UNIT V ELECTRIC, HYBRID & FUEL CELL VEHICLES

Introduction

An electric vehicle (EV) is operated by an electric motor, which draws electricity from a
battery bank. Different types of batteries for EVs and other applications are being developed for
better performance. Storage batteries store a fixed amount of chemical energy. The batteries can be
recharged when the electrochemically active materials in these batteries have been used up. Most
of the EVs at present use rechargeable lead acid batteries. Because of availability and low price, lead
acid batteries are more widely used than other batteries. The EVs should match comparable petrol
or diesel-driven vehicles in terms of performance, reliability, durability and cost. Therefore, the
manufacturers should develop these types of EVs. The battery pack used should be capable of
providing electricity to start the vehicle and also for auxiliary loads. Reliability, cost and useful life
of the batteries used in EVs are important.

Environmental and economic issues are the major driving force in developing EVs for urban
transportation. The exhaust emissions of the conventional internal combustion engine vehicles are
the major source of urban pollution that causes the greenhouse effect leading to global warming.
Electricity can be used as a transportation fuel to power battery electric and fuel cell vehicles. When
used to power electric vehicles, electricity is stored in an energy storage devices such as a battery.
EV batteries have a limited storage capacity and must be replenished by plugging the vehicle into a
recharging unit. The electricity for recharging the batteries can come from the existing power grid
or from distributed renewable sources such as solar or wind energy.

An EV is a very good alternative for a clean, efficient and environment-friendly urban

transportation system because its energy comes from the source fuels used to generate electricity.
Electrical generation plants can use a number of alternative fuels that are not easily adaptable to
mobile power systems, and emissions are more easily and effectively controlled at the relatively
fewer fixed sites than with millions of individual systems on independent vehicles. Each type of EV
has its own operating characteristics and preferred design practices as well as advantages and
disadvantages.

Layout of an Electric Vehicle

The battery operated electric vehicles (BEVs) are powered by motors, which draw electricity from
on-board storage batteries. The major components of a BEV system are the motor, controller,
power source, charger and drive train. The block diagram of an EV system is shown in following
figure.
Electric Vehicle Components

1. An electric motor
2. An electronic control module (ECM)
3. A traction battery ( a battery management system, a smart battery charger)
4. A cabling system
5. A regenerative braking system
6. A vehicle body, a frame, EV fluids for cooling, braking, etc. and lubricants.

Electric Motor:

Used for propelling the vehicle. There are two types of electric drive systems viz.,
alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). DC motors are easier to control and are less
expensive, but they are often larger and heavier than AC motors. AC motors and controllers usually
have a higher efficiency over a large operational range, but due to complex electronics, the ECMs
are more expensive.

The controller

It takes signal form the vehicle`s accelerator pedal and controls the electrical
energy provided to the motor, causing the torque to turn the wheels.

Batteries

The batteries in an electric car are the energy storage device for the electric
motor. Unlike the gasoline in the fuel tank, which can only power the gasoline engine, the electric
motor can put energy into the batteries as well as draw energy from them.

EV Batteries

The nature of an EV is governed by the characteristics of a traction battery. The

essential nature of EV batteries is that, packaged in a car, they weigh 300 – 600 kg and require 200
– 300 liters adjoining volume. The battery will contain between 12 and 30 kWh of useable energy,
produce 50 – 150 kW of power and require around eight hours to recharge. An EV will not be
commercially successful unless it is designed to accommodate these fundamental characteristics of
traction batteries.

A number of batteries under development might enable EVs to meet these

performance requirements. Some of these batteries are already being used in the few EVs
commercially available in the market, while others are being tested in prototype EVs. Lead/Acid
batteries are typically used as the power source for EVs, although other promising battery
technologies are also emerging.

Criteria for choosing the battery

An ideal EV traction battery would produce constant voltage at any current

drawn over the entire state-of-charge range, and it would accept high charge rates at the same
voltage. No battery approaches this ideal, but the ratio of charging voltage to discharging voltage
over the range of state of charges (SOC) and currents determines, in a fundamental way, the
suitability of a battery for EV use. The following parameters are considered for choosing an
appropriate battery for EV application.

Power Density

Power is defined as capability to deliver power (V X I). Power density is

expressed per unit weight or per unit volume. Manufacturers traditionally specify battery power
performance as W/kg at either 2/3 or ½ of open circuit voltage. A high-power density battery
increases possible vehicle performance and reduces the cost of the motor and electronics for
equivalent performance. A low-power density battery will need more expensive drive train
components to achieve a given level of performance since it needs a higher current rating to extract
the same power. A unique feature of electric propulsion is the capability to provide high peak
power and acceleration without sacrificing operating efficiency at the lower voltage.

Energy Density

The energy density is the energy obtainable per unit weight (gravimetric energy
density) or per unit volume (volumetric energy density). Energy capacity of the traction battery
determines the vehicle range. Specific energy determines battery weight for a given range, and
energy density determines battery size. In general terms, NiMH (nickel-metal hydride) batteries
have twice the energy density and specific energy compared to lead acid batteries. An EV with
NiMH batteries will have the same size and weight of battery, but twice the range. Two vehicles
with equal range, that is, the one with twice the efficiency but half the battery capacity, will spend
half as much time charging and use half as much electricity. Reducing energy consumption is often a
better way to increase EV range than increasing battery capacity. For a given charging power,
charge rate, measured in miles of range per hour of charge times is reduced as vehicle efficiency
increases. Energy costs are reduced in direct proportion to vehicle efficiency. For an efficient
vehicle, a lower capacity, lower cost battery may be a better choice for customer satisfaction.

