Ecological Sanitation

Practitioner’s Handbook

unite for children

Ecological Sanitation
Practitioner’s Handbook

2011

unite for children

 Acknowledgements

UNICEF, India Country Office provided valuable inputs at various stages to make this
publication possible.

This Practitioner’s Handbook on Ecological Sanitation is a repository of knowledge

written in an accessible style by Prof V M Chariar and Er S Ramesh Sakthivel of the
Ecological Sanitation Group of the Centre for Rural Development and Technology,
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. The domain expertise of Prof Chariar with his
understanding of community knowledge & design for sustainability and Er Sakthivel,
a WATSAN professional and researcher with over 2 decades of grassroots experience
have complemented each other and render rigour and diligence to this publication.

Case Study contributions were made by the following :

? Prof C A Srinivasamurthy, Univ of Agri Sciences, Bengaluru

? Mr M Subburaman, SCOPE, Trichy
? Mr Dayanand Pandse, Ecosan Services Foundation, Pune
? Mr S Paramasivan, Whereever the Need, Puducherry

Illustrations and Line Drawings were contributed by :

? Mr Yogesh J Khabale
? Mr Shivam Nigam

Various sources, texts and websites which have been consulted to compile national and
international case studies are gratefully acknowledged and find mention in the
References Section.

i
Contents Pages

1. Introduction to Ecological Sanitation .......................................................... 1

2. Ecological Sanitation .................................................................................. 11

3. Ecosan Toilets – Design Principles ............................................................ 23

4. Ecosan Toilets – Planning, Design Considerations and

Technological Options ................................................................................ 35

5. Waterless Urinals ....................................................................................... 93

6. Hygienic Operations and Maintenance ...................................................... 111

7. Ecosan in Disaster and Special Situations ................................................. 117

8. Safe Application of Human Excreta in Agriculture ...................................... 127

9. Implementation Framework ........................................................................ 141

10. Case Studies .............................................................................................. 153

11. Annexures .................................................................................................. 181

12. References ................................................................................................. 189

iii
v
 Chapter 1
Introduction to
Ecological Sanitation
1. Introduction to Ecological Sanitation

S anitation is a determinant of health and

includes food, personal, domestic and
environmental hygiene and access to adequate
access to open ground and the digging of new
pits every few years.

and safe water. It includes home sanitation and Further, in the conventional sanitation
safe disposal of liquid, solid waste and human approach, faecal matter and urine are dealt with
excreta. Sanitation is a fundamental requirement as waste, not as a resource, and thus fail to
to ensure safe health, environment and the recover useful products in it. Since conventional
overall well being of the society. Unless proper, sanitation systems fail to fulfil the fundamental
functional sanitation facilities are in use principles of sustainable development, there is
complemented with the right types of hygiene an urgent need to explore alternative sanitation
behaviours, communities will be vulnerable to systems which are capable of fulfilling this
recurrent incidences of water and sanitation important objective.
related diseases.
This publication explores the alternative
The interlinkages of sanitation with many other sanitation approach called “Ecological
development issues such as health, education, Sanitation”, which is gaining increased attention
agriculture and poverty alleviation have been in sanitation discourse in recent years across the
acknowledged widely in recent years. As a globe. Ecological sanitation is an approach
result, sanitation has been included as one of the based on the principle of “minimum resource
priority areas in the Millennium Development utilization and maximum resource recovery”.
Goals (MDGs) laid out by the United Nations. This approach can offer sound sanitation
solutions in a framework of sustainable
While sanitation has been rated as one of the development.
important medical advancements since 1804,
several studies reflect that conventional Major part of this publication focuses on
sanitation technologies have been responsible ecologically sound sanitation solutions that
for pollution of water bodies & propagation of minimize resource consumption and attempt to
water-borne diseases. Majority of the world’s eliminate pollution of natural ecosystems. In the
population having access to sanitation facilities context of rural India, where substantial
still rely on either “Flush and Discharge” or numbers of sanitation facilities at household and
“Drop and Store” systems. school levels are being created in mission mode,
promotion of sound sanitation practices
Drop and store systems can be simple and founded on the principle of ecological sanitation
relatively low cost but have many drawbacks. will be of great benefit to rural communities in
Often they cannot be used at all on rocky general and especially to communities living in
ground, where the groundwater level is high or ecologically fragile areas.
in areas periodically flooded. They require

3
1.1 Sanitation Scenario in India efforts towards achieving water and sanitation
coverage in all schools.
Sanitation scenario of rural India has improved
quite significantly over the years due to the Presently, of the 7.66 lakh primary and upper
sustained efforts of the Government of India. primary rural schools in India, 85% have water
Rural sanitation coverage in India was a mere supply facilities, 58% have sanitation facilities
1% in 1980. Presently, over 73% of the rural and 43% have separate toilets for girls.
population has been covered due to these
While there is significant improvement in the
efforts.
sanitation situation in rural India, issues such as
The Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) launched poor usage of toilet facilities, low priority and
by the Government of India in 1999 has been a awareness on sanitation among rural
key factor for this success. The TSC programme communities, lack of adequate water and
with a focus on awareness generation and infrastructure in schools are some key issues
demand creation brought out significant change that still need to be addressed. Emerging issues
in the sanitation approach. Introduction of the such as contamination of surface and ground
Nirmal Gram Puraskar (NGP) in 2003 under the water due to flush & discharge or drop & store
TSC, an incentive scheme for open defecation systems need to be addressed urgently.
free villages, brought out significant impetus to Promotion of sanitation technologies based on
the programme by leveraging participation of ecological sanitation has an important role in
the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in addressing these issues.
sanitation promotion.

Water and sanitation facility in schools is also a

major concern. India has the largest number of 1.2 Importance of Sanitation
school going children in the world. Under TSC
out of a target of 13,14,636 , 11,24,771 school Studies conducted globally reveal that 80% of
toilet units have been constructed so far. the common diseases can be prevented by
Convergence between the TSC and the Sarva providing water and sanitation facilities. Safe
Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), a flagship programme disposal of human excreta is an important
of Government of India for Universal component of sanitation as excreta contains
Elementary Education, has strengthened the organisms like bacteria, viruses and parasites

Figure 1.1 Faecal-oral disease transmission via fluids, fields, flies, fingers

4
responsible for diarrhoeal diseases. Most of the Studies reveal that absence of separate toilet
common diseases which lead to infant mortality facilities for girls in school is a major cause for
such as diarrhoea, typhoid, cholera, worm very high drop out rates among them. In India,
infestations and respiratory diseases can be only 4 out of 10 girls who enrol in schools
prevented by providing safe drinking water and complete schooling.
sanitation facilities.
Apart from impact on health, lack of sanitation
Disease causing pathogens in human excreta are facilities has a direct linkage to the economic,
passed on by an infected person to another literacy and social well being of a society.
person via various routes: flies, on fingers, in Diseases caused due to the absence of water and
fluids and via surfaces such as fields (Figure sanitation facilities impact economic well being
1.1). Improved sanitation and hygiene practices of individuals as well as that of the nation. For
interrupts these routes of transmission and example, diseases burden due to simple and
helps in preventing faecal-oral disease preventable diseases leads to increased medical
transmission. Therefore, sanitation is termed as exchequer and infrastructure for treatment. An
the “Primary Barrier” against the faecal-oral estimate by Central Health Bureau, Ministry of
disease transmission. Health and Family Welfare, Government of
India, shows that every year over 180 crore
One gram of excreta contains productive man days worth of Rs 1,200 crore is
lost due to diarrhoeal diseases in the country.
1 crore viruses
10 lakh bacteria
1,000 parasite cysts and eggs

1.3 Conventional Sanitation

Absence of appropriate sanitation facilities Systems : Drawback & Limitaions
exposes women to dangerous and shameful
conditions apart from causing severe health Conventional sanitation systems adopted for
complications. In such conditions, women are disposal of human excreta are primarily based
compelled to relieve themselves only before on either “flush and discharge” or “drop and
sunrise or wait till sunset. Children without store” principles. These methods, developed at
access to appropriate sanitation suffer from early stages of evolution of sanitation concepts,
repeated diarrhoeal diseases and worm aim to dispose human excreta rather than
infestations which are a major cause of viewing it as a resource and treating at source.
malnourishment, stunted growth and high Conventional sanitation can be termed as
mortality rates. following a “linear sanitation approach” also
termed as “end of pipe” technology, leads to
Impact of absence of disposal of enormous quantities of nutrients
sanitation facilities present in human excreta unproductively into
Contamination of water sources & environment
? water bodies causing pollution, apart from
Diarrhoeal diseases & worm infections
?
wastage of precious fresh water.
Malnourishment and mortality among children
?
Loss of dignity to women and girl children
?
Accidents while defecating in unsafe locations
? Some of the limitations of conventional
High drop out rate among girls in schools
? sanitation technologies are as follows:
Economic loss to families and the nation
?
?
Massive infrastructure needed and high

5
 to go through a complex treatment
processes.

?
Elimination of organic matter and nutrients
at sewage treatment plants requires
enormous amounts of energy and chemicals.

?
Use of freshwater to transport human
excreta in sewers results in high drinking
water demand. In water-scarce regions,
additional pressure is put on limited
freshwater resources.
Figure 1.2 Flush and discharge method of disposal
?
Drop and store method of treating human
maintenance costs of managing the flush excreta onsite has limitations too. Ground
and discharge systems are not affordable water especially in coastal areas and areas
even by many developed nations of the with shallow water table get contaminated
world. Developing nations can ill afford the by disease causing pathogens and nitrate
huge costs of environmental restoration present in human excreta.
such sanitation systems in the long run.

?
Valuable nutrients present in human excreta
are misplaced in the water bodies and 1.4 Ecological Sanitation
environment as these conventional Systems : Advantages & Novel
sanitation technologies fail to recover useful
Features
products. As a result, a linear flow of
nutrients from rural areas to urban areas Ecological sanitation systems render human
and nutrients accumulate in water bodies excreta safe, preventing pollution rather than
resulting in pollution. attempting to control it after pollution takes
place and proposes to use the safe products of
?
Pathogens present in faeces contaminate
sanitized human excreta for agricultural
fresh water and the resulting sewage needs
purposes. Therefore it can be characterized as a
“closed loop” sanitation system which treats
human excreta as a resource. Human excreta are
processed until they are completely free of
disease organisms. Nutrients obtained in the
form of compost and urine are recycled by using
them in agriculture. As ecological sanitation
systems adopt treatment processes that closely
mimic the cycles of nature, it is sustainable and
has no negative impact on the environment.

Some of the advantages in the use of ecological

sanitation systems are:
Figure 1.3 Drop and Store method of disposal

6
?
Ecological sanitation systems lead to saving processed as crystal fertilizer.
enormous quantities of fresh water since
urine diverting dry toilets and waterless ?
Recovery of nutrients from human excreta
urinals do not require water for flushing. using ecological sanitation systems can
effectively substitute mineral fertilizers
?
Faeces and urine which require different which are non-renewable whose prices have
treatment processes can be handled easily increased multifold due to depletion of oil
when separated at source. Studies show that and phosphate rock reserves.
the segregated treatment approach is both
energy efficient and cost effective. ?
Linking sanitation and agriculture using
ecological sanitation approaches can play a
?
Separation of faeces, which has high major role in ensuring health security as
pathogen levels, from urine and absence of well as food security of economically
water used for flushing, significantly weaker sections of society.
reduces the volume of waste fraction to be
treated.
?
By using ecological sanitation approach
pollution of water sources and the risks 1.5 Total Sanitation Campaign
posed by diarrhoeal diseases due to unsafe (TSC)
disposal of human excreta can be mitigated.
Rural sanitation came into focus in the
?
Ecological systems facilitate decentralized
Government of India in the World Water
and sustainable treatment options for safe
Decade of 1980s. The Central Rural Sanitation
disposal of human excreta.
Programme was launched by the Government
of India in 1986 to address rural sanitation in
?
Compost obtained from ecological sanitation
India. It was a supply driven, highly subsidy
toilets is a good soil conditioner and
and infrastructure oriented programme. As a
increases soil fertility.
result of these deficiencies and low financial
?
Urine, which is usually sterile, is rich in allocations, the CRSP had little impact on the
nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium can gargantuan problem. The experience of
be directly applied to crops or further community-driven, awareness-generating
campaign based programmes in some states and
the results of evaluation of CRSP, led to the
formulation of the Total Sanitation Campaign
(TSC) approach in 1999.
Application of
nutrients to crops
The Total Sanitation Campaign is a ‘community
led’ programme with increased emphasis on
Cultivation and
awareness creation and demand generation for
Defecation harvest sanitary facilities in houses, schools and for
cleaner environment. TSC adopts a
comprehensive and integrated strategy for
sanitation promotion which includes intensive
Consumption
IEC Campaign and behavior change
Figure 1.4 Closing the loop through ecological sanitation
communication involving Panchayati Raj

7
Institutions, Co-operatives, Women Groups, Self ?
Motivate communities and Panchayati Raj
Help Groups, NGOs, technology improvisations Institutions in generating felt demand for
to meet the customer preferences, hygiene sanitation facilities through awareness
practices, solid and liquid waste management. creation and health education.
?
Encourage cost effective, appropriate and
Objectives sustainable sanitation technologies in
sanitation.
The main objectives of the TSC are as under:
?
Develop community managed
?
Bring about an improvement in the general environmental sanitation systems focusing
quality of life in the rural areas. on solid and liquid waste management.

?
Accelerate sanitation coverage in rural areas Sanitation Components under TSC
and achieve cent percent sanitation coverage
by 2017. Increased attention to software components
such as Information, Education and
?
Cover Schools and Anganwadis with Communication (IEC), human resource
sanitation facilities in rural areas by 2013 development, capacity building and generation
and promote hygiene education and of demand for sanitary facilities were included
sanitary habits among students. in the programme. Introduction of supply chain

Pattern of Allocation Total Cost Centre Share State Share Beneficiary Share

Incentives Per Unit Cost of Household Toilets (only for BPL families) a

Plain areas Rs 2,200 Rs 1,000

Hilly areas Rs 2,700 Rs 1,000

School Toilets b
Plain areas Upto Rs 35,000 Upto 70% Upto 30% If necessary, mobilisation
(Rs 24,500) (Rs 10,500) from PTA or from other
Hilly areas Upto Rs 38,500 Upto 70% Upto 30% funds such as MPLADS /
(Rs 26,900) (Rs 11,550) MLALADS can be done.
Anganwadi Toilets

Plain areas Upto Rs 8,000 Upto Rs 5,600 Upto Rs 2,400 If necessary, other funds like
Hilly areas Upto Rs 10,000 Upto Rs 7,000 Upto Rs 3,000 MPLADS / MLALADS can
also be utilised.
Community Sanitary Upto Upto Upto Upto
Complexes c Rs 2,00,000 Rs 1,20,000 Rs 60,000 Rs 20,000
Notes:
a Incentive for toilet construction is only provided to BPL families. The state government is free to provide

additional incentive based on local needs.

b Co-educational schools are to be provided with separate toilet facilities for boys and girls.

c Community Sanitary Complexes are provided where people live in congested locations or they do not

own land for toilet construction.

Table 1.1 Current financial allocation for hardware activities under the TSC programme

8
mechanisms such as rural sanitary marts, community.” Existing financial allocations
production Centers and provision for matching earmarked under TSC for all the respective
grants has helped in supporting the demand locations mentioned above can be utilized for
generated. promoting ecological sanitation technologies.
Efforts may be made by States to integrate
To address safe disposal of solid and liquid Ecosanitation with ongoing TSC projects.
waste financial allocation has been earmarked in
the TSC programme. Table 1.1 provides the
details of the current allocation pattern for the
hardware activities under the TSC programme.

Summary

In view of the problems associated with

promotion of conventional sanitation systems
especially in ecologically sensitive regions such
as coastal, flood prone, shallow water table, hilly
and dry areas, the TSC programme guidelines
were amended to include promotion of
ecological sanitation components. Ecological
sanitation components include urine diverting
dry toilets, waterless urinals and other related
technologies can be promoted at households,
community sanitary complexes, schools and
anganwadis.

The TSC guidelines Para 9 (h) state that

“Ecosanitation structures that allow storage of
human excreta and urine, for composting or
converting to usable and safe manure or
fertilizer can be taken up under Total Sanitation
Campaign. It should, however, be ensured that
it does not involve the practice of manually
cleaning and removing human excreta and is
not in contravention of any existing provisions
of law. Further, the structure should be so
located that it does not lead to contamination of
existing water bodies, water table below
ground, rain water or other water streams. The
concept of waterless urinals can also be
promoted particularly for institutional toilet
complexes to save precious fresh water. Such
concepts should be promoted along with
existing traditional approaches incorporating
necessary modifications in consultation with

9
 Chapter 2
Ecological Sanitation
2. Ecological Sanitation

E cological sanitation is based on three

fundamental principles : pre-venting
pollution rather than attempting to control it
excreta is a waste which has no useful purpose.
In nature there is no waste - all the products of
living systems are used as raw materials by
after we pollute; sanitizing the urine and the other living systems. Recycling sanitized human
faeces; and using the safe products for urine and faeces by returning them to the soil
agricultural purposes. This approach can be serves to restore the natural cycling of life-
characterised as ‘sanitize-and-recycle’. building materials that has been disrupted by
conventional sanitation practices. Further, the
This approach is a cycle – a sustainable, closed- energy efficiency of this process is greater as
loop system. It treats human excreta as a recycling takes place more locally.
resource. Urine and faeces are stored and
processed on site and then, if necessary, further Recycling of faeces and urine prevents direct
processed off site until they are free of disease pollution caused by sewage being discharged or
organisms. The nutrients contained in the seeping into water resources and ecosystems. A
excreta are then recycled by using them in secondary benefit is that of recycling nutrients
agriculture. to soil and plants which reduces the need for
chemical fertilizers. It restores good soil
Conserving water, energy and minimising organisms to protect plants, and it is always
environmental pollution are also the other available locally, wherever people live.
important objectives of ecological sanitation Nutrients recovered from human excreta can be
systems. used to enhance the productivity of horticulture
and agriculture in home gardens and farms, in
Conventional treatment processes are often urban as well as rural areas.
designed based on the principle that human

2.1 Nutrient Cycle

Nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous and
potassium play an important role in the growth
of plants. In general, nitrogen and potassium
make up about 80 percent of the total mineral
nutrients in plants; phosphorous, sulphur,
calcium and magnesium together constitute 19
percent, while all the micronutrients together
constitute less than 1 percent.
Figure 2.1 Closing the Loop: Ecological sanitation

13
 them are also transported. This implies
movement of nutrients from the production area
to the area where they are finally utilized.

If nutrients excreted as a waste after

consumption are not recovered and simply
discharged into water bodies, it causes a break
in the natural nutrient cycle and leads to
depletion of nutrients in the soil. As a result,
these misplaced nutrients have to be substituted
by chemical fertilisers produced from finite
mineral and oil reserves. Providing nutrients to
Figure 2.2 Nutrients in production and consumption soil solely through fertilisers is often
cycles (Source: Finck, 1992)
unaffordable by many poor and marginal
Nitrogen is responsible for the dark green farmers leading to food insecurity and poverty.
colour of stem and leaves, vigorous growth, Use of chemical fertilisers also leads to
branching / tillering, leaf production, size environmental pollution and degradation of soil
enlargement, and yield formation. Phosphorous health in the long run.
is essential for growth, cell division, root
lengthening, seed and fruit development, and Human beings excrete most of the plant
early ripening. Potassium increases resistance of nutrients they consume through food after
plants to disease, creates winter hardiness and attaining adulthood as the body does not need
drought resistance, and produces stiff stalks and all nutrients for body growth. Therefore,
stems to reduce water logging. It also increases recovery of nutrients from human excreta offers
grain plumpness as well as growth of fruit and a tremendous opportunity for closing the
root vegetables. nutrient cycle and thereby ensuring sustainable
growth of the society. By adopting ecological
Nutrients present in soils are consumed by sanitation practices, plant nutrients that we
crops to produce food and other products for consume can be recovered and recycled back to
the benefit of human beings and animals. Crop soils for ensuring food security.
products are often consumed far away from the
production sites, some times thousands of
kilometres away in another country. When crop
products are moved, the nutrients contained in
Elements (g / ppd) Urine Faeces Urine + Faeces
Nitrogen 11.0 1.5 12.5
Phosphorous 1.0 0.5 1.5
Potassium 2.5 1.0 3.5
Organic carbon 6.6 21.4 30
Wet weight 1,200 70 – 140 1,200 – 1,400
Dry weight 60 35 95

Table 2.1 Major elements present in human excreta (Source: Esrey et al. 2001)

14
 Nutrients Nutrients in 500 Nutrients in 50 Total Fertilizer needed to grow
litres of Urine litres of Faeces 250 kgs of cereal

Nitrogen 5.6 kg 0.09 kg 5.7 kg 5.6 kg

Phosphorus 0.4 kg 0.19 kg 0.6 kg 0.7 kg

Potassium 1.0 kg 0.17 kg 1.2 kg 1.2 kg

Table 2.2 Major nutrients present in human excreta and quantity of nutrients required to grow 250kg cereals
(Source: WEDC)
2.2 Nutrients in Human Excreta The basic steps adopted to render safe handling
and recycling of human excreta are listed below:
Urine and faeces excreted by human beings are
a rich source of nutrients like nitrogen, ?
Source Separation : Source separation of
phosphorous and potassium. On an average, faeces, urine and wash water and ensuring
every human being excretes 500 litres of urine that no water be used for flushing would
and 50 litres of faeces in a year. These values reduce the volume of pathogenic material.
vary according to age and dietary habits of an Only the faecal fraction needs to be paid
individual. Urine contains significant portion of great attention.
nutrients excreted by the human beings. Studies
?
Isolation : The pathogenic material should
suggest that around 80% of nitrogen, 66%
be isolated until it is safe for recycling and
phosphorous and 80% of potassium are present
this eliminates the risks of contamination.
in urine. Feaces is rich in organic carbon with
over 80%.
?
Volume Reduction : The volume and
weight of pathogenic material is reduced by
As illustrated in Table 2.1, the amount of dehydration and/or decomposition to
nutrients present in human excreta of a person facilitate storage, transport and further
annually correspond to the amount of fertiliser treatment.
needed to produce 250 kg of cereal, which is
?
Sanitization : Reducing pathogens to a
also the amount of cereal that a person needs as
harmless state, by sanitization: primary
food every year. Therefore, food security of
treatment on-site (dehydration /
every human being can be ensured if nutrients
decomposition, retention), secondary
are recovered back from excreta. Such an
treatment on / off site (further dehydration,
approach to human excreta management would
high temperature composting, changes in
ensure not only food security but also much
pH by the addition of lime), and, if
desired sustainable environment.
necessary, tertiary treatment (incineration).
Urine is usually sterile; unless it is cross
contaminated with faeces, while it is important
to inactivate pathogens present in human
excreta before it is applied to agricultural lands.
2.3 Recycling Nutrients present
Treatment processes which can be adopted to in Excreta
render human excreta safe are discussed in the
forthcoming sections. Urine and faeces can be safely recycled back to

15
soil after treatment. Suitable treatment options very good soil conditioner. Some benefits
can be introduced through ecological sanitation exhibited by compost are improved soil
systems appropriate to the situation. structure and water holding capacity, good
microbial activities, prevention of pests and
Urine can be subjected to various treatment disease, moderation of temperature, slow
processes like storage, volume reduction, release of nutrients and binding of heavy
hygienisation, struvite recovery and metals.
evaporation. Direct application of urine to crops
after a short storage period is the most preferred
option being adopted in rural areas presently.
However, direct application of urine over a 2.4 Ecological Sanitation
sustained period may lead to increase in soil Systems
salinity of agricultural lands requiring
periodical monitoring and mitigation measures. Any sanitation system that sanitises waste
Collection of urine from urban areas and materials and facilitates recovery of useful
institutions like schools and public places, substances can be termed as an ecological
transportation of large volume of urine sanitation system. However, it is quite difficult
increases the cost of application. Therefore, and a challenging task to classify the numerous
methods like struvite recovery, volume methods which can be utilised to achieve this
reduction and evaporation are being explored. purpose. Single or a range of systems in
Urine has proved to be a quick acting multi- combination can be employed to achieve this
component fertiliser which has very low heavy objective. The following schematic
metal content. Better plant yield, taste and plant representation shows various ecological
characteristics have been observed among sanitation systems which can be employed to
plants fertilised with urine. address major waste streams.

Dehydration or decomposition processes are In this section, a few important cost effective
applied to eliminate pathogens present in faeces. and decentralised ecosanitation systems which
Aeration, increased temperature, high pH due can be employed in rural areas to treat human
to addition of ash and lime and microbial excreta are discussed. However, ecosan is not
activities are some factors responsible for limited to these technologies alone, other
inactivation of pathogens in faeces. Compost
obtained from the process is rich in carbon and a

Figure 2.3 Recycling nutrients from excreta for food Figure 2.4 Overview of various ecological sanitation
security systems (Source : GTZ)

16
 The faeces and additive of soil, wood ash or dry
leaves added after every use are collected in a
chamber or removable bin placed directly below
the toilet seat. By maintaining dry conditions
inside the chamber and by enhancing air
circulation through vent pipes provided to the
chamber, dehydration of faecal matter is
achieved. Due to factors such as increase in pH,
higher temperature, aeration and dehydration,
the mixture is sanitised and desiccated into a
fine power-like substance after isolation period
of 9-12 months. This dry residue or compost
Figure 2.5 Ecosan toilet with twin chambers (UDDT)
collected from the vault is a good soil
conditioner which can be applied to agricultural
technologies which are capable of meeting these lands.
objectives would also be considered as
ecological sanitation systems. Urine diverted to a storage tank can be applied
to crops as a nitrogen rich fertiliser containing
Ecosan Toilets (UDDT)
both phosphorous and potassium. Urine which
is usually sterile does not require treatment
Urine diverting dehydrating toilets which are
unless cross contamination with faeces occurs.
commonly termed as “ecosan toilets” are widely
Wash water containing pathogens is diverted
being adopted across many parts of the world
safely to a soak pit or a plant bed provided
due to their versatile application and
outside the toilet.
operational ease. Unlike other systems, ecosan
toilets utilise dehydration process which is less
Ecosan toilets help in saving water, preventing
complex and best suited to most places. Faeces,
contamination of ground water and recycling
urine and wash water, especially in places like
nutrients excreted by human beings to
India, where people follow ablution after
agriculture. It is suited for construction in all
defecation, need to be separated using a
types of regions including dry, cold, hilly and
specially designed toilet 3-hole seat (Figure 2.5).
plain areas.

Figure 2.6 Process of construction of Arborloo composting toilet (Design: Peter Morgan, Zimbabwe)

17
Arborloo much like the Arborloo; however it has two pits
constructed with ring beams placed over them
Arborloo is a composting toilet which is widely permanently. Only the squatting slab and
used in various parts of Africa. Faeces and urine superstructure are moved between the two pits
are collected together in an unlined pit. After when one of them gets filled-up. Lining side
every use, soil, dry leaves or ash are added to walls of the pit with dry stones or bricks
prevent odour and increase the carbon content without mortar provides stability to the side
of the mixture. A movable superstructure is wall of the pits.
placed over the pit to offer privacy to the users.
The ring beam provided around the pit on top Once one pit gets filled-up, it is covered with
and the squatting plate placed over it is moved soil and the contents are allowed to compost for
to a new location after the pit is filled-up. a period of 6-9 months before emptying. The
compost emptied from the pit is applied as
A thick layer of soil cover is placed over the manure to crops and plants. The two pits
filled-up pit and is allowed to settle for some constructed initially are used in rotation by
time. Later, vegetables or fruit plants are grown moving the squatting slab and the
over it. It is observed that plants grow very well superstructure.
due to fertile composted material available
below. Arborloo type composting toilets are Diverting the wash water to a separate soak pit
more suited to areas where ground water table should be considered in order to prevent odour
is very deep and as also for dry regions. and any possible ground water contamination
through leaching. Fossa Alterna is suited for
If Arborloo is implemented in Indian conditions, areas where ground water table is very deep
diverting the wash water to a separate soak pit and for dry regions.
should be considered in order to prevent smell
inside the pit and any possible ground water The Ventilated Improved Double Pit toilets also
contamination through leaching. function similar to Fossa Alterna.

Fossa Alterna Toilet Linked Biogas Plants

Fossa Alterna is also a composting type toilet Biogas reactors such as fixed or floating dome
being widely promoted in Africa. It functions

Figure 2.7 Use of Fossa Alterna composting toilet Figure 2.8 Toilet linked biogas system
(Design: Peter Morgan, Zimbabwe)

18
type can be utilised to recover useful products Dewats systems of treating sewage provides
from human and animal excreta and other useful by-products and the possibility of
organic waste from kitchen and agricultural recycling water used for flushing and washing.
farms. Useful products such as biogas (methane) Dewats system usually includes a settling tank,
for cooking purposes and enriched slurry for anaerobic digester and constructed wetland or
fertilising lands can be obtained from biogas polishing pond for complete disinfection of
plants. pathogens present in human excreta. In a
Dewats system, biogas from anaerobic digester
When toilets are linked to biogas plants, low can also be obtained; however due to higher
water-solid ratio must be ensured by using low- operation costs and maintenance requirements,
flush toilets or with suitable water-solid it is normally not desired.
separation devices. Addition of solid materials
like cow dung and organic wastes to the biogas Dewats system is more suited for institutions or
plants apart from human excreta can help in a cluster of households where large quantity of
reducing the water-solid ratio. sewage is generated and sufficient land area is
available for construction of its various
Slurry generated from biogas plants treating components. While, smaller modules for
human excreta will contain pathogens. individual households can also be adopted,
Therefore, secondary composting of the slurry is proper system for treatment of waste water
essential before it is applied to agricultural must be ensured.
lands.
Water conserved from the system after ensuring
Biogas plants linked to toilets can be constructed pathogen destruction can be used for irrigation
for individual or a cluster of households and at and toilet flushing purposes. Sludge collected
institutions like residential schools. Biogas periodically from the system must be subjected
plants perform very well in locations with to secondary composting before application to
temperatures above 15 degrees. Cold climates agricultural lands.
severely limit their performance.
A case study on Dewats implemented by the
Dewats Ecosan Services Foundation in Maharshtra is

Figure 2.9 Dewats system for decentralised Figure 2.10 Secondary composting facility having
treatment of faecal sludge (Design: Ecosan Services two composting chambers for alternative use
Foundation, India)

19
included in the chapter on case studies in this ensure prevention of odour emission. Urine
publication. collected from homes, schools, institutions and
public places can be stored in tanks and can be
Other systems (Secondary Composting) utilised for recovering nutrients present in
human urine for productive industrial and
Faeces collected prematurely from ecosan
agricultural purposes.
systems would contain pathogens. Contents
emptied periodically from single vault ecosan Waterless urinals can be adopted widely in all
toilet vaults or bins, removable or rotating locations. Odour prevention using traps
vaults or the sludge removed from Biogas or available in the market or developed using low-
Dewats systems must be treated before using cost devices adopted from locally available
them as compost. For such shorter retention materials can be utilised. However, regular
systems, secondary composting facilities must maintenance of the systems is essential to ensure
be provided for ensuring completion of their effective performance.
pathogen inactivation from the contents
removed.

Also, it is advisable to have secondary 2.5 Ecosan Systems Suitable for

composting systems with a minimum of two
processing chambers / bins for alternating the
Different Locations
composting process between them periodically.
The following table provides an overview of
Special secondary composting facilities may
some of the most common ecosan systems
have to be designed if large volumes of material
which can be adopted in India and their
are expected especially from a cluster of houses
adoptability in different regions along with
or community ecosan toilet complexes. Addition
some key operational factors.
of carbonaceous materials along with the sludge
improves composting efficiency and quality.
Other factors involved in composting processes
such as maintaining moisture content, aeration,
temperature and pH apply as well.

Waterless Urinals

Waterless urinals were first introduced in

Europe, North America, Japan and South Africa
in the nineties to reduce consumption of water
used for flushing in urinals. Waterless Urinals
do not require water for flushing at all and thus
save between 56,800 litres to 1,70,000 litres of
water per urinal per year. Waterless urinals can
be installed in urban as well as rural areas to
conserve water and energy and to reduce
volume of waste water generated.

Odour traps are installed in waterless urinals to

20
 Ecosan Systems Plain Areas Dry Areas Cold & High Coastal Areas Flood Plains Maintenance Cost Suitable
with Deep Altitude with High Locations
Water Table Areas Water Table

UDDT Double Vault Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable, if on Easy Low Households
?
raised level Schools
?
Community
?
Double Vault with Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable, if on Easy Medium Households
?
Solar Panels raised level (vault and Schools
?
panels Community
?
increase the
cost)
Single Vault with Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable, if on Complex Very Low Households
?
Removable Bins raised level (replacement (depends on Schools
?
of bins) the type of Community
?
bins used)

Revolving Vaults Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable, if on Easy High Households
?
raised level Schools
?
Community
?
Composting Double Vault Suitable, but Suitable, but Not Suitable Suitable Suitable, if on Complex Low Households
?
Toilets Composting Toilet moisture moisture for very cold raised level (maintaining Schools
?

