Market Gardening Training Manual 3rd Revised Draft

Habakkuk Trust
8a Jason Moyo Street, Bulawayo

Tel: (09) 884274
Email: habakkuk@mweb.co.zw
A TRAINING GUIDE FOR MARKET

GARDENING
Based on experiences in Matabeleland, Zimbabwe
(3rd amended draft)
Picture: Training market gardeners in Beitbridge

Compiled by: C.J. Gumpo and P. te Velde
Watermark Consultancy
Tel: (09) 284019
Email: tevelde@netconnect.co.zw
Watermark Consultancy Page 1 of 45 Market gardening guide for trainers

A TRAINING GUIDE FOR MARKET
GARDENING
Based on experiences in Matabeleland
Zimbabwe
Introduction
Farming is not just a way of life but a business that can be developed to improve living
standards of communal farmers. Small-scale irrigation, or market gardening is a specialized
form of farming that offers tremendous business opportunities to small-scale farmers. Market
gardens can generate a substantial income. Many small-scale farmers in the Communal Lands
and in Resettlement Areas, who have access to water, grow vegetables during the dry winter
season. There are numerous small dams that are surrounded by small bush-fenced gardens,
often not more than 10x10m, where vegetables are grown watered by bucket. The crops
produced in these gardens are mainly for home consumption, but some vegetables are sold
within the community. In addition to these informal gardens, there are many formal irrigation
projects, small and big, deriving water from dams or riverbeds. All these projects provide
business opportunities, not just during the winter season, but all year round, for small scale
communal and resettlement farmers. In order to develop these potential business opportunities,
the following ingredients are required:
a) Availability of a reliable water source and suitable land.
b) Farmers with a business mind-set and a willingness to invest their own resources
in the irrigation business.
c) Knowledge about the potential business opportunities.
d) A sound management structure.
e) Technical advice and access to appropriate irrigation technology.
f) Funding support to develop the necessary irrigation infrastructure.
In Zimbabwe, since its independence in 1980, many efforts were made, particularly by NGO’s,
to provide funding for the development of market gardens. The results of these efforts have by
and large been disappointing, as some of the required ingredients were absent. Most of the
assistance offered was focused on developing water sources (such as dams) and developing
irrigation infrastructure, while some of the other ingredients listed above were lacking

(particularly ingredient b, c and d). In the absence of a business mind-set, an unwillingness to
invest own resources and lack of knowledge about business opportunities (especially the
marketing aspect), the water sources and irrigation infrastructure remained underutilized. The
organizational structure required to operate an irrigation scheme efficiently has also proved to
be difficult to attain (ingredient d).
It should also be acknowledged that the technical advice has in some cases been
inappropriate. Instead of designing irrigation systems that require pumping (high operational
cost) it is more appropriate at this stage to focus on opportunities to irrigate by gravity (low
operational cost).
The objective of this document is to provide a trainers guide for farmer training that includes the
missing ingredients that are essential for successful market gardening, or small-scale irrigation.
These ingredients have been translated into 6 training modules that can be taught as separate
short courses at the appropriate time in the implementation process. The 6 modules are listed
below:
Module 1: Market gardening is a business.
Module 2: A sound management structure.
Module 3: Irrigation technique
Module 4: Soil and water
Module 5: Crops
Module 6: Control of pests and diseases

Figure 1: The joy of harvesting

Module 1: Market gardening is a business.
Key words:
• Business mindset
• Investment
• Business plan
• Commitment
• Taking risks
Figure 2: A traditional vegetable

garden in Matabeleland
Many families who live in the communal lands or in resettlement areas i.e. ‘small scale rural
farmers’ have access to a small plot to grow vegetables, mainly during the dry or winter
season. If there is a source of water, like a dam a river, a well or a borehole, few families will
not grab the opportunity to establish a vegetable garden. Most of these gardens are not
intended to be market gardens as the crops grown are for home consumption. But some hard
working and enterprising farmers produce more than their families need and sell what they
don’t need to other members of the community. At that point a garden becomes a market
garden, a garden that produces crops for the market (and income for the owner). These small
gardens are usually watered by bucket, which is hard work and which limits the size of the
gardens to a few hundred square meters at most. Many families also have access to a plot in a
formal irrigation project, where one doesn’t have to carry water by bucket. A plot or market
garden in a formal irrigation scheme, where water is pumped or flows by gravity through a
system of irrigation channels or pipes, can be bigger. These plots are sometimes as big as
1000-5000m2. One would expect those who are lucky enough to have irrigation plots to be able
to grow more food than their families need and sell the surplus to other members of the
community. Irrigation schemes require money for running cost and maintenance and members
of these projects therefore HAVE TO SELL produce in order to pay for running cost and
maintenance. Yet there is evidence that many members of irrigation projects are failing to raise
enough money from the sale of produce to pay for running cost and maintenance. Some
irrigation schemes are failing to pay for fuel or electricity. A number of irrigation schemes have
collapsed due to lack of maintenance. Almost all major irrigation schemes are under utilized. A
lot of money has been invested in establishing these irrigation projects with the expectation that
through irrigated market gardening many rural households would be able to improve their

standard of living. Are the farmers with access to irrigation facilities improving their standard of
living? Are they realizing the business potential created by these irrigation projects? Why are
the farmers failing to maintain the schemes? Why are they failing to pay for fuel and electricity
to run the pumps? Are the small farmers lacking a business mindset? Is (lack of) ownership an
issue or perceived lack of ownership?
1.1. A business mindset; committing time and resources

What is a business mindset? A person who has a business mind-set uses his or her resources
to create wealth. He/she will use money to make more money. He/she will not hide money
away, but use it productively. But this is not only about money. Most farmers have other
resources as well, such as livestock. All farmers have time. Time is also a resource, which
should be used productively. We all know the saying ‘time is money’. We use our time to work,
or in other words to provide labor. Is a farmer prepared to volunteer time (i.e. labor) to invest in
developing an irrigation scheme? I suppose the answer is yes, if he/she is convinced that the
effort will result in some return. It is usually not difficult to convince people to provide voluntary
labor in exchange for an irrigation plot with
access to water. But what about the inputs
required making that irrigation plot fully
productive? The important question is
whether the farmer is prepared to invest
money. Most farmers probably don’t have
much cash or a bank account. But few
farmers don’t have cattle or goats.
Depending on its size, a market garden
might require an investment of say R1,000-
2,000 in tools, fertilizer, seeds and
pesticides, in order to make it fully
productive. Just like you can’t start a grocery
shop without first buying the goods you want
to sell, you can’t start a market gardening
business without buying the required inputs.
A farmer who doesn’t invest in inputs is not
going to harvest much. For most farmers in
the rural areas is not easy to obtain a loan, if
not impossible. Moreover loans these days
carry a high interest rate. A farmer could
Figure 2: Example of an investment however consider raising the money
required by selling a beast or a goat. A
business always involves taking risks. It makes no difference whether the business is a shop, a
commuter bus or a market garden. One needs to invest before one can reap the rewards. A
person with a business mind-set would sell a beast or a goat for his business, if he/she expects
to generate more money in doing so. This is a matter of ‘using money to make more money’.
He/she would expect to make a profit and use that profit perhaps to buy another beast or goat
after some time. That thinking shows a business mind-set.
Some people believe that, when a donor funds a project, they don’t need to invest themselves.
Nothing is further from the truth. A donor might (partly) fund the capital expenses, but he will
not fund the recurrent expenditure. When we consider a market garden, a donor could possibly
agree to assist in purchasing a fence, piping and cement to construct irrigation channels. This