Battery Efficiency
 Battery efficiency is defined as energy released on discharge/energy required
for charge. Along with driving efficiency, battery efficiency also effects operating cost, charge
time, and emissions. NiMH batteries have a larger ratio between the open circuit voltage (VOC)
and voltage under load compared to PbA batteries. This translates into reduced efficiency over
the charge/discharge cycle. Battery losses translate directly into heat in the battery. Both NiMH
and PbA batteries can suffer from too much heat, but NiMH have higher losses and are more
sensitive to temperature. NiMH batteries may require active cooling, using the vehicle`s air
conditioning system to prevent overheating. This increases vehicle energy consumption and
reduces some of the range benefit of the NiMH battery.

Cost
Today, an EV battery will cost between $3,000 (PbA @$215/kWh) and $100,00
(NiMH @$3500/kWh). The low cost represents a deep-cycle PbA battery already in production
and in use by AC propulsion. The high cost represents advanced batteries made as prototypes for
evaluation in EVs. Some advanced batteries cost even more. Even the least expensive traction
battery today represents a marginally unacceptable cost compared to component costs.
Life

Battery life represents another important variable in battery performance. In

actual case, battery life depends on both time and number of cycles as well as technical factors
such as charging procedures, temperature control, and exposure to harmful conditions. PbA
batteries respond well to elaborate battery management systems that control temperature and
maintain state of charge (SOC) equalization between modules. A factor related to battery life is
the battery residual value. Although virtualy all EV batteries will be recycled for economic and
environmental reasons, they may retain value greater than their salvage value after their useful
life as traction battery is complete. The residual value has a significant effect on the operating
cost of PbA batteries because it represents a high proportion of their initial cost, and because
PbA batteries will be replaced more frequently than NiMH batteries.

Comparison of the major components of ICEV & BEV

Major components of a Functions of the components Major components of the

gasoline vehicle electric vehicle
Gasoline tank Stores the energy to run the Battery
vehicle
Gasoline pump station Replaces the energy to run the Charger
vehicle
Gasoline Engine Provide the force to move the Motor
vehicle
Fuel injection system Controls acceleration and Controller
speed
Generator/Alternator Provides power to accessories DC/AC Convertor
Emission Controls Lowers the toxicity of the Not needed
exhaust gas
Vehicle Propulsion Methods

The conversion of electrical power to mechanical is the fundamental in making an electric vehicle
possible. DC motors were used to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy at the driving
wheels, since the power from the battery was immediately available in the direct form. The use of
AC machines shown considerable advantages in cost, size, weight and reliability.

EV and HEV Motor Requirements

The important characteristics of a motor for an EV or HEV include flexible drive control, fault
tolerance, high efficiency and low acoustic noise. The motor must be capable of handling voltage
fluctuations from the source. Another important requirement of the electric motor is acceptable
mass production costs, which is to be achieved through technological advancement. The
requirements of an EV or HEV motor, not necessarily in order of importance, are itemized in the
following:

 Ruggedness 

 High torque – to – inertia ratio (Te/J); Large Te/J ratio results in good acceleration
 capabilities. 
  Peak torque capability of about 200 to 300% of continuous torque rating. 
  High power – to – weight ratio. 
  High-speed operation, ease of control. 
  Low acoustic noise, low electromagnetic interference (EMI), low maintenance and low cost. 
 Extended constant power region of operation. 

Types of DC Motors

1. Series wound motors

2. Shunt wound motors
3. Compound wound motors

The principle of the DC motor is well known. In the simplified two pole DC machine a rotor (or
armature) has a number of coils wound on its perpendicular axis and this is free to rotate between
the poles of either an electromagnet or a permanent magnet.

Electric current is supplied to the rotor coil from a DC supply through brushes on a commuter ring.

Series DC Motor

In the case of the series wound motor the field coil is in series connection with
the armature coil with the current limited by a resistor. With this arrangement it can be seen that
the series motor has one major advantage when used in an electric vehicle. This is its high torque at
near zero speed. In fact the torque would be infinite at aero speed if there was no limitation on the
current available and magnetic circuit has zero reluctance.
In real life the current is limited by the resistor Rs and the field coil and armature coil resistance to
the maximum that the field windings, rotor windings and brushes can withstand without
overheating.

Shunt DC Motor

In the case of the shunt wound the field coil is in parallel with the armature coil with its current
controlled by field resistor Rf. and the armature coil current is limited by series resistor Rs. With
this arrangement torque remains constant as speed rises until the maximum power point b on the
torque speed curve is reached if resistor Rf is then increased in value the field current will be
reduced and the no load speed will continue to increase.

Under load the speed of the shunt wound motors remains relatively constant, dropping by only a
few percent between no load and full load while the torque is directly proportional to the armature
current.

Compound DC Motor

It is possible to obtain a wide range of characteristics between the extremes of the series and shunt
wound motors by combining series and shunt field coils in a motor having a compound wound field.
In this motor configuration the majority of the field is provided by the shunt winding with series
field supplementing the shunt field. This is known as cumulative compounding.
With this arrangement the armature current in the series field increases with load causing the
torque to rise but also resulting in a large drop in speed that would be the case in a shunt motor.
The characteristics can therefore to some extent be tailored to the requirement of a particular
vehicle design.

Advantages of DC Machines

  Ease of control due to linearity 

  Capability for independent torque and flux control 
 Established manufacturing technology 

Disadvantages of DC Machines

  They are less reliable due to their commutators and brushes. 

  They are unsuitable for maintenance free operation. 
  Low maximum speed. 
  Low power to weight ratio 
 Low efficiency 

Advantages of AC Machines

  Maintenance free 
  Low-cost 
 High-speed of induction machines ( possible with a penalty in size and weight) 

AC Motors

AC motors are suitable for use in electric vehicles are considered to fall into three categories, they
are induction motors, synchronous motor and switched or variable reluctance motors. Induction
motors and synchronous motors have been used for many years in constant speed industrial
applications but have only become possible for electric vehicle use with the advent of high power,
high efficiency variable frequency inverters.