21
content content regions C:N ratio & Community
?
needs to be needs to be moisture
maintained maintained content)
Arborloo Suitable Suitable Not Suitable Not Suitable Not Suitable Easy Very Low Households
?
Fossa Alterna Suitable Suitable Not Suitable Not Suitable Not Suitable Easy Low Households
?
Other Toilet linked Suitable Suitable Not Suitable Suitable Suitable, if on Complex High Households
?
Systems Biogas (Low raised level Schools
?
Efficiency) Community
?
Dewats System Suitable Suitable Not Suitable Suitable Suitable, if on Complex High Schools
?
for very cold raised level Community
?
areas
Waterless Urinals Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable, if on Easy Low Households
?
(freezing of raised level Schools
?
pipe line & Community
?
storage tank
must be
avoided)
Table 2.3 Features of different ecosan systems and their suitability for different locations
 Chapter 3
Ecosan Toilets –
Design Principles
3. Ecosan Toilets – Design Principles

E cosan toilets or urine diverting dry toilets

facilitate separation of urine, faeces and
water used for anal cleansing (wash water) at
3.1 Design Features
Ecosan toilets can be constructed in various
the point of use. Ecosan toilets can have a single designs based on factors such as climate,
chamber or multiple chambers for collection and temperature, availability of space, convenience
decomposition of faeces and ensuring pathogen and features desired by the users. Variation in
inactivation. Urine and wash water are design is achieved through modification of the
separated using specially designed toilet seats. faeces collection chamber and toilet seats
While urine is diverted to a storage tank, the installed.
wash water is disposed off through a plant bed
or soak pit. As Indians are basically “washers” Ecosan toilets are usually designed based on
(they practicing ablution with water after collection capacity of 500 litres of urine and 50
defecation), provision of wash water removal litres of faeces excreted by a person in a year.
assumes importance in the ecosan toilet design. However, the usage pattern varies between
households, schools and public places.
Ecosan toilets are designed to desiccate faeces
collected in the chambers through dehydration For designing ecosan toilet chambers,
process. Increase in temperature, moisture parameters such as ultimate volume of
removal, aeration and increase in pH by dessicated faeces and additives added, quantity
additives such as ash are the primary factors of urine and wash water generated by a person
responsible for pathogen inactivation in ecosan per use must be taken into account. The ultimate
toilets. After a chamber gets filled up, a storage volume of desiccated faeces and additives vary
period of 9-12 months is recommended for depending on the volume of faeces and
complete processing. Urine is usually sterile and additives added after every use. Table 3.1
can be directly used for fertilizing crops. provides average values which can be
However, if cross contamination of urine with considered while designing ecosan toilets.
faeces is suspected, a storage period of 1 month
at temperatures over 20 degrees is Components of an Ecosan Toilet
recommended for pathogen inactivation, of
Chamber : Single, double, multiple chambers or
urine.
removable bins are used for collection and
In recent years, several ecosan toilets have been processing of faeces.
constructed in various parts of India and they
Toilet Seat : Specially designed toilet seats are
are functioning effectively. Ecosan toilet are
utilised for separation of faeces, urine and wash
versatile, can be installed in most locations and
water. Toilet seats with two-hole or three-hole
are easy to maintain.
separation arrangements are utilised for this
purpose.

25
 Design Parameters Average Values

Ultimate desiccated volume of faeces and additives 0.25 to 0.4 litres / per person per use
added
Volume of urine 0.25 to 0.3 litres / per person per use
Wash water 1 to 2 litres / per person per use
Storage period of faeces for inactivation of pathogens 9–12 months (after a vault fills-up and is sealed
for decomposition)
Storage of urine Varies based on the collection frequency and size
of the urine storage tank
Table 3.1 Design parameters and their average values for Ecosan Toilet design

Vent pipe : Vent pipes provided to the ecosan pan ranges between Rs 500 – Rs 2000
chambers facilitate aeration, moisture removal depending on the material used and design.
and increase in temperature. Many agencies also use low-cost on-site
separation arrangements for pan fabrication to
Toilet Structure : Covered super structure reduce cost.
provided to the toilets offer privacy to the users
and also protects the chambers from rain, cold Squatting Pans
weather and from insects and animals.
?
Squatting type ecosan pans with two-hole
Urine Storage : Collection of urine in a storage and three-hole separations are available in
tank provided within or outside the toilet the market or can be fabricated onsite.
facilitates its application as liquid fertilizer for
crops. ?
In the two-hole separation pans, a drop hole
for faeces and a collection area for urine are
Wash Water Disposal : Planted beds or soak provided. Wash water is either removed
pits provided outside the toilets facilitate safe from a separate anal washing area provided
disposal of wash water containing faecal matter. in the toilet or it is disposed in the urine
collection area itself, if the user is not keen
Additives : Wood ash, soil, saw dust and dry on separate collection of urine. Each
powdered leaves can be added as additives to chamber is provided with a separate pan.
the faeces to remove moisture, increase pH and
achieve desired C:N ratio of the mixture.

3.2 Faeces, Urine and Wash

Water Separation
In Ecosan toilets, separation of faeces, urine and
wash water is achieved using specially designed
pans with separation arrangements. Different
types of ready to install ecosan toilet pans are
being manufactured in India using fibre, plastic,
Figure 3.1 View of an ecosan toilet with twin faeces
concrete and ceramic materials. Cost of an collection chambers

26
?
In the three-hole separation pans, urine, saving cost of installation. However, if urine
faeces and wash water are removed using a collection is desired, a separate washing
single pan which has separate collection area must be provided.
areas meant for each of these components.
However, a separate pan is provided for ?
Two or three-hole separation can also be
every chamber in the ecosan toilet. created onsite while fabricating cover slabs
for the chambers. For this purpose, holes
required for faeces collection, urine and
wash water collection areas are created in
the slab while fabricating it. After
installation of the slab, using cement mortar
and pipes and plumbing accessories, the
separations are created onsite. Onsite
creation of separation reduces the high cost
required for installation of pans available in
the market.

?
Dimension of the faeces drop hole is usually
Figure 3.2 Three-hole ecosan toilet pan (left) and kept around 8 inches in either circular or
Two-hole ecosan toilet pan square shape. In schools and anganwadis,
some agencies provide a faeces drop hole of
4 to 6 inches depending on the age group of
?
Some manufacturers offer pans which have
children.
a urine collection area and two drop holes
for faeces collection. Therefore, a single pan Pedestal and Bench Type
installed in the ecosan toilet can provide
access to both the faeces chambers while ?
Pedestal and bench type ecosan toilet pans
urine is collected in a common urine are being used in Europe and Africa where
collection area located in the centre. Privacy people practice wiping for anal cleansing.
is ensured by building a wall at the halfway These pans have only urine and faeces
mark of the 2 user pan. Such pans help in separation arrangements. There is no

Figure 3.3 Single ecosan toilet pan provided over Figure 3.4 Providing on-site separation over concrete
both the chambers slabs using cement mortar

27
 provision for wash water separation in these under a UNICEF supported project to
pans. In the Indian context provision for develop a pedestal type pan with wash
wash water separation is a must. water separation facility, but further
research is required to develop a sound
?
Bench type ecosan toilet seat (Fig 3.5) can be option.
constructed onsite using masonry and by
fixing specially designed urine separation
seats. Such seats are being produced in some
of the European countries. 3.3 Faeces Collection and
Decomposition
Isolation of faeces for decomposition and
pathogen inactivation can be achieved by
providing faeces collection chambers below the
ecosan toilet pans. Either removable or
stationary chambers can be used for this
purpose. The type of chamber is chosen based
on factors such as site condition, space
availability and decomposition process desired.
Size of the chambers is decided based on the
number of users, decomposition process
Figure 3.5 Bench type ecosan toilet pan with two selected, user space required for fixing ecosan
toilet seats and a common washing area in the pans and convenience.
middle
Double Vault
?
In bench type toilet seats, a bidet can be
?
Twin chamber type ecosan toilets are built
provided along side the ecosan pans for anal
in many places, especially at households, as
washing.
they can be managed very easily. (Fig 3.6)
?
Pedestal or bench type ecosan pans can
?
In twin chamber type ecosan toilets, after a
facilitate comfortable use of toilets by old
and physically challenged people.
Therefore, further work is needed to
provide a better wash water separation
facility to address this issue.

?
Ideas like using the idle ecosan pan for anal
washing after necessary modifications or
providing a separate bidet for anal washing
can be explored. Bidets which function very
much like wash basins are used for anal
washing in many western countries.

?
An attempt was made by EEDS, Bhopal Figure 3.6 Double vault ecosan toilet with 3-hole
separation pans over each vault

28
 chamber gets filled-up, it is sealed and the ?
Where a secondary composting facility is
contents are allowed to decompose over a available, faeces collected in the chamber
period of 9 to 12 months approximately, can be transported to a secondary
while the other chamber is put into use. composting facility periodically. However,
this method requires careful handling and is
?
Upon dehydration, the contents are not a recommended option due to risks of
collected and applied as manure to pathogen exposure.
agricultural fields or backyard gardens.
?
On the other hand, use of removable bins
?
A twin chamber ecosan toilet must have which can also be used as decomposition
clear inner space of 1.65 m x 1.30 m between chambers finds wider application. As soon
walls for ease of use and fixing two ecosan as a bin gets filled up, it is replaced with an
pans. Height of the chamber is kept as 0.6 m empty bin to collect faeces. The bin which is
for a household with 5 members. However, full is moved either within the additional
height of the chambers can be increased to space available in the chamber or moved
accommodate additional requirements outside to a safer location to allow maturing
needed in places like schools and of the contents.
community toilets.
?
Bins made up of materials like tin or plastic
?
To provide safe access to elderly and can be used. In some locations, use of gunny
physically challenged, floor area of the bags for collecting faeces is found effective.
ecosan toilets can be increased as per the It is better to keep the size of bin or bag
requirement. small for ease of handling.

?
The chambers must have access openings to ?
Access door must be provided to the faeces
remove decomposed materials from the collection chamber for removing the
chambers after a period of 9-12 months. For contents or the bins kept in it.
this purpose, rear face of the chambers is
kept open and sealed using a removable slab ?
Size of single chamber ecosan toilets are
by applying lean cement mortar or mud smaller in size as space for fixing an
puddle. Ready made stone slabs or concrete additional pan is not required like the twin
slabs fabricated onsite can be utilised for this
purpose.

?
Chambers must have an impermeable
flooring to ensure dry condition and prevent
leaching.

Single Vault with Bins

?
Single vault ecosan toilets are constructed
where a secondary composting facility is
available for composting or space for
building a twin chamber ecosan toilet is a
constraint or reduction in cost is desired. Figure 3.7 Single vault ecosan toilet with a 2-hole
separation pan and removable bins

29
 chamber toilets. A size of 0.9 m x 1.30 m at an inclined position.
clear inner space would be sufficient.
?
Solar panels made up of metal, aluminium
?
Bins stored outside for maturing must be or fibre sheets can be used, but these should
covered to prevent entry of rain water or be painted black for maximum absorption of
contact with insects. solar radiation.

?
Single chamber removable bin model of ?
Access openings to chambers are usually
ecosan toilet is best suited for terraced provided by installing solar panels which
buildings where an ecosan toilet is desired can be opened to remove desiccated
on first floor or on higher floor. materials or the bins placed inside the
chamber.
Solar Drying Vaults
?
The solar panels installed should be water
?
Solar drying vaults enhance dehydration tight to prevent leakage of rain water into
rate of faeces and pathogen inactivation due the chambers.
to increased temperatures in the faeces
chamber. Therefore, it is a desired feature in ?
As India lies in the northern hemisphere,
cold and high altitude locations. It can also maximum sunshine can be captured by a
be promoted in other areas if faster rate of surface facing southern direction. Therefore,
dehydration is desired. as far as possible solar panels should face
the south direction.
?
Solar panels can be fixed either to a single or
double vault ecosan toilet. Each chamber ?
Maximum solar radiation is captured if sun-
must be provided with a separate solar rays strike the solar panels at right angles.
panel. For this purpose, an inclination equal to
latitude of the place is recommended. As the
?
The construction arrangements of solar average latitude of India can be considered
vault ecosan toilets are very similar to single as 15 to 20 degrees, the panels should be
or double vault chamber ecosan toilets. installed at an angle between 15-20 degrees
However, the rear portions of the chambers facing south.
are extended to accommodate solar panels
Revolving Vaults

?
Chambers of revolving type consist of
several tanks fabricated either by dividing a
large cylindrical tank into smaller tanks or
by assembling smaller tanks into a unit
which has several bins.

?
A shaft and a rotating platform provided
below the tank facilitate rotation of the unit.

?
When a tank gets filled up, replacement of
Figure 3.8 Solar bench type ecosan toilet with one
tank can be performed easily using
seat and removable bins revolving vaults.

30
?
Dehydration of contents in the filled up bins ?
A fine charcoal mix prepared using
occur within the toilet. The contents can be powdered charcoal, finely cut wood (e.g.
removed after it matures by emptying the sawdust, sliced-cut wood, coconut husks
bin through access doors provided. etc.) and limestone or volcanic soil is added
as additive to cover the faeces after every
?
A commercial brand of revolving type use.
ecosan toilet – “Carousel” is being
manufactured in Norway. ?
To induce “lacto-fermentation” process, a
specially prepared liquid mix (consisting of
effective micro-organisms including lacto-
bacilli) is sprinkled over the charcoal mix
added after every use.

?
A single chamber with removable bins is
used for this process. No vent pipe needs to
be provided to the chamber as lacto-
fermentation is an anaerobic process that
does not produce odour.

?
Faeces drop hole must always be kept
covered to create anaerobic conditions.
Figure 3.9 Revolving vault ecosan toilet “Carousel”
However, occasional opening of the lid for
(Source: EcoSanRes)
defecation won’t affect the process.

?
As the vaults can be positioned under the ?
Bins which are full must be covered and
ecosan toilet seat by rotation, installation of stored for a period of 2-4 weeks.
one toilet seat is sufficient.
?
Later, the contents further processed for a 2-
?
However, cost and maintenance of the 4 weeks period by vermi-composting results
system is higher than double vault type in fine Tera Petra Soil like compost. No
ecosan toilet. Industrial fabrication and addition of biowaste is essential for vermi-
presence of moving parts makes it composting as the saw dust and sliced wood
expensive. added as additives are available in the
mixture.
Terra Preta Sanitation
?
Also, addition of 500 ml liquid-mix with
?
Terra Preta Sanitation (TPS) is a recent microbes prior to storage of urine in tanks
innovation which mimics the Terra Preta do prevents formation of ammonia. This helps
Indio, an anthropogenic black soil that was in controlling odour generated by stored
produced by ancient cultures in the Amazon urine and ammonia released from urine.
region through the conversion of biowaste
and faecal matter into long-term fertile soils.

?
Toilet arrangement similar to a single vault
ecosan toilet is used in this process.

31
3.4 Vent Pipe prevent leakage of urine into faeces
chamber. Leakage of urine into faeces
Vent pipe is important for the functioning of
? collection chambers hinders the dehydration
ecosan toilets as they facilitate aeration, process and causes unpleasant odour in the
conduct heat for better dehydration of toilets.
faeces and prevent development of odour in
the toilets. ?
Most ecosan pans manufactured presently
do not have an odour controlling measure to
A single vent pipe can be provided to both
? prevent odour generated from the pipes
the chambers using pipe fittings like elbow carrying urine and the urine storage tanks.
and couplers. It should be secured well to
the wall of the toilet using clamps. ?
To prevent this, measures such as placing a
small spherical plastic float over the
?
Diameter of the vent pipes should be at least drainage hole of urine separation area of the
100 mm and in humid areas it can be pan, fixing a flexible flat tube at the end of
increased up to 250 mm to handle higher the urine pipe inside the storage tank or
moisture levels. extending the urine pipe up to the floor of
storage tank so that urine collected in the
?
The vent pipes should be painted black for tank itself acts as an odour seal can be
better absorption of solar radiation. PVC adopted.
pipes are commonly used as vent pipes
since they do not corrode. ?
Storage capacity of urine collection tank
depends on the number of users and urine
?
For effective functioning of the vent pipes, application cycle desired. At household
they should be fixed vertically and should level, jerry cans of 15-20 litres capacity are
not be having any bends to accommodate used as urine storage tanks which can be
roof projections. Bends in vent pipe reduces directly transported to agricultural fields.
its effectiveness. For schools and public places, large
masonry or HDPE tanks can be installed for
?
Vent pipes should be taken at least 50 cm storing urine.
above the roof level for safe release odour
into the atmosphere and must be provided ?
Further details on urine storage and
with a cowl wrapped with a screen to handling are provided in the waterless
prevent entry of rain water and flies. urinal section of this manual.

3.5 Urine Collection 3.6 Wash Water Disposal

?
Urine should be collected undiluted as far as ?
Wash water contains pathogens due to the
possible. Dilution with water increases the presence of faecal matter and therefore
volume and storage capacity required. should be safely disposed to avoid health
risks.
?
Pipes carrying urine from ecosan pans to
urine storage tanks must be secured well to ?
A soak pit or a plant bed is used to

32
 discharge the wash water generated from are added as additives absorb excess
ecosan toilets. moisture present in the faeces. These
materials also helps to reduce odour,
?
Location of the soak pit or wash water must prevents contact of flies and unsightly view
be isolated and safe. to the next user.

?
Soak pit filled with gravel, brick bats and ?
Addition of these materials increases the
sand can be utilised for discharging the carbon-nitrogen ratio which is good for the
wash water into the ground safely. composting process and for application to
fields.
?
Plat bed of Canna Indica or any other plant
used for phyto-remediation can be raised ?
Materials like sanitary napkins, clothes and
near ecosan toilets to safe dispose wash toilet paper or any other inorganic material
water. like plastic, bottles should not be put in the
faeces chambers as the dehydration process
?
Size of the soak pit or plant bed required will not be effective to the decompose of
depends on the number of users and type of these materials.
soil. Usually, a plant bed of 3 ft x 3 ft area or
a soak pit of 3 ft x 3 ft x 3 ft volume is ?
As far as possible, the additives should be
adequate for a household toilet. collected and stored in dry seasons after
proper screening. Contact with insects like
?
Size of the soak pit or plant bed must be cockroaches should be prevented.
increased accordingly for schools and public
places where volume of wash water ?
A bucket and scoop can be used for storing
generated is high. additives in the toilet. After every use, the
user must sprinkle handful of additives over
the faeces collected in the chamber.

3.7 Additives ?
To simplify the process of addition of
additives, special additive dispensers like a
?
Dry ash, soil, saw dust and crushed leaves hand held tipping container with holes on
the cover or a mechanically operated
dispenser can be designed to suit the
requirement.

Figure 3.10 Container with handle and dispensing

arrangement (left) and mechanically operated ash
dispensing unit (right)

33
 Chapter 4
Ecosan Toilets - Planning,
Design Considerations
and Technological Options
4. Ecosan Toilets - Planning, Design Considerations and
Technological Options

T his chapter is divided into two parts – Part

A and Part B. In part A, aspects related to
planning and design considerations to be
considered in the promotion of ecosan toilets are
discussed. In part B, the various technological
options for implementing ecosan toilets are
discussed.

The planning aspects provide details on the

various steps involved in promoting ecosan
toilets on ground. These are further classified
into sections such as data collection, site
selection, appropriate design, user involvement
and implementation.

The section on design principles and design

considerations describes the various aspects that
are necessary for designing toilets optimally
based on the requirement of users and local
climatic conditions. The section on design
considerations aspects are grouped into sections
such as anthropometric data, climatic conditions
for various zones and the suggested design
parameters and wind and sunlight penetration
for optimal disinfection and drying of toilet
units.

Part B deals with technological aspects and

includes standard designs developed for the
promotion of ecosan toilets for households,
anganwadis, schools and public complexes.

37
 Chapter 4
PART A

Ecosan Toilets - Planning,

Design Considerations
and Technological Options
4.1 Planning customs and beliefs, agricultural practices,
etc., must be taken into account.
Before initiating construction of ecosan toilets, it
is important to take up a range of planning ? User Involvement : Involving the users
exercises in order to ensure effective design, right from planning to the final
implementation and sustainability of the implementation stage helps in
systems installed. These activities must be taken understanding the requirements and to
up for every toilet unit to be built in a project successfully complete the work to their
area. In addition to awareness and capacity satisfaction. Formation of user groups helps
building initiatives, undertaking site specific in leading the implementation and
planning exercises help in making necessary facilitating the post implementation support
adaptations based on the standard designs to the users. Systems for the proper
developed. Following aspects may be operation and maintenance of ecosan toilets
considered while promoting ecosan toilets: to be built in schools and public places must
be discussed and instituted before hand.
? Data Collection : The number of users
expected to use a system must be estimated ? Implementation : The implementation
before designing the facilities. Special care phase would include mobilisation of work
must be taken while designing toilets for force, procurement of materials, contracting
schools and public places where the number work and ensuring quality of work.
of users is expected to grow in future. Necessary steps needed to undertake these
Facilities in schools and public places ought aspects must be planned well in advance.
to be designed with a factor of minimum Approvals and consent of authorities for the
anticipated growth in the next 5-10 year implementation of facilities especially in
period to prevent inadequacy of sanitation schools, anganwadis and public places is
infrastructure. equally important.

? Site Selection : Appropriate location must

be chosen based on the site conditions for
construction of ecosan toilets. Factors 4.2 Design Principles
including privacy, convenience, operational
aspects like availability of space, drainage, The ecosan toilets must be designed
emptying faeces and urine collection, incorporating design principles which fulfil the
availability of sun light and wind flow must requirements of the users as well as the site
be considered while selecting the site. specific conditions. Designs developed keeping
these principles help in ensuring that the
? Appropriate Design : The design of ecosan facilities meet both the present and future needs
toilets must be based on the local efficiently. Adopting the following design
environmental and operational factors. principles especially for the ecosan toilet units
Environmental factors like temperature, designed for schools and public places are very
humidity, soil, flood level, etc., play a very important to develop efficient designs.
important role in the selection of design. In
addition, operational factors like availability ? Site Specific : The technological option
of materials, preference of users, local should be chosen based on the site
conditions. The adaptations in the design

41
 will be often required especially for should be designed in such a way that
implementing ecosan toilets in schools and maintenance becomes easy. Measures like
public places. Individual household ecosan open plumbing and removable joints for
toilets may also need such changes due to water and sanitary fittings, proper floor
reasons such as space constraints and user slopes and wall tiling inside the toilet and
convenience. circulation areas can be quite efficient in
ensuring cleanliness.
? Future Demand: Taking care of future
demand is key aspect involved in design. ? Materials and Skills : The systems designed
Based on the data available, the future must make full use of materials and skills
growth in the number of users must be available in a given area. As far as possible,
worked out and incorporated in the design. dependence on external materials and skills
Also, the facilities designed must allow should be avoided as it will have a bearing
expansion of the facilities to accommodate on the sustainability of the structures
additional requirement without becoming created.
redundant as far as possible.
? Cost : The structures designed should be
? User and Child Friendliness : Ecosan toilets based on the available financial resources
created in schools, public palaces and and the benefits it offers to the community.
households with people with special needs Inappropriate design which does not take
must be designed according to their these factors into consideration eventually
requirement. The ecosan toilets must be will fail to yield desired results.
designed with facilities such as ramp,
railing, toilet doors and circulation space
with wheel chair access, special toilet chair
designed for use in ecosan toilets, handles 4.3 Design Considerations
and door locks. Similarly, ecosan toilets built
in schools and anganwadis should The standard design considerations based on
incorporate facilities based on the the requirement of users and local climatic
anthropometric requirement of children. In conditions are useful in optimising the design of
addition, anganwadi ecosan toilets must toilet units. The design considerations can be
have good ventilation, adequate space, child grouped into various aspects such as
friendly ecosan toilet pans and safety anthropometric requirements, climatic
measures such as opening in doors so that conditions and wind and sunlight penetration.
latches can be opened from outside, etc. Some of these details are adopted from SSHE
Manual published by UNICEF and DDWS
? Combining Facilities : As far as possible, prepared by VINYAS.
combining the facilities helps in reducing
cost and saving space. Building shared
water tanks, soak pits, urine collection tanks
and common walls for toilets meant for both 4.3.1 Anthropometric Data
sexes in school and community ecosan
It is important to adopt proper anthropometric
toilets can be useful in this regard.
data for the design of structures to achieve user
Easy Maintenance : The facilities created friendliness in the facilities provided. The

42
considerations must address the need of people facilities. Households having people with
with special needs as well. It is very important special needs can also consider incorporation of
with regard to the design of school ecosan toilets facilities to cater to their needs for enabling use
where children of different age group and of the facilities created on their own.
varied capacities are expected to use the
S.No Component Recommended Standard

1 Ramp ? An ideal slope of 1:18 or a minimum of 1:12 with a minimum width of 1000 mm
must be maintained for access by wheel chair users independently
? The height of the railing should not exceed 780 mm and must have a lower level
support at 600 mm level for younger children
? The length of railing should be extended beyond 300 mm from the sloped ends of
the ramp
? Antiskid tiles must be used for flooring of ramp
2 Doors ? The entrance doors and toilets designed for the use of children / people with
special needs must be minimum 1000 mm wide
? All other doors should be at least 700 mm wide
? Doors must have two door handles at 1025 mm and 693 mm height from finished
floor level for use by children and adults
? Doors shutters should be installed above 100 mm above finished floor level
? Provide see through jalli above 900 mm level from finished floor level in the
entrance doors to prevent collision among the users
? Door edges must be painted with contrasting colours to assist chi ldren with low
vision
3 Urinals For Boys :
? The boys urinal must be 500 mm wide and 600 mm in depth
? Separators or walls between urinals must be installed
? Walls must be impervious either with glazed tiles or plastering
For Girls :
? A enclosed urinal cubicle of minimum 700 mm width and inner length of 800 mm
? Doors must be provided with handles and latches according to age
? Hooks for hanging clothes must be provided
4 Ecosan ? Size of ecosan toilet for the use of children / people with special needs must be
Toilets minimum 1750 mm x 2100 mm
? Specially designed chairs with washing arrangements and strong handles for
offering support to children / people with special needs must be provided in
ecosan toilets designated for their use
? Other ecosan toilets with two chambers must be at least 1200 mm x 1500 mm in
size
? At least one incinerator in one of the girls toilet is a must
? Provisions like hooks, latches and handles for variable age group s must be
provided.
? One ventilator should be provided for each toilet
5 Hand ? The hand washing facility must be accessible to children of varying age group.
washing ? Sloping or stepped or independent wash basins can be installed for this purpose.
? Taps must be installed at 600 mm to 770 mm height over the wash basins.
? Top level of wash basins must be between 400 mm to 600 mm
? Chubby holes must be provided for holding soaps at 500 mm to 600 mm height
Table 4.1 Anthropometric Data for Design of Ecosan Toilets

43
4.3.2 Design Parameters for climatic conditions help in optimising the
design. The following table provides the design
Different Climate Zones
considerations of key elements in a toilet unit
Climatic conditions across India are very diverse for various climatic zones across India.
and the toilets designed based on the local

SN Zone I Zone II Zone III Zone IV Zone V Zone VI

Parameter West Coastal Tropical East Coastal Peninsular Plains Gangetic Plains Desert Areas Eastern Hill
Tropical Areas
1 Site Good rainwater Good rainwater Good rainwater Good rainwater Nothing specially Good
drainage essential drainage drainage essential drainage essential in required rainwater
essential view of the flat terrain drainage
and possibility of essential
water stagnation
2 Layout Building to be on the Building to be Building to be on Building to be on the Building to be on Building to be
E-W to NE-SW axis to on the E-W axis the E-W axis to East-West axis to the East-West axis on the East-
reduce solar heat to reduce solar reduce solar heat reduce solar heat to reduce solar West axis to
gains and improve heat gains gains in summer gains in summer and heat gains in reduce solar
wind movements and most part of receive the same in summer and heat gains in
winter winter. Location of receive the same summer and
rooms to be judicially in winter. receive the
determined Compact same in winter
planning to avoid
exposure to sun
3 Air Good arrangements Single banked Single banked Open spacing Not critical but Opens spacing
Movement for cross ventilation modules with modules for good desirable to take desirable and desirable to
good cross ventilation advantage of external hence compact take advantage
arrangement for air motion for cross planning needed of external air
cross ventilation ventilation just to fit. motion for
Excessive air changes cross
in summer or winter ventilation just
brings in heat or cold to fit
respectively from
outside
4 Opening 25% of floor area and Upto 25% of Upto 25% of floor maximum 25% and Maximum 12% of Upto 25% of
upto a maximum of floor area and area and up to a upto 30% of floor area floor area floor area and
30% for ventilation, up to a maximum of 30% for ventilation and up to a
air movement and maximum of for ventilation, air day lighting maximum of
day lighting low sill 30% for motion and day 30% for
heights, ventilation and lighting. Winter ventilation and
windows/ventilators day lighting sunshine may be day lighting
horizontal desirable
5 Roofs May be light weight Light weight Light weight Roofs should be roofs can be flat. May be light
but should be with short time insulative or designed for moderate May be white weight but
insulative. Protection lags may be medium heavy rains. May be white washed for should be
against heavy rainfall sufficient. with short time washed for additional additional insulative.
necessary. Design for lags may be comfort, just before comfort, just Protection
moderate rains sufficient. Design onset of summer, to before onset of against heavy
for moderate rains. reduce heat gains summer, to rainfall
False ceiling and reduce heat gains necessary
attic ventilation
may be useful.
Northern positions
may need heavy
foors also
6 External Light weight, and Light weight, Light weight with careful consideration May be thick with Light weight if
walls thin, if possible, short and thin, if short time lags will should be given to long heat transfer possible with
time lag for heat possible, with suffice. Local plan internal lag time short time lags
transfer. Light short time lag conditions may occupancy during hot for heat
external colours. for heat dictate heavy summer months insulation.
Walls rain protected insulation. Light walls. Light Light external
external colours, colours on walls colours, damps
damp proofed proofed

Figure 4.2 Design considerations of key elements of toilet unit for various climatic zones

44
4.3.3 Wind and Sunlight Sunlight Penetration

Penetration The penetration of sunlight is governed by the

geographical location and corresponding angle
Good wind and sunlight penetration in the toilet
of the sun which varies for different latitudes of
units helps in disinfecting and drying toilets
the locations. According to the geographical
without the help of devices which run on
location, the sunlight penetration can be
electricity or mechanical energy. Adopting such
designed for a toilet complex. The following
design considerations in the design helps in
table provides clearances required for proper
saving energy and reduces the maintenance
sunlight penetration in the eastern, western and
costs tremendously. Availability of natural
southern directions for various locations in
ventilation and exposure to sunlight of a toilet
India. Clearance for sunlight in the northern
unit can be designed based on the geographic
direction of a building is not essential. The
location and local site conditions.
clearances worked out are based on the
Wind Penetration assumption that the surrounding buildings are
only up to single storey which is usually the
Wind penetration can be planned based on the case in most of the rural India.
prevailing wind path and the surrounding
buildings in the vicinity of the proposed toilet
unit. It is important to avoid placement of the
toilet unit in the wind shadow zone caused due
to the existence of a building nearby. For this
purpose, a horizontal clearance of 5 times the
height of the surrounding must be maintained
between the toilet unit and the surrounding
building. Provision of ventilators should be
based on the prevailing wind directions in the
locality.

