
2. Government and institutional assistance
3. Advice of business friends
4. Profit earned by friends in similar concern
5. Contact with others
6. Unsound units available at cheap price

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

 The need for achievement plays an important role in

making an entrepreneur as successful. It is an inner spirit
that activates an entrepreneur to strive for success.

 In simple terms, need for achievement is the need to do

well. There is a need for developing achievement
motivation for developing entrepreneurship in an economy.

 David C.Mcclelland, a well known behavioral scientist of

USA holds the view that achievement motivation can be

developed through training and experience. His successful
experiment is known as ‘kakinada Experiment’.

THEMATIC APPRECIATION TEST:

 In this TAT, ambition related pictures were displayed to the

trainees and then they were asked to interpret the picture
and what is happening in the picture.
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  Thereafter, all the themes related to achievement were
counted and thus the final score represented one’s need for
achievement.

McClelland reached to this conclusion that the training

programme positively influenced the entrepreneurial behaviour
of the participants. As regards caste, the traditional beliefs and
imitation of western culture, they did not determine one’s
behaviour as an entrepreneur.

NEED FOR ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT

PROGRAMMES

 The entrepreneurs possess certain traits or

competencies. Traits or competencies are underlying
characteristics of the entrepreneurs which result in
superior performance.

 A well known behavioral scientist David McClelland at

Harvard University made an interesting investigation into
why certain societies displayed great creative powers at
particular periods of their history? What was the cause of
these creative bursts of energy?

 He found that ‘the need for achievement’ was the

answer to this question. It was the need achieve to

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 motivate people to work hard. According to him, money
making was incidental. It was only a measure of
achievement, not its motivation.

OBJECTIVES OF EDPs

o Develop and strengthen their entrepreneurial quality.

o Analyse environmental setup relating to small industry

and small business.

o Select product.

o Formulate project for the product.

o Understand the process and procedure involved in

setting up a small enterprise.

o Know the sources of help and support available for

stating a small-scale industry.

o Acquire the necessary managerial skills required to run a

small enterprise.

o Know the pros and cons in becoming an entrepreneur.

o Appreciate the needed entrepreneurial discipline.

Thematic Apperception Test

Definition

The Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT, is a projective measure

intended to evaluate a person's patterns of thought, attitudes,
observational capacity, and emotional responses to ambiguous
test materials.

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In the case of the TAT, the ambiguous materials consist of a set
of cards that portray human figures in a variety of settings and
situations.

The subject is asked to tell the examiner a story about each card
that includes the following elements: the event shown in the
picture; what has led up to it; what the characters in the picture
are feeling and thinking; and the outcome of the event.

Because the TAT is an example of a projective instrument— that

is, it asks the subject to project his or her habitual patterns of
thought and emotional responses onto the pictures on the cards
— many psychologists prefer not to call it a "test," because it
implies that there are "right" and "wrong" answers to the
questions. They consider the term "technique" to be a more
accurate description of the TAT and other projective
assessments.

Purpose

Individual assessments

The TAT is often administered to individuals as part of a battery,

or group, of tests intended to evaluate personality.

It is considered to be effective in eliciting information about a

person's view of the world and his or her attitudes toward the
self and others.

As people taking the TAT proceed through the various story

cards and tell stories about the pictures, they reveal their

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expectations of relationships with peers, parents or other
authority figures, subordinates, and possible romantic partners.

In addition to assessing the content of the stories that the

subject is telling, the examiner evaluates the subject's manner,
vocal tone, posture, hesitations, and other signs of an emotional
response to a particular story picture.

For example, a person who is made anxious by a certain picture

may make comments about the artistic style of the picture, or
remark that he or she does not like the picture; this is a way of
avoiding telling a story about it.

The TAT is often used in individual assessments of candidates

for employment in fields requiring a high degree of skill in
dealing with other people and/or ability to cope with high levels
of psychological stress— such as law enforcement, military
leadership positions, religious ministry, education, diplomatic
service, etc.

Although the TAT should not be used in the differential

diagnosis of mental disorders, it is often administered to
individuals who have already received a diagnosis in order to
match them with the type of psychotherapy best suited to
their personalities.

Lastly, the TAT is sometimes used for forensic purposes in

evaluating the motivations and general attitudes of persons
accused of violent crimes.