Switched reluctance motors are only made possible by sophisticated electronic controls and their
use and utility in electric vehicles is still being investigated. Motors using permanent magnet rotors
such as synchronous motor with motor position feedback paradoxically such as the brushless DC
motor.
Induction Motors

Induction motors are a widely accepted commutator less motor type for EV
propulsion because of their low cost, high reliability and maintenance free properties. However,
due to the non-linearity of the dynamic model, conventional control of induction motors such as
variable-voltage variable-frequency (VVVF) cannot provide the desired performance.

The principle of field-oriented control (FOC) of induction motors has been

accepted to overcome the control complexity due to non-linearity. By adopting an electrically pole-
changing scheme, EV induction motors can significantly extend the constant-power operating
region to over four times the base speed.

PM Synchronous Motors (PMS)

PMS motors are also called PM brushless AC motors or sinusoidal-fed PM

brushless motors because of their sinusoidal AC waveform and brushless configuration. The PMSM
has high efficiency and cooling system that is easier to design. The use of rare earth magnetic
materials increases the fluc density in the air gap and accordingly increases the motor power
density and torque to inertia ratio. In high performance motion control systems, the PMSM can
provide fast response, high power density and high efficiency. The PMSM, similar to induction and
DC machines, is fed from a power electronic inverter for efficient operation of the system. Smooth
torque output is maintained in these machines by shaping the motor currents, which necessitates a
high-resolution position sensor and current sensors. The control algorithm is implemented in a
digital processor using feedback from the sensors. The permanent magnets in PMSM machines are
not only expensive, but they are also sensitive to temperature and load conditions, which constitute
the major drawbacks of PM machines.

Most of the PMSMs are found in small to medium power applications, although
there are some high-power applications for which PMSMs are used. PMSM and induction motors
have good performance in terms of torque response and have rugged motor structures, although
broken magnet chips in PM machines is a concern. With a higher power density, the PMSM is
smaller in size compared to an induction motor with the same power rating. PMSM is more efficient
and easier to cool, compared to the induction machines, due to the absence of rotor copper loss. The
induction motor has lower cost and cogging torque because of the absence of permanent magnets.

PM Brushless DC Motors (PMBDC)

Permanent magnet AC machines with trapezoidal back-emf waveforms are
known as the PM brushless DC machines. The concentrated windings of the machine instead of the
sinusoidally distributed windings on the stator are the reason for the trapezoidal-shaped back-emf
waveforms. PM brushless DC motors are widely used in a range of applications, from computer
drives to sophisticated medical equipment. The reason behind the popularity of these machines is
the simplicity of control. Only six discrete rotor positions per electrical revolution are needed in a
three-phase machine to synchronize the phase currents with the phase back-emfs for effective
torque production. A set of three Hall sensors mounted on the stator facing a magnet wheel fixed to
the rotor and placed 120° apart can easily give this position information. This eliminates the need
for the high-resolution encoder or position sensor required in PM synchronous machines, but the
penalty paid for position sensor simplification is in performance. For EV/HEV applications, a high-
resolution encoder/resolver may be necessary for phase advancing at high speeds. Vector control is
not possible in PM brushless DC machines because of the trapezoidal shape of back-emfs.

Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM)

The switched reluctance motor (SRM) is a doubly salient, singly excited
reluctance machine with independent phase windings on the stator. The stator and the rotor are
made of magnetic steel laminations, with the latter having no windings or magnets. SRM have the
definite advantages of simple construction and low manufacturing cost. Because of the heavy
saturation of pole tips and the fringe effect of poles and slots, their design and control are difficult
and stable. They usually exhibit acoustic noise problems. An SRM has high-power density and
excellent motor-load torque – speed matching characteristics. It has good efficiency and high-speed
capability. The motor drive for an EV is desired to have a wide speed range capability to eliminate
the gears. A 4:1 speed range of the motor in the constant power region results in a good
performance of the system. Its disadvantages include torque ripple and acoustic noise.

Advantages and Drawbacks SRM

Switched reluctance machines or motors (SRM) possess unique features that make them strong
competitors to existing AC and DC motors in various adjustable speed drives and servo
applications.
The advantages of an SRM can be summarized as follows:
• Simple and low-cost machine construction due to the absence of rotor winding and permanent
magnets.
• No shoot-through faults between the DC buses in the SRM drive converter, because each phase
winding is connected in series with converter switching elements.
• Bidirectional currents are not necessary, which facilitates the reduction of the number of power
switches in certain applications.
• The bulk of the losses appears in the stator, which is relatively easier to cool.
• The torque-speed characteristics of the motor can be tailored to the application requirement
more easily during the design stage than in the case of induction and PM machines.
• The starting torque can be very high without the problem of excessive inrush current due to its
higher self-inductance.
• The maximum permissible rotor temperature is higher, because there is no permanent magnet.
• They have low rotor inertia and high torque/inertia ratio.
• They make extremely high speeds with a wide constant power region possible.
• Independent stator phases enable drive operation in spite of the loss of one or more phases.
The SRM also comes with a few disadvantages, among which torque ripple and acoustic noise are
the most critical. The double saliency construction and the discrete nature of torque production by
the independent phases lead to higher torque ripple compared to other machines. The higher
torque ripple also causes the ripple current in the DC supply to be quite large, necessitating a large
filter capacitor. The doubly salient structure of the SRM also causes higher acoustic noise compared
to other machines. The main source of acoustic noise is the radial magnetic force-induced
resonance with the circumferential mode shapes of the stator. Among other disadvantages of SR
motors are special converter and higher terminal connection requirements that add cost to the
system.
Electronic Control System

The electric motor is driven by a power-electronics-based power-processing unit that converts the
fixed DC voltage available from the source into a variable voltage, variable frequency source
controlled to maintain the desired operating point of the vehicle. The power electronics circuit
comprised of power semiconductor devices saw tremendous development over the past 3 decades.
The enabling technology of power electronics is a key driving force in developing efficient and high-
performance power-train units for EVs. High-power devices in compact packaging are available
today, enabling the development of lightweight and efficient power-processing units known as
power electronic motor drives. Advances in power solid state devices and very large-scale
integration (VLSI) technology are responsible for the development of efficient and compact power
electronics circuits. The developments in high-speed digital signal processors or microprocessors
enable complex control algorithm implementation with a high degree of accuracy. The controller
includes algorithms for the motor drive in the inner loop as well as system-level control in the outer
loop.