assistance is usually given on condition that the beneficiaries provide voluntary labor to
implement the project. But a fence and an irrigation channel do not constitute a market garden
business. These things will not generate any money by themselves. Unless the intended
beneficiaries create and develop the business, there will be no benefit. The project members
have to raise money to buy seeds, fertilizer, chemicals, tools and equipment before he/she
starts. Even if, by some miracle, some of these inputs are donated, a farmer still needs money
to run the garden business, before any returns can be expected. It takes at least 3-4 months
before the first crops can be sold. A farmer also needs money (and labor) to maintain the
fence, the irrigation infrastructure and the dam.
Those who invest little will reap little, while those who invest much will reap much. Where your
money is, there is your heart also. Investment is a sign of commitment.
The question then arises how to raise the money needed to run the business (and perhaps
labor if it needs to be hired). Few farmers have a bank account. Borrowing money is probably
next to impossible, as interest rates are very high and increasing. A farmer who owns livestock
could consider selling a beast or goat, as suggested earlier. It would make good business
sense to sell a beast or goat, put the money in the business, and buy another animal after
some time using the profits of the market garden. A farmer who doesn’t own livestock could
sell his/her labor to raise the money needed. It would take longer to raise money by selling
labor than selling an animal, but where there is commitment there is a way.
It is now clear that a business involves taking risks; you sell a beast or a goat in order to buy
seed , fertilizer and chemicals. You then try to grow a crop, expecting that you will get more
money from the sale of the produce than the value of the beast or goat that you sold. How do
you know that you will make enough money to buy another beast, pay for the running cost and
maintenance and take out some money for the family (school fees, groceries etc). A business
plan will assist in managing that risk (see next chapter).
We have already agreed that where a person puts his/her money, that is where his/her heart is.
In other words investing money in a business is a sign of confidence, that this business is a
good cause to put your money in. You don’t expect that money to lose value or to be lost, but
you expect that money to grow.
Where you put your money is also a demonstration of where your priorities are. You could
invest your money in another project, but when you choose to put your money in a market
garden, you are saying: ‘this is my priority’
Once you put your money in the business, you will spend most of your time there. In other
words you are committed to this business. And a business you are committed to has a better
chance to thrive. Even when you are not physically at the place of the business, you still think
about it and plan your actions in order to improve and expand the business.
Commitment is not seasonal but all year round, not for the duration of one year, but for many
years. A vegetable crop will mature in a few months. The inputs acquired to grow that crop are
a short term investment. But there is also need to look at long term investments. Improving the
soil is an example of a long term investment, as it will bring returns in the long term. Planting
fruit trees is an other example of a long term investment. Fruit trees take several years to start
bearing fruit and sometimes many years before the fruits are plentiful. Planting fruit trees will
encourage the owner to spend more time in the garden throughout the year, in the hope that
this investment in money and time will eventually bear fruit. Fruits are an additional source of
income. They spread the risk that is involved in any business and might give you some cash at
a time when there are no other crops to sell. Fruit trees can also survive periods of water
shortage, for example when a dam dries up just before the start of the rains.
Is it a good idea to abandon a market garden at the onset of the rain, as many farmers do,
when it is time to prepare the fields? No obviously not, a market garden should be productive

throughout the year, as long as water is available. A garden that is considered to be a
business should even be maintained, as well as possible, when there is a temporary shortage
of water. When the rain season starts and there is a need to prepare the fields for planting, it is
still possible to devote some time to maintain the garden. Nobody would close down his/her
shop or butchery when it is time to plough the fields. Likewise you should not neglect or
abandon your market garden during the rain season.
Very often the first rains are followed by a dry spell and it is not uncommon that the first crop
planted in the field wilts and dries as a result. If one had planted a crop in a market garden, that
crop would have survived the dry spell because it can be irrigated (assuming that there is water
in the dam). A farmer who abandons a market garden at the onset of the rain season, does not
have a business mindset, but merely acts according to the traditional custom.
Group discussion
Read the parable of the talents (Matthew 25:14-30) and
discuss how it applies to your business
Every person has God given talents; some people have money or possessions,
others have a pair of hands that allow them to work. The parable of the talents
illustrates how God has intended every person to use his/her talents productively.
The person who received 5 talents has used those talents productively and gained
5 more. The person who received 2 talents was able to gain 2 more. The person
who only had 1 talent however did not use it but put it away. When the Day of
Judgment came, his talent was taken from him and given to the person who had
10 talents. In this parable Jesus tells us to use our resources productively. Your
resources could be money, livestock or simply labor. Whatever they are, we are
expected not to hide them but use them productively. This parable also applies to
a market garden business, to any business for that matter. You are expected to
use (=invest) your resources in your market garden in order to increase them. A
market garden provides an opportunity to create wealth for you and your family.
We urge you to use that opportunity to the full and enjoy a better life.
Questions:
• How does the parable of the talents apply to a market garden?
• Are you prepared to sell a goat or a beast, if necessary, in order to
raise money to invest in your market garden?
• Why are traditional gardens often abandoned during the rain
season?
• How can a subsistence garden be turned into a business?