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For example, the TAT was recently administered to a 24-year-
old man in prison for a series of sexual murders.

The results indicated that his attitudes toward other people are
not only outside normal limits but are similar to those of other
persons found guilty of the same type of crime.

The TAT can be given repeatedly to an individual as a way of

measuring progress in psychotherapy or, in some cases, to help
the therapist understand why the treatment seems to be stalled
or blocked.

Research

In addition to its application in individual assessments, the TAT

is frequently used for research into specific aspects of human
personality, most often needs for achievement, fears of failure,
hostility and aggression, and interpersonal object relations.
"Object relations" is a phrase used in psychiatry and psychology
to refer to the ways people internalize their relationships with
others and the emotional tone of their relationships. Research
into object relations using the TAT investigates a variety of
different topics, including the extent to which people are
emotionally involved in relationships with others; their ability to
understand the complexities of human relationships; their ability
to distinguish between their viewpoint on a situation and the
perspectives of others involved; their ability to control
aggressive impulses; self-esteem issues; and issues of personal

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identity. For example, one recent study compared responses to
the TAT from a group of psychiatric inpatients diagnosed with
dissociative disorders with responses from a group of non-
dissociative inpatients, in order to investigate some of the
controversies about dissociative identity disorder (formerly
called multiple personality disorder).

Precautions

Students in medicine, psychology, or other fields who are

learning to administer and interpret the TAT receive detailed
instructions about the number of factors that can influence a
person's responses to the story cards. In general, they are
advised to be conservative in their interpretations, and to err
"on the side of health" rather than of psychopathology when
evaluating a subject's responses. In addition, the 1992 Code of
Ethics of the American Psychological Association requires
examiners to be knowledgeable about cultural and social
differences, and to be responsible in interpreting test results
with regard to these differences.

Experts in the use of the TAT recommend obtaining a personal

and medical history from the subject before giving the TAT, in
order to have some context for evaluating what might otherwise
appear to be abnormal or unusual responses. For example,
frequent references to death or grief in the stories would not be
particularly surprising from a subject who had recently been
bereaved. In addition, the TAT should not be used as the sole

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examination in evaluating an individual; it should be combined
with other interviews and tests.

Cultural, gender, and class issues

The large number of research studies that have used the TAT
have indicated that cultural, gender, and class issues must be
taken into account when determining whether a specific
response to a story card is "abnormal" strictly speaking, or
whether it may be a normal response from a person in a
particular group. For example, the card labeled 6GF shows a
younger woman who is seated turning toward a somewhat older
man who is standing behind her and smoking a pipe. Most male
subjects do not react to this picture as implying aggressiveness,
but most female subjects regard it as a very aggressive picture,
with unpleasant overtones of intrusiveness and danger. Many
researchers consider the gender difference in responses to this
card as a reflection of the general imbalance in power between
men and women in the larger society.

Race is another issue related to the TAT story cards. The original
story cards, which were created in 1935, all involved Caucasian
figures. As early as 1949, researchers who were administering
the TAT to African Americans asked whether the race of the
figures in the cards would influence the subjects' responses.
Newer sets of TAT story cards have introduced figures
representing a wider variety of races and ethnic groups. As of
2002, however, it is not clear whether a subject's ability to

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identify with the race of the figures in the story cards improves
the results of a TAT assessment.

Multiplicity of scoring systems

One precaution required in general assessment of the TAT is the

absence of a normative scoring system for responses. The
original scoring system devised in 1943 by Henry Murray, one of
the authors of the TAT, attempted to account for every variable
that it measures. Murray's scoring system is time-consuming
and unwieldy, and as a result has been little used by later
interpreters. Other scoring systems have since been introduced
that focus on one or two specific variables—for example,
hostility or depression. While these systems are more practical
for clinical use, they lack comprehensiveness. No single system
presently used for scoring the TAT has achieved widespread
acceptance. The basic drawback of any scoring system in
evaluating responses to the TAT story cards is that information
that is not relevant to that particular system is simply lost.