East, Central Gangetic Northern

Zones Coastal Peninsular
& West Plains Hilly Zone
Latitude 12° North 20° North 24° North 28° North 36° North
Time Direction* Clearances (for surrounding buildings upto 1 storey) #
7.30 AM Western Side 8.7 m 11.76 m 14.23 m 17.91 m
10.30 AM Western Side 2.1 m 2.6 m 3.03 m 3.28 m 5.23 m
12’O clock Southern Side 1.56 m 2.23 m 2.49 m 3.3 m 4.57 m
3.00 PM Eastern Side 3.69 m 4.56 m 5.23 m 5.77 m 9.28 m
4.30 PM Eastern Side 8.7 m 11.76 m 14.23 m 17.91 m
* Clearance in Northern side does not matter for sun light penetration
# The clearances are from outer toilet walls, not from the ramp or landing areas
Table 4.3 Placement of Toilet Blocks for Sunlight Penetration

45
 Chapter 4
PART B

Ecosan Toilets - Planning,

Design Considerations
and Technological Options
4.4 Ecosan Toilets – 4.5 Household Ecosan Toilet
Technological Options
Ecosan toilets can be built in houses like
In India, twin chamber ecosan toilets are being conventional flush toilets. Building one ecosan
widely used. Although it is more expensive than toilet for a family of 5-7 members is ideal.
a single chamber ecosan toilet, it is widely However, the size of the faeces collection
preferred due to its simple operation and chamber should be altered for families with
maintenance requirements. It also helps in more members. Faeces, urine and wash water
minimising the scope of exposure to faecal separation is most desired option commonly
contamination, and enables complete pathogen promoted.
disinfection prior to the removal of contents
from ecosan toilet chambers. It is best suited for
schools and communities where operation and
maintenance is always very critical. Therefore,
4.5.1 Design Considerations
all the designs provided in this section are based
i) Capacity
on twin chamber ecosan toilet type. It is
important to note that only when a proper ? A household ecosan toilet is normally
system of operation and maintenance is assured, designed for use by 5 - 7 members.
single chamber ecosan toilets should be
considered. ? In special cases it is designed for use up to a
maximum of 20 members in a residential
This section contains various technological scenario.
options for promoting ecosan toilets in the
context of: ? In such situations, the faeces collection
chamber(s) should be designed to
? households, accommodate higher number of users.
? anganwadis,
? schools and ii) Volume of Chamber
? community level
? For designing the storage volume of faeces
Design details, drawings and estimates for each collection chamber, an ultimate volume of
of these units mentioned are also provided. The desiccated faeces and additive mixture of
design of structures is based on standard site 0.25 to 0.40 litres per person per day can be
conditions prevailing in most circumstances, considered depending upon the local
however suitable modifications may be condition and usage pattern.
necessary to suit the local site conditions.
Estimates of the civil works are based on the iii) Type of Chambers
prevailing rates prescribed by CPWD for Delhi.
Necessary changes in the estimates can be made ? A twin chamber ecosan toilet is most ideal
based on the material and labour costs in other which requires very minimal maintenance
locations. compared to others.

? However, if there is no space for a double

chamber ecosan toilet and the members of
the household are confident of managing

49
 the regular maintenance requirements, a suitable materials can be used for
single chamber ecosan toilet with removable construction of ecosan toilets.
bins can be chosen. ? Cost of household ecosan toilets can be
drastically reduced by using low cost
iv) Retention Period materials like bamboo, thatch, gunny bags,
etc., for the construction of superstructure.
? A minimum retention period of 10 months However, care should be taken to prevent
for pathogen inactivation of faeces and entry of rainwater into the ecosan toilet.
additive mixture in the faeces collection
chamber must be considered in the design. vii) Customized designs

? If bins or any other removal method of ? The ecosan toilets can be constructed as per
collection is proposed for use, the bins or the the convenience of users either within or
secondary composting process where faeces outside the house.
is processed must take the appropriate
retention period required for pathogen ? If the ecosan toilets are attached to bath
inactivation. rooms, care must be taken to prevent entry
of shower water into faeces and urine
? Urine can be collected in jerry cans of 10-15 collection tanks.
litres size. These can be stored or directly
transported for agricultural applications. ? Ecosan toilets can also be built in the upper
floors of multi-storey buildings.
v) Floor Space and Level
? This can be achieved either by building
? The minimum floor dimension of ecosan having faeces collection chambers right in
toilets with single chamber must be 1.00 m the upper floors or through special chutes
in width and 1.20 m in length, while it which transfer the faeces to collection
should be at least 1.50 m in width and 1.20 chambers provided in ground floor.
m in length for twin chamber.

? The lower level of the faeces collection

chambers of ecosan toilets should be above
the high flood level expected in low lying
and flood prone areas.

vi) Construction materials

? An ecosan toilet is designed with a leak

proof faeces and urine collection chambers /
tanks and super structure with pans /
arrangements that help in source separation
of faeces, urine and wash water.

? Ecosan toilets can be constructed using

locally available materials like bricks,
cement blocks, concrete, bamboo or other

50
4.5.2 Designs, Drawings and
Estimates
Design details Specification

No. of users 5 members

Average volume of desiccated material 0.25 litres / person / day
Retention period 300 days
No. of chambers 2 nos.
Size of faeces collection tanks
? Volume of tanks needed = 5 nos. x 300 days x 0.25 l/p/d = 375 litres
? Size of one tank provided = 1.20 m x 0.70 m x 0.50 m x 1000 litres
= 420 litres
Size of chamber access hole 450 mm wide x 500 mm high
Size of urine collection tank 10-15 litres Jerry cans
Vent pipe ? 100 mm dia connecting both tanks
? 500 mm above roof level
? Cowl on top
Toilet size (floor area) 1.5 m width x 1.2 m length
Plant bed or 0.45 m x 0.45 m size or
Soak pit 0.45 m x 0.45 m x 0.45 m size
Door 0.90 m x 2.1 m
Roof 1–2” thick ferro-cement slab or AC/GI sheets
Super structure Brick wall 115 mm thick
Table 4.4 Specifications of a typical Household Ecosan Toilet

4.5.3 Cost Estimate UNICEF and SEI in Tamil Nadu implemented

by REAL are given below.
The cost of a household ecosan toilet depends
on factors like quality and type of material used, The cost of a household ecosan toilet worked
number of chambers opted (one or two), out based on the standard materials and current
thickness of walls, finishing of the toilet unit, cost of materials and labour is about Rs 16,915.
urine diverting pan opted and other amenities The drawings and the detailed estimate for a
such as like doors and ventilators. The cost of a typical household ecosan toilet are provided on
household ecosan toilets built based on these pages 53-55.
factors is expected to range between Rs 10,000 to
Rs 20,000 given the current market price of the
materials and labour across India.

Reduction in the cost of an household ecosan

toilet can be achieved by constructing the
superstructure with locally available materials
such as thatch, bamboo, waste wood and gunny
bags while the substructure of the toilet is
constructed using proper masonry. Some of the
options explored in a project funded jointly by

51
 Brick Walls Hollow Blocks Mud Blocks

Figure 4.1 Normal options of superstructure

Coconut Thatch Palm Thatch Waste Wood

Figure 4.2 Low cost options of superstructure

52
53
54
 Bill of Quantities of Household Ecosan Toilet

# Item Unit Qty Rate Amount 14 Painting work

1 Excavation a White washing Sq.m 15.30 20.00 306.00
a Foundation cu.m 0.41 140.62 57.65 b Door and ventilator Sq.m 2.16 70.00 151.20
2 PCC in 1:4:8 Total Cost 16,915.34
a Flooring cu.m 0.11 3,330.65 366.37 Total Building Area in sq.m 2.50
3 Filling Total Cost per sq.m 6,766.14
a Sand filling cu.m 0.11 410.04 45.10
4 Masonry work
a RR masonry in CM 1:6 for foundation cu.m 0.41 2,500.90 1,025.37
b 115mm tk brick work in CM 1:4 sq.m 16.09 367.67 5,915.81
c Brick work in CM 1:6 for steps cu.m 0.23 3,206.20 737.43
5 Light roof
a Roofing sq.m 2.82 125.00 352.50
6 Slab (Stone/Precast RCC)
a 75mm tk slab over chmabers sq.m 1.85 620.00 1,147.00
b Cover slab for chamber access sq.m 1.13 620.00 700.60

55
7 Plastering
a Plastering of walls in 1:6 sq.m 15.30 92.00 1,407.60
Plastering in 1:4 with water proof
b sq.m 7.99 105.47 842.71
compound for inner sides of the chambers
8 Cement floor
a Flooring sq.m 2.75 140.00 385.00
9 Sanitary fixtures
a Ecosan squatting pan No 2.00 800.00 1,600.00
10 Water and sanitary fittings (inclusive of all materials and labour costs)
Wastewater and urine pipes from toilets
a Rm 5.00 125.00 625.00
(1.5 inch dia PVC)
b Urine tank (20 litres) No 1.00 150.00 150.00
12 Doors
a D1 No 1.00 800.00 800.00
13 Ventilator and windows
a V1 No 1.00 300.00 300.00
4.6 Anganwadi Ecosan Toilet iii) Type of Chambers

with Urinals ? A twin chamber ecosan toilet is most ideal

which requires very minimal maintenance
The ecosan toilets at Anganwadis can be
compared to others.
designed with a consideration of use by 40
children and a female worker. Care should be ? Single chamber ecosan toilets will be
taken to design spacious units which provide a difficult to maintain in an anganwadi
comfortable atmosphere to children and situation.
movement of caretaker to assist children using
the toilets. Providing urinal units along with iv) Retention Period
ecosan toilets offers comfort to children when
they only want to urinate. Provision of washing ? A minimum retention period of 10 months
facilities encourages hand washing practice for pathogen inactivation of faeces and
among children. Ensuring availability of water additive mixture in the faeces collection
in the anganwadi ecosan toilet is very important chamber must be considered in the design.
for the proper hygiene and maintenance.
? Urine can be collected in a tank of 500 litres
capacity. It can be transported for
agricultural applications.
4.6.1 Design Considerations
v) Floor Space and Level
i) Capacity
? The minimum floor dimension of ecosan
? Anganwadi ecosan toilet can be designed toilets with double chamber must be 1.8 m
for use by 40 children and a female length and 1.30 m in width for use by
caretaker. The unit can be used by both boys children with the assistance of a caretaker.
and girls.
? The lower level of the faeces collection
? Provision of two squatting type urinals for chambers of ecosan toilets should be above
40 children can be considered. the high flood level expected in low lying
and flood prone areas.
? Handwashing facility with one tap for every
20 children is necessary. vi) Construction Materials

ii) Volume of Chamber ? An ecosan toilet is designed with a leak

proof faeces and urine collection chamber
? For designing the storage volume of faeces and super structure with pans /
collection chamber, an ultimate volume of arrangement that ensures source separation
desiccated faeces and additive mixture of of faeces, urine and wash water.
0.20 to 0.30 litres per person per day can be
considered depending upon the local ? Bricks, hollow blocks or stone / mud blocks
condition and usage pattern. should be used for walls of anganwadi
ecosan toilets to provide robust and safe
construction which will last for several
years.

56
vii) Customized Designs

? The anganwadi ecosan toilets can be

constructed as per the space available.

? Urinals and washing area can be modified to

suit the space available.

4.6.2 Designs, Drawings and

Estimates
Design details Specification

No. of users 40 children and a female caretaker

Average volume of desiccated material 0.20 litres / person / day
Retention period 300 days
No. of Ecosan Toilets provided 1 ecosan toilet with 2 chambers
Size of faeces collection chambers
? Volume of chambers needed considering 15% usage = 41 x 0.15 x 300 days x 0.20 l/p/d
of toilets = 369 litres
? Size of each chamber provided = 1.30 m x 0.87 m x 0.50 m X 1000 litres
= 565 litres
Size of chamber access hole 450 mm wide x 500 mm high
Size of urine collection tank 500 litre capacity tank
Vent pipe ? 100 mm dia connecting both tanks
? 500 mm above roof level
? Cowl on top
Toilet size 1.8 m length x 1.3 m width
Soak pit 1.10 m dia and 1.50 m deep
Urinals 2 nos. with squatting type urinal pans attached to
a drain
Hand washing facility Minimum 2 taps
Floor and wall tiles Up to 0.90 m height on walls and over all the
floor area
Door 0.9 m x 2.10 m
Roof RCC roof over toilet and urinal areas
Super structure Walls with bricks (230 mm thick for all outer
walls and chambers, and 115 mm thick for
interior walls)

considered.
4.6.3 Cost Estimate
The cost of a standard design of an anganwadi
In the design of anaganwadi ecosan toilet,
ecosan toilet considered works out to Rs 80,630.
features like one ecosan toilet, two urinals, hand
The drawings and estimates of the anganwadi
washing facility, raised basement for free access,
ecosan toilet are provided on pages 58 - 61.
RCC roof cover and ceramic tiling on walls and
floors for easy maintenance have been

57
58
59
60
 Bill of Quantities of Anganwadi Ecosan Toilet

# Item Unit Quantity Rate Amount 11 Water and sanitary fittings (inclusive of all materials and labour costs)
1 Excavation a Water pipes (1.25 inch dia GI) Rm 5.00 250.00 1,250.00
a Foundation cu.m 8.48 140.62 1,192.60 b Taps No 2.00 175.00 350.00
b Soak pit cu.m 3.59 140.62 505.15 c Waste pipes (2 inch dia PVC) Rm 12.00 125.00 1,500.00
2 PCC in 1:4:8 d Vent rainwater pipes (4 inch dia PVC) Rm 4.00 260.00 1,040.00
a Foundation cu.m 1.16 3,330.65 3,851.90
e Water tank (500 litres) No 1.00 2,250.00 2,250.00
b Flooring cu.m 0.32 3,330.65 1,065.81
f Urine tank (500 litres) No 1.00 2,250.00 2,250.00
3 Filling
12 Doors
a Foundation cu.m 1.55 62.15 96.39
a D1 No 1.00 1,000.00 1,000.00
b Sand filling cu.m 1.16 410.04 475.65
b D2 No 1.00 800.00 800.00
c Infill in soak pit cu.m 3.59 350.00 1,257.30
13 Ventilator and windows
4 Masonry work a V1 No 2.00 300.00 600.00
a RR masonry in CM 1:6 for foundation cu.m 3.78 2,500.90 9,448.15 b V2 No 1.00 250.00 250.00
b 115mm tk brick work in CM 1:4 sq.m 4.40 367.67 1,618.67 14 Painting work
c 230mm tk brick work in CM 1:6 cu.m 5.10 3,206.20 16,348.55 a Internal white washing Sq.m 34.54 20.00 690.80
d Brick work in CM 1:6 for ramp and steps cu.m 0.30 3,206.20 961.86 b External cement painting Sq.m 20.95 50.00 1,047.55

61
5 RCC Works c Door and ventilator Sq.m 4.73 70.00 331.10

a 1:2:4 RCC Lintel (all type) cu.m 0.02 4,569.06 105.09 Total Cost 80,630.94
Total Area in sq.m 8.17
b 1:2:4 RCC for (roof slab) cu.m 0.82 4,569.06 3,733.76
Cost per sq.m 9,869.15
6 Slab ( Stone/Precast RCC)
a 75mm tk slab over chambers sq.m 2.41 620.00 1,491.10
b 75mm tk cover for leach pit sq.m 1.73 620.00 1,071.71
c Cover slab for chamber access sq.m 1.13 620.00 697.50
7 Plastering
a Plastering of walls in 1:6 sq.m 55.49 105.47 5,852.37
Plastering in 1:4 with water proof
b sq.m 5.22 105.47 550.55
compound for inner sides of the chambers
8 Ceramic tiles
a Flooring sq.m 5.68 814.16 4,624.02
b Walls sq.m 10.71 857.88 9,187.89
9 Weathering course
a Over roof area using brick ballast and lime cu.m 0.61 1,200.00 735.46

10 Sanitary fixtures

a Ecosan squatting pan No 2.00 800.00 1,600.00

b Girls/Ladies urinal squatting pan No 2.00 400.00 800.00
4.7 School Ecosan Toilets children can be considered.

Ecosan toilets with urinals can be built in ? Handwashing facility with one tap for every
schools to cater to the requirements of boys, 20 children is necessary.
girls and teachers. These units must be designed
ii) Volume of Chamber
according to the number of students in schools.
Use of a single ecosan toilet in a toilet complex ? For designing the storage volume of faeces
by a maximum of 40 children and one urinal by collection chamber, an ultimate volume of
a maximum of 20 children is an ideal design desiccated faeces and additive mixture of
capacity to be considered while designing 0.20 to 0.30 litres per person per day can be
school ecosan toilet units for boys and girls. considered depending upon the local
condition and usage pattern.
It is also important to consider the use of ecosan
toilets by children with special needs. Toilet iii) Type of Chambers
units must have ramps, wide doors and larger
sized toilet units to provide access to children ? A twin chamber ecosan toilet is most ideal
with special needs. Provision of washing which requires very minimal maintenance
facilities encourages hand washing practice compared to others.
among children. Ensuring availability of water
in the school ecosan toilet units is very ? Single chamber ecosan toilets will be
important for the proper up-keep. difficult to maintain in a school situation.

Provision of incinerators to safely dispose iv) Retention Period

sanitary napkins should be considered in the
toilets meant for girls. In addition, facilities like ? A minimum retention period of 10 months
sanitary napkin vending machines can be for pathogen inactivation of faeces and
installed in the toilets. additive mixture in the faeces collection
chamber must be considered in the design.
In this section, detailed design, drawings and
estimates for school ecosan toilet units with ? Urine can be collected in a tank of 500-1,000
student strength of 80, 160, 240 and 320 are litres capacity can be installed based on the
provided. A ratio of 50:50 between boys and strength of the schools. Provision for
girls has been considered in the designs. transporting urine for agricultural
applications must be ensured.

v) Floor Space and Level

4.7.1 Design Considerations ? At least one ecosan toilet for the use of
i) Capacity children with special needs of a minimum
size 1,750 mm x 2,100 mm should be
? A single school ecosan toilet can be designed provided in a toilet unit.
for use by 40 children and two adult
teachers. ? Specially designed chairs with washing
arrangements and strong handles for
? Similarly, provision of urinals for every 20 offering support to children with special

62
 needs must be provided in ecosan toilets should be used for walls of schools ecosan
designated for their use. toilets to provide a robust and safe
construction which will lasts for several
? Other ecosan toilets with two chambers years.
must be at least 1,200 mm x 1,500 mm in
size. ix) Customized Designs

? The lower level of the faeces collection ? The school ecosan toilets can be constructed
chambers of ecosan toilets should be above as per the space available and the strength
the high flood level expected in low lying of children in a school.
and flood prone areas.
? Urinals and washing area can be modified
vi) Ramp and Railing to suit the space available.

? An ideal slope of 1:18 or a minimum of 1:12

with a minimum width of 1,000 mm must be
maintained for access by wheel chair users
independently.

? The height of the railing should not exceed

780 mm and must have a lower level
support at 600 mm level for younger
children.

? The length of railing should be extended

beyond 300 mm from the sloped ends of the
ramp.

? Antiskid tiles must be used for flooring of

ramp.

vii) Incinerator

? At least one of the toilets must be connected

to the incinerator through an access chute
for disposal of sanitary napkins.

viii) Construction Materials

? An ecosan toilet is designed with a leak

proof faeces and urine collection chamber
and super structure with pans /
arrangements that help in source separation
of faeces, urine and wash water.

? Bricks, hollow blocks or stone / mud blocks

63
4.7.2 Design, Drawing and
Estimates
Design details Specification

No. of users 40 children and 2 teachers

Average volume of desiccated material 0.20 litres/person/day
Retention period 300 days
Type of ecosan toilet provided Each ecosan toilet with 2 chambers
Size of faeces collection chambers
? Volume of chambers needed considering 15% = 42 nos. x 0.15 x 300 days x 0.20 l/p/d
usage of toilets = 378 litres
? Size of each chamber provided = 1.30 m x 0.87 m x 0.50 m X 1000 litres
= 565 litres
Size of chamber access hole 450 mm wide x 500 mm high
Size of urine collection tank 500 litre capacity tank
Vent pipe ? 100 mm dia connecting both tanks
? 500 mm above roof level
? Cowl on top
Toilet size (floor area) CWSN: 2.1m length x 1.75 m width
Normal: 1.5 m length x 1.2 m width
Soak pit for waste water disposal 1.10 m dia and 1.50 m deep
Urinals 1 for every 20 children (Boys – wall mounted waterless
urinal pans. Girls – squatting urinal pans attached to
drains)
Hand Washing Facility Minimum 2 taps and 1 for every 20 child
Floor and wall tiles Upto 0.90 m height on all walls and 1.2m height on
walls in the urinal for boys.
Floor tiles on entire floor area and ramp.
Door Toilets for CWSN – 1.0 x 2.10 m, Others – 0.9 m x 2.10
m. Urinals - 0.75 m x 1.80 m
Roof RCC roof over toilet and urinal areas
Super structure Walls with bricks (230 mm thick for all outer and main
load bearing walls and chambers, and 115 mm thick for
interior walls)

the student strengths of 80, 160, 240 and 320 are

4.7.3 Cost Estimate Rs 3,01,662, Rs 4,31,900, Rs 537,306 and Rs
6,47,012 respectively. The detailed design,
In the design of school ecosan toilet units, drawings and estimates of the all school ecosan
features like ramp and one ecosan toilet for toilet units are provided from page 65 to page
children with special needs exclusively in boy’s 80.
and girl’s toilet units, urinal facility for both
boys and girls, hand washing facility, raised
basement for free access, RCC roof cover and
ceramic tiling on walls and floors for easy
maintenance have been considered.

The estimated cost of school ecosan toilets for

64
65
66
67
 Bill of Quantities of School Ecosan Toilet - 80 Capacity

# Item Unit Qty Rate Amount 10 Sanitary fixtures

1 Excavation a Ecosan squatting pan No 4.00 800.00 3,200.00
a Foundation cu.m 22.14 140.62 3,112.82 b Girls/Ladies urinal squatting pan No 2.00 400.00 800.00
b Soak pit cu.m 3.59 140.62 505.15 c Boys/Mens urinal pans with odour trap No 3.00 500.00 1,500.00
c Ramp cu.m 1.42 140.62 199.68 11 Water and sanitary fittings (inclusive of all materials and labour costs)
2 PCC in 1:4:8 a Water pipes (1.25 inch dia GI) Rm 6.00 250.00 1,500.00
a Foundation cu.m 3.02 3,330.65 10,053.90 b Taps No 4.00 175.00 700.00
b Flooring cu.m 1.01 3,330.65 3,372.28 c Waste pipes (2 inch dia PVC) Rm 3.00 125.00 375.00
c Ramp cu.m 1.51 3,330.65 5,029.28 Wastewater and urine pipes from toilets (3
d Rm 30.00 185.00 5,550.00
3 Filling inch dia PVC)

a Foundation cu.m 9.13 62.15 567.43 e Vent and rainwater pipes (4 inch dia PVC) Rm 12.00 260.00 3,120.00
b Sand filling cu.m 2.01 410.04 825.16 f Water tank (1000 litres) No 1.00 4,500.00 4,500.00
c Consolidated brick bats cu.m 7.76 700.00 5,433.75 g Urine tank (1000 litres) No 1.00 4,500.00 4,500.00
d Infill in soak pit cu.m 3.59 350.00 1,257.30 12 Doors
4 Masonry work a D1 No 4.00 1,000.00 4,000.00
a RR masonry in CM 1:6 for foundation cu.m 9.86 2,500.90 24,660.77 b D2 No 4.00 800.00 3,200.00
b 115mm tk brick work in CM 1:4 sq.m 10.47 367.67 3,849.14 13 Ventilator and windows

68
c 230mm tk brick work in CM 1:6 cu.m 24.80 3,206.20 79,513.76 a V1 No 2.00 300.00 600.00
d Brick work in CM 1:6 for ramp and steps cu.m 2.38 3,206.20 7,630.76 b V2 No 4.00 250.00 1,000.00
5 RCC Works 14 Incineator
a 1:2:4 RCC Plinth and Lintel cu.m 0.10 4,569.06 472.90 a Metal / Masonry incineator No 1.00 1,500.00 1,500.00
b 1:2:4 RCC Roof cu.m 2.92 4,569.06 13,355.36 15 Painting work
6 Slab (Stone/Precast RCC) a Internal white washing Sq.m 41.77 20.00 835.40
75mm tk slab chamber and hand wash b External cement painting Sq.m 35.40 50.00 1,770.00
a sq.m 8.10 620.00 5,022.00
areas
c Door and ventilator Sq.m 68.40 70.00 4,788.00
b 75mm tk cover for leach pit sq.m 2.75 620.00 1,705.00
16 Hand rails
c Cover slab for chamber access sq.m 2.25 620.00 1,395.00
a MS rods and pipes for ramp Rm 10.30 500.00 5,150.00
7 Plastering
Total Cost 301,661.59
a Plastering of walls in 1:6 sq.m 143.00 105.47 15,082.32
Total Building Area in sq.m 26.80
Plastering in 1:4 with water proof
b sq.m 14.67 105.47 1,547.46
compound for inner sides of the chambers Total Cost per sq.m 11,256.03
8 Ceramic tiles
a Flooring sq.m 26.80 814.16 21,819.49
b Walls sq.m 43.41 857.88 37,240.57
c Ramp sq.m 8.61 814.16 7,009.92
9 Weathering course
a Over roof area using brick ballast and lime cu.m 2.01 1,200.00 2,412.00
69
70
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 Bill of Quantities of School Ecosan Toilet - 160 Capacity

# Item Unit Qty Rate Amount 10 Sanitary fixtures

1 Excavation a Ecosan squatting pan No 8.00 800.00 6,400.00
a Foundation cu.m 30.36 140.62 4,269.22 b Girls/Ladies urinal squatting pan No 4.00 400.00 1,600.00
b Soak pit cu.m 3.59 140.62 505.15 c Boys/Mens urinal pans with odour trap No 6.00 500.00 3,000.00
c Ramp cu.m 4.53 140.62 637.34 11 Water and sanitary fittings (inclusive of all materials and labour costs)
2 PCC in 1:4:8 a Water pipes (1.25 inch dia GI) Rm 8.00 250.00 2,000.00
a Foundation cu.m 4.14 3,330.65 13,788.89 b Taps No 4.00 175.00 700.00
b Flooring cu.m 2.93 3,330.65 9,758.80 c Waste pipes (2 inch dia PVC) Rm 6.00 125.00 750.00
c Ramp cu.m 2.25 3,330.65 7,493.96 Wastewater and urine pipes from toilets
d Rm 64.00 185.00 11,840.00
3 Filling (3 inch dia PVC)
a Foundation cu.m 16.81 62.15 1,044.54 Vent and rainwater pipes (4 inch dia
e Rm 24.00 260.00 6,240.00
b Sand filling cu.m 2.07 410.04 848.78 PVC)
f Water tank (2000 litres) No 1.00 9,000.00 9,000.00
c Consolidated brick bats cu.m 2.70 700.00 1,890.00
g Urine tank (2000 litres) No 1.00 9,000.00 9,000.00
d Infill in soak pit cu.m 3.59 350.00 1,257.30
12 Doors
4 Masonry work
a D1 No 6.00 1,000.00 6,000.00
a RR masonry in CM 1:6 for foundation cu.m 13.52 2,500.90 33,812.17
b D2 No 4.00 800.00 3,200.00
b 115mm tk brick work in CM 1:4 sq.m 2.56 367.67 941.24
13 Ventilator and windows

72
c 230mm tk brick work in CM 1:6 cu.m 36.27 3,206.20 116,288.87
a V1 No 4.00 300.00 1,200.00
d Brick work in CM 1:6 for ramp and steps cu.m 1.22 3,206.20 3,911.56
b V2 No 4.00 250.00 1,000.00
5 RCC Works
14 Incineator
a 1:2:4 RCC Plinth and Lintel cu.m 0.14 4,996.44 699.50
Metal / Masonry incineator No 1.00 1,500.00 1,500.00
b 1:2:4 RCC Roof cu.m 4.60 4,996.44 22,983.62
15 Painting work
6 Slab (Stone/Precast RCC)
75mm tk slab chamber and hand wash a Internal white washing Sq.m 151.68 20.00 3,033.60
a sq.m 1.60 620.00 992.00
areas b External cement painting Sq.m 113.15 50.00 5,657.60
b 75mm tk cover for leach pit sq.m 2.75 620.00 1,705.00 c Door and ventilator Sq.m 17.85 70.00 1,249.50
c Cover slab for chamber access sq.m 1.80 620.00 1,116.00 16 Hand rails
7 Plastering a MS rods and pipes for ramp Rm 11.42 500.00 5,710.00
a Plastering of walls in 1:6 sq.m 264.83 105.47 27,931.62 Total Cost 431,899.25
Plastering in 1:4 with water proof Total Building Area in sq.m 45.95
b sq.m 20.00 105.47 2,109.40
compound for inner sides of the chambers
Total Cost per sq.m 9,399.33
8 Ceramic tiles
a Flooring sq.m 36.00 814.16 29,309.76
b Walls sq.m 61.98 857.88 53,171.40
c Ramp sq.m 15.00 814.16 12,212.40
9 Weathering course
Over roof area using brick ballast and
a cu.m 3.45 1,200.00 4,140.00
lime
73
74
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 Bill of Quantities of School Ecosan Toilet - 240 Capacity

# Item Unit Qty Rate Amount 10 Sanitary fixtures

1 Excavation a Ecosan squatting pan No 12.00 800.00 9,600.00
a Foundation cu.m 38.28 140.62 5,382.93 b Girls/Ladies urinal squatting pan No 6.00 400.00 2,400.00
b Soak pit cu.m 3.59 140.62 505.15 c Boys/Mens urinal pans with odour trap No 10.00 500.00 5,000.00
c Ramp cu.m 1.59 140.62 223.59 11 Water and sanitary fittings (inclusive of all materials and labour costs)
2 PCC in 1:4:8 a Water pipes (1.25 inch dia GI) Rm 15.00 250.00 3,750.00
a Foundation cu.m 5.22 3,330.65 17,385.99 b Taps No 13.00 175.00 2,275.00
b Flooring cu.m 2.48 3,330.65 8,260.01 c Waste pipes (2 inch dia PVC) Rm 16.00 125.00 2,000.00
c Ramp cu.m 1.96 3,330.65 6,528.07 Wastewater and urine pipes from toilets (3
d Rm 64.00 185.00 11,840.00
3 Filling inch dia PVC)
e Vent and rainwater pipes (4 inch dia PVC) Rm 26.00 260.00 6,760.00
a Foundation cu.m 20.01 62.15 1,243.62
g Water tank (2000 litres) No 1.00 9,000.00 9,000.00
b Sand filling cu.m 4.29 410.04 1,759.07
h Urine tank (2000 litres) No 1.00 9,000.00 9,000.00
c Consolidated brick bats cu.m 2.93 700.00 2,047.50
12 Doors
d Infill in soak pit cu.m 3.59 350.00 1,257.30
a D1 No 4.00 1,000.00 4,000.00
4 Masonry work
b D2 No 6.00 800.00 4,800.00
a RR masonry in CM 1:6 for foundation cu.m 17.052 2,500.90 42,645.35
C D3 No 4.00 700.00 2,800.00
b 115mm tk brick work in CM 1:4 sq.m 35.17 367.67 12,932.24

76
13 Ventilator and windows
c 230mm tk brick work in CM 1:6 cu.m 41.59 3,206.20 133,355.75
a V1 No 8.00 300.00 2,400.00
d Brick work in CM 1:6 for ramp and steps cu.m 1.82 3,206.20 5,835.28
b V2 No 2.00 250.00 500.00
5 RCC Works
14 Incineator
a 1:2:4 RCC Plinth and Lintel cu.m 0.20 4,996.44 1,022.77
Metal / Masonry incineator No 1.00 1,500.00 1,500.00
b 1:2:4 RCC Roof cu.m 6.08 4,996.44 30,353.37
15 Painting work
6 Slab ( Stone/Precast RCC)
75mm tk slab chamber and hand wash a Internal white washing Sq.m 188.81 20.00 3,776.20
a sq.m 3.41 620.00 2,114.20
areas b External cement painting Sq.m 123.74 50.00 6,187.00
b 75mm tk cover for leach pit sq.m 2.75 620.00 1,705.00 c Door and ventilator Sq.m 17.85 70.00 1,249.50
c Cover slab for chamber access sq.m 6.75 620.00 4,185.00 16 Hand rails
7 Plastering a MS rods and pipes for ramp Rm 11.50 500.00 5,750.00
a Plastering of walls in 1:6 sq.m 312.54 92.00 28,753.82 Total Cost 537,305.43
Plastering in 1:4 with water proof Total Building Area in sq.m 60.75
b sq.m 19.50 105.47 2,056.67
compound for inner sides of the chambers Total Cost per sq.m 8,844.53
8 Ceramic tiles
a Flooring sq.m 64.00 814.16 52,106.24
b Walls sq.m 77.10 857.88 66,142.55
c Ramp sq.m 11.60 814.16 9,444.26
9 Weathering course
a Over roof area using brick ballast and lime cu.m 4.56 1,200.00 5,472.00
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 Bill of Quantities of School Ecosan Toilet - 320 Capacity

# Item Unit Qty Rate Amount 10 Sanitary fixtures

1 Excavation a Ecosan squatting pan No 16.00 800.00 12,800.00
a Foundation cu.m 49.50 140.62 6,960.69 b Girls/Ladies urinal squatting pan No 8.00 400.00 3,200.00
b Soak pit cu.m 3.59 140.62 505.15 c Boys/Mens urinal pans with odour trap No 12.00 500.00 6,000.00
c Ramp cu.m 1.59 140.62 223.59 11 Water and sanitary fittings (inclusive of all materials and labour costs)
2 PCC in 1:4:8 a Water pipes (1.25 inch dia GI) Rm 25.00 250.00 6,250.00
a Foundation cu.m 6.75 3,330.65 22,481.89 b Taps No 19.00 175.00 3,325.00
b Flooring cu.m 5.82 3,330.65 19,384.38 c Waste pipes (2 inch dia PVC) Rm 25.00 125.00 3,125.00
c Ramp cu.m 0.53 3,330.65 1,765.24 Wastewater and urine pipes from toilets (3
d Rm 90.00 185.00 16,650.00
3 Filling inch dia PVC)
a Foundation cu.m 10.90 62.15 677.44 e Vent and rainwater pipes (4 inch dia PVC) Rm 45.00 260.00 11,700.00
b Sand filling cu.m 6.14 410.04 2,517.65 f Water tank (2000 litres) No 1.00 9,000.00 9,000.00
c Consolidated brick bats cu.m 1.64 700.00 1,148.00 g Urine tank (2000 litres) No 1.00 9,000.00 9,000.00
d Infill in soak pit cu.m 3.59 350.00 1,257.30 12 Doors
4 Masonry work a D1 No 4.00 1,000.00 4,000.00
a RR masonry in CM 1:6 for foundation cu.m 22.05 2,500.90 55,144.85 b D2 No 8.00 800.00 6,400.00
b 115mm tk brick work in CM 1:4 sq.m 45.47 367.67 16,717.95 C D3 No 6.00 700.00 4,200.00