Advantages of an Electric car

1. No Gas Required: Electric cars are entirely charged by the electricity you provide, meaning you
don’t need to buy any gas ever again. Driving fuel based cars can burn a hole in your pocket as
prices of fuel have gone all time high. With electric cars, this cost can be avoided as an average
American spends $2000 – $4 on gas each year. Though electricity isn’t free, an electric car is far
cheaper to run.
2. Savings: These cars can be fueled for very cheap prices, and many new cars will offer great
incentives for you to get money back from the government for going green. Electric cars can also be
a great way to save money in your own life.
3. No Emissions: Electric cars are 100 percent eco-friendly as they run on electrically powered
engines. It does not emit toxic gases or smoke in the environment as it runs on clean energy source.
They are even better than hybrid cars as hybrids running on gas produce emissions. You’ll be
contributing to a healthy and green climate.
4. Popularity: EV’s are growing in popularity. With popularity comes all new types of cars being
put on the market that are each unique, providing you with a wealth of choices moving forward.
5. Safe to Drive: Electric cars undergo same fitness and testing procedures test as other fuel
powered cars. In case an accident occurs, one can expect airbags to open up and electricity supply
to cut from battery. This can prevent you and other passengers in the car from serious injuries.
6. Cost Effective: Earlier, owing an electric car would cost a bomb. But with more technological
advancements, both cost and maintenance have gone down. The mass production of batteries and
available tax incentives have further brought down the cost, thus, making it much more cost
effective.
7. Low Maintenance: Electric cars runs on electrically powered engines and hence there is no need
to lubricate the engines. Other expensive engine work is a thing of past. Therefore, the maintenance
cost of these cars has come down. You don’t need to send it to service station often as you do a
normal gasoline powered car.
8. Reduced Noise Pollution: Electric cars put curb on noise pollution as they are much quieter.
Electric motors are capable of providing smooth drive with higher acceleration over longer
distances.

Disadvantages of an Electric Car

Although the evidence of the positives has become very clear, there are also some downsides that
each individual needs to consider before they decide to make an electric car their next big
investment. These reasons are:
1. Recharge Points: Electric fueling stations are still in the development stages. Not a lot of places
you go to on a daily basis will have electric fueling stations for your vehicle, meaning that if you’re
on a long trip and run out of a charge, you may be stuck where you are.
2. Electricity isn’t Free: Electric cars can also be a hassle on your energy bill if you’re not
considering the options carefully. If you haven’t done your research into the electric car you want to
purchase, then you may be making an unwise investment. Sometimes electric cars require a huge
charge in order to function properly – which may reflect poorly on your electricity bill each month.
3. Short Driving Range and Speed: Electric cars are limited by range and speed. Most of these cars
have range about 50- miles and need to be recharged again. You just can’t use them for long
journeys as of now, although it is expected to improve in future.
4. Longer Recharge Time: While it takes couple of minutes to fuel your gasoline powered car, an
electric car take about 4-6 hours to get fully charged. Therefore, you need dedicated power stations
as the time taken to recharge them is quite long.
5. Silence as Disadvantage: Silence can be a bit disadvantage as people like to hear noise if they
are coming from behind them. An electric car is however silent and can lead to accidents in some
cases.
6. Normally 2 Seaters: Most of the electric cars available today are small and 2 seated only. They
are not meant for entire family and a third person can make journey for other two passengers bit
uncomfortable.
7. Battery Replacement: Depending on the type and usage of battery, batteries of almost all
electric cars are required to be changed every 3-10 years.
8. Not Suitable for Cities Facing Shortage of Power: As electric cars need power to charge up,
cities already facing acute power shortage are not suitable for electric cars. The consumption of
more power would hamper their daily power needs.
9. Some governments do not provide money saving initiatives in order to encourage you to buy an
electric car.
10. Some base models of electric cars are still very expensive because of how new they are and
the technology it took to develop them.

Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) use the combination of engine of a conventional

vehicle with an electric motor powered by traction batteries and/or fuel cell. This combination
offers low emissions with the power, range and convenient fueling of conventional (gasoline and
diesel) vehicles, also helps in achieving both energy and environmental goals and they never need
to be plugged in. The deployment of a large number of these vehicles would provide environmental
benefits, reduction of oil consumption, and reduction in emissions. In hybrid EVs propulsion,
energy is available from more than one source of energy. The three configurations of HEVs are
series hybrid system, parallel hybrid system and split hybrid system.

HEVs generate their own electricity onboard, so they do not have to carry the extra weight of
storage batteries. A hybrid`s electric motor is energized by a battery, which produces power
through a chemical reaction. A generator like the alternator of a conventional car is driven by the
ICE continuously recharges the battery. Hybrids can have a parallel design, a series design, or both

In a parallel design, the energy conversion unit and the electric propulsion system are connected
directly to the vehicle`s wheels. The primary engine is used for highway driving and the electric
motor provides added power during hill climbs, acceleration and other periods of high demand. The
parallel hybrid can utilize the engine to charge the battery pack during less intense power driving
cycles, such as cruising at freeway speeds. In a parallel hybrid, it is possible to turn the engine off
and run the electric motor from the battery pack for shorter in-town driving. In this case, the
parallel hybrid acts and a fully EV and becomes virtually emission-free. The driving range of a
parallel hybrid can achieve up to 400 miles or more.