Computer scoring

A recent subject of controversy in TAT interpretation concerns

the use of computers to evaluate responses. While computers
were used initially only to score tests with simple yes/no
answers, they were soon applied to interpretation of projective
measures. A computerized system for interpreting the
Rorschach was devised as early as 1964. As of 2002, there are

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no computerized systems for evaluating responses to the TAT;
however, users of the TAT should be aware of the controversies
in this field. Computers have two basic limitations for use with
the TAT: the first is that they cannot observe and record the
subject's vocal tone, eye contact, and other aspects of behavior
that a human examiner can note. Second, computers are not
adequate for the interpretation of unusual subject profiles.

Description

The TAT is one of the oldest projective measures in continuous

use. It has become the most popular projective technique
among English-speaking psychiatrists and psychologists, and is
better accepted among clinicians than the Rorschach.

History of the TAT

The TAT was first developed in 1935 by Henry Murray, Christiana

Morgan, and their colleagues at the Harvard Psychological Clinic.
The early versions of the TAT listed Morgan as the first author,
but later versions dropped her name. One of the controversies
surrounding the history of the TAT concerns the long and
conflict-ridden extramarital relationship between Morgan and
Murray, and its reinforcement of the prejudices that existed in
the 1930s against women in academic psychology and
psychiatry.

It is generally agreed, however, that the basic idea behind the

TAT came from one of Murray's undergraduate students. The
student mentioned that her son had spent his time recuperating

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from an illness by cutting pictures out of magazines and making
up stories about them. The student wondered whether similar
pictures could be used in therapy to tap into the nature of a
patient's fantasies.

Administration

The TAT is usually administered to individuals in a quiet room

free from interruptions or distractions. The subject sits at the
edge of a table or desk next to the examiner. The examiner
shows the subject a series of story cards taken from the full set
of 31 TAT cards. The usual number of cards shown to the subject
is between 10 and 14, although Murray recommended the use of
20 cards, administered in two separate one-hour sessions with
the subject. The original 31 cards were divided into three
categories, for use with men only, with women only, or for use
with subjects of either sex. Recent practice has moved away
from the use of separate sets of cards for men and women.

The subject is then instructed to tell a story about the picture on

each card, with specific instructions to include a description of
the event in the picture, the developments that led up to the
event, the thoughts and feelings of the people in the picture,
and the outcome of the story. The examiner keeps the cards in a
pile face down in front of him or her, gives them to the subject
one at a time, and asks the subject to place each card face down
as its story is completed. Administration of the TAT usually takes
about an hour.

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Recording

Murray's original practice was to take notes by hand on the

subject's responses, including his or her nonverbal behaviors.
Research has indicated, however, that a great deal of significant
material is lost when notes are recorded in this way. As a result,
some examiners now use a tape recorder to record subjects'
answers. Another option involves asking the subject to write
down his or her answers.

Interpretation

There are two basic approaches to interpreting responses to the

TAT, called nomothetic and idiographic respectively. Nomothetic
interpretation refers to the practice of establishing norms for
answers from subjects in specific age, gender, racial, or
educational level groups and then measuring a given subject's
responses against those norms. Idiographic interpretation refers
to evaluating the unique features of the subject's view of the
world and relationships. Most psychologists would classify the
TAT as better suited to idiographic than nomothetic
interpretation.

In interpreting responses to the TAT, examiners typically focus

their attention on one of three areas: the content of the stories
that the subject tells; the feeling or tone of the stories; or the
subject's behaviors apart from responses. These behaviors may
include verbal remarks (for example, comments about feeling
stressed by the situation or not being a good storyteller) as well

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as nonverbal actions or signs (blushing, stammering, fidgeting in
the chair, difficulties making eye contact with the examiner,
etc.) The story content usually reveals the subject's attitudes,
fantasies, wishes, inner conflicts, and view of the outside world.
The story structure typically reflects the subject's feelings,
assumptions about the world, and an underlying attitude of
optimism or pessimism.

Results

The results of the TAT must be interpreted in the context of the

subject's personal history, age, sex, level of education,
occupation, racial or ethnic identification, first language, and
other characteristics that may be important. "Normal" results
are difficult to define in a complex multicultural society like the
contemporary United States.

Stress Management

Stress: The human reaction to events in the environment. Han

Selye defined stress as the wear and tear on the body.
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Eustress: The stress that comes from good sources

o New marriage
o Birth of a baby
o Winning the lottery

Distress: The stress that comes from bad sources

o Difficult work environment

o Overwhelming sights and sounds
o Threat of personal injury

Types of Stress

General Stress:

Everyone has this stress at any time. It generally resolves within

a day or two

Cumulative Stress:

Prolonged stress which builds up after time and can lead to

adverse mental and/or physical consequences.