1.2. Developing a business plan
A farmer, who has a business mindset, will plan before he/she acts. Planning is an important
part of any business. A plan is not necessarily written on a piece of paper (although it often is);
it should be foremost in the business person’s mind. Some of the questions that need to be
answered in the planning process are:
• What is the size of the business i.e. the irrigation plot or market garden?
• Which crops are in demand and are going to give a good return?
• What are the inputs required to grow those crops successfully?
• How much money does one need to raise for the inputs?
• What is the right time to plant or sow a particular crop?
• When will he start selling and to whom?
• How will the produce be transported to the market and at what cost?
Most of these and other questions need to be answered by the individual farmer as they relate
to a particular individual market garden. But a market gardener usually does not work in
isolation, especially not when he /she is part of a group or project. Many questions therefore
need to be discussed and decided in consultation with other project members. Co-operation
with other project members is mutually beneficial. Some aspects of a market garden project,
such as the construction and maintenance of irrigation channels, piping and common fences
require compulsory co-operation. In other areas, such as buying inputs and marketing can be
left to the individual member, but co-operation on a voluntary basis would be beneficial. We will
discuss more about co-operation in the chapter about management.
A market gardener can begin to develop a business plan by answering the following questions:
a) What is the size of your garden?
Traditional gardens are usually around 10x10m (100m2), some are smaller and other gardens
are slightly bigger. The average recommended size of a viable family market garden is
1000m2, or 0.1ha. Experience has shown that 0.1ha can generate a substantial return to a
family, sufficient to meet most financial commitments. When a market garden is bigger than
0.1ha, some families struggle to utilize it fully. While 0.1ha is the recommended size, the actual
plot size allocated per member depends on the size of the total area that can be irrigated (by
gravity), the amount of water that is available for irrigation and the number of project members.
When there are many project members the size of the individual market gardens becomes
smaller than when there are few members, as the total area to be irrigated is limited. In most
cases the size of a market garden is given, determined by factors outside the control of the
small farmer. It is then up to the farmer to chose the crops that will give the maximum return for
his/her labour ( i.e. labour intensive crops for small market gardens).
b) Which crops do you want to grow?
Which crops are in high demand and are going to give a good return? Who will buy the crop?
A market gardener grows crops for the market, in other words crops that can be sold to
customers.
It is a good idea to identify customers beforehand and find out what produce they need, how
much and what price they are prepared to pay. A market gardener should find out whether the

customer can afford to pay the expected price. Sometimes it is possible to make a contract
agreement for the supply of certain vegetables to an institution. Some crops give a higher
return than others. Tomatoes are an example of a crop that usually fetches a high price. But
tomatoes are difficult to grow and also perishable. They cannot be stored for a long time like
onions and therefore need to be sold immediately after harvesting. Leaf vegetables, such as
chomoullier (chomolia), are easy to grow, but are also perishable. A market gardener needs to
decide if he/she wants to grow crops that are easy to grow, but give a lower return, or crops
that are difficult to grow, but give a high return. The selling price of all garden produce varies
with demand and supply. When the supply is plentiful the price is likely to drop. A customer is
likely to want a regular supply. It is therefore a good idea to stagger the planting/sewing time
and plant at regular intervals. Not all crops can be grown throughout the year. Some crops
grow better during winter, while other crops grow better during summer. But it is possible, and
recommended, to grow crops throughout the year. It is not a good idea to grow the same crops
over and over again in the same place, because they are in high demand and fetch a good
price (i.e. tomatoes). Sometimes it is wise to grow a crop that gives a lower return, for the sake
of rotation. The table below gives an indication of possible yields and prices of a few crops.
Although the prices vary according to the law of supply and demand, it is clear that some crops
give a much better return than others. Tomato tops the list with a return of R 30/m2, while
wheat is right at the bottom of the list with a return of R3/m2. Wheat would therefore not be a
good choice if your aim is to make money.
Crop No. of plants Yield per m2 Price per kg or Estimate price Total sales
per m2 bundle* in Rand per m2 (R)
Tomatoes 6 6 kg $ 5000 5 R 30
Onion 10 3 kg $ 6000 6 R 18
Carrots 40 2 kg $ 6000 6 R 12
Beetroot 10 4 kg $ 5000 5 R 20
Choumolier 15 20 bundles $ 1000 1 R 20
Spinach 10 10 bundles $ 2000 2 R 20
Cabbage 6 6 heads $ 3000 3 R 18
Maize (green)** 8 8 cobs $ 3000 3 R 24
Wheat 100 700 grams $ 4 000 4 R3
*) Prices as at June 2004
**) Price as at November 2004
Source: Pro-Africa Development Trust (Modified)
Apart from vegetables and grain, one could also consider fruit; fruit trees take several years
before they start bearing fruit. Fruit trees are a long-term investment.
An avocado tree might take 20 years to mature. But eventually a market gardener can get
significant returns from selling fruit. Crops like banana and sugar cane can be grown very
profitably in places that are permanently moist, even in areas that are sometimes waterlogged.
A good market gardener knows what his customer wants and also which crops he/she can
grow at which time of the year. A good garden has a variety of crops at any time of the year.
A farmer, who has a large irrigation plot and a small family ( which means that there is not
enough labor available to grow labor intensive crops) might want to consider using part of the
plot to grow fodder for his livestock. Barna grass and luzerne are crops that require less labor
and the selling price of a beast could increase significantly, if it could get barna grass and/or
luzerne as supplementary feed during winter. Some commercial farmers have argued that it is
more profitable to grow fodder for livestock than vegetables (under irrigation).
c) Which inputs do you need to grow those crops successfully?

It is important to buy good quality seed of a variety that is known to be growing well in your
area and in the type of soil that you have got. You should ask for advice if you are not sure
which seed variety to buy. Apart from good quality seed, you need to buy fertilizer and
pesticides. Even when you use manure and/or compost, there is a need to apply a top dressing
of Ammonium Nitrate for optimum results. For planning purposes you can assume that you
need 25kg AN per 0.1ha per crop. Most crops also respond very well to an application of
compound-D fertilizer, worked in the soil at the rate of 25kg per 0.1ha. Chemicals should be
bought when the seeds are bought, as it is usually known which pests and diseases are likely
to affect the crop. If you don’t have the right pesticide when a pest affects the crop, it might be
too late. There is also a variety of tools and equipment that is needed, such as a shovel, a
rake, a garden fork, a wheelbarrow, a knapsack sprayer and others. You need to plan and
budget for all these inputs, in order to be successful in a market garden business.
d) How much money do you need to raise?
When you have planned what you want to grow (b) and what inputs you require (c), you can
calculate how much money you need. Do not try to economize on the required inputs, as that
will probably affect your output and reduce your profit. There is no guarantee that the money
you invest in your business will be recovered and that you will make a profit. Business involves
taking risks. No business can thrive without taking risks. When a donor organization decides to
fund an irrigation scheme, that organization also takes a risk. If an organization intends to
spend say 100 million dollars on irrigation infrastructure, such as fencing, irrigation channels,
piping etc, there is an underlying assumption that that money will not be wasted, but eventually
produce more money, exceeding 100 million, for the beneficiaries. The donor therefore wants
to be convinced that the market gardens are likely to produce (much) more than 100 million
dollars over a reasonable period. If you are one of the beneficiaries and you are not prepared
to use your own money (or sell a goat) to buy the inputs, what message does that send to the
donor? Are you perhaps not sure that your market garden can generate money for you? There
is no fixed amount that you need to invest in your market garden business. That depends on
the size of the garden, the type of crop and prices are changing all the time anyway. But it is
important that you understand that as a businessperson you need to use money to generate
more money.
e) What is the right time to plant or sow the crops you want to grow?
Some crops can only be grown at a specific time of the year, while other crops can be grown
almost throughout the year. Some crops grow better during the hot rain season while others
grow better during the cold dry season. It is important to know the right time to plant a crop.
One the hand one has to consider the season, the time of the year. On the other hand one has
to consider market demand, the customer. For perishable vegetables the solution is staggered
planting. For other crops it is recommended to plant as early as possible in the right season.
One problem that often faces market gardeners is that when a crop is ready for harvesting,
especially perishable crops, the price of that crop has dropped because the supply exceeds the
demand. If you plant early (for example green mealies in July), you are likely to fetch a much
better price than others who have planted late. Planting times of different crops should be
planned carefully and intelligently in order to maximize returns.