In a series design, the primary engine is connected to a generator that produces electricity. The
electricity charges the batteries which drive an electric motor that powers the wheels. A series
hybrid vehicle uses a high efficiency ICE or even a turbine to generate electrical power for the
electric motor. The engine is designed to charge a large battery pack, which in turn powers an
electric motor to provide power to the drive wheels. The ICE or turbine runs on and generates
electricity when the battery pack drops below a minimum charge level. The driving range of a series
hybrid vehicle can achieve ranges up to 400 miles without charging

A hybrid`s efficiency and emissions depend on the particular combination of subsystems, how these
subsystems are integrated into a complete system, and the control strategy that integrates the
subsystems.

Series and parallel hybrids come in a variety of types. The mission of the vehicle and the optimum
design for that mission dictate the choice. If the HEV is to be basically an EV with an ICE-assist for
achieving acceptable range, then the choice should be a series hybrid, with the ICE ensuring that the
batteries remain charged all the time. On the other hand, if the HEV is to be basically a vehicle with
almost all the performance characteristics and comforts of an ICEV but with lower emission and
fuel usage standards, then the choice should be a parallel configuration. Parallel HEVs have been
built with performance that is equal, in all aspects of normal operation, to that of a conventional car.
However, some series HEVs have also been built that perform nearly as well as ICEVs.

Advantages of Hybrid Vehicles

  Higher fuel economy and improved tailpipe emissions. 

  Good low-end torque 
  Reduced noise and vibration at stops 
  Smooth acceleration and reduced noise and vibration at low speeds 
  Reduced engine vibration 
  Better shifting performance 
  Reduced engine and brake maintenance 
  Regenerative braking 
  Smaller engine 
 Lower fossil fuel dependence 
Disadvantages of Hybrid Vehicles

  Reduced high-end torque 

  Sustained high-speed grade ability 
  Reduced high-speed towing capacity 
 Extra complexity adds significant cost 

 Fuel efficiency improvements will vary by hybrid vehicle type, by application and by driving
cycle. 

Different Configuration of Hybrid Vehicles

HEVs evolved out of two basic configurations: series and parallel. A series hybrid is one in
which only one energy converter can provide propulsion power. The heat engine or ICE acts as a
prime mover in this configuration to drive an electric generator that delivers power to the battery
or energy storage link and the propulsion motor. The component arrangement of a series HEV is
shown in Figure below.
 Series HEV is the simpler type, where only the electric motor provides all the propulsion
power. A downsized heat engine on board drives a generator, which supplements the batteries and
can charge them when they fall below a certain state of charge. The power required to move the
vehicle is provided solely by the electric motor. Beyond the heat engine and the generator, the
propulsion system is the same as in an EV, making electric motor power requirements the same as
for in the EV.

The advantages of a series HEV are:

1. Flexibility of location of engine-generator set
2. Simplicity of drivetrain
3. Suitability for short trips

The disadvantages of a series HEV are:

1. It needs three propulsion components: ICE, generator, and motor.
2. The motor must be designed for the maximum sustained power that the vehicle may require,
such as when climbing a high grade. However, the vehicle operates below the maximum power
most of the time.
3. All three drivetrain components need to be sized for maximum power for long-distance,
sustained, high-speed driving. This is required, because the batteries will exhaust fairly quickly,
leaving ICE to supply all the power through the generator.

A parallel hybrid is one in which more than one energy source can provide propulsion power. The
heat engine and the electric motor are configured in parallel, with a mechanical coupling that lends
the torque coming from the two sources. The component arrangements of a parallel hybrid are
shown in Figure below
 In parallel HEV, the heat engine and the electric motor are connected to the driveshaft
through separate clutches. Power requirements of the electric motor in the parallel hybrid are
lower than that of an EV or series hybrid, because the heat engine complements for the total power
requirement of the vehicle. The propulsion power may be supplied by the heat engine, by the
battery-motor set, or by the two systems in combination.

The following are advantages of a parallel HEV:

1. It needs only two propulsion components: ICE and motor/generator. In parallel HEV, the motor
can be used as the generator and vice versa.
2. A smaller engine and a smaller motor can be used to get the same performance, until batteries
are depleted. For short-trip missions, both can be rated at half the maximum power to provide the
total power, assuming that the batteries are never depleted. For long-distance trips, the engine may
be rated for the maximum power, while the motor/generator may still be rated to half the
maximum power or even smaller.

The following are disadvantages of a parallel HEV:

1. The control complexity increases significantly, because power flow has to be regulated and
blended from two parallel sources.
2. The power blending from the ICE and the motor necessitates a complex mechanical device.

Series and parallel hybrids come in a variety of types. The mission of the vehicle and the optimum
design for that mission dictate the choice. If the HEV is to be basically an EV with an ICE-assist for
achieving acceptable range, then the choice should be a series hybrid, with the ICE ensuring that the
batteries remain charged all the time. On the other hand, if the HEV is to be basically a vehicle with
almost all the performance characteristics and comforts of an ICEV but with lower emission and
fuel usage standards, then the choice should be a parallel configuration. Parallel HEVs have been
built with performance that is equal, in all aspects of normal operation, to that of a conventional car.
However, some series HEVs have also been built that perform nearly as well as ICEVs.

Series – Parallel Combination

Although HEVs initially evolved as series or parallel, manufacturers later realized the
advantages of a combination of the series and parallel configurations for practical road vehicles. In
these combination hybrids, the heat engine is also used to charge the battery. The recently available
Toyota Prius is an example of such a hybrid, where a small series element is added to the primarily
parallel HEV. The small series element ensures that the battery remains charged in prolonged wait
periods, such as at traffic lights or in a traffic jam. These combination hybrids can be categorically
classified under parallel hybrids, because they retain the parallel structure of a component
arrangement. It is important to stress the fact that the detailed configuration of an HEV depends on
the application and the trade-off between cost and performance.