80
c 230mm tk brick work in CM 1:6 cu.m 39.82 3,206.20 127,670.88 13 Ventilator and windows
d Brick work in CM 1:6 for ramp and steps cu.m 2.61 3,206.20 8,368.18 a V1 No 8.00 300.00 2,400.00
5 RCC Works b V2 No 2.00 250.00 500.00
a 1:2:4 RCC Plinth and Lintel cu.m 0.18 4,996.44 919.34 14 Incineator
b 1:2:4 RCC Roof cu.m 7.76 4,996.44 38,787.36
Metal / Masonry incineator No 2.00 1,500.00 3,000.00
6 Slab ( Stone/Precast RCC)
15 Painting work
75mm tk slab chamber and hand wash
a sq.m 25.11 620.00 15,568.20 a Internal white washing Sq.m 214.89 20.00 4,297.80
areas
b 75mm tk cover for leach pit sq.m 2.75 620.00 1,705.00 b External cement painting Sq.m 139.38 50.00 6,969.00
c Cover slab for chamber access sq.m 9.00 620.00 5,580.00 c Door and ventilator Sq.m 35.54 70.00 2,487.80
7 Plastering 16 Hand rails
a Plastering of walls in 1:6 sq.m 354.27 92.00 32,592.84 a MS rods and pipes for ramp Rm 11.50 500.00 5,750.00
Plastering in 1:4 with water proof Total Cost 647,011.80
b sq.m 20.36 105.47 2,147.37
compound for inner sides of the chambers
Total Building Area in sq.m 77.62
8 Ceramic tiles
Total Cost per sq.m 8,335.63
a Flooring sq.m 77.60 814.16 63,178.82
b Walls sq.m 98.37 857.88 84,389.66
c Ramp sq.m 11.40 814.16 9,281.42
9 Weathering course
a Over roof area using brick ballast and lime cu.m 5.82 1,200.00 6,984.00
4.8 Community Ecosan Toilets 0.20 to 0.30 litres per person per day can be
considered depending upon the local
Ecosan toilets can also be constructed at condition and usage pattern.
community level in densely populated areas
where space for promoting household ecosan iii) Type of Chambers
toilets is a constraint. Either a large scale
? A twin chamber ecosan toilet is most ideal
community ecosan toilet complex or a
which requires very minimal maintenance
decentralised row type ecosan toilet unit can be
compared to others.
promoted in such scenarios. Row type units
have an advantage as these can be easily ? Single chamber ecosan toilets will be
maintained by few families (3 – 4 numbers) who difficult to maintain in a community set-up.
would use the toilet. A large community
complex would require a very systematic iv) Retention Period
maintenance routine.
? A minimum retention period of 10 months
Community ecosan toilet complex also must be for pathogen inactivation of faeces and
made accessible to people with special needs. additive mixture in the faeces collection
Therefore, provisions like ramp and toilets chamber must be considered in the design.
which can accommodate wheel chair must be
provided. Other provisions like incinerator in ? Urine can be collected in a tank of 500-2000
women's toilet can be provided. litres capacity can be installed based on the
number of users. Provision should be made
A community ecosan toilet complex for a village for transporting urine for agricultural
with a population of 500 has been considered in applications.
this section. A row ecosan toilet with four toilet
units has been designed for the use by 12 v) Floor Space and Level
families (i.e. one toilet for three families) with a
total of 50 members. ? In a large community ecosan complex, at
least one ecosan toilet for people with
special needs with a minimum size of 1750
mm x 2100 mm should be provided
4.8.1 Design Considerations separately in toilet units meant for men and
women.
i) Capacity
? Specially designed chairs with washing
? Community Complex - One ecosan toilet for arrangements and strong handles for
20 persons. offering support to children with special
needs must be provided in ecosan toilets
? Row Toilets - One ecosan toilet for 3 families designated for their use.

ii) Volume of Chamber ? Other ecosan toilets with two chambers

must be at least 1,200 mm x 1,500 mm in
? For designing the storage volume of faeces
size.
collection chamber, an ultimate volume of
desiccated faeces and additive mixture of ? The lower level of the faeces collection

81
 chambers of ecosan toilets should be above
the high flood level expected in low lying
and flood prone areas.

vi) Ramp and Railing

? An ideal slope of 1:18 or a minimum of 1:12

with a minimum width of 1000 mm must be
maintained for access by wheel chair users
independently.

? The length of railing should be extended

beyond 300 mm from the sloped ends of the
ramp.

? Antiskid tiles must be used for flooring of

ramp.

vii) Incinerator

? In a community ecosan toilet complex, at

least one of the toilets must be connected to
the incinerator through an access chute for
disposal of sanitary napkins.

? Provision of incinerator is also desirable in

row toilets.

viii)Construction Materials

? An ecosan toilet is designed with a leak

proof faeces and urine collection chambers /
tanks and super structure with pans /
arrangements that help in source separation
of faeces, urine and wash water.

? Bricks, hollow blocks or stone / mud blocks

should be used for walls of schools ecosan
toilets to provide a robust and safe
construction which will lasts for several
years.

82
4.8.2 Design, Drawings and
Estimates
Design details Community Ecosan Toilet Complex Row Ecosan Toilets

No. of users 500 50 users (12 families)

Average volume of 0.25 litres/person/day 0.25 litres/person/day
desiccated material
Retention period 300 days 300 days
Type of ecosan toilet Each ecosan toilet with 2 chambers Each ecosan toilet with 2 chambers
provided
Size of faeces collection
chambers
? Volume of chambers = 500 x 300 days x 0.25 l/p/d = 50 x 300 days x 0.25 l/p/d
needed considering 15% = 37500 litres = 3750 litres
usage of toilets
? Total volume of Providing 18 toilets with chambers Providing 4 toilets with chambers of
chambers provided of 1.8 m length x 0.87 m width x 1.50 1.31 m length x 0.87 m width x 0.90
m height m height
= 18 x 1.80 m x 0.87 m x 1.50 m x = 4 x 1.31 m x 0.87 m x 0.90 m x
1,000 litres 1,000 litres
= 42,282 litres = 4,102 litres
Size of chamber access hole 500 mm wide x 750 mm high 450 mm wide x 500 mm high
Size of urine collection tank 2,000 litre capacity tank 500 litre capacity tank
Vent pipe ? 100 mm dia connecting both ? 100 mm dia connecting both
tanks tanks
? 500 mm above roof level ? 500 mm above roof level
? Cowl on top ? Cowl on top
Toilet size (floor area) CWSN: 2.1 m length x 1.75 m width 1.85 m length x 1.3 m width
Normal: 1.85 m length x 1.3 m width
Soak pit for waste water 1.10 m dia and 1.50 m deep 1.0 m dia and 1.00 m deep
disposal
Floor and wall tiles Upto 0.90 m height on all walls. Only cement finish
Floor tiles on entire floor area and
ramp.
Door Toilets of PWSN: 1.00 m x 2.1 m 0.90 m x 2.1 m
Other Toilets: 0.90 x 2.1 m
Roof RCC roof over toilet and urinal areas RCC roof over toilet and urinal areas
Super structure Walls with bricks (230 mm thick for Walls with bricks (230 mm thick for
all outer and main load bearing all outer and main load bearing
walls and chambers, and 115 mm walls and chambers, and 115 mm
thick for interior walls) thick for interior walls)

washing facility, raised basement for free access,

4.8.3 Cost Estimate
RCC roof cover and ceramic tiling on walls and
In the design of community ecosan toilet floors for easy maintenance have been
complex, features like ramp and one ecosan considered.
toilet for people with special needs exclusively
In the row ecosan toilet, features like standard
in men's and women's toilet units, hand

83
finish with RCC roof, urine diverting pan, urine
collection tank and wide steps for accessing the
toilets are provided. Where necessary, these
units also can be made friendly to people with
special needs by incorporating a ramp and
specially designed ecosan toilet chair.

The cost of community ecosan toilet unit

(capacity 500 persons) and the row ecosan toilet
unit (capacity 50 persons) works out to Rs
10,57,322 and Rs 1,43,464 respectively. The
detailed design, drawings and estimates of
community ecosan toilet & community row
ecosan toilet are provided in page numbers 85 -
92.

84
85
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87
 Bill of Quantities of Community Ecosan Toilet Complex

# Item Unit Qty Rate Amount a Over roof area using brick ballast and lime cu.m 7.25 1,200.00 8,700.00
1 Excavation 10 Sanitary fixtures
a Foundation cu.m 50.23 140.62 7,062.78 a Ecosan squatting pan No 36.00 800.00 28,800.00
b Soak pit cu.m 3.59 140.62 505.15 b Girls/Ladies urinal squatting pan No 8.00 400.00 3,200.00
c Ramp cu.m 2.21 140.62 310.49 c Boys/Mens urinal pans with odour trap No 8.00 500.00 4,000.00
2 PCC in 1:4:8 11 Water and sanitary fittings (inclusive of all materials and labour costs)
a Foundation cu.m 6.85 3,330.65 22,811.62 a Water pipes (1.25 inch dia GI) Rm 35.00 250.00 8,750.00
b Flooring cu.m 6.42 3,330.65 21,382.77 b Taps No 12.00 175.00 2,100.00
c Ramp cu.m 1.54 3,330.65 5,129.20 c Waste pipes (2 inch dia PVC) Rm 35.00 125.00 4,375.00
3 Filling Wastewater and urine pipes from toilets (3
d Rm 120.00 185.00 22,200.00
inch dia PVC)
a Foundation cu.m 26.00 62.15 1,615.90
e Vent and rainwater pipes (4 inch dia PVC) Rm 78.00 260.00 20,280.00
b Sand filling cu.m 8.51 410.04 3,489.44
f Water tank (2000 litres) No 1.00 9,000.00 9,000.00
c Consolidated brick bats cu.m 6.80 112.81 767.11
g Urine tank (2000 litres) No 1.00 9,000.00 9,000.00
d Infill in soak pit cu.m 3.59 112.81 404.99
12 Doors
4 Masonry work
a D1 No 2.00 1,000.00 2,000.00
a RR masonry in CM 1:6 for foundation cu.m 33.39 2,500.90 83,505.05
b D2 No 16.00 800.00 12,800.00
b 115mm tk brick work in CM 1:4 sq.m 204.42 367.67 75,159.10

88
c D3 No 2.00 700.00 1,400.00
c 230mm tk brick work in CM 1:6 cu.m 76.81 3,206.20 246,268.22
13 Ventilator and windows
d Brick work in CM 1:6 for ramp and steps cu.m 0.88 3,206.20 2,821.46
a V1 No 18.00 300.00 5,400.00
5 RCC Works
b V2 No 3.00 250.00 750.00
a 1:2:4 RCC Plinth band cu.m 1.75 4,569.06 7,997.23
c W1 No 3.00 750.00 2,250.00
b 1:2:4 RCC Lintel band (all type) cu.m 0.55 4,996.44 2,758.03
14 Incineator
c 1:2:4 RCC for sill slab cu.m 6.94 4,996.44 34,675.29
a Metal / Masonry incineator No 4.00 1,500.00 6,000.00
d 1:2:4 RCC for roof slab cu.m 9.66 4,996.44 48,265.61
15 Painting work
6 Slab ( Stone/Precast RCC)
a Internal white washing Sq.m 597.00 20.00 11,940.00
a 75mm tk slab under hand wash areas (all) sq.m 1.05 620.00 651.00
b External cement painting Sq.m 219.00 50.00 10,950.00
b 75mm tk cover for leach pit sq.m 2.75 620.00 1,705.00
c Door and ventilator Sq.m 64.39 70 4,507.13
c Cover slab for chamber access sq.m 20.25 620.00 12,555.00
16 Hand rails
7 Plastering
a MS rods and pipes for ramp Rm 12.13 500.00 6,065.00
a Plastering of walls in 1:6 sq.m 786.00 105.47 82,899.42
Total Cost 10,57,322.40
Plastering in 1:4 with water proof Total Area in sq.m 10,4.99.00
b sq.m 166.73 105.47 17,585.01
compound for inner sides of the chambers Total Cost per sq.m 10,070.70
8 Ceramic tiles
a Flooring sq.m 78.42 814.16 63,846.43
b Walls sq.m 142.41 857.88 122,170.69
c Ramp sq.m 8.00 814.16 6,513.28
9 Weathering course
89
90
91
 Bill of Quantities of Community Row Ecosan Toilet

# Item Unit Qty Rate Amount 12 Doors

1 Excavation a D1 No 4.00 1,000.00 4,000.00
a Foundation cu.m 13.20 140.62 1,856.18 13 Ventilator and windows
b Soak pit cu.m 3.59 140.62 505.15 a V1 No 4.00 300.00 1,200.00
2 PCC in 1:4:8 14 Painting work
a Foundation cu.m 1.80 3,330.65 5,995.17 a Internal white washing Sq.m 59.00 20.00 1,180.00
b Flooring cu.m 0.76 3,330.65 2,530.58 b External cement painting Sq.m 66.60 50.00 3,330.00
3 Filling c Door and ventilator Sq.m 8.64 70.00 604.80
a Sand filling cu.m 1.66 410.04 680.67 Total Cost 143,464.03
b Infill in soak pit cu.m 3.59 350.00 1,257.30 Total Building Area in sq.m 14.50
4 Masonry work Total Cost per sq.m 9,894.07
a RR masonry in CM 1:6 for foundation cu.m 5.85 2,500.90 14,630.27
b 115mm tk brick work in CM 1:4 sq.m 18.98 367.67 6,978.38

c 230mm tk brick work in CM 1:6 cu.m 14.69 3,206.20 47,099.08

d Brick work in CM 1:6 for ramp and steps cu.m 1.31 3,206.20 4,200.12
5 RCC Works
a 1:2:4 RCC Lintel (all type) cu.m 0.09 4,569.06 411.22

92
b 1:2:4 RCC for (roof slab) cu.m 1.45 4,569.06 6,625.14
6 Slab ( Stone/Precast RCC)
a 75mm tk slab over chmabers sq.m 11.98 620.00 7,427.60
b 75mm tk cover for leach pit sq.m 1.73 620.00 1,071.71
c Cover slab for chamber access sq.m 1.80 620.00 1,116.00
7 Plastering
a Plastering of walls in 1:6 sq.m 125.60 92.00 11,555.20
Plastering in 1:4 with water proof
b sq.m 40.16 105.47 4,235.68
compound for inner sides of the chambers
8 Cement floor
a Flooring sq.m 17.97 140.00 2,515.80
9 Weathering course
a Over roof area using brick ballast and lime cu.m 1.09 1,200.00 1,308.00
10 Sanitary fixtures
a Ecosan squatting pan No 8.00 800.00 6,400.00
11 Water and sanitary fittings (inclusive of all materials and labour costs)
Wastewater and urine pipes from toilets (2
a Rm 18.00 125.00 2,250.00
inch dia PVC)
b Urine tank (500 litres) No 1.00 2,500.00 2,500.00
 Chapter 5
Waterless Urinals
5. Waterless Urinals

W aterless urinals look very much like

conventional urinals in design and these
can be used in the same manner. However,
waterless urinals do not consume water for
flushing and thus result in saving anything
between 56,800 litres to 1, 70,000 litres of water
per urinal per year.

On an average, a person urinates about 1.5 litres

a day. Urine, which is usually sterile and
contains mostly water, does not require
additional water for flushing to make it flow
into drainage lines. Therefore, installing Figure 5.1 Schematic view of waterless urinals
installation in a public place
waterless urinals will reduce the quantity of
fresh water used for flushing urine and also success. Therefore, this section primarily deals
substantially reduce the volume of sewage with waterless urinal options developed for the
generated. use by men’s or boys in schools. However, the
proposed option for collecting urine from the
Waterless urinals reduce cost as they do not present urinal design of girl’s urinals has been
require plumbing accessories required for water discussed in detail as well.
flush urinals. Importantly, the dry operation of
waterless urinals and touch free operations
reduces significantly the spread of
communicable diseases. Odour trap 5.1 Advantages of Waterless
mechanisms using sealant liquid, microbial Urinals and Reuse of Urine
control, membrane and curtain valve fitted to
waterless urinals assist in preventing odour ?
Save enormous quantities of freshwater
developed inside the drainage lines connected
to urinals. Therefore, installing waterless urinals ?
Enhance efficiencies of sewer lines and
at homes, institutions and public places can wastewater treatment plants
offer several advantages.
?
Optimize cost of plumbing accessories at
However, waterless urinal models developed so supply & consumption ends
far largely caters only to the need of men. Few
?
Conserve electricity used for pumping water
attempts were made to develop female urinals
& treating wastewater
in the past; however these have not been
replicated very widely due to very low levels of
?
Replace chemical fertilizers with urine to

95
 grow crops carcinogenic in nature.

?
Recover fertiliser & other chemicals from
urine
5.3 Functioning of Waterless
?
Reduce emission of green house gases and
pollution of water bodies
Urinals
Odour associated with urine severely affects the
performance of urinals. The enzyme urease
present in sewer lines hydrolyses the urea
5.2 Disadvantages of
present in urine into ammonia and carbonate.
Conventional Water Flush Urinals The latter decomposes spontaneously to
carbonic acid and a second molecule of
?
Conventional water flush urinals use ammonia. The overall reaction can be written as
approximately 4 litres of water for flushing. follows:
This figure goes up to 10-15 litres when a
toilet pan with flush is used for urinating.
NH2 (CO) NH2 + 2H2O →NH3 + NH4+ + HCO3-
?
Water used for flushing urine (liquid human
Flushing with water is employed to control
waste is over 95% liquid) increases the
odour in the conventional urinals whereas
volume of sewage generated in cities.
waterless urinals are provided with odour
control mechanisms installed to the urinal seats.
?
Odour control in conventional urinals is
Similar to conventional urinals, waterless
only achieved by the use of water and
urinals also require regular cleaning routines
deodorising agents.
based on the number of users. However,
?
Use of hard water for flushing urine leads to waterless urinals can be cleaned using a moist
scale formation causing blockages in sponge or brush without the use of water.
drainage lines.
Precipitation of salts present in urine and other
?
Dampness in urinals offers favourable deposits such as hair, dead skin cells and
environment for growth of microbes and cigarette butts can potentially block urinal
result in air borne infections. drains. Use of hard water for flushing in
conventional urinals also aggravates the
?
Hand operated valves used for flushing Sch em atic D iagram Show ing F unc tio nin g o f U rinals
conventional urinals may lead to W ate r

transmission of communicable diseases. O do ur Con tro l of Pan by O d ou r C on tro l of

W ater Flush & Clea n ing Pa n b y Cl ea n ing

?
Valves and plumbing lines used in Ur in e U rin e

conventional urinals require frequent

maintenance which leads to higher
maintenance expenditure. U rine + W a te r F lo w into Dr a ina g e L ine
R ed uces Od ou r
O nly Urine F low into Dr ainage Line
Odour Control by O dour Tr ap
(A mm on ia + S ew er G a se s ) (Ammonia + Se wer Gases)
(A ) W a te r Fl u sh U r ina l s
?
Naphthalene and strong acids used for (B) W a terl es s U rin als

cleaning conventional urinals contaminate Figure 5.2 Schematic diagram showing functioning of
waste water generated as some of these are urinals

96
problem. Both these problems are also when
eliminated in waterless urinals. Further, precipitates of
installation cost and maintenance cost of urine and
waterless urinals is less on account of absence of foreign objects
expensive flushing valves and fittings. such as
cigarette butt
get deposited
in the trap.
5.4 Odour Traps
?
The sealant
Odour trap mechanisms fitted to waterless liquid also
urinals assist in preventing odour developed needs refilling
inside the drainage lines connected to urinals as they Figure 5.3 Sealant liquid type
waterless urinal odour trap
from entering rest rooms. The first waterless evaporate and (source: waterwisetech.net)
urinal trap using sealant liquid method was also get
patented by Mr Beetz of Austria in 1894, and washed away owing to the urine flow.
was commercially exploited by the company F
Ernst Engineer in Zurich, Switzerland, who was Merits
the sole supplier of waterless urinals worldwide
?
Performance of sealant liquid based odour
for approximately 100 years. Since then, apart
traps has been found to be very good. In
from sealant liquid traps, odour prevention
countries such as USA, presently,
methods using microbial control and membrane
legalisation permits only use of liquid filled
/ curtain valves have been developed across the
traps.
globe. The following section describes some of
the popular odour prevention traps available in
Demerits
the market in detail.
?
To retrofit an existing conventional urinal
into sealant liquid type waterless urinal, the
old urinal pans have to be replaced.
5.4.1 Sealant Liquid Type Odour
Traps ?
Models of waterless urinals working based
on the sealant liquid are expensive than
Odour traps using sealant liquids made of other models.
vegetable oils or aliphatic alcohols are fitted to
urinal bowls to prevent odours from reaching ?
Regular replacement of cartridges and
the washroom. As sealant liquids have lower refilling of sealant liquid increases the
specific gravity than urine, these allow passage maintenance cost.
of urine but prevent odour emitted by drainage
Availability
lines. The sealant liquid is contained either
within a replaceable or built in cartridges ?
In India, sealant liquid based waterless
provided to the urinal pans. urinals are being marketed by companies
such as Parryware, Hindware, Falcon and
Maintenance
Waterless.
?
Cartridges need to be replaced or cleaned

97
?
The cost of a waterless urinal pan with ?
Membranes need to be replaced between
sealant liquid trap ranges from Rs 6,000 to three months to six months depending on
Rs 15,000. quantum of usage.

Merits

5.4.2 Membrane Type Odour ?

Performance of membrane based odour
traps has been found to be very good.
Traps Membranes made of rubber manufactured
by Keramag and silicone curtain valves
Membrane based
manufactured by Addicom are being widely
traps use rubber,
used in Europe and other foreign countries.
silicone or LDPE
in the shape of Demerits
tubes is used for
controlling odour. ?
To retrofit an existing conventional urinal
The membrane into rubber membrane type waterless urinal,
acts as one way the old urinal pans have to be replaced.
valve allowing However, silicone curtain valves can be
urine to flow while fitted to existing urinal pans.
blocking odour
released from ?
Models of waterless urinals working based
drainage lines. The Figure 5.4 Membrane type on the membrane traps are expensive than
waterless urinal odour trap
top portion of the other models.
(Design: Keramag)
tube is fixed to a
holder to keep its mouth open. Rest of the ?
Regular replacement of membrane traps
portion deforms into a flat tube due to its increases the maintenance cost.
flexibility and prevents odour when urinal is not
Availability
in use.
?
Membranes traps manufactured by
A design variation of membrane-based trap is
Keramag and Addicom have to be imported.
one in which, silicone tubes having their bottom
portion split into two curtains have been
?
In India, a low-cost variant is being
introduced to reduce the requirement of
manufactured by Shital Ceramics, Gujarat.
frequent maintenance and to enable ease of
The trap costing Rs 100 is suitable for low-
cleaning. Urine with grit up to 2 mm is allowed
end urinal pans which costs around Rs 300-
to pass through.
500. The trap fits below the low-cost urinal
basins from the bottom and the drain pipes
Maintenance
can be fixed to the trap for drainage.
?
Precipitates of urine and foreign materials
deposited in inner surface of the membranes
need to be cleaned regularly.

?
The cleaning frequency depends directly on
the number of uses per day.

98
5.4.3 Biological Blocks for Odour using Biological blocks.

Control ?
Any existing conventional urinal can be
converted into a waterless urinal by
Biological blocks
providing biological blocks to urinal pans.
used for making
urinals into Demerits
waterless contain a
number of active ?
Regular use of biological blocks increases
ingredients, the maintenance cost.
including
microbial spores Availability
and surfactants.
These blocks are ?
Biological blocks are being marketed by
placed either in the several suppliers in India.
urinal pans or
Figure 5.5 Biological blocks
?
At present, the biological blocks are priced
housed within a
placed in urinals for odour around Rs 20 per block.
dome inserted into control
the urinal waste
outlet to gain contact with the urine flow.

Upon interaction of urine with the block, the

spores become active ‘good’ bacteria that ‘feed’
upon the urine and then multiply. By breaking
down the urine into components, the build-up
of sludge and crystals which cause blockages
are prevented. They also generate an
environment hostile to odour causing bacteria.
A busy urinal seat requires replacement of
blocks which cost Rs 20 each at an interval of 2-3
days.

Maintenance

?
Apart from regular cleaning of urinal pans,
there is no maintenance required for water
urinals functioning using biological blocks.

?
Biological blocks need to be replaced
approximately 2-3 days based on the usage.

Merits

?
Biological blocks are found to be effective in
making urinals water free. In India, few
corporate offices and malls have started

99
5.4.4 Comparison of Popular
Odour Traps in the Market
Description Membrane Traps Sealant Liquid Biological Blocks
Odour Control Good Good Good
Cost of the Trap can be fitted to existing New Urinal Pan with Any urinal can be made
system urinal pans costing around cartridge has to be waterless using bio-
Rs 500 - 1750. Cost of a trap procured. A single urinal blocks. A bio-block costs
is Rs 1200 (Silicone Curtain costs Rs 6,500 - 14,000 Rs 20 (Lasts for 2-3 days
Valve of Addicom). depending on no. of
users)
Retrofitting of Traps can be fitted to New sealant liquid based Bio-blocks can be placed
Existing Urinals existing urinals urinal pans to be installed in existing urinal pans
Replacement of Membrane needs to be Sealant Liquid (approx. Bio-blocks need to be
Parts replaced once in a year. 1000 uses) & cartridge replaced once 2-3 days
replacement (approx. based on usage.
once in a year).
Clogging High (Silcone curtain valves Medium Low
Frequency require low maintenance)
Maintenance of High Medium Low
Pan & Trap (only pan)
Flow of < 2 mm size particles Particles accumulate in Same as in normal urinals
Particles trap cartridge
through Trap
Dependence on Supply of membranes Supply of cartridge and Supply of bio-blocks
Suppliers sealant liquid

?
A U-bend can be fitted to the urinal drainage
5.4.5 Other Type of Odour Traps
pipe below the urinal seats to retain some
Air enclosing trap using an adsorbing quantity of urine to prevent entry of odour
membrane sheath and a spring controlled tray from the plumbing lines or storage tank.
to facilitate passage of urine by gravity has been However regular cleaning of the U-bend
introduced by Sunming in India recently. The may be necessary to remove scales formed
model does not require replacement of due to precipitates.
cartridge.
?
The drainage pipes transferring urine to
An odour trap Zerodor which does not require collection tanks from urinals can be
replaceable parts or consumables resulting in extended up to the bottom of collection
low maintenance costs has been developed at tanks so that the stored urine in the tank
IIT Delhi. This model is in final test stage yet to itself acts as liquid seal.
be made commercially available.
?
Pouring some quantity of oil in the
Other than the commercially available odour collection tank also helps to create a seal
traps, few simple and low-cost techniques are over the collected urine to prevent odour.
being utilised to create waterless urinals. This method is suitable only for small
collection tanks like jerry can.

100
 Installation of U bends in the Use of surgical gloves or rubber Extending the urine collection pipes
pipe line tubes below the urinal pans into the floor of the urine collection
tank or by pouring oil in it
Figure 5.6 Simple low-cost methods for making waterless urinals

?
Flexible rubber tubes, surgical gloves or wide must be raised by at least 100 mm with
condoms with a small hole at their closed a slope of 1:100 towards the wall to avoid
end can also be fixed to urinal pans with flow of urine spilling due to carelessness of
suitable plumbing arrangement to act as the users.
odour traps.
?
Provision for separate scour/drain vents for

5.5 Design Considerations and

Installation Procedures

5.5.1 Design Considerations

?
The standard design considerations used for
conventional urinals apply to waterless
urinal installations in public urinals for men
and school toilets for boys.

?
Platform below the urinal cubicle of 600 mm Figure 5.7 Layout of a urinal having separate urine
and floor drainage provisions

Description Boys urinals Men’s urinals

No. of urinals 1 for every 20 users 1 for every 20 users
Width of urinal cubicle 450 - 600 mm 600 mm
(adult’s require a space of 600 mm
Hence one urinal width may be kept as
600 mm for use by teachers)
Depth of urinal cubicle 600 mm 600 mm
Height of urinal lip from the floor 450 - 500 mm 600 mm
level
Height of separators between 1,200 mm 1,200 mm
urinal cubicles (side walls or
panels / slabs)

101
 draining the wash water used for cleaning 5.5.3 Drainage Pipes and Fittings
the floor of the platform and passage areas
of the urinals must be provided. This should ?
There should not be any sharp 90° bends in
not be clubbed with main urinal pipes the urine drainage pipes to prevent
carrying urine. This should be drained into accumulation of deposits.
to a soak pit or a plant bed.
?
Pipes carrying urine should be at least 2 inch
?
Walls of the urinals should not be porous as in diameter (except the connector lines
porous walls might absorb urine spilling below the urinal pans) and they must be laid
outside the urinal pan. Glazed tiles or with a slope of at least 1:100.
enamel painting up to the top level of urinal
seats must be provided from the floor level. ?
Connector pipes from urinals seats must be
secured well to the main urine drainage
pipes to prevent odour emission.

5.5.2 Odour Traps ?

Non-corrosive pipes like polyethylene (PE)
or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Pipes can be
?
An used for carrying urine.
appropriate
type of ?
Length of urine drainage pipes should be
waterless kept short to prevent clogging. This can be
urinal odour achieved by providing inspection chambers
trap can be at regular intervals.
chosen based
?
As far as possible, the urine drainage pipes
on the
should not be concealed within the walls or
location,
below the floors as they may have to be
investment,
replaced after some years.
maintenance
costs and the
?
Vent pipes should not be provided to urine
availability of Figure 5.8 Follow regular
maintenance routines of drainage pipes to prevent loss of nitrogen in
spares. waterless urinal odour traps as the form of ammonia gas. If necessary, a one
instructed by the manufacturers
?
Maintenance
instructions of the manufacturer should be
properly followed for proper functioning of
the odour traps.

?
Cleaning staff must wear gloves and face
masks while attending maintenance works.

?
Users of urinal must be educated to avoid
spitting, throwing of cigarette butts and
chewing gum in the urinal pans.

Figure 5.9 Providing bends in the urine collection

pipes

102
 Capacity of Tank (litres) = No. of Users x Volume of Urine (litres / day) x Storage Period (days)

Where,
No. of Users = No. of users expected to use the facility per day
Volume of Urine = Usually 1.5 litres per person per day must be taken. For day schools about 0.5 litre per
student can be adopted.
Storage Period = It depends on the emptying frequency desired. A minimum of 15 days can be taken for
ease of operations.

Note: It is advisable to install more than one tank totaling the total capacity of tank calculated in view of
maintenance requirements that may arise periodically

way air admittance valve can be provided to gas pressure can be provided in large tanks.
equalize gas pressure in the pipeline. Instead cover of the urine tank can also be
kept slightly loose or a very thin vent pipe
can be fixed to the storage tanks on top for
this purpose.
5.5.4 Storage of Urine and
Pumping ?
Use of gloves and face mask is a must for
inspection and urine emptying routines.
?
Storage tanks made of plastic materials,
?
Storage tanks should be located in safe
inflatable rubber and high quality masonry
locations to prevent any untoward incidents.
can be used when reuse of urine is intended.
These can be over ground or below ground,
?
Urine can be emptied either manually or
but adequate precautions for structural
pumped out using pumps from collection
safety must be followed. The following
tanks.
relation can be used to calculate the capacity
of storage tank required. ?
For large storage tanks where electric pumps
are installed, it is advisable to use non-
?
The inlet pipe to the urine storage tank
corrosive pumps which can handle some
should be extended up to floor level to
amount of sludge load.
prevent turbulence in the tank.
?
For small storage tanks, very small
?
A one way air admittance valve to equalise
submersible pumps with plastic impellers

Figure 5.10 Use of protective gears during maintenance of waterless urinals is very important

103
 which are normally used in household air
coolers can be used.