Potential return from green maize, planted at the end of July:
Area to be planted: 1000m2
Number of plants per m2: 8
Total number of plants: 8000
Number of cobs to be sold: 4000
Price per cob (see table on page 7): R 3
Total return: 4000 cobs x R 3 = R 12,000
f) When will you start selling and to whom will you sell?
The decision when to plant or sow is closely connected to the question who the customer is
likely to be and what his needs are. The farmer should learn how long it takes for a crop to
mature. Then he can work out when he can start selling and marketing his produce. He should
have expectations what the selling price is going to be, although the price will to a large extend
be determined by the market forces (supply and demand). Having said that, an experienced
farmer can make predictions when the price is likely to be high and when it is likely to be low.
And he can then plan the planting time accordingly. If a farmer wants a regular income, say
once a month or once a week, he needs to stagger the planting time of the crops, in order to
sell small quantities over a longer period. For any business it is important to know when money
is likely to come in, in order to decide when new inputs, such as seed and fertilizer can be
purchased.
g) How will the produce be transported to the customer or to the market?
If crops are grown for sale within the community transport might not be much of a problem.
Some customers might even come to the garden to collect. But if the customer is far away,
transport can be an issue, especially when it concerns perishable produce. Prior transport
arrangements should be made to avoid produce going to waste. Is transport available for hire?
Can produce be transported on the bus? Does the customer have means of transport to collect
the produce he/she needs? Growing crops without thinking about how that crop will get to the
market can lead to disappointments. If transport could be a problem, one should avoid
perishable crops, or make arrangements to dry the crop. Most leaf vegetables, tomatoes and
most fruits can be dried. Dried fruits en vegetables can be kept for a long time. But if the
market is far away, the issue of transport still needs to be solved.
Assignment:
Make an outline of your own business plan
The 7 questions listed above need to be carefully considered prior to starting a
market garden. They are part of the initial planning process. Once you have
answers to the above questions you have the outline or skeleton of a business
plan. Try to write down your own answers to these questions and you will see
that they will give direction to your business venture. More planning is required
after starting a market garden, as we will see later.

Module 2: A sound management structure.
Key words:
• Co-operation
• Constitution
• Management committee
• Financial record keeping
2.1. General
For any business involving a group of people to be viable and profitable a sound management
structure is an absolute must. That also applies to a market garden business. A market garden
does not usually operate in isolation. Some irrigated market garden schemes involve up to 200
families, while the average number of beneficiaries is around 40 families. The beneficiaries
usually share the irrigation infrastructure, such as the perimeter fence, channels and piping,
and the water source (usually a dam). The beneficiaries or plot holders must co-operate in
order to manage and maintain the shared infrastructure efficiently. In the 1980’s, the policy of
the Government and many NGO’s was to encourage the beneficiaries of a project to form a co-
operative. A co-operative is characterized by sharing all resources including labor. In a co-
operative the members do not have individual gardens, but they work the land communally as a
group. The profits are shared equally. This co-operative approach did not work, as there was
no incentive for the individual members to work hard. Virtually all co-operatives have failed as a
result. What is proposed here should not be confused with a co-operative set-up; each
individual member should run his/her market garden as a personal business. But the point is
that these market garden businesses can not be run completely independent from each other,
when there is shared infrastructure. When the fence collapses all project members are
affected. When the dam is not maintained and breaches as a result, all members are without
water. When an irrigation channel starts leaking, all members loose valuable water. It is
therefore essential to have a management structure in place to effectively manage the shared
resources. This structure starts with a constitution that spells out the rules and regulations
governing the project. The constitution should explain clearly what the rights and
responsibilities are of the members. The constitution should also make provision for a
management committee to be elected. A management committee should be elected
democratically, for a limited period and with a clear mandate. The authority of a management
committee is delegated authority given to it by the membership as a whole. The committee
usually comprises 5-7 members, including a chairperson, treasurer, and secretary. It is also
recommended to elect a vice chairperson, vice treasurer and vice secretary. The
responsibilities of each committee member should be clear and well defined. It is also important
to make provision in the constitution for the removal and replacement of any committee
member who doesn’t carry out his/her duties satisfactorily.
Each member should pay an annual membership fee to cover any expenses necessary to
maintain the infrastructure. When the cost of maintaining the infrastructure is more than the
amount of money collected, all members should be required to make an additional contribution.