The component arrangement of a series-parallel combination hybrid is shown in Figure

above. The schematic is based on the Toyota Prius hybrid design. A power split device allocates
power from the ICE to the front wheels through the driveshaft and the electric generator,
depending on the driving condition. The power through the generator is used to charge the
batteries. The electric motor can also deliver power to the front wheels in parallel to the ICE. The
inverter is bidirectional and is used to charge the batteries from the generator or to condition the
power for the electric motor. For short bursts of speed, power is delivered to the driveshaft from
the ICE and the electric motor. A central control unit regulates the power flow for the system using
multiple feedback signals from the various sensors.

Use of the ICE to charge the batteries should be minimized when maximizing efficiency.
Energy is always lost while charging and discharging the battery and during the power flow
through the inverter. The vehicle should be operated off its engine or battery or both, until the
battery is at a minimum acceptable state of charge, say 20 to 40%. The battery should be charged
from the power grid when convenient.

Power Split Device

The hybrid transaxle has a power-splitting device that controls the amount of torque to the
drive wheels by the engine and/or electric motor. The power-split device uses a planetary gear to
vary the amount of power supplied from the engine to either the wheels or the generator. The ring
gear of the gear set is connected to the planetary carrier and the differential. The engine is
connected to the planetary carrier and the generator is connected to the sun gear. The entire
transmission system functions like an electronically controlled continuously variable transmission.
It adjusts the rates of revolution of the engine, motor and generator.

Currently, Ford, Nissan, and Toyota use a power-split system. This system is the basis for many
series-parallel hybrid vehicles. This system is capable of instantaneously switching from one power
source to another or combining the two. The unit functions as a continuously variable transaxle,
although it does not use the belts and pulleys normally associated with CVTs. This transaxle also
does not have a torque converter or clutch. Rather, a damper is used to cushion engine vibration
and the power surges that result from the sudden engagement of power to the transaxle. The
power-split unit used here is basically comprised of a planetary gear set and two electric motors.
When used with high-output engines, the power-split unit also has an additional reduction
planetary gear set.
High power and energy density batteries
Desirable attributes of HEV batteries
  High-peak and pulse-specific power 
  High specific energy at pulse power 
  High charge acceptance to maximize regenerative braking. 
 Long calendar and cycle life. 
Lead -Acid Battery
Lead-acid batteries have been the most popular choice of batteries for EVs. Lead-acid
batteries can be designed to be high powered and are inexpensive, safe, and reliable. A recycling
infrastructure is in place for them. However, low specific energy, poor cold temperature
performance, and short calendar and cycle life are among the obstacles to their use in EVs and
HEVs.
The long existence of the lead-acid battery is due to the following:
• Relatively low cost
• Easy availability of raw materials (lead, sulfur)
• Ease of manufacture
• Favorable electromechanical characteristics

The battery cell operation consists of a cell discharge operation, when the energy is supplied from
the battery to the electric motor to develop propulsion power, and a cell charge operation, when
energy is supplied from an external source to store energy in the battery.

Cell discharge operation

In the cell discharge operation, electrons are consumed at the positive electrode, the supply of
which comes from the negative electrode. The current flow is, therefore, out of the positive
electrode into the motor-load, with the battery acting as the source.

The positive electrode equation is given by:

A highly porous structure is used for the positive electrode to increase the PbO2(s)/electrolyte
contact area, which is about 50 to 150 m2 per Ah of battery capacity. This results in higher current
densities, as PbO2 is converted to PbSO4(s). As discharge proceeds, the internal resistance of the
cell rises due to PbSO4 formation and decreases the electrolyte conductivity as H2SO4 is consumed.
PbSO4(s) deposited on either electrode in a dense, fine-grain form can lead to sulfatation. The
discharge reaction is largely inhibited by the buildup of PbSO4, which reduces cell capacity
significantly from the theoretical capacity.
The negative electrode equation during cell discharge is:

The electrons are released at the negative electrode during discharge operation. The production
of PbSO4(s) can degrade battery performance by making the negative electrode more passive.
Cell charge operation
The cell charge operation is the reverse of the cell discharge operation. During cell charging, lead
sulfate is converted back to the reactant states of lead and lead oxide. The electrons are consumed
from the external source at the negative electrode, while the positive electrode releases the
electrons. The current flows into the positive electrode from the external source, thereby delivering
electrical energy into the cell, where it gets converted into chemical energy.

The chemical reaction at the positive electrode during cell charging is:

The chemical reaction at the negative electrode during cell charging is:

The overall chemical reaction during cell charging is:

Conventionally, lead-acid batteries are of flooded-electrolyte cells, where free acid covers all the
plates. This imposes the constraint of maintaining an upright position for the battery, which is
difficult in certain portable situations. Efforts in developing hermetically sealed batteries faced the
problem of buildup of an explosive mixture of hydrogen and oxygen on approaching the top-of-
charge or overcharge condition during cell recharging. The problem is addressed in the valve-
regulated-lead-acid (VRLA) batteries by providing a path for the oxygen, liberated at the positive
electrode, to reach the negative electrode, where it recombines to form lead-sulfate. There are two
mechanisms for making sealed VRLA batteries, the gel battery, and the AGM (absorptive glass
microfiber) battery. These types are based on immobilizing the sulfuric acid electrolyte in the
separator and the active materials, leaving sufficient porosity for the oxygen to diffuse through the
separator to the negative plate
Nickel – Cadmium Battery
Nickel – cadmium (NiCd) and nickel – metal hybrid (NiMH) batteries are examples of
alkaline batteries with which electrical energy is derived from the chemical reaction of a metal with
oxygen in an alkaline electrolyte medium. The specific energy of alkaline batteries is lowered due to
the addition of weight of the carrier metal. The NiCd battery employs a nickel oxide positive
electrode and a metallic cadmium negative electrode. The net reaction occurring in the potassium
hydroxide (KOH) electrolyte is:

The practical cell voltage is 1.2 to 1.3 V, and the atomic mass of cadmium is 112. The specific energy
of NiCd batteries is 30 to 50 Wh/kg, which is similar to that of lead-acid batteries. The advantages
of NiCd batteries are superior low-temperature performance compared to lead-acid batteries, flat
discharge voltage, long life, and excellent reliability. The maintenance requirements of the batteries
are also low.