5.6 Urine Collection from Girl’s

Urinals in Schools
Suitable urinal pans and odour traps which can
function effectively in urinals designed for
females are yet to be available in the market.
Therefore, providing waterless urinal facilities
Figure 5.11 Layout of a girl’s urinal attached to urine
with such options is not feasible. However, collection drain
urine being collected from girl’s urinals in
composting facility.
schools can be diverted to urine storage tanks
with few precautions. Adopting the following
?
Use of acids or detergents for cleaning
steps will facilitate collection of urine from girl's
urinals should be strictly avoided as this
urinals.
will affect the quality of urine being
collected.
?
Open drains normally provided for
collecting urine from squatting tiles laid in
?
Urinals must be only washed with moist
girl’s urinals can be diverted to urine
cloth / brush.
storage tanks. Urine storage tank being
provided for boy’s urinal can be utilised for ?
Urinals should not be flushed with water as
collecting urine from the girl’s urinals as it will dilute and increase the volume of
well. urine being collected.

?
Ensuring a gradient of 1:100 and providing
glazed tiles for the drains can help in
smooth flow of urine from the urinals and to 5.7 Innovative Urinal Designs
reduce odour in the urinals.
Public toilets that are badly designed, badly
?
It is preferable to filter urine using sand and maintained, and poorly located generate a sense
charcoal filter bed before it is collected in a of neglect, attracting vandalism, anti-social
storage tank. This is especially behaviour and social disorder. Poor quality of
recommended for secondary or high schools construction and inappropriate designs of
where older girls use the urinals during urinals lead to improper use of facilities in most
menstrual periods. By providing this cases. As a result, most urinals suffer from the
arrangement, collection of unwanted vicious cycle of bad use and improper
materials other than urine can be prevented. construction or maintenance.
?
The sand and charcoal filters must be Waterless urinals are a good option to be
periodically cleaned and the waste collected considered while promoting public urinals
must be disposed either in the ecosan toilet because they overcome the need for water as
chamber or composted outside in a separate

104
well as infrastructure required for conventional
urinals. Unmanned public urinals usually
constructed on streets and less density areas can
be improved to provide better aesthetic and
environment to the user. Quality of construction
is an issue in most of such stand alone urinals
constructed in less crowded areas.

Innovative waterless urinal models, which are

inexpensive and offer aesthetic surroundings,
can provide sound solution to the problem
being faced in the public urinal front. The
following innovative urinal designs can be Figure 5.12 Formwork used for fabrication of public
urinal kiosk (Photo: R Sakthivel)
promoted as per the feasibility and budget
available:
? Waterless Public Urinal Kiosks
? Green Waterless Urinals
? Homemade Urinals (Eco Lilly)

5.7.1 Waterless Public Urinal

Kiosks
Waterless Public Urinal Kiosk is a stand-alone
concrete reinforced pre-fabricated urinal kiosk
Figure 5.13 Reinforced concrete public urinal kiosk
which can be installed in public places and (Photo: R Sakthivel)
institutions. Although pre-fabricated urinal
kiosks made of steel and FRP have existed in the Prefabricated FRP urinal kiosks are being used
past, the kiosks made of concrete can be cheaper very recently in some parts of the country;
and robust. however these are expensive and prone to
vandalism.
Urine collected can be diverted to a storage tank
for recovery of nutrients from urine or to normal The prefabricated concrete structure can
sewer lines / soak pit. The surrounding area of fabricated in an industry or onsite, and
the urinal kiosk covered with a planted hedge to transported to a desired site of a city and
offer privacy to the users. In place of the planted institution for creating urinals for men. A public
hedge, billboards can also be erected at public urinal kiosk can offer a pleasant atmosphere to
places to generate revenue for maintenance of the users due to its open and attractive
the urinals. surrounding. Cost of the pre-fabricated urinal is
very low compared to FRP or other materials.
This approach of using pre-fabricated concrete The public urinal kiosk can be constructed
structures will ensure higher standards of between Rs 10,000 to Rs 30,000 as per the design
urinals unlike the current onsite construction of adopted.
urinals which results in poor quality.

105
 Figure 5.14 Drawing of public urinal kiosk established at IIT Delhi

Advantages of Waterless Public Urinal Kiosks Ficus planted around the urinal. For enabling
uniform distribution of urine to the plant bed, a
?
Open and green surrounding provides good perforated pipe connected to the urinal is laid
aesthetic environment. along the plant bed. As urine contains essential
plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphate and
?
Low cost of construction and easy to
potassium, these are utilized by the plants for
maintain.
their growth. The plantation also doubles as a
hedge around the urinal offering privacy to the
?
Quality of construction is assured due to
users.
centralised production.
The bed must be surrounded by earthen bunds
?
Any concrete fabrication industry can
to prevent flow of urine to nearby areas during
produce it.
rainy seasons. At periodic intervals, watering
?
Strong RCC structure can withstand any act and emptying of the phosphate deposits is
of vandalism. carried out to maintain the system. Treatment
for reducing salinity of the soil must be taken up
?
Low odour due to open surroundings and at regular intervals.
requires lesser space.

?
Suitable for parks, road side sites, schools
and institutions.

5.7.2 Green Waterless Urinal

A Green Waterless Urinal (GWU) is low-cost
onsite urine application model suitable for sites
where adequate space is available and the
numbers of users are limited. Urine collected is
diverted to a plant bed of Canna Indica and Figure 5.15 Green urinal established at IIT Delhi
(Photo: R Sakthivel)

106
 Suitable for parks, road side sites, schools,
?
institutions and individual houses.

?
Requires lesser space and easy to install
anywhere.

?
Lower level of ammonia smell due to open
environment.

5.7.3 Self Constructed Urinals

Figure 5.16 Plant bed of green urinal with perforated
pipe (Photo: R Sakthivel) Self Constructed urinals are simple options for
creating waterless urinals in rural areas. “Eco-
This model of onsite utilization of the urine
lily” is one such model promoted in some parts
through GWUs can be adopted in public places,
of Africa. A plastic funnel can be inserted to the
gardens and institutions where there is open
opening of a plastic jerry can and an old light
space. The initial and maintenance cost of
bulb or a table tennis ball is placed into the
GWUs is also very low compared to the normal
funnel. The bulb or ball act as an odour seal
urinals. GWUs can be established at a cost of Rs
while it floats when urine enters the funnel and
500 to Rs 10,000 based on the design adopted.
releases urine into the jerry can. Connecting a
Advantages of Green Waterless Urinal short hose in the bottom of the funnel for
directing urine to bottom of the jerry can
?
Open and green surroundings provide very prevent emission of gas due to turbulence.
good aesthetic environment to users.
Special designs of funnels which offer
?
No waste is generated as urine is led to convenience to both men and women can be
plant bed. fabricated at low cost using locally available
materials such as tin sheets. Regular cleaning of
?
Low cost of construction (existing the bulb or float and the funnel is necessary for
compound walls can be used). removal of the deposits. However, use of bulb

Figure 5.17 Schematic of green urinal established at IIT Delhi (Photo: R Sakthivel)

107
may 5.9 The Way Forward
contaminate
urine as Institutions and Public Places: Installation of
solder and waterless urinals should be made mandatory for
metal cap of institutions and public places. Enforcing proper
the bulb maintenance routines for the upkeep of
contains waterless urinals in such locations will result in
heavy conservation of fresh water and reduce
metals. environmental pollution.

Advantages Building Code for Houses: Installation of

waterless urinals as an integral component of
?
Self toilets in individual houses should be made
construc mandatory for large houses with several toilets.
ted Provision of a urinal in at least one of the toilets
urinals which is often used in the house can minimise
can be Figure 5.18 Self constructed urinal the use of conventional toilets for urination.
created “Eco-lily” Such a change in the building code can help in
at any preventing wastage of enormous quantities of
desired location such as farms, out houses fresh water and generation of large volumes of
and temporary camping sites. sewage in the cities.

?
Construction of these urinals is very low Female Urinals: Innovative designs of waterless
cost. urinal designs are yet to be developed for
meeting the requirements of female population.
In rural areas, when cans are full, they can be
Currently, toilets double as urinals for the use of
transported to agricultural plots for fertilisation
female population. In schools, squatting slabs
of crops when they are full.
connected to open drains are being used as
5.8 Cost Estimate urinals for girls. As a result, issues like increased
cost of construction, excessive odour problems,
A standard waterless urinal seat can be created
poor maintenance and inconvenience to the
in the cost range of Rs 500 to Rs 8,000. The cost
users are being faced. Therefore, further work to
of installation depends on the type of odour trap
address the above issues needs to be taken up.
chosen.
Industrial Application of Urine: Apart from the
In a large toilet unit where a number of urinal
use of urine in agriculture, industrial
seats are created, the cost of pipeline and
applications using human urine need to be
storage facilities have to be included apart from
developed to utilise the urine harvested by
the cost of urinal seats and odour traps. The cost
installing waterless urinals. Diverting and
of installation of waterless urinals are included
collecting urine separately from sewage can
in the standard designs provided in Chapter 4.
reduce nitrate levels in the effluents discharged
to water bodies and ground water. The problem
of eutrophication of the water bodies can also be
prevented due to lower of levels of nutrients,

108
especially phosphate.

Awareness: Awareness among builders,

engineers, architects, town planners and policy
makers is essential to promote waterless urinals
on a large scale. Efforts to popularise the
concept can result in large scale replication of
waterless urinals across the country.

Maintenance: Undertaking proper maintenance

routines of waterless urinals installed is
essential for ensuring their effective functioning.
Improper maintenance of the waterless urinals
may result in failure of this novel concept.
Therefore, sensitising the users, training of
maintenance staff and allocation of adequate
budget for meeting the maintenance
requirements must be ensured after installation
of waterless urinals.

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 Chapter 6
Hygienic Operation and
Maintenance
6. Hygienic Operation and Maintenance

H ygienic operation and maintenance of

ecosan toilets and waterless urinals is
very important. As these are quite new
How to Use Ecosan Toilets
Users must be clearly explained about the steps
involved in using the ecosan toilets. The concept
concepts, users of these facilities have to be and advantage of separation of faeces, urine and
educated on how to use and maintain them wash water must be explained in detail. In
properly. Although these are robust addition, functioning of every component of the
technologies compared to other sanitation ecosan toilet must be explained to the user in
systems, following proper maintenance detail.
procedures is very important for their effective
Adding Additives
functioning. Improper use and maintenance
? Small quantity of additives such as ash, soil
would lead to failure of the systems and create a
or dry powdered leaves must be added to
negative impression among the users on the
faeces chamber after every use of the toilet.
effectiveness of these technologies. Apart from
conducting training on how to use and maintain ?
Additives and a scoop for administering it
these facilities, regular follow-up and should placed in a container with inside the
maintenance support should also be planned. toilet.

?
Additive must not be allowed to fall into
urine or wash water separation areas to
6.1 Safe Use of Ecosan Toilets & prevent clogging.
Waterless Urinals
Ablution Water
? A mug or container must be used for
6.1.1 Ecosan Toilets
1 2 3 4

Figure 6.1 How to use an ecosan toilet

Steps:
1. Defecate in the faeces hole and urinate in the urine collection area provided
2. Sprinkle a small quantity of additive over the faeces collected in the chamber after defecation
3. Move backwards to perform ablution in the wash-water collection area after covering the faeces hole in the pan with a lid
4. Wash hands with soap after defecation

113
 bringing water into the ecosan toilet for the 6.2 Maintenance of Ecosan
purpose of ablution.
Toilets and Waterless Urinals
?
Water used for ablution must be handled
with care to avoid spilling of it into 6.2.1 Ecosan Toilets
faeces chambers.
?
Careful and judicial use of water in the
Hygiene ecosan toilet is recommended.
? Hand washing using soap/mud/ash after
defecation should be practiced for ensuring ?
It is advisable not to have provision of
hygiene. running water in the ecosan toilets.

?
It is always better to wear footwear while ?
Vent pipe should be periodically checked for
using the toilets. blockage and cleared.

Other Precautions ?
Access vents of faeces chambers must be
? Lid of faeces drop hole must always be sealed properly and no leakage from it or
covered when not in use. into it should be allowed.

?
Doors of the toilets must be kept closed to ?
Water should never be allowed to enter
prevent entry of rain water or any pet faeces collection chamber.
animals and insects.
?
If accidentally or by mistake water is added
?
Toilet seats must only be wiped with moist to faeces chamber, sufficient quantity of
cloth or brush. additive must be added to soak the excess
water.

?
Rainwater should not be allowed to enter
6.1.2 Waterless Urinals the toilet or faeces chambers. Check whether
doors or ventilators are installed properly to
How to Use Waterless Urinals prevent entry of rainwater into the toilet.
? Waterless urinals are used in the same way
as normal urinals. ?
Wash water beds/soak pit must be
maintained properly to dispose off the wash
?
However, spitting, throwing cigarette buds, water generated.
beedis or chewing gum is strictly prohibited.
?
Urine storage tanks should be monitored
Maintenance and emptied periodically.
? Only moist cloth or brush should be used
for cleaning the urinals, water should not be ?
In case insects like cockroaches are found in
used. faeces chamber, dry powdered neem leaves
and turmeric powder may be used to control
?
Use of chemicals or acids for cleaning is the same. No chemicals should be used for
strictly prohibited. such operations.

114
6.2.2 Waterless Urinals removing sediments settling in the pipes.
However, this should not be taken up as a
?
Waterless urinals installed especially in regular activity as it will dilute the urine
schools and public places require regular collected in the storage tanks.
cleaning.
?
Pipes carrying urine should be cleaned
?
Only wet cloth or brush must be used for using thin wires to remove settled particles
cleaning the urinals without pouring water especially in long urine collection pipe lines
into them. laid in schools or public places.

?
No chemicals or acids should be used for ?
There should not be any loose joints in the
cleaning urinals as this affects the fixtures as this would result in leading to
performance of odour traps and also the leakage of urine and emissions of odour.
quality of urine being collected.
?
Storage tanks must be monitored and
?
Odour traps fixed to urinals must be emptied at periodic intervals to avoid
checked periodically. Replacement of these overflow of urine.
must be taken up based on requirements
specified by manufacturers.

?
Occasional flushing with water helps in

Figure 6.2 Provide collection chambers at periodic Figure 6.3 Avoid sharp bends and provide proper
intervals to break length of pipe lines and install slope for the urine collection pipes
bends with openable doors for maintenance

Use only moist cloth and No cigarette butts No spitting in the No use of acids and
brush for cleaning and chewing gum urinal pan chemicals for cleaning

Figure 6.4 Do’s and Dont’s to be followed for maintenance of waterless urinals

115
6.3 Safe Handling of Faeces and 6.4 Post Implementation Support
Urine
?
Regular inspection of the systems installed
?
Young children should not be allowed to is a must for identifying the problems before
play inside ecosan toilets or handle urine they get worse.
storage tanks.
?
Periodic maintenance of ecosan pans,
?
Persons inspecting or handling large urine waterless urinal odour traps and urine
collection tanks must wear face masks to collection and wash water disposal pipes is
avoid any untoward incident due to strong required to prevent clogging of the systems.
ammonia gas presence.
?
Schools and families who do not have their
?
Use of protective hand gloves while own land need support for disposal of
servicing / repairing the systems is contents from chambers and stored urine at
recommended to avoid contact with faecal periodic intervals. Therefore, for
matter. sustainability of the systems created
introducing a system to link farmers who
?
Use of footwear like shoes / gumboots require these for application to agricultural
while handling urine and faeces helps in lands with owners of ecosan facilities is very
avoiding contact with pathogenic matter. important.

?
Tools for repairing and containers used for ?
Repairs can occur to the systems installed
removing contents from the systems must due to wear and tear over a period of use.
be cleaned properly and stored after every Therefore, assistance of technicians who are
use. trained to repair these must be made
available.

?
Timely availability of spares like ecosan
toilet pans, waterless urinal pans and odour
traps, pipes and fittings is a must for
replacing the broken parts. Users must
know where these are available and the
technicians who can fix these.
Figure 6.5 Always wear protective gear like gloves,
mask and footwear while handling faeces and urine

Figure 6.6 Link farmers with schools and landless families having ecosan toilets for disposal and utilisation of
compost and urine at regular intervals

116
 Chapter 7
Ecosan in Disaster and
Special Situations
7. Ecosan in Disaster and Special Situations

N atural disasters such as cyclone, floods

and earthquakes apart from playing
havoc with people’s lives and properties can
for flushing excreta and this some times can be
challenging in disaster situations if conventional
flush toilets are promoted.
cause severe damage to water and sanitation
infrastructure. Some of the most common measures adopted
for safe disposal of excreta in the disaster
Apart from provision of immediate priorities situations are as follows:
like food, health, shelter and water in disaster
affected areas, ensuring proper sanitation Controlled open defecation field : In disaster
amenities is very important for preventing relief shelters controlled open defecation field is
disease outbreak. Sanitation systems need to be an option for immediate excreta disposal. A
designed to withstand the impact of disaster secluded open field which is away from water
situations. In the absence of this, unsanitary sources could be demarcated for controlled
conditions can lead to disease outbreak. open defecation. The area is further divided into
strips for the use of one strip at a time. Usually
separate enclosures are demarcated for men and
women with protective fence offering privacy.
7.1 Current Sanitation Practices
Sanitation systems implemented in disaster
prone areas are often not designed to meet
eventuality of disasters. Most agencies fail to
consider this aspect in the design of sanitation
options. Often it has been seen that when aid
agencies implement sanitation facilities for
disaster affected regions, aid agencies tend to
implement systems that are easy to implement
without much regard to impact on environment Figure 7.1 Use of open fields for controlled
or long term sustainability. defecation in relief shelters

The goal often is to minimise implementation Trenches : In disaster relief, trenches for
time and spend the available financial purpose of defecation are created in the same
allocation. Although some of the available way as controlled defecation fields. However,
options are exhibit based on sound principles of instead of the large defecation strips, shallow
managing human excreta, these often fail in (20 - 30 cm wide and 15 cm deep) or deep (0.8 m
coastal, high water table or flood prone areas. wide and 2 m deep) trenches are created in long
Conventional sanitation solution require water strips for disposal of excreta. A wooden

119
 other for serving large number of people.

Pour flush toilets : Pour flush toilets with twin

or single pit are the most common excreta
disposal solution provided by many relief
agencies during emergency situations. Faeces is
collected in pits created either below or outside
the toilet area. The squatting slab, toilet pan and
superstructures are also provided to the toilet.
Care should be taken when implementing these
Figure 7.2 Trenches used for controlled defecation in
relief shelters types of toilets in coastal and high water table
areas to prevent contamination of ground water.
platform is provided as squatting slab in the
case of deep trenches for safety. Excavated earth
kept adjacent to the trench is used for covering
excreta after every use with the help of a shovel.
Portable enclosures with several partitions can
be erected over the trenches to offer privacy and
simultaneous use of the trench by more than one
person.

Dry toilets : Dry

toilets having a pit Figure 7.4 Pour-flush toilets for disposal of human
excreta
or a bore hole for
disposal of excreta
is created as an
emergency option
near relief camps 7.2 Ecosan Toilets in Disaster
for providing Situations
sanitation facility.
These are usually When normal flush toilets are constructed in
constructed away flood prone areas, they get affected during
from water sources floods and create unsanitary conditions. This
to prevent has been a major problem with conventional
contamination. sanitation solutions in coastal areas and areas
Squatting slab with close to major rivers of India. Normal flush
either temporary or toilets become unusable when the leach pits or
permanent septic tanks get filled-up with flood water.
superstructure are Dewatering and cleaning these facilities to
provided to the Figure 7.3 Use of boreholes prevent contamination and to bring them back
toilet. The unit is for disposal of human excreta in use becomes an extremely tedious task.
shifted to a new
location after the pit or borehole is filled-up. Promotion of ecosan toilets in disaster prone
Several units can be created adjacent to each areas has several advantages both as a short or
long term sanitation solution. Already many

120
agencies have successfully adopted ecosan ?
Consistent follow up and support is needed
toilets considering this aspect. However, if to ensure proper use of ecosan toilets.
ecosan toilets are newly introduced to an area
under a disaster relief programme, the real
challenge is to educate people on the benefit of
ecosan toilets very quickly. 7.3 Design Principles and
Considerations
Benefits of Ecosan toilet in a disaster situation
The design considerations for any sanitation
?
Ecosan toilets do not cause pollution of
system provided in a disaster relief and
ground water sources in the area.
rehabilitation situation must include the
following sustainability criteria (Kvarnström
?
Ecosan toilets require very little water only
and Petersens, 2004).
for anal washing.
?
The sanitation systems promoted should not
?
Dry faeces collection and urine diversion
pollute groundwater, especially if shallow
decreases the volume of material to be
wells are being used as a drinking water
treated and improves efficiency of the
source, and surface water.
pathogen inactivation process.
?
The system should not require water for
?
As ecosan toilets are constructed above the
transporting waste since water is usually
ground level, these are less prone to damage
precious in emergency situations.
in case of flooding and cyclones.
?
The system should be able to sanitise the
?
Nutrients from faeces and urine collected
waste to destroy pathogens and prevent
through ecosan toilets can be utilised for
contact of users with excreta to protect
growing agricultural crops and in the
public health.
kitchen garden.
?
The system must have low capital, (cost as
Challenges in promoting Ecosan toilets
well as operation and maintenance) costs to
?
Users need to be educated about proper use be financially sustainable.
of ecosan toilet if they are not familiar with
As ecosan toilets meet these criteria, these can be
it already.
promoted as a sound option for safe disposal of
?
Ecosan toilets are slightly more expensive human excreta in disaster and emergency
than normal toilets. situations. The following aspects in the design
considerations should be adhered to while
?
Requirement of physical infrastructure to be promoting ecosan toilets in disaster prone areas:
created might take some time before
facilities. ?
Basement and the faeces collection chambers
of ecosan toilets must be raised above the
?
Recycling of urine and composted faeces high flood level anticipated in an area.
may not be a priority immediately after the
disaster situation. ?
Faeces collection chambers must be water
tight to prevent entry of water during

121
floods. building ecosan toilets in the areas which are
?
Doors and ventilators of the toilet must be prone to regular floods and cyclones is
able to prevent entry of rain water during recommended. The designs discussed in
heavy rains. previous section of this publication can be
adopted.
?
The material chosen for construction of
ecosan toilet, especially the superstructure An innovative design of a portable ecosan toilet
should be able to withstand wind and heavy constructed using bamboo with removable
rains. containers has been developed for installation in
flood prone areas by Megh Pyne Abhiyan, a
?
If the area is situated in seismic zones, the NGO working in Bihar. The portable unit can be
structure should be designed considering utilised as normal ecosan toilets by the
the stability required for earthquakes. communities in their houses and the same units
can be shifted to elevated locations during
floods where people stay in make shift
dwellings for some period.
7.4 Promotion of Ecosan Toilets
in Disaster Prone Areas Ecosan Toilets in Rehabilitation Shelters :
Building ecosan toilets in rehabilitation shelters
Ecosan toilets can be promoted in disaster prone which accommodate disaster affected people
areas in two ways. First, permanent ecosan during disaster has several advantages. The
systems can be installed in areas which are ecosan toilets built in such shelters can serve the
identified as disaster prone. Second, temporary need of urgent people when they are
measures can be used for providing sanitation temporarily accommodated in relief shelters
facilities in post disaster situations. These are during disasters.
discussed in the following sections in detail.
Ecosan Toilets in Schools : Apart from
providing ecosan toilets in relief shelters, it can
be promoted in the schools located in disaster
7.4.1 Permanent Measures prone areas. Schools which are usually built as
permanent structures act as relief shelters in
Ecosan Toilets in Households : Although
ecosan toilets can be constructed in almost all
areas, according priority to its promotion in
flood prone areas located in coastal and flood
plains major rivers has a definite advantage. By
installing ecosan toilets in these areas, one can
ensure that people have safe sanitation facilities
even during floods, apart from preventing
ground and surface water contamination.

Since ecosan toilets have an elevated basement

and isolated water tight faeces collection
chambers, they will function better in flood Figure 7.5 Construction of ecosan toilets above high
situations than normal flush toilets. Therefore, flood level

122
many areas. Therefore, building ecosan toilets in bag was developed by the Swedish company
schools would be ideal as children and people in “Peepoople” to provide solutions where
the area will become familiar with the use of provision of sanitation infrastructure is not
ecosan toilets. feasible or where they have to be provided
immediately. Therefore, use of peepoo bags for
safe disposal of human excreta is quite suitable
for urban slums and temporary settlements like
7.4.2 Temporary Measures in disaster relief camps.
Relief Operations
The Peepoo bag is a slim, elongated bag (14 x 38
Relief camps with high concentration of people cm) with a thin inner liner (25 x 24 cm) designed
can become a potential place for disease to be used once for defecation and urination.
outbreak if safe disposal of excreta is not Wash water should not be allowed to enter the
provided. Therefore, systems for safe excreta bag, and it should be disposed safely to a soak
disposal must be provided on an immediate pit or plant bed as discussed in earlier sections.
basis. As construction activities to build ecosan
The bag is made from degradable bio-plastic
toilets would take longer time, ready-made
(EU standard EN13432) and comprises a
solutions given below can be deployed
mixture of aromatic copolyesters and
immediately.
polylactone acid, with small additives of wax
Peepoo Bags : The Peepoo is a single use bio- and lime (the base ingredient of the mixture is
degradable bag used for defecating and safe “Ecoflex” manufactured by BASF in Germany).
disposal of excreta. The chemically treated bag The plastic is produced using 45% renewable
sanitizes human excreta from contaminating the materials (Peepoople intends to find a solution
immediate and larger environment. The peepoo to make the plastic 100% renewable in the

Open the pee-poo bag Position it in a container Fold the bag

Wash hands with soap after defecation Remove the pee-poo bag and Use the container lined with
or handling used pee-poo bags carefully tie a knot before pee-poo bag for defecation
disposal

Figure 7.6 Steps depicting the use of pee-poo bags for safe disposal of human excreta

123
future). ready well in advance. Some agencies have also
used prefabricated circular RCC rings as faeces
Its two-layer design ensures that the bacteria in collection chambers by dividing it into twin
human excreta do not come into contact with chambers using brick walls. Using such
skin because the inner, wider tube helps to keep prefabricated components the ecosan toilets can
the hands clean when holding or closing the be installed wherever necessary. Cost of such
bag. Each bag contains 4 g of urea, which installations will be quite cheaper than
rapidly destroys pathogens in human excreta commercially produced ready to install toilets.
(including the hard to destroy helminth eggs).
Ammonia produced by urea helps in sanitising Further, research is required on the type of
excreta and makes it safe to use as fertilizer portable ecosan facilities that are appropriate for
within a relatively short period of time (2-4 emergency situations and their cost. If ecosan
weeks at average temperatures of at least 20ºC). compatible toilets are to be used during
emergencies, then easy to assemble units should
The Peepoo eliminates the need for fixed and be available for installing as soon as an
hard infrastructure for a soft approach to emergency strikes.
sanitation and excreta management. After use,
the Peepoo bags should be collected and stored Mobile Ecosan Toilets : Mobile ecosan toilets
for use as fertiliser in agriculture. The design of are another very important system which can be
the bag offers a clean and hygienic way of put into service during emergencies and other
excreta management. events where emergency sanitation facilities are
needed. Similar to the mobile conventional
Ready to Install Ecosan Toilets : Ready to toilets already in service, the mobile ecosan
install ecosan toilets can be installed during toilets can be pressed into service rapidly.
emergency situations at relatively high speed.
Such ready to install models of conventional The mobile ecosan toilets have an advantage
flush toilets are already available in the market. over conventional toilets as they require very
They are being manufactured using PVC or little water. Also, the faeces collection chambers
fibre materials. can be put into service for a longer duration as
they do not get filled-up with large quantities of
The ready to install ecosan toilet models can be water used for flushing.
fabricated with provisions like ecosan squatting
pan, removable faeces collection chamber and Wherever the Need, a UK based charity
vent pipe. These ready to install toilets can be working in India, has developed a mobile
designed as single or modular type units. ecosan toilet model keeping these factors into
Modular type units created adjacent to each consideration. However, the heavy unit needs to
other have an advantage as they help in be pulled by motorised vehicles like a tractor or
reducing the installation cost drastically. van. This could be a deterrent for deployment in
disaster affected areas where roads are damaged
Alternatively, various pre-fabricated ecosan very severely. The agency is now considering a
toilet components made up of concrete can be design which is light weight to facilitate
kept ready in disaster prone areas for rapid portability.
deployment. Ecosan toilet components like
squatting slab, chamber cover slabs, roof panels Keeping this in mind, Megh Pyne Abhiyan has
and other accessories can be fabricated and kept developed a simple push cart type ecosan toilet

124
using bamboo for use in flood prone areas of installed during disaster situations, steps to
Bihar. This push cart based ecosan toilet can be ensure availability of adequate quantities of
moved easily to relief camps or temporary additives like soil, ash, dry leaves or saw
shelters during floods. Being very light in dust must be ensured for the proper
weight, it can be pushed to the desired location maintenance of the ecosan toilets.
with ease.
?
Steps to maintain the high quality of
construction required by ecosan toilets must
be taken up to ensure effective functioning
7.5 Important Precautions to be of the systems in disaster situations.
Adopted ?
As immediate utilisation of composted
faeces and urine collected from ecosan
?
Effective communication campaign with
toilets for agricultural purposes in the
respect to the operation and maintenance of
disaster affected areas may not be
ecosan toilets and handholding with users
immediately possible, provisions for
must be taken up as part of the programme
collection and storage of these materials
to familiarise the communities with the
have to be established in consultation with
concept.
the farmers in the area.
?
Staff involved in the programme must be
trained and should have all the details about
the systems to trouble shoot and assist the
communities.

?
Safety precautions such as wearing gloves,
footwear and face mask while handling
repairs of pipelines and storage tanks
installed in the ecosan toilets must be
ensured to prevent any health risks.

?
In large community ecosan toilet systems

Figure 7.7 Mobile ecosan toilets for temporary relief

operations

125
 Chapter 8
Safe Application of
Human Excreta
in Agriculture
8. Safe Application of Human Excreta in Agriculture

M any societies in the world have been

utilising human excreta as a source of
nutrients in agriculture. Use of wastewater for
Less smell - the smell will be less when keeping
the urine and faeces apart and will result in both
more convenient and acceptable use of the toilet
agriculture is a very common practice in peri- and handling of the excreta.
urban areas. Scarcity of water and fertilizing
quality of wastewater are two factors that have Prevention of dispersal of pathogen containing
led to the use of wastewater for agriculture. material - a drier faecal fraction will cause less
However, the risk posed by pathogenic micro- risk for leaching and transport of pathogens
organisms present in untreated wastewater is through fluids to the groundwater and to the
often neglected. Therefore, it is necessary to surrounding environment.
reduce the pathogenic elements in the human
Safer and easier handling and use of excreta -
excreta to safer levels before the use of human
the faeces will be drier, which would be
excreta in agriculture. In this regard, guidelines
beneficial for pathogen reduction. In addition,
for the use of wastewater and excreta has been
drying will facilitate further reduction of
developed by the WHO to prevent disease
pathogens by various other treatment means
outbreak through faecal contamination.
and will also make it easier to handle and to the
On the other hand, source separation of urine separated urine and faecal fractions.
and faeces proposed through ecological
sanitation concept aids in applying the different
set of treatments required by urine and faeces to
make them safe for reuse as in agriculture. In
8.1 Pathogens in Faeces and
countries like China, Japan and Sweden, the Urine
practice of source separation of faeces and urine
has been adopted in ecosan pilots due to the 8.1.1 Pathogens in Faeces
nutrient value of urine as also to reduce the
volume of faeces collected in the toilets. The From a risk perspective, the exposure to
benefits of source separation (as listed by the untreated faeces is always considered unsafe,
EcoSanRes programme) are as follows: due to the potential presence of pathogens.
Enteric infections are transmitted by pathogenic
Volume reduction - the collection system will species of bacteria, viruses, parasitic protozoa
fill up much slower if the urine is diverted and and helminths. The pathogens in faeces mainly
the volume of faecal material will be kept small. cause gastrointestinal symptoms such as
Further reduction of the volume and weight of diarrhoea, vomiting and stomach cramps.
faeces through dehydration / decomposition is Several may also cause symptoms involving
possible. other organs and severe sequels.

