Transducer

A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. Usually a transducer converts a signal in one form of energy
to a signal in another.[1]

Transducers are often employed at the boundaries of automation, measurement, and control systems, where electrical signals are
converted to and from other physical quantities (energy, force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.). The process of converting one
form of energy to another is known as transduction.[2]

Contents
Transducer types
Mechanical and electrical transducers
Sensors and actuators
Active vs Passive Sensors
Characteristics
Applications
See also
References
External links

Transducer types

Mechanical and electrical transducers

Transducers that convert physical quantities into mechanical ones are called mechanical transducers; Transducers that convert
physical quantities into electrical are called electrical transducers. Examples are a thermocouple that changes temperature differences
into a small voltage, or aLinear variable differential transformer (LVDT) used to measure displacement.

Sensors and actuators

Transducers can be categorized by which direction information passes through them:

A sensor is a transducer that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus from a physical system. [3][4][2] It
produces a signal, which represents information about the system, which is used by some type of telemetry ,
information or control system.
An actuator is a device that is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism or system. It is controlled by a
signal from a control system or manual control.It is operated by a source of energy, which can be mechanical force,
electrical current, hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic pressure, and converts that energy into motion. An actuator
is the mechanism by which a control system acts upon an environment. The control system can be simple (a fixed
mechanical or electronic system),software-based (e.g. a printer driver, robot control system), a human, or any other
input.[2]
Bidirectional transducers convert physical phenomena to electrical signals and also convert electrical signals into
physical phenomena. An example of an inherently bidirectional transducer is an antenna, which can convert radio
waves (electromagnetic waves) into an electrical signal to be processed by aradio receiver, or translate an electrical
signal from a transmitter into radio waves. Another example is voice coils, which are used in loudspeakers to
translate an electrical audio signal into sound and in dynamic microphones to translate sound waves into an audio
signal.[2]
Active vs Passive Sensors
Active sensors require an external power source to operate, which is called an excitation signal. The signal is
modulated by the sensor to produce an output signal. For example, athermistor does not generate any electrical
signal, but by passing an electric current through it, itsresistance can be measured by detecting variations in the
current or voltage across the thermistor.[5][2]
Passive sensors, in contrast, generate an electric current in response to an external stimulus which serves as the
output signal without the need of an additional energy source.Such examples are a photodiode, and a piezoelectric
sensor, thermocouple.[6]

Characteristics
Some specifications that are used to rate transducers

Dynamic range: This is the ratio between the largestamplitude signal and the smallest amplitude signal the
transducer can effectively translate.[2] Transducers with larger dynamic range are more "sensitive" and precise.
Repeatability: This is the ability of the transducer to produce an identical output when stimulated by the same input.
Noise: All transducers add some randomnoise to their output. In electrical transducers this may beelectrical noise
due to thermal motion of charges in circuits.Noise corrupts small signals more than large ones.
Hysteresis: This is a property in which the output of the transducer depends on not only its current input but also its
past input. For example, an actuator which uses agear train may have some backlash, which means that if the
direction of motion of the actuator reverses, there will be a dead zone before the output of the actuator reverses,
caused by play between the gear teeth.

Applications
Electromagnetic:

Antennae – converts propagating

electromagnetic waves to and
from conducted electrical signals
magnetic cartridges – converts
relative physical motion to and
from electrical signals
Tape head, disk read-and-write
heads – converts magnetic fields
Transducers are used inelectronic communications systemsto convert
on a magnetic medium to and
from electrical signals signals of various physical forms toelectronic signals, and vice versa. In
Hall effect sensors – converts a this example, the first transducer could be amicrophone, and the second
magnetic field level into an transducer could be a speaker.
electrical signal
Electrochemical:

pH probes
Electro-galvanic oxygen sensors
Hydrogen sensors
Electromechanical (electromechanical output devices are generically called
actuators):

Accelerometers
Air flow sensors
Electroactive polymers
Rotary motors, linear motors
Galvanometers
Linear variable differential transformers or rotary variably differential transformers
Load cells – converts force to mV/V electrical signal usingstrain gauges
Microelectromechanical systems
Potentiometers (when used for measuring position)
Pressure sensors
String potentiometers
Tactile sensors
 Vibration powered generators
Vibrating structure gyroscopes
Electroacoustic:

Loudspeakers, earphones – converts electrical signals into sound amplified

( signal → magnetic field → motion
→ air pressure)
Microphones – converts sound into an electrical signal (air pressure →motion of conductor/coil → magnetic field
→ electrical signal)[2]
Pickup (music technology)– converts motion of metal strings into an electrical signalmagnetism
( → electrical
signal)
Tactile transducers – converts electrical signal into vibration ( electrical signal → vibration)
Piezoelectric crystals – converts deformations of solid-state crystals (vibrations) to and from electrical signals
Geophones – converts a ground movement (displacement) into voltage (vibrations → motion of conductor/coil →
magnetic field → signal)
Gramophone pickups – (air pressure → motion → magnetic field → electrical signal)
Hydrophones – converts changes in water pressure into an electrical signal
Sonar transponders (water pressure → motion of conductor/coil → magnetic field → electrical signal)
Ultrasonic transceivers, transmitting ultrasound (transduced from electricity) as well as receiving it aftersound
reflection from target objects, availing for imaging of those objects.
Electro-optical (Photoelectric):

Fluorescent lamps – converts electrical power intoincoherent light

Incandescent lamps – converts electrical power intoincoherent light
Light-emitting diodes – converts electrical power intoincoherent light
Laser diodes – converts electrical power intocoherent light
Photodiodes, photoresistors, phototransistors, photomultipliers – converts changing light levels into electrical
signals
Photodetector or photoresistor or light dependent resistor (LDR) – converts changes in light levels into changes
in electrical resistance
Cathode-ray tubes (CRT) – converts electrical signals into visual signals
Electrostatic:

Electrometers
Thermoelectric:

Resistance temperature detectors(RTD) – converts temperature into an electrical resistance signal

Thermocouples – converts relative temperatures of metallic junctions to electrical voltage
Thermistors (includes PTC resistor and NTC resistor)
Radioacoustic:

Geiger-Müller tubes – converts incident ionizing radiation to an electrical impulse signal

Radio receivers converts electromagnetic transmissions to electrical signals.
Radio transmitters converts electrical signals to electromagnetic transmissions.

See also
Horn analyzer
List of sensors
Tactile sensor

References
1. Agarwal, Anant. Foundations of Analog and Digital Electronic Circuits.Department of Electrical Engineering and
Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of e
Tchnology, 2005, p. 43
2. To cite a book with a credited authorWiner, Ethan (2013). "Part 3".The Audio Expert. New York and London: Focal
Press. ISBN 978-0-240-82100-9.
3. Fraden J. (2016). Handbook of Modern Sensors: Physics, Designs, and Applications 5th ed. Springer
. p.1
 4. Kalantar-zadeh, K. (2013). Sensors: An Introductory Course 2013th Edition. Springer
. p.1
5. Fraden J. (2016). Handbook of Modern Sensors: Physics, Designs, and Applications 5th ed. Springer
. p.7
6. Fraden J. (2016). Handbook of Modern Sensors: Physics, Designs, and Applications 5th ed. Springer
. p.7

External links
Introduction to Closed Loop Hall Effect Current Transducers
Federal Standard 1037C, August 7, 1996: transducer
A sound transducer with a flat flexible diaphragm working with bending waves

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