The biggest drawbacks of NiCd batteries are the high cost and the toxicity contained in cadmium.
Environmental concerns may be overcome in the long run through efficient recycling, but the
insufficient power delivered by the NiCd batteries is another important reason for not considering
these batteries for EV and HEV applications. The drawbacks of the NiCd batteries led to the rapid
development of NiMH batteries, which are deemed more suitable for EV and HEV applications.

Nickel – Metal – Hydride (NiMH) Battery

The nickel-metal-hydride battery is a successor to the nickel-hydrogen battery and is

already in use in production HEVs. In NiMH batteries, the positive electrode is a nickel oxide similar
to that used in a NiCd battery, while the negative electrode is a metal hydride where hydrogen is
stored. The concept of NiMH batteries is based on the fact that fine particles of certain metallic
alloys, when exposed to hydrogen at certain pressures and temperatures, absorb large quantities of
the gas to form the metal-hydride compounds. Furthermore, the metal hydrides are able to absorb
and release hydrogen many times without deterioration. The two electrode chemical reactions in a
NiMH battery are:
At the positive electrode,
proprietary alloy formulations used in NiMH are known as AB5 and AB2 alloys. In the AB5 alloy, A is
the mixture of rare earth elements, and B is partially substituted nickel. In the AB2 alloy, A is
titanium or zirconium, and B is again partially substituted nickel. The AB2 alloy has a higher
capacity for hydrogen storage and is less costly. The operating voltage of NiMH is almost the same
as that of NiCd, with flat discharge characteristics. The capacity of the NiMH is significantly higher
than that of NiCd, with specific energy ranging from 60 to 80 Wh/kg. The specific power of NiMH
batteries can be as high as 250 W/kg. The NiMH batteries have penetrated the market in recent
years at an exceptional rate. The Chrysler electric minivan Epic uses a NiMH battery pack, which
gives a range of 150 km. In Japan, NiMH battery packs produced by Panasonic EV Energy are being
used in Toyota EV RAV-EV and Toyota HEV Prius. The components of NiMH are recyclable, but a
recycling structure is not yet in place.

NiMH batteries have a much longer life cycle than lead-acid batteries and are safe and abuse
tolerant. The disadvantages of NiMH batteries are the relatively high cost, higher self-discharge rate
compared to NiCd, poor charge acceptance capability at elevated temperatures, and low cell
efficiency. NiMH is likely to survive as the leading rechargeable battery in the future for traction
applications, with strong challenge coming only from lithium-ion batteries.

Lithium Ion Battery

Lithium metal has high electrochemical reduction potential (3.045 V) and the lowest atomic
mass (6.94), which shows promise for a battery of 3 V cell potential when combined with a suitable
positive electrode. The interest in secondary lithium cells soared soon after the advent of lithium
primary cells in the 1970s, but the major difficulty was the highly reactive nature of the lithium
metal with moisture, restricting the use of liquid electrolytes. Discovery in the late 1970s by
researchers at Oxford University that lithium can be intercalated (absorbed) into the crystal lattice
of cobalt or nickel to form LiCoO2 or LiNiO2 paved the way toward the development of Li-ion
batteries. The use of metallic-lithium is bypassed in Li-ion batteries by using lithium intercalated
(absorbed) carbons (LixC) in the form of graphite or coke as the negative electrode, along with the
lithium metallic oxides as the positive electrode. The graphite is capable of hosting lithium up to a
composition of LiC6. The majority of the Li-ion batteries uses positive electrodes of cobalt oxide,
which is expensive but proven to be the most satisfactory. The alternative positive electrode is
based on nickel oxide LiNiO2, which is structurally more complex but costs less. Performance is
similar to that of cobalt oxide electrodes.

Manganese oxide-based positive electrodes (LiMn2O4 or LiMnO2) are also under research, because
manganese is cheaper, widely available, and less toxic. The cell discharge operation in a lithium ion
cell using LiCoO2 is illustrated in Figure below. During cell discharge, lithium ions (Li+) are released
from the negative electrode that travels through an organic electrolyte toward the positive
electrode. In the positive electrode, the lithium ions are quickly incorporated into the lithium
compound material. The process is completely reversible. The chemical reactions at the electrodes
are as follows:
At the negative electrode,
At positive electrode,

During cell charge operation, lithium ions move in the opposite direction from the positive
electrode to the negative electrode. The nominal cell voltage for a Li-ion battery is 3.6 V, which is
equivalent to three NiMH or NiCd battery cells. Lithium-ion batteries have high specific energy, high
specific power, high energy efficiency, good high-temperature performance, and low self-discharge.
The components of Li-ion batteries are also recyclable. These characteristics make Li-ion batteries
highly suitable for EV and HEV and other applications of rechargeable batteries.

Lithium Polymer Battery

Lithium-polymer evolved out of the development of solid state electrolytes, i.e., solids
capable of conducting ions but that are electron insulators. The solid state electrolytes resulted
from research in the 1970s on ionic conduction in polymers. These batteries are considered solid
state batteries, because their electrolytes are solids. The most common polymer electrolyte is
polyethylene oxide compounded with an appropriate electrolyte salt.