129
 Group Pathogen Disease - Symptoms
Bacteria Aeromonas spp. Enteritis
Campylobacter jejuni / coli Campylobacteriosis - diarrhoea, cramping, abdominal
pain, fever, nausea; arthritis; Guillain - Barré syndrome
Escherichia coli (EIEC, EPEC, Enteritis
ETEC, EHEC)
Pleisiomonas shigelloides Enteritis
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Various; bacteraemia, skin infections, ear, infections,
meningitis, pneumonia
Salmonella typhi / paratyphi Typhoid / paratyphoid fever - headache, fever, malaise,
anorexia, bradycardia, splenomegaly, cough
Salmonella spp. Salmonellosis - diarrhoea, fever, abdominal cramps
Shigella spp. Shigellosis - dysentery (bloody diarrhoea), vomiting,
cramps, fever; Reiter’s syndrome
Vibrio cholerae Cholera - watery diarrhoea, lethal if severe and untreated
Yersinia spp. Yersinioses - fever, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, joint pains,
rash
Virus Adenovirus Various; respiratory illness. Here added due to the enteric
types (see below)
Enteric adenovirus 40 and 41 Enteritis
Astrovirus Enteritis
Calicivirus (incl. Noroviruses) Enteritis
Coxsackievirus Various; respiratory illness; enteritis; viral meningitis
Echovirus Aseptic meningitis; encephalitis; often asymptomatic
Enterovirus types 68-71 Meningitis; encephalitis; paralysis
Hepatitis A Hepatitis - fever, malaise, anorexia, nausea, abdominal
discomfort, jaundice
Hepatitis E Hepatitis
Poliovirus Poliomyelitis - often asymptomatic, fever, nausea,
vomiting, headache, paralysis
Rotavirus Enteritis
Parasitic Cryptosporidium parvum Cryptosporidiosis - watery diarrhoea, abdominal cramps
protozoa and pain
Cyclospora cayetanensis Often asymptomatic; diarrhoea; abdominal pain
Entamoeba histolytica Amoebiasis - Often asymptomatic, dysentery, abdominal
discomfort, fever, chills
Giardia intestinalis Giardiasis - diarrhoea, abdominal, cramps, malaise,
weight loss
Helminths Ascaris lumbricoides Generally no or few symptoms; wheezing; coughing;
fever; enteritis; pulmonary eosinophilia
Taenia solium/saginata
Trichuris trichiura Unapparent through vague digestive tract distress to
emaciation with dry skin and diarrhoea
Hookworm Itch; rash; cough; anaemia; protein deficiency
Shistosomiasis spp.
Table 8.1 Example of pathogens that may be excreted in faeces (can be transmitted through water and improper
sanitation) and related diseases, including examples of symptoms they may cause (adapted from e.g. CDC, 2003c;
Ottosson, 2003; SMI, 2003) (Source : EcoSanRes)

130
In fresh faeces, there are four main groups of 8.1.2 Pathogens in Urine
organisms of concern to humans: bacteria,
viruses, protozoa and helminths. These Urine is normally sterile in the urine bladder,
organisms once excreted: but gets contaminated while discharged from
the lower parts of urinary tract. Several types of
?
may be immediately infectious; bacteria may cause urinary tract infections. The
environmental transmissions of these are
?
may require a period of time outside of the
normally of low importance. E. coli is the most
body to become infectious; or
common cause of urinary tract infections, where
certain clones may also be associated with
?
may require an intermediate host before
gastrointestinal infections.
becoming infectious.
The pathogens traditionally known to be
Bacteria and viruses are immediately infectious
excreted in urine are Leptospira interrogans,
once excreted. Protozoa are excreted primarily
Salmonella typhi, Salmonella paratyphi and
as cysts, and can be immediately infective or
Schistosoma haematobium. There is a range of
require a period of time outside the body. The
other pathogens that have been detected in
eggs of helminths, many of which are resistant
urine but their presence may not be considered
to environmental conditions, require a period of
significant for the risk of environmental
time outside of the body. Some parasites, such
transmission of disease.
as bilharzia, also require an intermediate host
before becoming infectious.
However, the significant risk of contamination
of urine occurs due to faecal cross-
contamination. Faecal contamination usually

Pathogen Urine as a transmission route Importance

Leptospira interrogans Usually through animal urine Probably low
Salmonella typhi and Probably unusual, excreted in urine in Low compared to other
Salmonella paratyphi systemic infection transmission routes
Schistosoma Not directly but indirectly, larvae infect Need to be considered in
haematobium (eggs humans via freshwater endemic areas where
excreted) freshwater is available
Mycobacteria Unusual, usually airborne Low

Viruses: CMV, JCV, BKV, Not normally recognized other than adeno, Probably low
hepatitis and others single cases of hepatitis A
and suggested for hepatitis B. More
information needed
Microsporidia Suggested, but not recognized Low
Venereal disease causing No, do not survive for significant periods -
outside the body
Urinary tract infections No, no direct environmental transmission Low
Table 8.2 Pathogens that may be excreted in urine and the importance of urine as a transmission route
(Source : EcoSanRes)

131
occurs at the urine diverting toilets when urine Following proper hygienic practices like hand
comes into contact with faeces. washing after defecation and handling of waste
as also food hygiene are necessary to prevent
secondary channels of disease transmission. The
following table provides various factors
8.2 Processing and Application responsible for disinfection of pathogens in
of Faeces faeces and rendering it safe for agricultural
applications.
As mentioned in the previous section, faeces
contains most of the pathogens. Therefore, Ecosan toilets are designed to process human
disease transmission through faeces can be faeces to a harmless state. The treatment to
effectively prevented by containing it and destroy pathogenic organisms present in human
effecting appropriate treatment methods by faeces is effected either within or outside the
building ecological sanitation systems. system. Broadly, the process of pathogen

Temperature Most micro-organisms survive well at low temperatures (<5°C) and rapidly die-off at
high temperatures (>40-50°C). This is the case in water, soil, sewage and on crops. To
ensure inactivation in e.g. composting processes, temperatures around 55-65°C are
needed to kill all types of pathogens (except bacterial spores) within hours (Haug, 1993).
pH Many micro-organisms are adapted to a neutral pH (7). Highly acidic or alkaline
conditions will have an inactivating effect. Addition of lime to excreta in dry latrines and
to sewage sludge can increase pH and will inactivate micro-organisms. The speed of
inactivation depends on the pH value, e.g. it is much more rapid at pH 12 than at pH 9.
Ammonia In natural environments, ammonia (NH3) chemically hydrolysed or produced by bacteria
can be deleterious to other organisms. Added ammonia-generating chemical will also
facilitate the inactivation of pathogens in e.g. excreta or sewage sludge (Ghigletti et al.,
1997; Vinnerås et al., 2003a).
Moisture Moisture is related to the organism survival in soil and in faeces. A moist soil favours the
survival of micro-organisms and a drying process will decrease the number of pathogens,
e.g. in latrines.
Solar UV-irradiation will reduce the number of pathogens. It is used as a process for the
radiation / treatment of both drinking water and wastewater. In the field, the survival time will be
UV-light shorter on the soil and crop surface where sunlight can affect the organisms.
Presence of The survival of micro-organisms is generally longer in material that has been sterilized
other micro- than in an environmental sample containing other organisms. Organisms may affect each
organisms other by predation, release of antagonistic substances or competition (see Nutrients
below).
Nutrients If nutrients are available and other conditions are favourable, bacteria may grow in the
environment. Enteric bacteria adapted to the gastrointestinal tract arenot always capable
of competing with indigenous organisms for the scarce nutrients, limiting their ability to
reproduce and survive in the environment.
Other factors Microbial activity is dependent on oxygen availability. In soil, the particle size and
permeability will impact the microbial survival. In soil as well as in sewage and water
environments, various organic and inorganic chemical compounds may affect the
survival of micro-organisms.
Table 8.3 Physicochemical and biological factors that affect the survival of microorganisms in the environment
(Source : EcoSanRes)

132
inactivation in ecological sanitation systems can effective in humid climates.
be grouped into two categories (i) dehydration
and (ii) composting.

8.2.3 Handling

8.2.1 Dehydration The ecosan toilets should be designed to retain

the mixture of faeces and additives for a period
The process of dehydration involves removal of of 9-12 months to effect dehydration and / or
moisture from faeces through evaporation and composting process. The maturation period
addition of dry materials (ash, sawdust, husks) should be counted after faeces collection process
used as additives. Therefore, addition of water has been stopped in a faeces collection chamber
or moist materials in the faeces collection or removable bin. Therefore, after an ecosan
chambers are avoided in the ecosan toilets. The toilet chamber / bin is full, it should not be used
dehydrated material obtained finally is rich in further and no water or urine should be allowed
nutrients, carbon and fibrous material. to enter it. The maturation process should be
Dehydration helps in destroying pathogenic carried out preferably within the ecosan toilets,
organisms including helminth eggs by and if necessary it can be carried out outside the
depriving moisture required for their survival. system.
Addition of organic matter like toilet papers or
kitchen waste should be avoided as the When the secondary process of composting is
dehydration does not disintegrate organic carried outside the system, the materials must
matter. The process of dehydration functions be handled with extreme care. The materials
very well in dry hot climates. subjected to secondary processing must be
isolated and stored safely to prevent contact
with insects, animals and the outside
environment. Persons handling these materials
8.2.2 Composting must wear shoes and gloves for safety. Also, the
tools used must be cleaned and disinfected after
In the composting process, organic substances every use.
are mineralized and turned into humus. To
enable biological decomposition process a
humidity of around 60% is essential. Effective
aeration, moisture content and carbon to
nitrogen ratio of (about 30:1) must be
maintained for the system to be efficient. The
carbon to nitrogen ratio can be maintained by
adding carbonaceous materials like sawdust,
kitchen refuse, toilet paper, weeds, grass
clippings. Factors like storage time,
unfavourable pH value, competition for food,
antibiotic action and the toxic by-products of
decomposing organisms favour composting
process. Composting process is particularly Figure 8.1 Secondary composting of faeces using
two composting tanks alternatively

133
8.2.4 Application Procedure waterless urinals can be utilised as a resource in
agriculture. As urine contains macro nutrients
Compost is rich in macro and micro nutrients as such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and
well as organic matter, which increases the sulphur, among others, it can be termed as quick
water-holding and ion-buffering capacity of the acting multi-component fertiliser. Also, urine
soil, serves as food for the micro-organisms and has very low concentration of heavy metals than
is important for improving soil structure. The conventional chemical fertilisers.
compost harvested can be applied to crops as a
fertiliser and to improve soil properties. Faecal Presence of pharmaceutical residues in urine
matter is especially rich in phosphorous, and its effects on crops is an issue being
potassium and organic matter. Both organic debated. However, other factors like the risks
matter and ash, which are often added to the posed by pesticide residues in agriculture, use
faeces, increase the buffering capacity and the of sewage and animal manure which also
pH of the soil, especially important on soils with contain high level of pharmaceutical residues
low pH. Organic matter also improves the for agriculture and the release of these in water
structure and the water-holding capacity of the bodies are of much higher concerns to be noted.
soil.
Higher nutrient (NPK) uptake by plants from
Compost can be applied to crops as given liquid urine than from solid mineral fertilisers
below: was observed. Crop trials conducted in India
and various parts of the world have shown that
?
Compost should be applied and mixed into crops fertilised with urine produce higher yield
the soil preferably before cultivation or and show better plant characteristics. Therefore,
showing to ensure availability of phosphate by using urine as a fertiliser, small and marginal
for proper plant growth. farmers from rural areas can benefit by
replacing it with the expensive chemical
?
Local application in holes or furrows close fertilisers.
to the plants can make the nutrients
available to the plants. Urine which is usually sterile may get cross
contaminated with faeces in the ecosan toilets.
?
The application rate of compost can be However, pathogens present in urine can be
based on the current recommendation for disinfected by storing urine for longer period.
the use of phosphorous-based fertilizers. Hydrolysis of urea in urine into ammonia helps
in disinfecting the pathogens. The table
?
It is better to apply compost supplemented provided below contains the Swedish guideline
with a source of nitrogen. Urine or urea for storage of urine for pathogen elimination
fertiliser can be applied as a source of from urine. Direct use with short time storage is
nitrogen. adequate for urine collected from small
domestic systems. Higher ambient temperatures
in countries like India results in disinfection
within a short storage period of 3-7 days.
8.3 Processing and Application
of Urine
Urine harvested by installing ecosan toilets and

134
 Storage Storage time Possible pathogens Recommended crops
temperature in the urine mixture
after storage
4°C ≥1 month Viruses, protozoa Food and fodder crops that are to be processed

4°C ≥6 months Viruses Food crops that are to be processed, fodder

cropsd
20°C ≥1 month Viruses Food crops that are to be processed, fodder
cropsd
20°C ≥6 months Probably none All cropse
a Urine or urine and water. When diluted it is assumed that the urine mixture has at least pH 8.8 and a

nitrogen concentration of at least 1 g/l.

b Gram-positive bacteria and spore-forming bacteria are not included in the underlying risk assessments,

but are not normally recognized for causing any of the infections of concern.
c A larger system in this case is a system where the urine mixture is used to fertilizecrops that will be

consumed by individuals other than members of the household from which the urine was collected.
d Not grasslands for production of fodder.

e For food crops that are consumed raw it is recommended that the urine be applied at least onemonth

before harvesting and that it be incorporated into the ground if the edible parts grow above the soil surface.
a
Table 8.4 Table Recommended Swedish guideline storage times for urine mixture based on estimated pathogen
b c
content and recommended crop for larger systems . (Adapted from Jönsson et al., 2000 and Höglund, 2001)
(Source : EcoSanRes)
8.3.1 Storage and Handling agricultural crops. Most preferred use is the
direct application of urine after a short storage
Loss of ammonia must be controlled during period. Direct application of urine is preferred if
storage and application processes. By keeping the urine collection sites are closer to
the storage containers of urine covered and use agricultural fields and if the farmers have no
of very thin aeration pipes or use of one way air reservation in using urine as a fertiliser. In the
admittance valves, loss of ammonia can be Indian context, other processing methods like
reduced. Persons involved in application of struvite precipitation and co-composting of
urine must take precautions like wearing of urine with organic matter can also be utilised.
gloves, boots and face mask. Sufficient care These two methods are ideal for farmers having
must be taken when inspecting large urine reservations in handling liquid urine. Struvite
collection tanks due to high ammonia levels precipitation reduces the cost of transportation
present in it. Hand washing with soap after of urine collected from urban areas to farms
urine application is also important. Phosphate located at a distance.
precipitates settling down in urine tanks due to
spontaneous precipitation can be recycled as
fertiliser to crops.
8.3.2.1 Direct Application of Urine
to Crops
8.3.2 Methods of Urine Direct application of urine to crops can be
Application and Processing carried out using various methods. Surface
irrigation is one of the easiest and the most
Urine can be used in various ways to fertilise common method adopted widely. Other

135
methods like deep injection and drip irrigation method (use of PET bottles having small
are also practiced wherever possible. holes at bottom can be handy) deep injection
of urine can be achieved at low cost.
Surface Application
?
For large scale application to traditional
?
Urine can be directly applied on the surface crops, custom made mechanised
of agricultural lands during land agricultural tools can be designed for deep
preparation and after planting crops. injection of urine.

?
Urine must be applied to soil around the Drip Irrigation
plants by creating furrows. The furrows
should be covered with soil after application ?
Urine applied along with irrigation water
of urine to prevent loss of nitrogen through and applied through drip irrigation.
ammonia gas.
?
Fertilisation tank filled with urine to be
?
Use of watering cans which are commonly applied to crops is connected to water mains
used in home gardens can be ideal for carrying water for drip irrigation.
application of urine.
?
Regular maintenance of emitters and tubes
?
Watering the plants after application of are necessary to prevent clogging.
urine is necessary if urine is applied
undiluted. Dosage

Deep Injection Urine should be applied to crops based on the

nitrogen content in urine and the nitrogen
?
Deep injection of urine up to 6 inches below requirement of the crops. The frequency of
the ground surface considerably reduces the application of urine can be determined based on
loss of ammonia. This method is more the nutrient requirement of the crop at various
suited for horticultural plantations where stages. The urine dose calculated for various
plant density is usually lower. stages of the crops can also be also split into
several rounds of application. The decision to
?
Using subsoil injectors and pot irrigation supplement the requirement of phosphate and

Deep injection with Deep injection through Drip irrigation

pot irrigation method soil injector

Figure 8.2 Various methods of application of urine to agricultural crops apart from direct application

136
 Crop Recommended Human urine Urine required SSP required MOP required
dose of fertilizer litre / ha per plant (litre) kg / ha* kg / ha*
Maize 150:75:40 50,000 0.9 -63 -67
Finger millet 100:50:50 33,333 0.6 -42 -47
Jowar 100:75:40 33,333 0.13 115 -22
Pearl millet 100:65:25 33,333 0.15 52 -47
Wheat 100:75:50 33,333 0.06 115 -6
Paddy 100:50:50 33,333 0.29 -42 -6
Chilli 150:75:75 50,000 1.69 -63 -8
Tomato 250:250:250 38,333 3.38 218 -2
Brinjal 125:100:50 41,667 1.13 182 -28
Radish 75:38:38 25,000 0.11 -28 -3
Banana 405:245:507 135,000 53.33 115 36
Sugarcane 250:100:125 83,333 2.25 97 478
* - sign denotes nutrients applied in excess quantity through urine, and these are not to be supplemented.

Table 8.5 Recommended dose of urine for various crops in the Indian conditions - based on an average values of
0.45%N, 0.17%P and 0.16%K in urine. (Source : Dr C A Srinivasamurthy, GKVK, Bengaluru)

potassium is worked out based on the quantity However, irrigation with water should be
of urine applied to crops using nitrogen as an carried out after urine application.
indicator. The Table 8.5 provides the amount of
urine required for some of the common crops ?
Urine should be applied to the soil around
grown in India. the plants and not onto the plant as it can
cause “burning” of leaves.
Precautions
?
As urine contains chlorides, care must be
?
While urine collected from a domestic taken when it is applied to chloride sensitive
system can be applied directly, the urine is crops such as potatoes and tomatoes.
collected from a public system, which has
higher possibilities of cross contamination ?
As urine is rich in nitrogen, the other
with faeces, must be stored for sufficient nutrients required by the crops must be
duration before it is applied to food and supplemented with compost or chemical
fodder crops. fertilisers.

?
Application of urine to edible crops must be ?
Caution should be exercised while applying
stopped one month before the harvest of urine in sandy areas having shallow
crops. aquifers to prevent leaching.
?
Urine can be applied to crops either diluted
or undiluted. Urine can be diluted with ?
Increase in the salinity of agricultural lands
water in the ratio from 1:3 to 1:15. Dilution over a period of urine application must be
with water reduces fertiliser burn, clogging taken into account. Measures like treatment
of drip nozzles and odour problem. with gypsum, crop rotation with salt
Applying undiluted urine has few tolerant crops and use of smaller pots where
advantages like handling of low volume of soil can be exchanged are some measures
liquid and it can also be easily covered with which can be adopted.
soil after urine application in furrows.

137
8.3.2.2 Recovery of Struvite filtration
technique.
Struvite (Magnesium Ammonium Phosphate -
MgNH4PO4.6H2O) is a solid white crystal which ?
The struvite
can be obtained by the addition of magnesium precipitates so
to urine. White deposits often observed in obtained are dried
choked urinal or sewage pipes are struvite and used as a
formed due to naturally occurring precipitation fertilizer to crops.
reaction between phosphate and magnesium
under favourable conditions like high pH and
temperature. Recovery of struvite from urine
makes it a favourable product for easy
8.3.2.3 Co-
transportation and application to agricultural composting
crops. This process also overcomes the Figure 8.3 Struvite
problems associated with the direct application Urine can be applied Precipitation Reactor
of urine. Application of struvite to agricultural to organic waste
crops is also beneficial due to its capability of during composting to enrich its nutrient value.
slow release of phosphate and low heavy metal Although this is an emerging practice, there are
concentration. few studies which successfully used urine for
co-composting process. Use of urine also
Struvite from urine can be recovered as given accelerates the composting process. This method
below: is more suitable if farmers have reservation in
directly handling liquid urine to crops.
?
Ammonium and phosphate in urine can be
precipitated by the simple process of The following aspects may be considered while
addition of magnesium. co-composting with urine.

?
This process is carried out when urine kept ?
Urine can be applied while composting
in a closed container reaches a pH of over 8. organic waste.

?
Based on the phosphate concentration of ?
Studies have shown that maintaining 0.8%
stored urine, a magnesium dose in the molar
ratio of 1.1 Mg to 1 P is dosed for struvite
precipitation from urine.

?
Magnesium sources like MgCl2, MgSO4,
MgO and bittern (brine from salt pans) can
be used for struvite precipitation from urine.

?
Urine is dosed with magnesium in a
specially designed reactor and stirred for 10
minutes to obtain struvite precipitates.

?
After struvite precipitates settle in the
Figure 8.4 Co-composting of organic matter with
reactor, these are separated from urine using urine

138
 of nitrogen with the use of 10 to 20% of
urine by volume in 3 split doses produces
optimum results.

?
Presence of nitrogen and phosphorous in
urine enhances the nutrient value of
compost.

?
Higher composting temperature is observed
in urine dosed compost heaps.

?
Loss of nitrogen should be avoided while
dosing urine in co-composting process.

139
 Chapter 9
Implementation
Framework
9. Implementation Framework

T he TSC programme was amended to

include promotion of Ecological Sanitation
approach acknowledging its relevance for
9.1 Strategies for Promotion of
Ecological Sanitation
sustainable sanitation in general and relevance
for ecologically sensitive regions such as coastal, Ecological sanitation has been identified as an
flood prone, shallow water table, hilly and dry alternative and sound approach to conventional
areas. sanitation by many experts and organisations
worldwide. It has the potential of bringing
The revised TSC framework (para 9h of TSC
sustainability in the field of wastewater
guidelines) encourages promotion of ecological
management and sanitation. The “Bellagio
sanitation components that allow storage of
Principles”, a unanimous recommendation by a
human excreta and urine, for composting or
group of experts from a wide range of
converting to usable and safe manure or
international organisations involved in
fertiliser. A note of caution states that ecosan
environmental sanitation that met in February
should not lead to manual handling of night
2000 in Bellagio, Italy, calls for a new paradigm
soil, and should not contravene any existing
and approach in environmental sanitation. The
provisions of the law. These structures should
revised TSC framework acknowledges this need
be so located that they do not lead to
and seeks to promote ecological sanitation in the
contamination of existing water bodies, water
rural areas of India.
table below ground, rain water or other water
streams. As ecological sanitation is an inter-disciplinary
field, there is an urgent need for an integrated
Under the revised TSC frame work, ecological
approach towards its promotion with the
sanitation components like urine diverting dry
involvement of practitioners from diverse
toilets, waterless urinals and other related
sectors. Involving communities right through
technologies can be introduced at households,
planning and implementation using
community sanitary complexes, schools and
participatory approaches are very important for
anganwadis. The revised frame work does not
the success and sustainability of ecosanitation
provide any special financial provisions for the
initiatives. Capacity building is another
promotion of ecological sanitation facilities
important aspect that needs to be given
which usually cost little higher than
adequate focus for the promotion of ecological
conventional leach pit toilets. However, within
sanitation. Capacities to appreciate and promote
the existing financial allocations earmarked for
ecological sanitation systems especially through
household toilets, community sanitary
formal sanitation and agriculture education
complexes, schools and anganwadis toilets
should also be considered. Ecological sanitation,
(refer table in chapter-1), ecological sanitation
which is a relatively new paradigm in the field
technologies can be promoted.
of sanitation, requires further research,

143
 Bellagio Principles - 2000

(1) Human dignity, quality of life and environmental security at household level should be at the centre
of the new approach, which should be responsive and accountable to needs and demands in the local and
national setting.
? solutions should be tailored to the full spectrum of social, economic, health and environmental
concerns
? the household and community environment should be protected
? the economic opportunities of waste recovery and use should be harnessed

(2) In line with good governance principles, decision making should involve participation of all
stakeholders, especially the consumers and providers of services.
? decision making at all levels should be based on informed choices
? incentives for provision and consumption of services and facilities should be consistent with the
overall goal and objective
? rights of consumer and providers should be balanced by responsibilities to the wider human
community and environment

(3) Waste should be considered a resource, and its management should be holistic and form part of
integrated water resources, nutrient flow and sanitation.
? inputs should be reduced so as to promote efficiency and water and environmental security
? exports of waste should be minimised to promote efficiency and reduce the spread of pollution
? wastewater should be recycled and added to the water budget

(4) The domain in which environmental sanitation problems are resolved should be kept to the minimum
practical size (household, community, town, district, catchment, city) and wastes diluted as little as
possible.
? waste should be managed as close as possible to the source
? water should be minimally used to transport waste
? additional technologies for waste sanitisation (sic) and reuse should be developed
(Source : WSSCC – SANDEC)
Table 9.1 Bellagio Principles

documentation and advocacy initiatives for implementation frameworks are essential to

effective application and scaling-up. Creating support communities and institutions to
enabling environments through proper implement and benefit from concepts of
financial, institutional arrangements and ecological sanitation. Also, bringing synergies

Figure 9.1 Inter-disciplinary fields associated with ecological sanitation (GTZ)

144
between sustainable agriculture and ecological Transformation (PHAST) : Participatory
sanitation can bring about greater appreciation hygiene and sanitation transformation (PHAST)
and knowledge on the potential of resource is an adaptation of the SARAR (Self-esteem,
recovery from human and other wastes with the Associative strengths, resourcefulness, Action-
help of ecological sanitation concepts. planning, and Responsibility) methodology of
participatory learning to the specific context of
sanitation issues. It uses a participatory
approach to community learning and planning
9.1.1 Project Planning and that follows a seven step framework: (i) problem
Implementation identification, (ii) problem analysis, (iii)
planning for solutions, (iv) selecting options, (v)
Use of participatory methods is critical to ensure planning for new facilities and behaviour
the success of hygiene and sanitation change, (vi) planning for monitoring and
programmes and this would be true for ecosan evaluation, and (vii) participatory evaluation.
also. Participatory methods support
achievement of effective project planning and Open Planning of Sanitation Systems : The
implementation, finding practical solutions and framework recommended by the EcoSanRes
monitoring health and environmental impacts. Programme is based on the Open Comparative
Participatory methods can also improve Consequence Analysis (OCCA) methodology.
communication both within and between the This planning process is performed in five steps:
community and support agencies. Effective (i) problem identification, (ii) identification of
implementation requires a balance between boundary conditions, (iii) terms of requirement,
local, traditional knowledge and outside (iv) analysis of possible solutions, and (v) choice
expertise which becomes possible with a of the most appropriate solution. At least three
participatory approach. Another advantage of options should be selected and presented to the
participatory approaches is their potential to stakeholders for evaluation and selection of the
stimulate self-confidence and creativity of the most appropriate solution based on the terms of
community members. requirement developed after the first two steps
using participatory approaches.
A variety of participatory tools used for
implementing water and sanitation programmes Multi-Criteria Decision Support Systems
have shown great deal of success. These (MCDSS) : Decision Support Systems (DSS) are
participatory planning and implementation derived from the theory of decision analysis and
approaches developed so for mainly deal with designed to help decision makers resolve issues
conventional systems of water supply and of trade-offs through the synthesis of a variety
sanitation. Therefore, these tools should be of information. Multi-Criteria Decision Support
adapted wherever possible to the specific needs Systems (MCDSS) are used when there is a need
of ecosan programmes enabling them to address to identify trade-offs between of a variety of
the philosophy of a closed loop approach to information, often including both quantitative
sanitation. Some of the participatory planning and qualitative data, as is the case with
tools used successfully in water and sanitation sanitation. The advantages of using MCDSS in
programmes are given below: decision-making are that it can increase
transparency, stakeholder participation, and
Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation optimisation by application of several criteria in

145
the decision process. The process of a MCDSS even a minority continues to defecate in the
planning approach can be highlighted in six open everyone is at risk of disease, CLTS
steps; (i) definition of the problem, goals and triggers the community’s desire for change,
objectives, (ii) definition of Criteria, (iii) propels them into action and encourages
definition of Alternatives, (iv) definition of innovation, mutual support and appropriate
Preferences, and (v) decision Making. local solutions, thus leading to greater
ownership and sustainability.
Household Centred Environmental Sanitation
Approach (HCES) : A relatively new tool for
environmental sanitation is seen as being almost
ideal for ecosan projects. This is the Household 9.1.2 Selection of Technology
Centred Environmental Sanitation Approach
(HCES), a new approach for planning Selection of suitable technology plays an
environmental sanitation services, with the important role in the success of an ecological
promise of correcting current unsustainable sanitation programme. Ecological sanitation
practices in planning and resource management system to be implemented in an area should be
by concentrating on two main components; (i) selected based on various factors such as
The focal point of environmental sanitation climate, availability of materials, geography of
planning should be the household, reversing the the area, agricultural practices, social factors,
customary order of centralised top-down economic conditions of the population and
planning. The user of the services should have a technical skills available. Some of these factors
deciding voice in their design, and sanitation are explained as below:
issues should be dealt with as close as possible
to the site where they occur. With the household Climate : The factors like temperature, humidity
as the key stakeholder women are provided and precipitation should be considered while
with a strong voice in the planning process, and selecting appropriate type of ecological
the government’s role changes from that of sanitation system.
provider to that of enabler, and (ii) a circular
Materials : The availability of materials
system of resource management should be used
determines the suitability an ecosan system in
emphasising the conservation, recycling and
an area. Civil works can be designed according
reuse of resources, in contrast to the current
to the availability of materials.
linear sanitation service system.
Geography : Type of land, soil and water table
Community Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) :
should be considered while designing ecosan
CLTS is an innovative methodology for
systems as well as reuse of urine and compost
mobilising communities to completely eliminate
for agriculture. These factors are critical for
open defecation (OD). Communities are
areas which area prone to floods.
facilitated to conduct their own appraisal and
analysis of open defecation (OD) and take their
Agriculture : The characteristics of local
own action to become ODF (open defecation
agriculture and home gardening should be
free). At the heart of CLTS lies the recognition
taken into account while planning recovery and
that merely providing toilets does not guarantee
application of nutrients.
their use, nor result in improved sanitation and
hygiene. By raising awareness that as long as Social Factors : The customs, beliefs, values and

146
practices should be taken into account while ecological sanitation can be utilized to raise
planning the ecological sanitation systems. awareness among the target group. Key
Especially promotion of source separation of messages related to ecological sanitation like
urine and faeces, waterless urinals and recycling advantages of ecosan over conventional
of nutrients in some communities require sanitation systems, how to use and maintain
considerable amount of awareness and ecosan toilets, benefits of nutrient recovery from
education. waste, safe application of urine and compost in
agriculture and success stories can be
Economic Condition : The systems designed disseminated.
must commensurate with the financial ability of
communities to build. Identifying suitable Training Programmes : Training programmes
options through participatory process help in to impart skills related to promotion and
overcoming this aspect. management of ecological sanitation
components including safe application of
Technical skills : The level of technology nutrients recovered from human waste for
adopted should be based on the technical skills agriculture are very important. These training
locally available or what can be created in an programmes can be imparted to community
area. members, village level workers and officials
involved in sanitation promotion. Also, targeted
training programmes on the use of urine and
compost derived from ecological sanitation
9.1.3 Capacity Building systems can be conducted for officials from
agricultural departments to actively engage
The following capacity building initiatives can
them in the promotion of ecological sanitation.
be taken to effectively promote ecological
sanitation systems : Special training programmes for masons,
engineers and sanitation workers who will be
Awareness Camps : Awareness camps
involved in the construction activities should be
conducted on ecological sanitation concepts
conducted exclusively. These programmes
targeted towards individual families, women's
should involve practical teaching sessions on
self-help groups and school children can play a
various construction aspects. Showing
very important role in taking forward the
functional ecosan toilets during training
message to the communities. Identifying key
programmes can bring about greater
leaders like political, religious and community
understanding among the participants.
leaders and involving them in the awareness
Therefore, a training programme should be
creation activities can be very effective. Apart
organized either at a location where an ecosan
from these, awareness creation among
toilet is functional or at least a model ecosan
sanitation workers, key NGOs in the area and
toilet is built prior to or during a training
officials and policy makers are also very
programme.
important to provide impetus to the
programme. Exposure Visits : Taking people on exposure
visit to locations where ecological sanitation
Mass awareness and door to door campaigns,
systems are functional can be quite handy in
cultural programmes, wall paintings, audio-
transferring knowledge. Discussions exchanged
visuals, pamphlets and brochures prepared on

147
with communities already using these facilities child, child to family and child to community
will be a real eye-opener to the visiting channels of awareness and motivation initiatives
members. Members from the target community, established. It also important to identify and
SHG members, innovative farmers, influential train teachers who can take charge of the
leaders, sanitation workers, school teachers, programme and impart hygiene and sanitation
agriculture officers and other officials involved related skills to the children.
in sanitation promotion can be taken on such
exposure visits. Works carried out by agencies Public Places : Establishing pilot demonstration
like Scope (Trichy), GKVK (Bangalore), Ecosan units in public places like local government
Services Foundation (Pune) and many other offices, markets and other local places of
locations (detailed list attached in annexure - X) importance where large numbers of people
can be chosen for taking people on exposure gather can help in taking the message forward.
visits based on the available financial resources. The type of pilot units chosen must be identified
based on the long term interventions planned at
the community level. Also, establishing proper
systems of maintenance and safe up-keep of the
9.1.4 Pilot Demonstrations facilities created are very crucial. Involving
officials and staff who are keen on the systems is
Pilot demonstrations play a very important role essential for success of the initiative.
in inspiring people to adopt ecological
sanitation systems. However, it is very
important to choose right locations and the
beneficiaries for success of the initiative. A failed
demonstration can create negative impression of
the proposed initiative. Choosing locations of
the pilot demonstrations where the users are
keen to change their sanitation practice can be
very supportive for creating awareness. The
following types of pilot demonstrations can be
undertaken to promote ecological sanitation.