It is not wise to collect a lot of money and keep it in a bank account, because of high inflation,
but the members should be prepared to pay as and when money is needed for maintenance or
repairs. Fences and irrigation channels have a limited live span. They need to be replaced after
a number of years and business minded members should be able to raise sufficient money
through their business, to buy cement or fencing when required.
The members are not only required to pay for maintenance and repairs of the irrigation
infrastructure, they should also be prepared to provide labor as and when required. If a
member is unable to provide labor, there should be an option to pay cash for every day not
worked. The bottom line is that a market gardener does not work in isolation; he/she needs to
co-operate with others for the survival and success of the individual market garden business.
As mentioned above it is an absolute must to have a management structure in place to manage
the shared resources. There is no way the market gardens can survive in the long run, if the
shared resources are not managed properly. But within the limitations of the management
structure, the individual members can operate their market gardens fairly independent if they so
wish. A member can buy his/her own inputs, grow the crops of his/her own choice and market
the produce independently. If a member grows a crop and sells it, that does not affect the other
members. However the question is whether it makes good business sense for the members to
buy inputs individually and market produce individually. There could be advantages in buying
inputs collectively (cheaper transport, lower prices for bulk purchases) and marketing produce
collectively.
But co-operation of this nature should be on voluntary basis, not compulsory. A lot of irrigation
schemes are poorly maintained and are not as productive as they could be, because the plot
holders do not want to co-operate with others. While it is understandable that you want to be
independent as a market gardener and run you own affairs, that attitude is not conducive for
good management and results in lower returns.
An alternative approach:
A number of irrigation schemes in Matabeleland did not succeed because of the failure of the beneficiaries to
work together within one enclosure. Sometimes political affiliation is dividing the people. At other times
‘perceived’ land rights are causing a stalemate. Irrigation systems based on gravity flow are very attractive
because of low operational cost and they are relatively simple to operate. But a major limitation is that the
irrigation site has to be downstream of a dam and at least 4-5m lower than the water level in the dam (full
supply level). These restrictions narrow down the choice of irrigable land. When an irrigation site has been
identified, based on proximity to a dam, level and suitability of the soil, the chances are very high that the site is
in use as somebody’s field. Therefore negotiations have to take place to obtain the ‘owner’s’ consent before the
project can proceed. In theory it should not be a problem to set aside a piece of land for irrigation, even when it
is under cultivation, as all land in the Communal Lands legally belongs to the Government. But the Rural
District Councils don’t like to use the authority vested in them by the Government, to set aside cultivated land
for general irrigation purposes. As such it is up to the beneficiaries to negotiate with the ‘owner’ of the land and
obtain his/her permission to utilise the site for irrigation purposes for the benefit of the community as a whole.
When that permission is not granted (or initially granted but later withdrawn), a potentially viable irrigation
scheme can become deadlocked. There are a number of such deadlocked schemes in Matabeleland. If it is not
possible to reach an agreement about the use of a proposed irrigation site, because of resistance by the
‘owner’ of that piece of land, or because of political squabbles, the following would be a viable (albeit less
attractive) option: Water could be gravitated from the dam through a channel or piping. Individual members
could then establish their own individual market gardens in the vicinity of the channel or pipeline. Fencing the
gardens would be the responsibility of the individual. People who do not own land in the vicinity of the channel
or pipeline would perhaps have to negotiate with land-owners for permission to establish a garden, or
alternatively utilise ‘unclaimed’ land. This approach of scattered individual gardens drawing water from one
source has proved to be working well when a community is divided and failing to co-operate. In this approach
there is still a need for a management structure, but a less restrictive one and the individual members have far
greater freedom to pursue their own business aspirations.

Group discussion
Following the introduction on management structure, discuss in
groups what kind of management structure would be appropriate
for your irrigation project.
2.2. Constitution
A constitution spells out the rules and regulations under which an organization operates. Any
business that involves more than one person or more than one family needs some rules and
regulations to function smoothly. A constitution protects the rights of the members of the
organization on the one hand and specifies the duties of the members on the other hand. A
constitution also outlines the organizational structure, such as a management committee. A
market garden project or irrigation scheme, which involves many families, needs a constitution
to run properly.
Some of the issues to be covered in a constitution
• Name of the group, association or club

• Location
• Objectives of the group, association or club
• Membership
• Office bearers (see management committee on next page)
• Joining fee
• Frequency of meetings
• Banking
• By-laws
• Asset management and maintenance
• Profit sharing
• Termination of membership, refunds and resignations
• Signatures and witnesses
While a constitution has to include sanctions or fines to punish members who do not abide by
the rules, the more important part is the protection of the rights of the members. A market
garden constitution therefore confirms the right of a member to utilize a piece of land and to
have access to water for irrigation. It also explains who can be a member and how one can
become a member, including membership fees payable. It should be noted that fees are
subject to change, because of inflation. The constitution should also have a provision for
member’s duties, such as maintaining irrigation channels, fences and the maintenance of the
dam. These duties can be in the form of labor and/or a financial contribution. The constitution
should be very clear what the consequences are when a member fails to carry out his/her
duties. It is also important that the constitution says what should be done if a member does not
utilize his/her plot. It can be a problem if a member claims to ‘own’ a plot without using it.

There should also be rules and terms of reference for a management committee. It is important
that the constitution says how the committee members will be elected, what their duties are and
how long they will serve (term of office).
Assignment:
List the issues that your constitution should cover with
specific reference to the ….
• Rights and benefits

• Responsibilities
• Sanctions
….. with respect to the project members
2.3. Management Committee

Sometimes committees cause as many problems as they solve; once a committee is in place,
some members enjoy their power so much that they will do everything to consolidate and hang
onto that power, at the expense of the general membership. Others are only looking at their
own interests. Corruption can easily creep in. It is therefore crucial that the responsibilities of
the committee members are clearly spelt out in the constitution (terms of reference). A
management committee should at all times be accountable to the membership and not the
other way around. The term of office should be agreed upon and known. A committee should
never serve indefinitely. Committee members should be elected in fair and free elections. All
paid up members should have voting rights. The size of the committee should be in line with
the amount of work to be done. The fewer members the better. An unwieldy committee can be
ineffective; if there are many members it can be difficult to make a decision. An uneven number
of members is recommended, to avoid a voting stalemate. Different age groups and sex should
be represented fairly. If the majority of the members are women, that majority should be
reflected in the committee. Once elected the committee members should attend a leadership
workshop. They need to learn what is means to be a leader. Effective leadership is about
serving.
A committee should have a chairperson, a secretary, a treasurer and a deputy (or vice)
chairperson.

Figure 4: Regular meetings
of the management
committee with the project
members are very
important.
Assignment:
Discuss, before you elect a management committee:
a) How many committee members you need.

b) Which positions you need in the committee.
c) How many positions should be taken up by men, women and
youth.
d) Who have voting rights (prepare a list of members with voting
rights).
e) How is the election of committee members going to take
place.
f) Term of office (how long will office bearers serve before they
are replaced).