Acute Traumatic Stress:

Called Critical Incident Stress. Produces considerable

psychological distress. Normal reaction to abnormal events

Post Traumatic Stress: Severe stress produced by severe

psychological trauma. Can produce lasting changes. Created by
unresolved Critical Incident Stress

General Adaptation Syndrome

Alarm reaction

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The first stage of the general adaptation stage, the alarm
reaction, is the immediate reaction to a stressor. In the initial
phase of stress, humans exhibit a "fight or flight" response,
which causes one to be ready for physical activity. However, this
initial response can also decrease the effectiveness of the
immune system, making persons more susceptible to illness
during this phase.

Stage 2 might also be named the stage of adaptation, instead of

the stage of resistance. During this phase, if the stress
continues, the body adapts to the stressors it is exposed to.
Changes at many levels take place in order to reduce the effect
of the stressor. For example,

if the stressor is starvation (possibly due to anorexia), the

person might experienced a reduced desire for physical activity
to conserve energy, and the absorption of nutrients from food
might be maximized. General Adaptation Syndrome

Stage of exhaustion

At this stage, the stress has continued for some time. The body's
resistance to the stress may gradually be reduced, or may
collapse quickly. Generally, this means the immune system, and
the body's ability to resist disease, may be almost totally
eliminated. Patients who experience long-term stress may
succumb to heart attacks or severe infection due to their
reduced immunity. For example, a person with a stressful job

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may experience long-term stress that might lead to high blood
pressure and an eventual heart attack

Short term Physical Stress Symptoms

a. Dry Mouth f. Faster heart beat

b. Cool skin g. Tense Muscles
c. Cold hands and feet h. Feelings of nausea, or
d. Increased sweating 'Butterflies in stomach'

e. Rapid Breathing i. Diarrhea

j. A desire to urinate

Long Term Physical Stress Symptoms

a. Insomnia g. asthma
b. change in appetite h. back pain
c. sexual disorders i. digestive problems
d. aches and pains j. headaches
e. frequent colds k. feelings of intense and
f. illnesses such as: long-term tiredness

Behavioral Stress Symptoms

a. Yawning e. Defensiveness
b. Talking too fast or too f. Irrationality
loud g. Being irritable
c. Fiddling and twitching, h. Being critical
nail biting, grinding
teeth, drumming i. Aggression
fingers, pacing, etc. j. Overreaction and
d. Bad moods: reacting emotionally

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Behavioral Stress Symptoms

a. Reduced personal e. Making more mistakes

effectiveness f. Being more accident
b. Being more forgetful prone
c. Being unreasonably g. Neglect of personal
negative appearance
d. Making less realistic h. Changing work habits
judgements i. Increased absenteeism

Performance Stress Symptoms

o It interferes with clear judgement and makes it difficult to

take the time to make good decisions.

o Where you need good physical skills it gets in the way of

fine motor control.

o It can seriously reduce your enjoyment of your work

o It damages the positive frame of mind you need for high

quality work by:

 narrowing attention,

 damaging self-confidence,

 promoting negative thinking,

 disrupting focus and concentration and making it

difficult to cope with distractions

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 o It consumes mental energy in distraction, anxiety,
frustration and temper. This is energy that should be
devoted to the work in hand.

Healthy Living with Stress in EMS

o Things you can do for yourself

o Diet - lower salt, refined carbohydrates, sugar, and
o Caffiene. Need more vegetables, fruits, complex
o Carbohydrates, and vitamins.
o Rest - 4 hours continuos
o Exercise - 20 minutes 5 x week, break a sweat. It
o Increases endorphin production.
o Talk - family, friends. Peers
o Plan/organize/delegate - spouse, kids, friends
o Yoga, tai chi, progressive relaxation, meditation
o Things you can do at work
o Be goal oriented, but be flexible - your way’s
o Not the only way
o Appropriate workplace interactions - friends
o Reduce stress/enemies enhance it, don’t gossip
o Establish a routine
o Communicate with everyone supervisor, peer, Subordinate

o Maintain a sense of humor

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