The most promising positive electrode material for Li-poly batteries is vanadium oxide V6O13.1
This oxide interlaces up to eight lithium atoms per oxide molecule with the following positive
electrode reaction:
Li-poly batteries have the potential for the highest specific energy and power. The solid polymers,
replacing the more flammable liquid electrolytes in other type of batteries, can conduct ions at
temperatures above 60°C. The use of solid polymers also has a great safety advantage in case of EV
and HEV accidents. Because the lithium is intercalated into carbon electrodes, the lithium is in ionic
form and is less reactive than pure lithium metal. The thin Li-poly cell gives the added advantage of
forming a battery of any size or shape to suit the available space within the EV or HEV chassis. The
main disadvantage of the Li-poly battery is the need to operate the battery cell in the temperature
range of 80 to 120°C. Li-poly batteries with high specific energy, initially developed for EV
applications, also have the potential to provide high specific power for HEV applications. The other
key characteristics of the Li-poly are good cycle and calendar life.

HEV Ultra-capacitors
In a hybrid EV, energy is constantly being stored and used; the repeated charging and discharging
puts a tremendous strain on the batteries. This reduces the lifetimes of batteries. Ultra-capacitors
eliminate many of the problems of batteries for hybrid EVs. The ultra-capacitors used in hybrid
electric traction batteries (HETB) are electrochemical capacitors, which have extremely high
volumetric capacitances because of large electrode surface areas and very small electrode
separations. Capacitors can have extremely long lives relative to those of batteries. Hence,
reliability of the HETB energy system is increased, the life-of-system cost is reduced, and adverse
environmental effects are diminished with the use of ultra-capacitors.
Advantages of Ultra capacitors
  They can function at power densities greater than those of batteries. 
  They can provide high power levels during acceleration. 
  They have excellent low-temperature characteristics. 
  They do not require maintenance. 
  They can provide consistent performance over time. 
 They are safe in EVs because of their relative ease of discharge. 

Fuel Cell
Fuel cells produce electricity, employing reaction between hydrogen and oxygen gases,
electrochemically. Fuels cells are efficient, environmentally benign, compact, modular and reliable
for power generation. Different type of fuel cells currently under development are the protons
exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs), molten carbonate fuel
cells (MCFCs), solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs), and alkaline fuel
cells (AFCs).

Fuel cell operate on hydrogen gas and oxygen from air. Hydrogen gas can be obtained from a
variety of fuels. Fuel cell power plants can be operated with overall system efficiencies of about 45
% - 60% or even higher. They offer high efficiency and low emissions even at part load and in small
sizes. Because of high fuel utilization efficiencies, fuel cells help in carbon dioxide emission
reduction. Owing to their noiseless operation, fuel cells can be installed in densely populated areas
as well. Fuel cells can be used for stationary/portable power generation and automotive
applications. High-conversion efficiency, extremely low or no emissions, noiseless opearion, high-
current density and compactness are some of the advantages that make fuel cells an ideal power
option for automobile application. The use of batteries in combination with the fuel cell system
provides starting power as well as the surge power requirement of the electric motor.

Advantages of fuel cell EVs

  Zero tailpipe emissions (no CO2 or other pollutants). 
  Higher energy efficiency than the internal combustion engine. 
  Regenerative braking captures and reuses braking energy. 
  Potential of near-zero well-to-wheel emissions when using hydrogen. 
  Energy security: no dependence on petroleum. 
 Grid connection potential providing energy on call to grid. 

Challenges
  Cost reduction. 
  Increased reliability and durability. 
  Hydrogen generation, distribution, dispensing and onboard storage. 
  Availability and affordability of hydrogen refueling. 
  Codes and standards development. 
 Scalability for mass manufacture. 
Basics of Fuel Cells
A fuel cell is galvanic cell (that is, a battery), which converts chemical energy into electrical
energy by means of an electrochemical process. As with a battery, a fuel cell is a device in which
electron transfer is forced to take place through an external pathway rather than directly between
reactants. A fuel cell operates by taking in fuel and an oxidant (usually pure oxygen or oxygen in
air) at separate electrodes and converting the excess chemical energy into DC electricity. The fuel
source is typically either hydrogen or a hydrogen carrier such as natural gas or methanol.
Fuel cells produce minimal pollution while fueled with a hydrogen carrier and has zero pollution
when operated on hydrogen. In the case of a H2O2 fuel cell, water and heat are the only by-products.
Unlike conventional batteries, a fuel cell does not utilize the material that it is composed of as a fuel
source. A fuel cell takes fuel from outside and converts it into chemical energy. Thus, fuel cell do not
suffer from some of the limitations of the conventional batteries in that they do not have to be
discarded, as in the case of non – rechargeable batteries, or recharged, as in the case of
rechargeable batteries. A fuel cell consists of two porous electrodes where energy conversion
process takes place, and a solid or liquid electrolyte, which conducts the ions to form a closed
circuit. A generalized fuel cell is shown in figure below.

The fuel molecules, that is hydrogen, are introduced on the anode side of fuel cell. At the anode,
which is sometimes called the fuel electrode, the hydrogen molecules give up their electrons,
resulting in the formation of positively charged hydrogen ions by reaction H 2 => 2H+ + 2e-. These
electrons are subsequently drawn to the cathode by the oxidizing agent, O2, resulting in the
formation of negatively charged oxygen ions. As the electrons move through the external circuit
connecting the anode and the cathode, electrical energy is created which can be used as a source of
power. Such a process would be slowed considerably if there was no mechanism to redistribute the
ions formed at the electrodes. To allow the migration of ions from one electrode to another, an
electrolyte is introduced between the two electrodes. The electrolyte provides the pathway for the
hydrogen ions to pass from the anode to the cathode side of the cell. There, the hydrogen ions
combine catalytically with oxygen, which has diffused to the membrane-catalyst interface through
the porous cathode and the electrons from the adjacent cell to form water, according to the reaction
4H+ + O2 +4e- => 2H2O. Thus, the overall reaction in the fuel cell is simply described as follows.

2H2 + O2 => 2H2O