Schools : Children in schools have successfully

Figure 9.2 Promotion of ecosan toilets and waterless
played the role of change agents in many water
urinals in public places and schools
and sanitation programmes implemented
worldwide. Providing ecological sanitation
Model Families : Identifying enthusiastic
systems in schools can play a very vital role in
families who can be role models to the entire
creating awareness among the school going
community paves a very strong foundation for
children, and through them to their families and
success of the initiatives. Such individuals can
the entire community. Ecosan toilets
be identified through discussions with the
implemented in few schools across India have
community and observations by field level
been well received by children. Therefore,
workers. After necessary training, ecological
providing ecosan toilets in schools prior to the
sanitation systems can be implemented in their
initiation of community level interventions will
houses. Periodical monitoring and support to
result in positive impact through the child to
the chosen model families are essential to

148
trouble shoot minor problems that emerge in the 9.1.5 Supply Chain Mechanism
course of time.
Instituting effective supply chain mechanisms
Sanitation Parks : Sanitation parks which can play a very vital role in supporting the
houses various demonstration units can be demand created for ecological sanitation
constructed to show case the various ecological through awareness and education programmes.
sanitation options available to the communities. Aspects related to both hardware and software
Such parks can be established at the Block / is essential for assisting people who are willing
District level. These parks can be managed by to construct ecosan toilets. Ensuring hardware
NGOs or Production / Building centres. Other support towards making the construction
useful sanitation components like solid and materials such as pans, slabs, pipes and
liquid waste management options, rainwater plumbing materials available locally is very
harvesting techniques and water treatment important. Similarly, the software aspects such
techniques can also be included. as ensuring the availability of skills and
knowledge to construct ecosan toilets are
equally essential.

Production Centres / Sanitary Marts :

Production centres / sanitary marts can be
established to make hardware components that
are essential for the construction of ecosan
toilets. Existing units which are already
involved in the production of sanitary items can
also start producing ecosan related components.
These units can stock essential components such
as ecosan toilet seats, pipes, plumbing items,
Figure 9.3 Demonstration of various technological jerry cans, prefabricated ventilators and doors
options through sanitation parks and concrete slabs. Based on the local
availability of bricks, sand and cement, a
Agricultural Experimental Plots : It is very decision whether to stock these items can be
important to showcase the benefits of nutrient taken up. Setting-up of local production centres
recovery for agriculture from human waste. By / sanitary marts managed by SHGs or NGOs
establishing agricultural experimental plots, the can drastically reduce the cost of sanitary items
effectiveness of crops grown using human waste as they can produce and sell these products at a
like urine and compost can be demonstrated. reasonable price than private operators.
Such experiments can be conducted with the
Local Entrepreneurs & Youth : Involving local
help of proactive farmers. Crop studies should
entrepreneurs who are into construction
be properly conducted with the involvement of
activities can be beneficial. Also, local youth
agriculture experts so that the improved yield is
who are looking for employment can be trained
recorded and displayed to the communities.
in construction activities. Necessary training
Based on such experiments, appropriate dosage
and incentives to take part in the programme
of urine/compost for various crops can be
should be devised considering the marketing
identified for the local area as well.
sanitation approach. Creating a local workforce

149
can enable availability of skills within the motivation and also fulfil the credit
communities for scaling-up and sustainability of requirements for improving sanitation coverage.
the initiatives. As members of the local
community, these trained individuals will be in Subsidy : Subsidy for sanitation has always
a better position to motivate people to adopt been a contentious issue in the sector. However,
ecological sanitation components. an innovative resource oriented sanitation
approach like promotion of ecological sanitation
NGOs : Local NGOs having rapport with the calls for additional financial allocations and
communities should be involved in promoting sustained efforts at all levels. Especially schools
ecological sanitation activities. Their close and institutions which are willing to adopt these
interactions with the communities place them in facilities require additional funds as they cost
an advantageous position to promote a difficult higher than conventional sanitation systems.
development component like sanitation. These The positive aspects offered by ecological
NGOs should be trained along with necessary sanitation systems such as conservation of
programme support to carry out work related to water, prevention of environmental pollution,
ecological sanitation. The potential of potential of nutrient recovery and long-term
establishing sanitation parks, production centres sustainability should be considered while
and experimental plots with the NGOs should designing financial instruments.
be explored for long-term sustainability of the
initiatives.

9.1.7 Maintenance and Follow-up

9.1.6 Financial Instruments Ecological sanitation systems require proper

care and maintenance compared to conventional
SHGs / Banks : Making credit facilities available sanitation systems. The families, school children
to economically weaker communities for and local communities involved in the
construction of toilets provides greater impetus programme must be trained to use and maintain
towards the achievement of sanitation coverage. these facilities properly. The users must know
Financing sanitation aspect is a well recognised that improper use of any toilet may turn it into a
need that has been identified by many nuisance, threaten public health, and pollute the
successful sanitation programmes across India environment. In addition, the users must be
and abroad. Therefore, enabling credit facilities trained to take advantage of the significant
for constructing ecosan toilets, which also cost resource potential of recycling plant nutrients
slightly more than conventional leach pit toilets, using ecological sanitation systems. These relate
is essential. Women’s self help groups and local to the safe handling, transportation and
banks can provide necessary credit to the needy recycling of the outputs from ecological
families for construction of ecosan toilets. sanitation systems. For large-scale ecological
Therefore, involving SHGs in the promotion of sanitation programmes, it is also essential that a
ecological sanitation has an advantage. Linkages significant part of the local community shares
with banks for ensuring credit facilities must this understanding and commitment.
also be given importance to substantiate the
credit requirement of SHGs. Therefore, the Monitoring the functioning of ecological
SHGs can effectively act as a channel of sanitation systems installed over a period of

150
time is essential after the implementation phase. important to document both the successes and
Communities need handholding support to failures of programmes. Various forms of print,
trouble shoot minor problems which may arise electronic and audio-visual systems available
in the initial periods. Necessary supply of spares can be made use of to highlight success stories
and skills required to sort out these problems to a wider audience. The lessons learnt from
must be made available locally. NGOs or such studies can be incorporated into the
production centres can stock such items. awareness generation and capacity building
Implementing agencies must take these factors initiatives taken up to promote ecological
into consideration in the programme design. sanitation.

9.1.8 Research and Documentation

Research and documentation on ecological
sanitation systems is essential to show case its
effectiveness and applicability in various
conditions. Most studies that are currently
available are from countries like Sweden,
Germany and China where extensive research
has been carried out. Therefore, there is a
tremendous need for conducting research with
respect to a vast country like India which has
different agro-climatic zones.

The potential topics for research are developing

norms for safe processing of urine and compost
through various ecological sanitation systems,
design aspects with respect to various
geographical locations, urban and rural settings
and cost efficient models, protocols for
application of urine and compost to different
agriculture crops and soils. Also, there is an
urgent need to develop ecosan toilets designs
that can suit people who want modern systems
like in the pour flush toilets, and offer
convenience to Indian users who are mostly
washers.

Documentation and dissemination helps in

scaling-up and wider replication of a successful
programme. Ecological sanitation initiatives
carried out by various individuals and agencies
need to be documented and highlighted. It is

151
 Chapter 10
Case Studies
10. Indian Case Studies

Case Study 1 provided below the toilet units, urine is

collected in large tanks. Wash water generated
is sent to a plant bed for disposal. Compost and
Ecosan Community Composting urine collected from the ECCT is used as
Toilet fertilizer for agricultural crops. For the purpose
of community use, the ECCT has been designed
Considering the benefits of ecosan approach, the with large volume of faeces collection chambers
Musiri Town Panchayat of Trichy District in and urine collection tanks.
Tamilnadu approached Society for Community
Organisation and Peoples Education (SCOPE) to Although use of ecosan toilets differs from the
renovate a dilapidated public toilet into a conventional flush toilets, awareness and
community ecosan toilet complex. SCOPE took demonstration drives on the benefits and use of
up the challenge and constructed a community ecosan toilets helped in sensitizing the user
ecosan toilet complex which is being group. For regular maintenance of the system, a
successfully used since 11th April 2006. caretaker has been appointed by the Panchayat.
SCOPE provides regular support for the upkeep
ECCT initiative
of the facility and managing the compost and
urine generated. For the first time, “Use and Get
The Ecosan Community Composting Toilet
Paid” scheme was piloted in 2008 to promote
(ECCT) complex functions just like a
the concept of nutrient recovery to a wider
conventional toilet complex. Faeces, urine and
audience. Under this scheme, the user is entitled
wash water are separated at source using 3-hole
to receive Ten Paise for each use, which is
ecosan pans (Fig 10.1). While composting of
recorded and paid monthly. On an average,
faeces collected in the faeces collection chambers
each family is being paid between Rs 25 to Rs 40
per month for using the toilet.

Other Special Features

?
Pedestal type ecosan pans for elderly and
physically challenged.

?
Rain water harvesting facility in the campus.

?
Incinerator in women’s block for safe
disposal of sanitary napkins.

Figure 10.1 External View of the community ecosan

?
Adequate water facility ensured.
complex (Source : R Sakthivel)

155
 Design Features of ECCT

?
Sitearea – 2600 square feets ?
Buckets and mug for carrying water
?
Two blocks – 7 toilets in each ?
Ash storage in buckets in toilets
(separate for men and women)
?
Size of the toilet – 7 ft x 5 ft x 7 ft ?
Message board inside each toilet
(level from super structure)
?
Size of fa eces chamber – 6 ft x 3 ft x 5 ft (two ?
Ceramic tiling on walls and floors
per toilet)
?
3-Hole FRP Ecosan pans ?
Only mopping of pans and floors for cleaning
(two per toilet)
?
No water taps inside the toilet ?
Use of EM solution for cleaning
?
Common water taps for water collection and ?
Pipes are painted yellow (urine) and blue (wash
hand washing water) for easy identification
?
Mirror over wash basin ?
Urine collected in a sump and wash water led to
Canna Indica plant bed
Table 10.1 Design features of ECCT

Figure 10.2 View of a toilet in the community ecosan Figure 10.3 Composted material being collected from
complex (Source : R Sakthivel) a toilet chamber (Source : R Sakthivel)

?
Room for storing ash and other tools.
environmental pollution, results in conservation
of water and drastic reduction in the operation
Conclusion
and maintenance costs. Low electricity
SCOPE has constructed 5 ECCTs and 25 ecosan consumption due to minimal water requirement
toilet complexes in schools in various parts of and absence of periodic cleaning charges
the State. The initiative shows that ECCTs can incurred for empting the septic tanks, which is
be successfully built and managed in locations necessary for the conventional toilet complexes
where space for building individual household built in rural areas, amounts to greater savings
ecosan toilets is a constraint. Collection of faeces in the O&M costs.
and urine in a central location offers tremendous
For further details, contact :
potential for recovery of nutrient from human
Mr M Subburaman
excreta.
SCOPE, Trichy, Tamilnadu
www.scopetrichy.com
The initiative, apart from reducing the

156
Case Study 2
?
Collection and analysis of urine for its
physical and chemical properties.
Application of Urine as Liquid
Fertilizer to Crops on Farmers ?
Green house experiments with radish as test
Fields crop.

Introduction ?
Field experiments of different crops both in
the research farm and in farmer’s fields.
In recent years, Indian agriculture is more
dependent on the use of fertilizers of fossil fuel Results
origin. The consumption of fertilizers has
The research work has paved way for safe
increased, and it is expected that over the years,
utilization of human urine as a liquid fertilizer.
there would be acute shortage of raw materials
The findings of the research work carried out
required for the production of fertilizers. In this
are as given below:
context, use of human urine as a liquid fertilizer
which has appreciable quantities of nutrient 1) Urine is slightly alkaline in reaction, has
elements required by the plants is one of the appreciable amount of soluble salts and a
options to be explored. The Department of Soil low BOD and COD load. It contains
Science and Agricultural Chemistry, University appreciable amount of plant nutrient
of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore has been elements especially N, P and K in addition
involved in conducting research studies on the to secondary and trace elements required by
possibilities of using human urine as a liquid crops. There is slight variation in the quality
fertilizer, and to study its impact on soil of urine depending on the age of the persons
properties and yield crop. and the diet.

Objectives 2) Human urine can be used as a supplement /

alternative to chemical fertilizers as the crop
?
To characterize human urine for its nutrient
yields are on par or slightly higher than that
composition and pollution potential, if any.
obtained from chemical fertilizers.
?
To study the short and long term impact of
3) The crop quality was found to be on par or
human urine on physical, chemical and
better in crops using urine as a liquid
biological properties of soil, yield and
fertilizer.
quality of crops.
4) The physical, chemical and biological
?
Agronomy evaluation of urine for crop
properties of soil were not affected due to
production.
human urine application, but better
?
To work out the cost economics of use of properties were observed than found in
human urine for crop production. chemical fertilizer application.

Methodologies Quantity of urine required for meeting the

Nitrogen requirement of crops and the cost
The following methodologies were adopted in economics for different crops is given below:
the research works carried out since 2006:

157
 Figure 10.4 French bean crop grown using human Figure 10.5 Pole bean crop grown using human urine
urine in two splits doses (Source : GKVK, Bangalore) and cattle urine (Source : GKVK, Bangalore)

Crops Recommended dose Quantity Cost of Total cost Savings

of fertilizers (kg / ha) of Human Equivalent towards (Rs.) / ha
Urine Chemical Human
Required Fertilizer Urine +
N P K
(lts) Required / Fertilizers /
ha (Rs.) ha (Rs.)
Maize 150 75 40 50,000 3,599 719 2,881
Banana 400 240 500 1,33,333 13,473 5,792 7,681
Tomato (Hybrid) 250 250 250 83,333 10,265 5,464 4,801
Tomato (Local) 115 100 60 38,333 3,962 1,764 2,198
Brinjal 125 100 50 41,667 3,992 1,716 2,275
Chilli 150 75 75 50,000 3,862 1,250 2,612
Capsicum 150 75 50 50,000 3,674 1,250 2,424
French bean 63 100 75 21,000 3,533 2,323 1,210
Cabbage 150 100 125 50,000 4,815 1,934 2,881
Cauliflower 150 100 125 50,000 4,815 1,934 2,881
Amaranthus 100 50 50 33,333 2,575 833 1,741
Palak 150 100 100 50,000 4,628 1,747 2,881
Hebbal avarae 25 50 25 8,333 1,605 1,125 480
Table 10.2 Nitrogen requirement of crops and the cost economics for different crops

For further details, contact :

Dr C A Srinivasamurthy
Dept of Soil Science and Agriculture Chemistry
University of Agricultural Science
Bangalore-560065
casmurthy@yahoo.com

158
 Summary of yield in t/ha for different type of treatments studied

Year of Yield of Control Regular Human Farm Yard Cow Treatments Conducted
Experiments Crops Dose of Urine Manure Urine
Studied in Fertilizer (FYM) +
t/ha (RDF) Human
Urine
Maize 40.37 79.37 80.95 n.d. n.d. Replications. 3. 10 treatment combinations - control &
RDF as checks, RDN through human urine with &
without gypsum applied to soils as in single dose and in 6
2007-08 split doses
Banana 19.38 28.41 30 n.d. n.d. Replications. 3. 10 treatment combinations - control, RDF
as cecks, RDN through urine with & without gypsum
applied to soils as in single dose and in 8 split doses
Finger millet 2.11 n.d. 3.78 4 3.22 Treatment - I
(for French bean, Ash gourd, pole bean & squash)
French bean 1.19 n.d. 3.99 4.87 2.41
Replications. 3. 14 treatment combinations - RDF&FYM
alone, as checks, RDN through human urine & cattle
Hebbal 1 n.d. 4.61 4.61 4.04 urine (with & without gypsum applied to soils) in single

159
Avare application two & three split doses
Tomato 16.6 n.d. 28.3 29.6 27.6
2009-10 Treatment - II
Brinjal 9.2 n.d. 32.5 33.6 29.6 (for French Bean, Finger millet, Field bean, Tomato
Brinjal, Bhendi & potato)
Bhendi 7 n.d. 13.2 13.7 12.3
Replications.3, Treatments: 9. Absolute control, 40% of N
through human urine and cattle urine as basal and 60% N
Potato 2.89 n.d. 5.59 6.68 4.82 in 3 splits with and without gypsum applied to soil and
40% N through farm yard manure as basal and 60% N
through human urine and cattle urine in 3 splits doses.
Cowpea 2.32 3.2 3.05 4.37 3.14
Replications. 3. Treatments: 9. Absolute control, 40% of N
Aerobic rice 2.99 5.02 5.36 5.54 5.2 through human urine/cattle urine as basal and 60% N in
2010-11 Soybean 2.04 2.81 2.62 3.84 2.75 3 splits with and without gypsum applied to soil and 40%
Finger millet 1.15 2.28 2.75 2.84 2.29 N through farm yard manure as basal and 60% N through
Maize 3.84 6.69 6.89 7.1 6.55 human urine and cattle urine in 3 split doses.
Note: n.d. denotes study was not done
Table 10.3 Summary of yield in t / ha for different type of treatments studied
Case Study 3

Decentralized Wastewater
Management
Introduction

A pilot project for demonstrating alternative

decentralized wastewater management was
implemented with the cooperation of Badlapur Figure 10.6
Municipality Council at “Adarsh Vidya Mandir
School” located in Badlapur town, in Thane
district, Maharashtra. The number of students Blackwater along with greywater from the
attending Senior and Junior College is about washbasins is discharged to a “biogas settler”,
1,400 and 1,200 per day respectively. The project where solids are retained and subjected to
was initiated in the month of April 2006 was anaerobic decomposition. The biogas settler
successfully commissioned in September 2008. effluent is drained by gravity flow to an
Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR) and Up-flow
Project Objectives
Filter (UF) for further anaerobic treatment. Post
The prime objective of the project is to meet the treatment of the UF effluent happens in a small-
sanitation needs of the students and the people scale horizontal flow constructed wetland
attending special programmes such as wedding (HFCW). The final stage of treatment is a pond
ceremonies at the school premises, but also that doubles-up as storage tank.
protects the environment and raises awareness
Waterless urinals with membrane stench traps
amongst the students, about the importance of
that are specially adopted to fit Indian urinals
water and sanitation in promoting health and
are provided in the gents compartment for the
hygiene.
source-separate collection of urine, which is
Technologies applied drained into a collection tank outside the toilet
block. The tank is provided with a fail-safe
A single-storied sanitation block having two overflow emptying to the anaerobic treatment
independent enclosures for ladies and gents has plant. Treated water and urine will be used in a
been constructed next to the school building. yet to be established kitchen garden. Sludge
Each enclosure is equipped with 4 bucket-flush drying beds will be constructed for dewatering
squatting-type toilets and 1 western-style the sludge from the biogas settler, baffled
cistern-flush pedestal (for the physically reactor and up-flow filter.
challenged). Waterless urinals are provided in
the gents' toilet block; while the ladies' toilet Design information
block has an increased number of toilets.
In order to keep water consumption low,
Sufficient numbers of washbasins (3 numbers)
specially designed squatting pans (rural pour-
are provided in each toilet block. A flow chart of
flush pans) made of ceramic that require a little
the wastewater management scheme
amount of water for flushing the excreta have
implemented is depicted in the figure 10.6.
been installed and no water taps are provided

160
inside the cubicles. The toilet users have to fetch purposes.
water for cleansing and flushing with a bucket
(approx. 5 litres) from a central tank that is Operation and maintenance
located inside the enclosure. Daily total
For O&M of the toilet block and reuse of the
wastewater production (black water plus grey
recyclates, caretakers cum resource managers (1
water) is estimated to be about 8.0 m³ (i.e. 8,000
female and 1 male person) are hired. Students
litres).
will support the resource managers in their
The hemispherical shaped biogas settler daily work (e.g. application of nutrients,
provides a volume of approx. 21 m³ at an inner gardening activities, etc.
diameter of 1.25 m. The anaerobic baffled Cost of Treatment System
reactor volume is approx. 12.0 m³. The reactor
comprises 6 compartments of 2.0 m3 each and Component Cost (Rs)
Biogas settler 1,20,000
provides for 1.5 days hydraulic retention time at
Baffled Reactor 1,20,000
a wastewater production of 8 m³/d). The Up-flow filter 1,20,000
anaerobic up-flow filter volume is approx. 14.6 Constructed wetland 50,000
m³. The up-flow filter comprises of 4 Pond 40,000
compartments of approx. 3.6 m³ each. The
Total 4,50,000
height of the filter media (gravel of 40 mm
diameter) is 0.75 m. Length and width of the
horizontal flow constructed wetland is 6.00 m
Conclusion
by 3.00 m. Main filter media is fine gravel with a
grain size of 4 – 8 mm. Height of filter media (at
The project demonstrates that along with
inlet) is approx. 0.70 m. Saturated water depth is
improved sanitation, recovery of useful
approx. 0.60 m. The pond has an effective
products from decentralized wastewater
volume of 12 m³ at a maximum depth of about
management is possible. The campus has
1.20 m.
successfully substituted LPG by biogas and uses
treated water and urine for agricultural
Benefits of Decentralised Wastewater
Management purposes. The Badlapur Municipality Council is
planning to replicate the concept in other areas
?
The final effluent collected in the polishing of the municipality.
pond is reused for irrigation purposes.
For further details, contact :
?
The biogas produced (from biogas settler
Dayanand Pandse
and the anaerobic baffled reactor) is used
Ecosan Services Foundation
either for cooking / lighting purpose. Pune, Maharashtra
www.ecosanservices.org
?
The urine collected is used for agriculture /
gardening within the school campus.

?
The dried sludge from the biogas settler,
baffled reactor and up-flow filter is applied
as soil amendment within the school
premises for agricultural / gardening

161
Case Study 4 diversion of urine, by using a combination of
soil composting and dehydration. On the floor
of a small room upstairs, typically in some
Improved Traditional Composting distance to the kitchen / living room, there is a
Toilets with Urine Diversion in thick layer of soil from the garden. In the floor, a
Leh drop hole leads to a small ground-floor room.
This room can only be reached from the outside.
Leh is situated in a mountainous desert 3,500 m
above sea level in the Himalayas with long cold People excrete on the soil which is on the floor.
winters and severe water scarcity with rainfall Then they push soil and excreta together down
below 100 mm per year. With modernisation the drop hole. Urine goes the same way. Ashes
happening around, the traditional sanitation from the kitchen are added from time to time.
system being practised in the Ladakh region has The household members bring loads of soil into
been gradually replaced by the waterborne toilet the room when necessary. For the long winter
systems. This development gradually led to the (September–May), a supply of soil is piled into
increase in water supply problems and also one corner of the toilet room upstairs. A spade
pollution of surface and groundwater sources or shovel is also kept in the room. Normally
due to leakages and disposal of untreated there is no anal cleaning. The decomposed
wastewater. An additional problem of excreta are removed in spring and again at the
waterborne systems in this region is freezing of end of summer and spread on the fields.
pipes during winters with temperatures
reaching minus 30°C. As long as the toilet is well maintained and
enough soil is pushed down the drop hole every
The Initiative day, there are no odours. In some cases there
might be a faint smell of ammonia from urine
Ladakhi Ecological Development Group splashed on the soil-covered floor of the toilet
(LEDeG), an NGO working in the Ladakh room. There is no fly breeding due to the
region, has taken various steps to preserve and dryness of the soil / excreta pile. The system has
develop ways of living adapted to the local worked well in rural areas for hundreds of
conditions and values. In order to revitalise the years, but in recent years there have been some
traditional sanitation system of Ladakh, LEDeG problems in the central part of the town of Leh
created a demonstration facility in its Ecology where households have no easy access to soil.”
Center for visitors in Leh, apart from promoting
few more household toilets. The toilet at LEDeG Cost
is used by the workers and visitors of the
LEDeG Ecology Centre in Leh. It is based on the The construction of the toilet was included in
traditional local toilet system, improved by a the ordinary construction of the Ecological
black-painted vent-pipe (like in VIP latrines) to Center. Total investment for the demonstration
ventilate the collection chamber and reduce toilet was Rs 40,000 Indian Rupees. The costs for
annoyance by flies. each ecosan toilet in a household was Rs 15,000
– Rs 20,000 INR. Direct economic benefits of the
Traditional Sanitation System project are not described, but the complete
dependence on natural fertilisers will prevent
Due to an extremely dry climate it is possible to the farmers to buy artificial fertilisers for food
process human excreta indoors without prior production recovering all the nutrient contents

162
 Figure 10.7 Figure 10.8

in human excreta. pipe during cold winters and extending the time
of the storage time to minimise the pathogenic
Maintenance and Reuse contamination have to be properly addressed.

The issue of handling faeces is not a problem as For further details, contact :
in the upper Himalayas the composted excreta
is seen as important resource for nutrients Mr Sonam Dawa
traditionally since centuries. The excreta Director
material (plus soil) is traditionally collected for LEDeG
reuse as fertiliser and soil conditioner once a Leh, Jammu & Kashmir
year by the families to grow barley or
vegetables. Due to the very low temperatures,
the material has not always finished the
composting process before collection. It is
therefore taken out, brought to a nearby field
(200 meters) and covered with soil to finalise the
composting process. After a period of 20-30
days, it is applied to the fields.

Conclusion

The improved sanitation system would be

accepted if it is properly used and maintained.
Improving the traditional system with
ventilation increases the comfort of the system.
Addition of ashes from the kitchen is added
from time to time to reduces moisture and also
improves the quality of compost. Creating
awareness on the proper use of the toilet would
help in misuse of the facility. The other
problems like freezing urine in the diversion

163
Case Study 5

Promotion of Ecosan Toilets using

Bamboo in Manipur Region

Developmental issues, especially those related

to health, water supply and sanitation have been
largely ignored due to the constant conflicts
between different ethnic groups in the Manipur
region. Arghyam’s intervention in Manipur had
the twin purpose of beginning an attempt to
Figure 10.9 An open pit toilet having only a
address the water quantity, quality and superstructure for privacy used by families in the
sustainable sanitation issues and to glean an region (Source : Arghyam)
understanding of ground realities which would
sanitation technology for the project sites as it
help in engaging deeper in the region. Arghyam
was seen to have two distinct advantages over
partnered with two organisations: Wangjing
the earlier open pit model – convenience of use
Women and Girls Society (WWAGS) and Youth
and reduction of health risks due to
Volunteers Union (YVU) to field test ecological
containment of faecal matter. The construction
sanitation (ecosan) in 4 villages in Thoubal and
of 35 ecosan toilets (10 by YVU and 25 by
Senapati districts.
WWAGS) was planned on a pilot scale. Since
Sanitation Situation training was recognised as a perquisite for
proper ecosan construction training sessions
Statistics on sanitation from the physical were also factored in for masons and NGO staff.
progress report of the Total Sanitation The processes of community consultation and
Campaign (TSC) on construction of Individual social mobilization were also embedded into the
Household Level Latrine (IHHL) shows that up projects which were planned as coterminous
to December 2009 only 7.18% construction had with each other to ensure that the learnings
been achieved. The sanitation facilities built by would feed into an improved and scaled up
people did not go beyond a basic implementation phase.
superstructure. The sustainability of these
facilities are suspect and they are also associated Challenges
with public health issues as they emit foul
The projects were posed with several challenges
odour, attract flies and maggots etc. As a user
in the initial and mid-term because of steep rise
mentioned, often ducks and chicken fall into
in costs and challenges faced by users. The cost
these pits and then move around the house,
of construction of ecosan toilets was initially
creating a health risk for the households.
pitched at Rs 10,000. However, due to increase
However, the community’s need for privacy
in price of the raw materials, the cost changed
provided an entry point for construction of
rapidly and almost doubled within a period of 3
sustainable sanitation structures.
months after the projects were commissioned.
The project This steep rise in cost meant that the number of
toilets proposed had to be rationalised. The
Ecosan toilets were identified as a sustainable unexpected inflation also led to serious concerns

164
about scalability and affordability. For further details, contact :

Innovations Rahul Bakare

Director (Programmes)
Use of bamboo: In order to address the issue of Arghyam
high cost, WWAGS and YVU used innovative Bangalore
construction techniques to bring down the costs.
The North Eastern region has large reserves of
bamboo, which were used for construction of
superstructure of the ecosan.

Ecosan pans: Other innovations such as using a

plastic bucket, sawed into half instead of a
ceramic pan brought down costs by Rs 2000 per
unit. Both the organisations also consulted with
neighbouring NGOs with experience in
constructing ecosan using novel techniques to
keep their costs low.

Revolving fund: YVU also eased the burden of

construction by setting up a revolving fund.
Households were given a loan which added to
their contribution to the SHG fund. As a critical
mass of households started taking loans, the
money pool for lending to other household
increased. Thus, the external money acts as a
seed fund and the balance is generated within
the community.

Figure 10.10 Household ecosan toilet with bamboo

super-structure (Source : Arghyam)

165
Case Study 6

Promotion of Household Toilet

Linked Biogas in Kerala
BIOTECH, an NGO established in 1994 in
Kerala, specialized in the development of biogas
digesters for the treatment of the organic
fraction of MSW (OFMSW) and toilet waste.
Different sizes of plants have been developed
for use in domestic, institutional and municipal
levels. Up to date, BIOTECH has installed over Figure 10.11 FRP biogas plant installed by
BIOTECH in Kerala (Source: BIOTECH)
16,300 domestic plants. Most of them have a
volume of 1m3, but models with a volume up to 2 days for RCC plant and only 2 hours are
6m3 are also available, with a possibility to needed for FRP plants).
connect toilets. Apart from this, about 230
institutional and 46 municipal level plants with ?
No special manual skills are needed to
capacities upto 25m3 have been installed across install the plant.
Kerala by BIOTECH. Considering the
?
The excavation of a pit is not absolutely
advantages of prefabricated portable plants,
necessary. Reduction in labour charge and
BIOTECH is promoting domestic plants entirely
offers the possibility to installation of plants
with fibreglass reinforced plastic (FRP) in the
on the roof-tops.
recent years.
?
The FRP plants can resist salt water in the
Domestic Biogas Plants
places close to sea.
Domestic plants with a volume of 1m3 to 6m3 are
?
The attractiveness is better and the
available. The smaller ones (1m3 and 2m3) exist
customers can even chose their preferred
with or without water jacket, whereas the bigger
colour. In addition, as it is movable, they
ones are all designed with water jacket. This
can take it with them if they move.
technology, where the gasholder does not float
directly on the effluent but in a filled water
?
The advertisement is easier and a road show
compartment, enables to minimise the gas loss
can be used to promote them.
and improves the cleanliness of the plant. For
the models having a volume of 2m3 or more, However, despite all these advantages, the price
BIOTECH offers the possibility to connect toilets is a big drawback. Indeed, a 1m3 RCC plant costs
in addition to the food waste input. about Rs 10,000 whereas a 1m3 FRP is about Rs
15,000. For a 2m3 toilet linked plant the price
Advantages of FRP Biogas
increased from about Rs 23,000 to Rs 33,000.
?
Less time is spent on transportation as the
Anaerobic Co-digestion
plants can be easily carried.
The process anaerobic co-digestion to
?
Less time is spent to install the plant (Takes
simultaneously treat faces and kitchen waste in

166
the same digester was adopted in toilet linked Social aspects: In general, acceptance of the
biogases. In the case of the co-digestion of food toilet linked biogas systems among the people is
waste and toilet waste, the low C:N ratio and very good and most families would recommend
biodegradability content of the toilet waste are it to others. The improved waste management
compensated by the high values characterizing and the production of biogas were mentioned as
those two parameters for the food waste. Thus, the main advantages.
the major problem of ammonia toxicity due to
low C:N ratio is avoided and the low biogas Conclusion
yield due to the small content of biodegradable
The promotion of toilet linked domestic biogas
matter is increased. At the opposite, the high
plants helps in increasing the benefits derived
content of macro and micronutrients of toilet
from improved sanitation. BIOTECH intends
waste compensate the relatively low content of
minimize the price by producing the plants at
those ones in the food waste. The so obtained
large scale. Continued assistance in the form of
effluent is a rich source of inorganic plants
subsidies can help the aspiring families to install
nutrients. If pathogens are not sufficiently
these plants while improving their sanitation
inactivated during the AD process, an improper
status. Adopting precaution in the handling and
use of the fertilizer can lead to infection of the
disposal of effluent from the toilet linked biogas
families.
is highly essential.
Key Features
Reference
Technical performance: The monitoring of the
For further details, contact
ordinary biogas plant and the toilet linked
A Saji Das
biogas plant showed that both plants are
Bio-Tech PB No. 520
working satisfactorily regarding their technical MP Appan Road
performance. The daily gas production of 680L Vazhuthacaud 695014
is sufficient to cook the main dishes of a family. Kerala
www.boitechindia.org
Quality of the effluent: The toilet linked plant
shows a very high reduction in pathogen
content, but still, the concentration of E. Coli
and total Coliforms only allows for restricted
irrigation according to the WHO-guidelines for
“safe use of waste water, excreta and
greywater”. Therefore, the effluent is only fit for
direct application to the roots of the crops or
banana and coconut trees.