2.4. Financial record keeping or money management
Any type of business needs records. A market garden business is no exception. Records need
to be kept of which crops have been grown where, which month and which year. The amount
harvested from a particular crop should be recorded. In general keeping records helps in
finding out how well the business is doing. This chapter deals with financial record keeping,
which is particularly important. Financial records help a businessperson to know whether the
business is going forward or backward. Financial records also help in separating personal
money (money to spend) from business money (money needed to buy inputs). Many
businesses have collapsed because they were operating at a loss, without the owner realizing
it until it was too late. Some businesspersons believe that it is safer not to write down financial
transactions. They think they will remember how much they spent and how much they
received. Some people don’t want their husbands or wives to know how much money they
have received. Others are afraid that the Government will tax them when they keep financial
records. While these concerns may be understandable, it is not possible to run a successful
business without keeping track of income and expenditure. It is not possible to remember all
financial transactions without writing them down. Money management is not necessarily
complicated. It begins with starting capital, which is the amount of money invested in the
business. After that one needs to write down money coming in and money going out. Money
going out (money spend) is deducted and money coming in (money received) is added. The
table below shows how that can be done and how it shows the balance of money available for
the business.
Income and expenditure account:

Date Description In Out ( R ) Balance( R )
01-06-2004 Starting capital 1,000 1,000
10-06-2004 Diesel 300 700
10-06-2004 Fertilizer 300 400
10-06-2004 Seeds 50 350
10-06-2004 Chemicals 140 210
30-08-2004 Hired labor 100 110
25-09-2004 Transport 100 10
25-09-2004 Tomato sales 80 x 10kg trays 800 810
25-09-2004 Green peas sales: 200kg 500 1,310
05-10-2004 Paid Mr Phiri 100 1,210
10-10-2004 Tomatoe sales 1,000 2,210
10-10-2004 Carrots sales: 20kg 400 2,610
25-10-2004 Tomatoe sales 800 3,410
25-10-2004 Fertilizers: 200kg 600 2,810
Total paid (out) and received(in) 4,500 1,690 2,810
25-10-2004 Taken for personal use 1,810
Amount carried forward: 1,000
At the end of the month, or at the end of the season, the owner of the business decides how
much money can be taken out of the business for personal use, after calculating how much
money is needed to buy inputs for the next crop and other necessary expenses. In our
example the farmer starts with R1000 and takes home after three months R1,810, while
R1,000 is reinvested in the business (amount carried forward), perhaps to buy some tools or
cement or chemicals.

The profit is calculated by subtracting the money spent(out) from the money received (in), but
without counting the starting capital: total money in (R 3,500) - total money out ( R 1,690) =
R1,810
If the money spent (out) is more than the money received (in) you have made a loss.
The income and expenditure account can also be used by the management committee to show
income and expenditure for the irrigation scheme as a whole. The contributions by the project
members are shown as income. And whatever the treasurer spends is shown in the ‘out’
column. At each meeting the treasurer should present a financial report and inform the
members what the balance is.
It becomes a bit more complicated when inflation and interest is taken into account, as well as
capital investments and loans. We will deal with those issues later, but we will first teach you
how to use a calculator for your business.
How to use a calculator for money management
• Adding
• Subtracting
• Multiplying
• Dividing
• Percentages
As long as inflation is high in Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe dollars should not be kept in your pocket,
in your house or in a bank account, as it loses value quickly. Money should be used
immediately to buy goods, that don’t lose value or to be changed into foreign money such as
Rand and Pula.
After learning how to use a calculator all farmers should compile their own income and
expenditure account using the example on the previous page, but with different figures.

Assignment
Compile an income and expenditure account using the following figures:
• Starting capital: R 2,000

Money spent (out):
• Diesel: R 600
• Fertilizer: R 600
• Seed: R 100
• Chemicals: R 280
• Hired labour: R 200
• Transport: R 100
Money received (in):
• Tomato sales: R 1,600
• Green peas sales: R 1,000
• Carrot sales: R 800
• Tomato sales: R 1,600
Now calculate your profit

Module 3: Irrigation technique
3.1. General
Most of the market gardeners to benefit from this training guide are new farmers, farmers
without prior exposure to irrigation. These market gardeners can learn much about the
management and maintenance of an irrigation project by taking an active part in the
implementation process (see next paragraph).
But this training guide is not exclusively for new farmers; members of established irrigation
projects also need training. Especially members of irrigation projects that are under-utilized or
(semi) derelict would benefit from training. These farmers can probably skip the paragraph on
implementation. The training material in this chapter is mainly based on gravity based irrigation
projects, but the writer is aware that most of the old irrigation projects are not gravity based and
require pumping. The very fact that old irrigation projects require pumping is a important reason
why these projects are often under-utilized or (semi) derelict. Most development practitioners
have concluded that irrigation projects that require pumping are not viable in the context of
communal farmers. This would be true where it concerns farmers who don’t have a business
mindset; farmers without a business mindset invariably fail to raise money for operation (fuel
etc.) and maintenance. But farmers with a business mindset could make an old irrigation
project work, although they might need some help in the form of a business partner or a
commercial linkage, to assist with the procurement of inputs and marketing of produce.
3.2. Implementation
The best way to learn how to operate and maintain an irrigation system is to participate in the
implementation. Most projects targeted by this training guide are surface irrigation schemes or
drip irrigation schemes, based on gravity. Irrespective whether the irrigation scheme features
irrigation channels or piping, or a combination of both, there is much scope for the beneficiaries
to be involved in the implementation, possibly even providing most or all of the labor
requirement. The implementation process is part of the learning process. Farmers who have
actively taken part in the construction of irrigation channels or in fitting and laying pipes have
learned a lot about operation and maintenance. Ideally this module should therefore be taught
during implementation.
There are various ways of constructing irrigation channels. Some channels are constructed
0.20-0.30m above ground level to facilitate the use of siphons. Siphons are normally used for
furrow irrigation, especially for larger schemes. This approach however requires an
embankment to be build prior to the construction of the channel. A more appropriate method,
especially for small market gardens, is a sunken channel. Sunken channels do not require the
use of siphons, are cheaper to construct, require less labor and reduce the risk of erosion.
Sunken channels are also less vulnerable to damage.
There are usually 2 different kinds of channels to be constructed: conveyance channels, or
main channels and field channels.
3.2.1. Conveyance channels, or main channels
The function of conveyance channels or main channels is to move water from the source to the
irrigation site or from the start to the end of the irrigation site. These channels are constructed
(almost) parallel to the contour, with a slight gradient. The gradient usually varies form 0.2-