Economical Feasibility: The increased

investment cost is a deterrent. Mass production
of biogas plants to reduce cost and subsidy from
Government is necessary for making it
affordable. A positive aspect is the maintenance
free operation of the systems, which turned out
to be very robust and broken pieces are rare.

167
Case Study 7

Promotion of Ecosan Toilets in

Schools
School is important for cognitive, creative and
social development of children. The School
Sanitation and Hygiene Education programme
plays an important role in ensuring safe, secure
and healthy environment for children to learn
better and face the challenges of future. The TSC
and SSA programmes of the Government of Figure 10.13 Napkin vending machine installed in a
girl’s toilet (Source : S Paramasivan)
India aims to ensure that all the schools have
basic sanitation and drinking water facilities and
good hygiene practices are taught to the address this issue, WTN ensured that the
children. adequate number of ecosan toilets and urinals
were constructed for boys and girls separately.
Ecosan Toilets in Schools So far, WTN has constructed over 57 sanitary
blocks in the states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra
With this background, Wherever the Need India Pradesh and Bihar. The school ecosan toilets
Services (WTN) gives special focus to school built by WTN ranges from 100 to 1500 student
sanitation and hygiene promotion in the strength for primary to high school level.
schools. The programme ensures that the
hardware and software aspects are adequately Strategies Adopted by WTN
addressed to bring about sustainable changes in
the school as well as in the surrounding areas. ?
Involvement of child as a change agent to
promote sanitation in the proven route of
The need for ensuring adequate toilet facilities Teacher - Children - Family - Community
to commensurate with the student strength was
indentified from the failure of many existing ?
Greater emphasis on attitude and behavioral
schools implement under TSC programme. To change through hygiene education

?
Child and disabled friendly water and
sanitation design options

?
School as knowledge center and teacher as
facilitator / motivator

?
School environmental cleanliness by
plantation, solid and liquid waste
management

?
Participation of students, teachers and
Figure 10.12 School ecosan toilet in a primary school parents in O&M facilities created
(Source : S Paramasivan)

168
Cost of the Toilets

The cost of school ecosan toilet unit varies from

Rs 80,000 to Rs 7,35,000 based on the strength of
the students in a school. Based on the local site
condition, the cost of school ecosan toilet
complex is substantially reduced by
constructing roof cover over only the ecosan
toilets and leaving the urinal area open. Use of
eco-friendly local materials like mud blocks is
also promoted as far as possible. Napkin
vending machines and incinerators for safe
disposal of sanitary pads are also installed in
girl’s toilet blocks.

Conclusion

The school sanitation programme by WTN

shows that it can bring about significant changes
in the sanitation situation in an area as the
children can be a real change agents. Such
changes evident based on the improvement in
hygiene practices among the population and
increased demand for household ecosan toilets
in the programme areas. However, intensive
health and hygiene education programme at
least for a period of one year after the
construction of the facility and regular follow-
up visits later on ensures sustainability of the
initiatives. Formation of Children maintenance
committee is part of the initial work and
motivating few teachers for follow up is very
important. Menstrual hygiene is a topic which
needs special attention.

For further details, contact :

S Paramasivan
Country Director
Wherever the Need India Services
Pondicherry
www.wherevertheneed.org.in

169
Case Study 8

Experience of Promotion of
Household Ecosan Toilets and
Reuse of Compost in Gujarat
Vankwad is a village located thirty-five
kilometres in the north-east of Rajkot in Gujarat
state. The village is typical of those found in this
part of Gujarat, mainly given over to
agriculture, especially dairy and subsistence
Figure 10.15 Ceramic ecosan pan with a common
farming. It is made up of 113 families with an urine and washwater collection trough installed over a
approximate population of 1,400. twin chamber ecosan toilet (Source : S Paramasivan)

WATSAN Scenario far away to use frequently, even when there was
enough water. With no other toilets in the
Water supply through the Government supply village and most people defecated in the open.
network is periodic with an indeterminate flow.
There are four standpipes scattered around the The Project
village from which people collected water. An
external water pump which was commissioned At the beginning of the project implemented by
to complement the Government water supply the SSP with the support of WTN, a number of
got silted-up and became unusable. The two village meetings were conducted to educate and
water storage units also got damaged and were create awareness among people. Local people
unused. When the supply is not adequate, were formed as volunteers and some of the
villagers collect water from the farm wells and / senior villagers were taken on exposure visit to
or the dam, a walk of three kilometres. A ecosan projects in Tamil Nadu. The first part of
communal flush toilet with septic tank had also the project was very straight forward as the
fallen into disuse (and disrepair) because of the water pump was repaired to provide a more
lack of water and because people felt it was too constant supply of water to the village and
school. The pump, linked to one of the repaired
storage units to store water, is now being
maintained by a local committee.

The preference of ecosan toilet units emerged in

the village meetings particularly after their
experiences with the existing communal unit.
Many women also requested some form of
bathing room to be attached to provide privacy
for them and their children, especially
daughters. However, despite the best efforts of
local educators, it took far longer than normal to
Figure 10.14 A bath attached household ecosan toilet engage the village in the use and benefits of
built in Vankwad (Source : S Paramasivan) ecosan. There is no logical reason for this, but

170
may be due to some underlying resistance residue in food, as suffered before
relating to the subject matter in general. The
construction was very simple. Using locally ?
Cauliflowers were larger & had more florets
quarried stones and porcelain ecosan pans which led to a three fold increase in income
produced in Gujarat, ninety-nine ecosan toilet
units were constructed within one year in ?
Savings due to no pesticides purchased
Vankwad.
Conclusion
Impact
The Self Help Groups (SHGs) that were formed
A comprehensive visit one year later in during the early part of the project are all
November 2009 revealed outstanding results. thriving and are now linked to other SHG
The positive response was overwhelming. Associations. There is a general increase in
Ninety-one of the ninety-nine units were fully in people’s self confidence. Significant
use, five chambers had been opened and achievements like water connections for all
another seventeen were awaiting opening. The houses, new houses for twenty eight families,
compost itself was very fine and dry. The first new road and flooring for temple area have
chamber opened in the village had 178 kgs of been possible with the increased unity and
compost removed from it. enthusiasm among the communities as a result
of the project. Whereas previously teachers
People constantly related positive stories of their would refuse to stay in the village, there is now
experience after construction of the units. one female teacher who lives there, because the
Everyone was positive. Mothers felt happier facilities have improved. One item that was
that the units provided their daughters with highlighted was that people are healthier and
safety and privacy. One young boy explained visits to the fortnightly mobile medical clinic
how previously he used to help his grandfather have reduced drastically.
walk to the fields so he could defecate, causing a
Reference
great deal of awkwardness – now his
Field Note on Ecosan Project Implemented by
grandfather used the family ecosan. Many times
SSP and WTN in Gujarat
the words safer, privacy and dignity were used
by the people.

Reuse of Toilet Compost

One farmer who was the first to use toilet

compost on his farm had seen big differences in
cauliflower crop and his observations were :
? Cauliflowers needed less water where
compost was used

?
Where pest attacks did occur only the
infected plant needed to be uprooted rather
than the whole crop, as before
Figure 10.16 Cauliflower crop to which toilet compost
?
No family illness from pesticide covered was applied by a farmer in vankwad
(Source : S Paramasivan)

171
International Case Studies

Case Study 1 from where it is either fed to the household

pigs or used as fertilizer in the household's
own vegetable garden.
Promotion of Eco-toilets in
Gunagxi Province of China ?
A vent pipe extending above the roof of the
building ventilates the toilet room via the
In 1997-1990, the modified versions of the processing chamber.
Vietnamese double-vault dehydrating toilets
were installed in several provinces of China by ?
School toilets have pedal-operated ash
the SIDA funded SanRes programme in dispensers developed specifically for the
cooperation with UNICEF and Chinese Ministry programme.
of Health. Many successful replications were
carried out based on the work carried out in Factors Responsible for the Success of the
Dalu village of the Guangxi province. Following Yongning Eco-village Programme
the success of the Dalu village pilot project the
?
Political leadership and sound administration
Yongning country party committee and ?
Collaboration between government
Government of the Guangxi province decided to departments
introduce eco-toilets in a comprehensive village ?
Strong technical guidance and effective use of
improvement programme. By the end of 2000, demonstration models
?
Effective mobilization of finance from central
45 villages with a total population of nearly government, local government and villagers
10,000 had introduced the ‘ecovillage’ package, ?
Building on tradition and actual living
including double-vault eco-toilets with urine conditions, solving perceived problems
diverting fibreglass squatting pan. ?
Comprehensive approach linking sanitation,
health, agricultural production and domestic
and economic improvement.
Technical Details

?
The toilets are placed indoors, usually on Cost
the second or third floor.
At the household level, the actual construction
?
Faeces drop through a 20 cm wide PVC costs for ecological sanitation are easy to
chute down to a ground level double vault calculate and can be remarkably low. In 2001,
processing chamber. the total cost of materials for a typical eco-san
toilet in Guangxi province was CNY 284 (= USD
?
A baffle, similar to the one shown in Figure 35). This is only a third of the cost of a three
2.5, directs the faeces to one of the vaults. chamber septic tank or a biogas toilet. Private
entrepreneurs in different parts of China now
?
A specially designed squatting pan diverts
produce several models of urine-diverting
the urine to a ground level collection point
squatting pans. The pans are made of plastic,

173
fibreglass or porcelain and range in price from
USD 5 to 10.

Conclusion

The development in Guangxi province in China

is an example of the Vietnamese concept
brought up to date. As the eco-toilets have a
standard of finish equivalent to that of a modern
urban bathroom and a vent pipe to reduce
odours, most households in Guangxi prefer to
place the eco-toilet inside the house. Following
the success of the original pilot project more
than 100,000 families in other parts of Guangxi
province installed urine-diverting, ventilated,
double-vault toilets inside their houses between
1998 and 2003. The total number of eco-toilets in
China is estimated at 685,000 in 17 provinces
(2003).

Based on the publication “Ecological

Sanitation” by SEI, Stockholm, Sweden, 2004

174
Case Study 2 poor soil was compared to spinach grown in the
same poor soil mixed with an equal volume of
pit compost. After 30 days of growth, the
Use of Compost in Agriculture in harvest was increased 7 times for the enhanced
Zimbabwe soil. The same growth test was done with covo
grown on poor soil compared to covo grown on
The demonstration that human excreta can the same poor soil mixed with an equal volume
change into these soils and humus can be an of pit compost. After 30 days of growth, the
important step in convincing people that harvest was increased 4 times.
something good can come out of practicing
ecosan. When fully composted, toilet compost is For the lettuce growth test in poor and enhanced
pleasant to handle and safe to use. It can greatly soil, after 30 days of growth the harvest was
enhance the fertility of very poor soils and can increased 7 times. The onion growth test in poor
also be used as a potting soil or added to and enhanced soil produced similar results,
vegetable and flower beds. with a harvest increase of nearly 3 times after
four months of growth. In all of these examples,
Toilet compost varies a great deal in texture and the use of urine would have enhanced the
colour depending on the amount and type of production further.
soil added. Where sandy soil has been added,
the toilet compost is sandy and almost humus- Compost from urine-diverting toilet
free. Presence of dried out fly cocoons shows
that the material was once excreta. Where fertile When the urine-diverting toilet is used, urine
soil and leaves have been added, the toilet builds up in the urine chamber. A mix of faeces,
compost is much more humus-like. The humus- soil, ash and leaves, builds up in the secondary
like sieved soil makes it an excellent potting soil composting unit. This final compost is rich in
for planting seedlings. nutrients and also contains seeds which have
passed through the alimentary canal. If the local
Compost from toilet pit diet includes tomatoes, then if this compost is
placed in a container and watered young tomato
Toilet compost is obtained from Fossa Alterna plants will spontaneously grow.
or Arborloo. A test crop of spinach grown on

Figure 10.17 Compost being removed from a Fossa Figure 10.18 Comparison of lettuce grown in normal
Alterna soil (left) and soil enhanced with compost (right)

175
 mulberry tree was planted in the hole and the
soil levelled. Leaf mulch was then added and
the tree watered. After four months, the
mulberry tree showed excellent growth and was
in good health. As the tree grew extra mulch
and compost was added. Manure and other
fertilisers can also be dug into the soil as the tree
grows and requires extra feeding.

Based on the SEI publication “Toilets that

Compost” by Peter Morgan, Aquamor,
Zimbabwe, 2007
Figure 10.19 Comparison of onion grown in normal
soil (left) and soil enhanced with compost (right)
These may germinate in considerable numbers,
but if most of the young plants are removed
leaving the strongest two, the tomatoes will
grow strongly using the nutrients contained in
the bucket. Extra nutrients like diluted urine can
be applied if necessary. The result of growing
tomato plants in the urine-diverting toilet
compost will be a healthy crop of tomatoes.

Growing trees using toilet compost

When an Arborloo is used the tree is planted

directly in the toilet pit. But it is also possible to
plant trees in toilet compost which has been
excavated from a compost toilet pit and
transferred to a hole dug specifically for a tree.
The tree pit dug was 60 cm X 60 cm and 60 cm
deep.

Toilet compost was dug out and the tree pit was
filled with the toilet compost to ground level. In
this example, the toilet pit compost was
excavated from a Fossa Alterna pit after only 6
months of processing when it was not fully
composted, instead of the recommended 12
months. However, the material was sufficiently
composted to be easily transferred from the
toilet pit to the tree pit. Bricks were laid around
the tree pit and the pit filled again with good
topsoil. A hole was dug in the middle and
topsoil added to the base of the hole. A young

176
Case Study 3 reduces the heap to less than 10% of the original
volume.

Promotion of Clivus Multrum Operation and Maintenance

Composting Toilets in Sweden
The owner must provide a starter bed covering
The “Clivus Multrum”, a single-vault the floor of the composting vault before using
composting toilet, was introduced for use in the the Multrum the first time. The bed consists of a
weekend houses in Sweden more than 50 years 0.4 metre thick layer of peat moss and a 0.2
ago. Since then a wide variety of models have metre layer of garden soil rich in humus. You
come on the market and they are now used in should first mix this soil with grass cuttings. The
different parts of the world, including North purpose of this bed is to absorb liquids and to
America and Australia. Commercially available provide the microbes required for the oxidation
composting toilets range from small units about of urine.
the size of a standard flush toilet fixture to
larger ones which utilize a simple toilet pedestal The heap gradually becomes humus: a black,
in the bathroom connected by a drop chute to a lumpy substance similar to good garden
composting vault below the floor. compost. It may take 5 years until a household
has to take out the humus for the first time.
Design Features After that they may have to take it out once a
year. The large part of the receptacle is never
It is a single vault composting toilet with emptied. Only material that has passed under
combined processing of urine, faeces and the partition separating the storage vault from
organic household residues. It consists of a the rest of the receptacle is removed. The
composting vault with a slanting floor, air amount of humus produced varies from 10 to 30
conduits and at the lower end a storage space. A litres per person per year. The maximum
tube connects the toilet seat riser with the number of users depends on factors such as
receptacle and there is often a special chute for temperature, humidity, amount and type of
kitchen refuse. refuse, proportion of urine to faeces, and
volume of the receptacle. In most cases the
There is a constant draught due to natural
maximum for one Clivus Multrum in regular,
convection from an air intake in the composting
year-round use is 8 to 10 people.
vault, through the air conduits and out via a
vent pipe. Into the Multrum, apart from faeces, Earthworms
toilet paper and urine but all kinds of organic
kitchen and household residues: vegetable and Composting human excreta with earthworms is
meat scraps, peelings, bones, eggshells, floor an important part of the ecology. Introduction of
sweepings, sanitary napkins and grass clippings earthworms by daily misting with water for
(but not cans, glass, plastic or large amounts of creating moist conditions inside Clivus showed
liquids of any kind) are added. remarkable effect on the composting process.
Except for two mounds under the toilet and
Because the floor of the Multrum slopes, the kitchen chutes, the rest of the composting
contents are slowly sliding down from the fresh material is flat. The materials inside were
deposits at the upper end down to the storage flattened by the worms with their castings
part of the vault. The process of decomposition covering the entire surface. Worms prefer food

177
 Figure 10.20 Clivus Multrum installed in the
basement of a house has separate chutes connecting
the toilet and kitchen along with a network of
perforated pipes for aeration of the pile (Design:
Richard Lindstorm, Sweden)

scraps to excrement but they like excrement just

fine.

Conclusion

The humus from the Clivus Multrum has a

similar bacterial content to soil. Presently,
Clivus Multrums are used not only in weekend
houses but also in the regular houses, in
institutions and as public toilets. About 10,000
Clivus Multrum toilets are in use worldwide. In
order to eliminate the problem of liquid
accumulation at the lower end of the
composting vault, the second generation models
have been provided with a liquid storage below
the composting vault

Based on the publication “Ecological

Sanitation” by SEI, Stockholm, Sweden, 2004

178
Case Study 4 tank is rotated so that the next chamber is
positioned below the toilet. In this way each
chamber is filled in sequence.
Promotion of Multiple-vault
Composting Toilet “Carousel” in The system is designed so that it will take at
Norway least a year for all of the chambers to be filled
when use is within the design capacity of the
The “Carousel” is a multiple-vault composting unit. After this point, when a chamber is filled,
toilet widely used in Norway. The “Carousel” is the material in the oldest one is removed
manufactured by Vera Miljö A/S of Norway, through an access door in order to make room
has long been one of that country's most for fresh material.
popular composting toilets, and reportedly over
30,000 units have been manufactured there and Liquid drains through holes at the bottom of the
in the US since 1972. A similar type is also inner tank into the outer one, where it may be
manufactured in Sweden. Outside Scandinavia evaporated or discharged into an evapo-
the carousel-type toilet is manufactured in transpiration bed. Several different size units of
Australia under the name of Rota-Loo. In varying capacity are available at prices between
addition to sales in Australia and New Zealand, USD 1,700 and 2,300 (SEK 14,000 to 19,000).
Rota-Loos are in now in use on some of the
Conclusion
islands in the South Pacific.
The carousel is basically a multi-vault toilet. As
Design
such it effectively keeps fresh and sanitized
The design of the “Carousel” features a below- faeces separate. The same effect can be achieved
the-floor processing vault consisting of a at a much lower cost by using a series of
cylindrical outer tank in which a slightly smaller collection buckets shifted manually instead of a
inner tank is able to rotate on a pivot. The inner rotating tank.
tank is divided into four chambers (six on some
models). The one in use is positioned directly
Based on the publication “Ecological
below the drop chute from the toilet in the
Sanitation” by SEI, Stockholm, Sweden, 2004
bathroom. When a chamber is filled, the inner

Figure 10.21 The ‘Carousel’ composting toilet

installation below a toilet in Norway

179
Annexures
Indian Agencies Supplying Ecosan Toilet and Waterless Urinal Components

Agency Contact Details Product Details

i) Ecosan Toilets

Eco-Solutions Mr. Paul Culvert Fibre/Plastic Ecosan Pans

'Pulari', 49 Asan Nagar, Vallakadavu
Trivandrum 695008, Kerala
Tel : +91 471 2502622
Email: paulc@vsnl.com
paul@eco-solutions.org
Web: www.eco-solutions.org
Prakash Ceramics Mr. Prakash Ceramic Ecosan Pans
Vagadia Road,
Thangadh - 363530, Gujarat
Tel:: +91-02751-220856
Fax No.:+91-02751-220859
Email : prakasceramic@yahoo.in
Shital Ceramics Mr. Jayesh Sompura Ceramic Ecosan Pans
15, Milan Park Society, Nr. Swastik Cross
Road, Navrangpura,
Ahmedabad - 380 009, Gujarat
Phone: +91-79-26402123
Fax: +91-79-26423061
Email: shitalcera@yahoo.com
Web: http://ruralsanitation.net/
Energy, Environment Ajit Kumar Saxena Micro Concrete Ecosan Pans
and Development Society R-12 GTB Complex New Market Bhopal,
(EEDS) Madhya Pradesh
Phone: 0755-2768369
Email: saxena.ajitkumar@gmail.com
eeds@rediffmail.com,
eedsngo@gmail.com
Fibro Reinforced Plastic (P) Mr. S.R.G. Nathan – Director Fibre Ecosan Pans
Limited #48 / B, 4TH “N” Block, Stage,
Rajajinagar,
Bangalore- 560010, Karnataka
Phone: 091- 080 – 23121242,
23123071, 23123085
Fax: 091- 080- 23121242
Mobile: 9844010185
Email: fibro_reinforced@vsnl.net
fibroeinforced@yahoo.com
Web: http://www.frppl.com
ARIES # 169, New H Sector, Govindpura Ecosan Pans
Bhopla, Madhya Pradesh, India
Phone: +91-(0)755-2587777
Mobile: +91-(0)98-26065345
Fax: +91-(0)755-5221719
Email: ariesngo@rediffmail.com

183
ii) Waterless Urinals
Shital Ceramics Mr. Jayesh Sompura Low-cost membrane based
15, Milan Park Society, Nr. Swastik Cross waterless urinal odour trap
Road, Navrangpura, with ceramic pan
Ahmedabad - 380 009, Gujarat
Phone: +91-79-26402123
Fax: +91-79-26423061
Email: shitalcera@yahoo.com
Web: http://ruralsanitation.net/
Parryware Available in all showrooms Sealant Liquid based waterless
Web: http://www.eparryware.com urinal odour trap with
fibre/ceramic pan
Hindware Available in all showrooms Sealant Liquid based waterless
Web: http://www.hindwarehomes.com urinal odour trap with
fibre/ceramic pan
Falcon Waterless West Coast Enterprises Pvt. Ltd. Sealent Liquid based waterless
Sneh Centre, 4th Floor urinal odour trap with
F.C. Road (Lalit Mahal Crossing) fibre/ceramic pan
Shivaji Nagar, Pune 411005
Tel: +91 (93) 7161 7026
Email: info@westcoastwaterfree.com
Web: www.westcoastwaterfree.com
Eagle Build-Tech Mr. Sanjay Sharma Bio-Blocks for waterless urinals
Plaza Cinema
Connaught Place
New Delhi
Phone: 91-11-65661864
9818326052
Email: ip@eagle-grp.com
AG Aqua Solutions 17, Pusa Road, 2nd Floor Mechanical air enclosing odour
Karol Bagh, New Delhi – 110005 traps with fibre/ceramic pan
Phone: 011 – 47999850/1/2/3/4/6/7
Mobile: +91 9899999339,
+91 9711436534
Fax: 011 – 47999855
Email: sales@savewater.co.in
Web: http://www.savewater.co.in

184
List of Resource Agencies
S. Organization Contact Person Contact Details
No.
1 BIOME , Bangalore Mr S Vishwanath 1022, 6th Block, 1st Floor, HMT Layout
Director Vidyaranyapura Main Road
Vidyaranyapura,
Bangalore – 560 097
Karnataka
Phone: 91-80-41672790
Email: contact@biome-solutions.com
Web: www.biome-solutions.com
2 Bio-Tech Mr A Saji Das Bio-Tech, PB No. 520, MP Appan Road,
Vazhuthacaud, Thycad P.O,
Thiruvananthapuram (Dist). PIN - 695014,
Kerala, India.
Phone: 91-471-2331909, 2321909
Email: biotechindia@eth.net
Web: www.boitechindia.org
3 BLESS, Cuddalore Mr Antony Samy BLESS Learning Centre
Secretary East coast Road
Reddichavady
Cuddalore:607402
Tamilnadu
Phone : 91-0413-2615782, 2611047
Email: anthony@blessngo.org.in
Web: www.bless.org.in
4 Centre for Science and Training coordinator 41, Tughlakabad Institutional
Environment New Delhi - 110062
Phone: 91-11-29955124
Email: cse@cseindia.org
Web:www.cseindia.org
5 Consortium for DEWATS Mr Joe D’Souza 621, 5th Main Road
Dissemination (CDD) Society Advisor OMBR Layout
Banaswadi Post
Bangalore 560 043, INDIA
Phone: 91- 80 - 25452804
Email: bangalore@cddindia.org
Web:www.cddindia.org
6 Eco Pro - Auroville Mr Lucas Dengel Saracon Building, Kottakarai
Environmental Initiatives Chief Functionary Auroville
Tamil Nadu - 605 101
Email: lucasdl@auroville.org.in
7 Eco solutions Mr Paul Calvert 'Pulari', 49 Asan Nagar
Chief Functionary Vallakadavu
Trivandrum - 695008
Kerala
Phone: 91- 471- 2502622
Email: paulc@vsnl.com
Web: www.eco-solutions.org

185
8 Ecosan Service Foundation Mr Dayanand Panse Vishwa Chandra,
Chief Functionary 1002/42 Rajendra Nagar
Pune – 411030
Maharashtra
Phone: 91- 20- 64000736
Email: ecosan@ecosanservices.org
Web: www.ecosanservices.org
9 Energy Environment & Mr Ajit Kumar Saxena R-12 GTB Complex, New Market
Development Society Director Bhopal
Madhya Pradesh
Phone: 0755-2768369
Email : eedsngo@gmail.com
10 Environmental Sanitation Director Gandhi Ashram,
Institute Ashram Road
Ahmedabad - 390027
Gujarat
Phone:91-79-7558052
Email: safai@icenet.net
Web: www.esi.org.in
11 FODRA Mr Madhav Naik 130, Neelgiri Appartments
Director Sector-9, Rohini India, 110 085
Phone:+91-11-40686625
E-mail: fodra.delhi@yahoo.co.in
Web: www.fodra.org.in
12 Indian Green Service Mr C Srinivasan Indian Green Service (IGS)
Director Vellore
Tamilnadu
Phone: 09443318523
Email: velloresrini@hotmail.com
13 Indian Institute of Technology Dr V M Chariar Centre for Rural Dev & Technology
Delhi (IIT Delhi) Professor IIT Delhi, Hauz Khas
New Delhi 110016
INDIA
Phone: 91 -11-2659 6358
Email: vijayaraghavan.chariar@gmail.com
Web: web.iitd.ac.in/~chariarv
14 Indian Institute of Technology Dr Vinod Tare Dept. of Civil Engineering
Kanpur (IIT Kanpur) Professor IIT Kanpur
Room: 116 Western Laboratory
Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh
Phone: 91-512- 259 7792
Email: vinod@iitk.ac.in
15 Key Resource Centre Dr Vinod K Mishra Uttaranchal Academy of Administration,
Uttaranchal Academy of Programme Director Ardwell Camp, Mallital
Administration Nainital -263 001
Uttaranchal
Phone : 91-5942- 236141
Email: krcntl@gmail.com
Web: www.uaoa.in

186
16 Ladakh Ecological Director Karzoo, Leh
Development Group Ladakh – 194101
Jammu & Kashmir
Phone: 91-1982- 253221
Email: mail@ledeg.org
Web: www.ledeg.org
17 Megh Pyne Abhiyan Mr Eklavya Prasad C/o Dr.A.Sinha, Dr.R.V.P.Sinha Clinic
Chief Functionary Rajvibhuti, Salimpur Ahara
Patna – 800 003
Bihar
Phone:09810307445
Email: graminunatti@gmail.com
18 MYRADA KVK Mr P Alagesan 272 – Perumal Nagar,
Director Puduvalliampalayam,
Kalingiyam – 638 453
Gobichettipalayam – Taluk
Erode District
Tamil Nadu
Phone : 91- 04285- 241626, 241727
E-mail : myradakvk@gmail.com
Web : www.myradakvk.org
19 National Research Centre for Dr K J Jeyabhaskaran Thogamalai Road,Thayanur Post,
Banana Senior Scientist Tiruchirapalli - 620 102
Tamil Nadu
Phone : 91-431-2618104
Email: jeyabaskaran_kj@yahoo.com
Web: www.nrcb.tn.nic.in
20 Nirmal Gram Nirman Kendra Mr Srikant Navrekar At Govardhan, PO Gangapur,
Director Nashik - 422222
Maharashtra
Phone: 91-253-2231598
Email: nirmalgram@rediffmail.com
21 People’s Learning Centre for Mr Praveen Bhikadiya C-1157, 1st Floor,
Water and Sanitation Programme Manu Raja Chamardiwala Opp. SBS,
Coordinator Kaliyabhid
Bhavnagar 364002
Gujarat, India
Phone: 91-278-2573061
Email: plcwatsan@dataone.in
Web: www.plcwatsanutthan.org
22 Rain Centre Mr Sekar Ragavan 4, 3rd Trust Link Street
Founder Mandavelipakkam
Chennai
Tamilnadu - 600 028
Phone: 91-44-2461 6134
Email: sekar1479@yahoo.co.in
Web : http://www.raincentre.org
23 Ramakrishna Mission Mr Chandi Charan De Po Narendrapur
Lokasiksha Parishad Co-ordinator Kolkata - 700103
West Bengal
Phone: 91-33-24772201, 33-24772070
Email: rkmwatsan@gmail.com

187
24 SCOPE Mr M Subburaman P/17, 6th Cross, Ahamed Colony,
Director Ramalinganagar,
Tiruchirapalli-620003
Tamilnadu
Phone : 91- 431- 2774144
Email:scopeagency1986@rediffmail.com
Web: www.scopetrichy.com
25 Sulabh International Dr P K Jha Sulabh Gram, Mahavir Enclave,
Director Palam-Dabri Road
New Delhi- 110045
Phone: 91-11-25031518, 25031519,
E-mail: sulabhinfo@gmail
Web: www.sulabhinternational.org
26 University of Agricultural Dr C A University of Agricultural Sciences
Sciences GKVK Srinivasamurthy Department of Soil Science and agriculture
Professor Chemistry, GKVK
Bangalore: 560065
Karnataka
Phone: 91- 80- 23620023
Email:casmurthy@yahoo.com
27 Wash Institute Mr Prakash Kumar 5-296, Anandhagiri 7th Street,
CEO Kodaikanal - 624 101
Dindigul District
Tamil Nadu
Phone: 91-4542- 240881
Email: secretariat@washinstitute.org
Web: www.washinstitute.org
28 Water for People Mr A Kalimuthu 26/1/1, Gariahat Road (South)
Country Director Kolkata 700031, West Bengal
Phone: 91- 33- 24187600
Email: akalimuthu@waterforpeople.org
29 Wherever the Need Dr S Paramasivan 27, 4th Cross Street, Kurinji Nagar
Country Director Lawspet
Pondicherry – 605008
Phone: 09443018327
Email: paramasivan@wherevertheneed.org.in
Web : www.wherevertheneed.org.in

188
References
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Sweden.

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3. World fertilizer use manual by Finck A. (1992). IFA, Paris.

4. Closing the loop: Ecological Sanitation edited by Sawyer, R. (2001). SIDA, Swedish International
Development Cooperation Agency. ISBN 91-586-8935-4.

5. Technology review: Urine diversion components by Münch, E. von and Winker M. (2009). German
Development Cooperation, Eschborn, Germany.

6. Ecological sanitation – Fact sheet by Smet.J and Sugden.S. (2006). WEDC, Loughborough University,
UK

7. Guidelines for the safe use of urine and faeces in ecological sanitation systems by Schönning, C. and
Stenström, T-A. (2004) EcoSanRes, SEI, Stockholm, Sweden.

8. Guidelines on use of urine and faeces in crop production by Jönsson, H., Richert Stintzing, A.,
Vinnerås, B. and Salomon, E. (2004). EcoSanRes, SEI, Stockholm, Sweden.

9. Toilets that make compost by Peter Morgan. (2007). EcoSanRes, SEI, Stockholm, Sweden.

10. Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies by Tilley.E. et al, .(2008). Swiss Federal
Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag). Dübendorf, Switzerland.

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13. Results of a medium-scale trial of single-use, self-sanitising toilet bags in poor urban settlements in
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14. Humanure Handbook by Jenkins.J. (2005) published by Joseph Jenkins Inc. USA.

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15. Sanitation and hygiene education – India: Handbook for teachers by Snel.M., Ganguly.S., and Shordt.
K. (2002) published by IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, Delft, The Netherlands.

16. Code of basic requirements for water supply, drainage and sanitation - BIS code 1172:1993 published
by Bureau of Indian Standards, India.

17. School sanitation and hygiene education. (2008). Published by UNICEF and Department of Drinking
Water Supply, Govt. of India.

18. Terra Preta sanitation - poster published by Sustainable Sanitation Center, Xavier University,
Cagayan de Oro, Philippines, 2010.

19. A simple guide for construction of ecosan toilets by Kalimuthu. A. (2009). published by Plan,
UNICEF and SEI.

21. Emergency Sanitation: Assessment and programme design by Harvey, P.A., Baghri, S. and Reed,
R.A. (2002), WEDC, Loughborough University, UK.

22. Pee Poo Bags - http://www.peepoople.com/

23. Tutorial for sustainable sanitation planning introduces a participatory planning approach, NETSSAF.
http://www.netssaftutorial.com.

192
Comments and suggestions on this manual are welcome.

Please send your feedback to :

The Director, Total Sanitation Campaign

Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation
Government of India
th
12 Floor, Paryavaran Bhawan,
CGO Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi-110003

http://ddws.nic.in/