0.3%, which in practical terms means that the channel drops 2-3cm per 10m distance. A main
channel does not discharge water to the irrigation units directly and can therefore be
constructed as a sunken channel, slightly below ground level.
3.2.2. Field channels
Field channels deliver water from the main channels to the irrigation beds. Irrigation beds are
typically 2m wide and around 35m long, although both the width and the length can vary
considerably depending on the slope and the flow. Field channels are constructed across the
slope at a gradient that is determined by the natural slope. However the slope of a field channel
should not exceeds 2% to prevent the water from flowing too fast. When the natural slope
exceeds 2%, drop structures should be incorporated as a way of reducing the slope of the
channel. Ideally the slope of a field channel should be between 0.2-1%. A drop structure
usually means a drop in the bottom of the channel of between 0.20-0.30m, typically to drop the
bottom of the channel from 10-15cm above ground level to 10-15 cm below ground level. The
bottom of a field channel can be slightly below the ground level, but as a field channel has to
discharge water into he irrigation beds, the top of the field channel should be at least a few
centimeters above ground level. A field channel should have small indents on the sides at
intervals equal to the width of the beds (usually 2m), to allow water to flow out of the channel
onto the irrigation bed. A plastic bag filled with river sand can be used to raise the water level
in the channel and direct the flow onto the bed to be irrigated.
Large surface irrigation projects usually have raised field channels, in order to facilitate the use
of siphons for discharging water from the channel onto the irrigation units. Raised channels are
more expensive to construct (and maintain) and the discharge of water from raised channels
can cause erosion. But by and large raised channels are more appropriate for large irrigation
projects, as it is easier to control the discharge and flow of irrigation water.
3.2.3. How to construct an irrigation channel
There are various ways of constructing irrigation channels. The conventional ways of
constructing raised channels, involves the use of a steel mould, called a ‘former’, to shape the
channel bed and the use of a steel frame to apply the concrete lining. But this method requires
skilled labor and is difficult for project members to learn.
Below is a detailed description of the construction of an irrigation channel, which can be done
entirely by the project beneficiaries.

Description of the construction of a channel with a disposable mould:
A small trench is dug slightly deeper and wider than the size of the mould, guided by
pegs placed at 10m intervals, in such a way that the top of the pegs indicates the
bottom level of the channel. A layer of small stones is placed in the trench not
exceeding the level indicated by the pegs. A thin layer of cement mortar is placed on
top of the stones. The asbestos mould is then placed on top of the wet mortar,
pressed firmly down at the level and gradient indicated by the pegs. The mould serves
as ‘inside shuttering’, while stones, soil or planks can be used as ‘outside shuttering’.
Cement mortar is inserted in the narrow gap between the ‘inside and outside
shuttering’ and rammed firmly down with a pointed stick. When a dry mixture is used,
the mould can be removed by pulling it forward to the next section almost
immediately. A smooth finish can be achieved by using a bottle. As the mould is
cheap, there is no need to collect it after use, thus saving the cost of transport, while
the project members can use it at their convenience, whenever they need it.
The size of the mould to be used depends on the required capacity of the channel, which in
turn depends on the area to be irrigated from that particular channel.
Table 1: sizes and capacities irrigation channels (using asbestos aqueducts as moulds)
Area to be Width: Depth: Freeboard: Capacity at Capacity at

irrigated: 0.03% gradient 0.02% gradient
0.5 - 2.0ha 270 mm 152 mm 38 mm 51 m3/h 40 m3/h
2.0 - 4.0ha 310 mm 181 mm 44 mm 75 m3/h 60 m3/h
4.0 - 6.0ha 362 mm 203 mm 50 mm 110 m3/h 88 m3/h
6.0 - 10.0ha 413 mm 222 mm 50 mm 160 m3/h 127 m3/h

A disposable
asbestos mould is
the recommended
tool for constructing
irrigation channels
Channels need to be set out (pegged) accurately to ensure a uniform slope; pegs are usually
placed at 10m intervals, the difference in height between 2 consecutive pegs normally being 2
or 3 cm, depending on the adopted slope. It is recommended that the pegs be placed in such a
way that the top of the peg represents the bottom level of the channel. This implies, when
constructing a sunken channel, that the top of the peg will be 10-30cm below ground level,
depending on the size of the channel. The bottom level of the channel can be marked at the
required intervals, which is usually the length of the mould, with the help of a building line.
In order to avoid errors, it is recommended to check the slope of the channel by pouring a cup
of water in the mould.
To avoid cracks occurring in the channels expansion joints should be made at certain intervals
(10m?), which should be sealed with bitumen putty (or similar product). When cracks do occur,
for whatever reason, they should not be patched up with cement, but sealed with bitumen putty.
Otherwise the cracks are likely to re-open again.
Pipes should be used for crossing gullies, small streams and roads. To ensure a free
uninterrupted flow, the diameter of the pipe should not be smaller than the width of the channel.
Asbestos sewage pipes (approx. 300mm) are recommended for this purpose.
3.2.4. Irrigation basins
If surface irrigation is applied (as opposed to drip irrigation) the farmer has a choice between
irrigating furrows or irrigating basins. Furrow irrigation, as stated above, works best in
combination with raised channels and siphons. This approach is recommended for large
irrigation schemes. The system best suited for small market gardens (500-1000m2), which are
the subject of this training guide is the use of irrigation basins. An irrigation basin is typically 2m
wide and 35m long. The width does not need to be constant and may vary depending on the
slope of the land and the flow. The length can also vary, even within one market garden unit,
depending on the topography. The direction of the irrigation basins is determined by the
contours, but they are usually at an angle with the field channel, which is between 70 and 85º.
When basins are pegged perpendicular to the field channel, considerable excavations might be
required in order to get the water to flow right up to the end of the basin. The length of the
basin should be sloping slightly (0.1-0.2%) in order to distribute the water evenly, right up to the

end of the basin. The basins do not need to be straight, but can be curved according to the
contours. The width of the basin should be completely level. The basins should be surrounded
by small (contour) ridges of 0.10-0.20m high.
3.2.5. Drip irrigation
A number of irrigation projects in Matabeleland use gravity based drip systems, which is
particularly recommended for sandy soils, sites with uneven slopes and projects where
conservation of water has a high priority. Drip systems are delicate and require constant
monitoring to ensure that the drip holes are not blocked. Constant scouting for leakages is also
important to minimize water losses.
The implementation of drip irrigation systems requires placing and fitting various sizes of
piping, valves and filters, requiring skilled labor. But the beneficiaries have an opportunity to
learn how to fit pipes, when they assist the skilled workers in placing and fitting the pipes.
3.3. Operation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructure

The operation of a gravity irrigation system is not difficult, but some rules and discipline are
required to ensure that all members have equal access to water and also to ensure that water
is not wasted. Each member should have his/her own specific day and time to irrigate. Water is
a scarce commodity and care should therefore be taken not to waste any water. It is
recommended that one member is chosen to be responsible for opening and closing the main
valve. Channels should be inspected and cleaned daily. Leakages should be attended to
immediately. Cracks causing small leakages should be filled with bitumen putty. Other
damages to channels should be repaired with cement. The committee needs to ensure that
bitumen putty and cement are always in stock. When a channel tends to overflow, the valve
should be partly closed to reduce the flow of water.
PVC pipes and black poly pipes always need to be covered, as exposed pipes can easily be
damaged accidentally (or on purpose). Moreover PVC pipes become brittle when exposed to
the sun. Exposed poly pipes can be damaged by rats.
Valves need to be protected from vandalism, preferably by boxing them in. It is a good idea to
padlock the box or the valve itself. If there are any parts, like nuts or seals that can be removed
and stolen, the committee should keep some spare parts in stock.
Drip irrigation systems are delicate and need special care. Filters need to be cleaned as
recommended. Loose or damaged connections causing leakages need to be repaired
promptly. The committee should always have some spare pieces of piping, some fittings and
most importantly some solvent cement, to repair leaking pipes. The committee should also
consider acquiring some tools, such as a set of pipe wrenches, a shifting spanner and a
hacksaw. It is also useful to know how to make a socket on a PVC pipe, when a damaged
piece of pipe needs to be repaired.
How to make a socket on a PVC pipe

Heat the end of a piece of PVC pipe over a small fire, by turning it slowly. When the PVC
becomes soft and malleable, push another piece of pipe of the same size inside the
heated pipe. Pour some water over it to cool it down. You can now join the 2 pieces of
piping using solvent cement.

Usually it is not so much lack of knowledge, but lack of care and discipline causing irrigation
infrastructure not to be well maintained.
Surface irrigation can cause considerable erosion over time, when it is not done properly,
especially at the point where the water flows out of a field channel into a basin. Water should
not be allowed to drop on bare soil without protecting that soil. Protection can be in the form of
stones or a plastic sheet. If due to the topography, irrigation water flows too fast through a field
channel, the speed can be reduced by incorporating a number of ‘drop-structures’ in the field
channel. If irrigation water causes erosion in a basin, the slope of the bed or basin is not correct
and needs to be adjusted by moving soil from the higher side to the lower side. There is more
on erosion in module 4 (Soil and Water).
3.4. Irrigation scheduling

When many farmers share the same water source it is important to introduce rules to ensure
the even and fair distribution of water to all project members. For example the irrigation project
can be divided into 5 or 6 blocks and one (working) day of the week can be allocated to each
block. This way each member can irrigate on a specific day every week. Most established
crops require watering at intervals of one week. Some flexibility is required however as some
crops, especially newly planted crops, require watering more often than once a week. Perhaps
each member should be given 2 days per week, in order to ensure that certain crops can be
irrigated twice a week.
It is important to learn how much water the crops require at the various stages of growth. The
daily water requirements of an average crop varies form 3-9mm, depending on the season and
the temperature. If water is applied once a week the amount of water required would be vary
from 30-60mm. It is difficult to gauge how much water one has applied (in millimeters) by
flooding a basin, but checking the depth of the wetted zone with a stick helps to make sure that
the root zone is watered adequately.
3.5. Drainage
All irrigation schemes need to have proper drainage systems to remove excess water. Excess
water can be rainwater, but it can also be excess irrigation water. Sometimes excess water is
caused by accident when a valve is not closes in time. But it is also a good practice to
deliberately flood the beds (once a year, during the rain season) with a lot of water to prevent
the accumulation of salts on the surface. Whatever the reason for using excess water, it is
important that there is a functioning drainage system that will take floodwaters back to the river,
without causing erosion. Drains should have a grass cover or be protected by stones (or a
combination of both). If natural gullies are used for drainage, it might be a good idea to plant
bananas, fruit trees or other plants inside the gully to protect the soil and prevent the water
from damaging the gully. All drains need to be inspected and maintained regularly. Water
logging of certain portions of the irrigation scheme (during the rain season) should be avoided
by digging trenches to drain excess water.

Module 4: Soil and water
4.1. Suitability of soils for irrigation
Irrigation places high demands on the soil. The continuous application of irrigation water to the
soil can cause erosion and leaching of nutrients, while it also affects the soil structure.
Sodic soils (soils with a high sodium content, usually clay soils) are very common in
Matabeleland. These soils are usually associated with mopane trees, they are sensitive to
erosion and can be easily recognised by the absence of grass. Sodic soils are not suitable for
irrigation and should be avoided.
Likewise saline soils (soils with a high salt content) should be avoided. Sometimes the salt
content of a soil is not very apparent, but the upward water movement in the soil below a dam,
caused by the pressure of the water in the dam, can cause the movement of salt that is present
in the soil, to the surface. This process will gradually cause the soil to become unsuitable for
irrigation, as evidenced by the stunted growth of the irrigated crops. The process can be
reversed to some extend by applying excessive amounts of irrigation water and draining it. It is
recommended to do this during the rainy season, when the dam is full. It is therefore important
to have a good drainage system. The application of massive amounts of organic matter will
improve the structure of the soil and thereby also counteract the negative effects of the
accumulation of salt in the soil. But the bottom line remains that sites that appear to be even
slightly sodic or saline should be avoided for irrigation.
Shallow soils and sandy soils should also be avoided. Sandy soils can sometimes be improved
by applying organic matter, which will improve the water retaining capacity of the soil, as well
as the structure. But little can be done to improve shallow soils to the extent that they can be
used successfully for irrigation.
Even when the irrigation site has a deep soil profile and a good clay or loam content, it is
important to remember that irrigation demands a lot from the soil. The soil structure needs to be
protected from deterioration by constant applications of organic matter, such as crop residues.
Nutrients leached from the soil as a result of irrigation as well as nutrients used by intensive
cropping need to be replaced at a much higher rate than is the case with traditional dry land
agriculture.
A simple pH test can help in determining the suitability of soil for irrigation. De Ph is an
indication of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. Most plants grow best in soils of a pH ranging
from 6-7. A pH below 5 indicates strong acidity (sour). A pH above 7 indicates strong alkalinity
(sweet). Plants do not grow well in alkaline and acid soils. The PH can be increased or
decreased; adding lime increase the PH (make the soil more sweet), adding Ammonium nitrate
fertilizer decreases the PH (make the soil more acid).
In conclusion, sandy soil, clay soil or loam can all be used for irrigation, provide the PH is not
too high and not too low, provided the soil profile is reasonably deep and provided organic and
inorganic fertilizers are applied.
4.2. Erosion prevention

Irrigation sites also need to be protected from possible erosion caused by rain and floods. Sites
irrigated by gravity are usually close the streams and rivers and therefore vulnerable to
flooding. Flood protecting measures usually include:
4.2.1 Storm drains
A so called "storm drain", which is a combination of a drain and an embankment constructed on

the contour along the upper side of the irrigation scheme. The main purpose of a storm drain is
to trap floodwater and divert it into a drain, thereby protecting the irrigation units from flood
damage.
4.2.2 Contours
The contour ridges forming the boundaries of the irrigation basins also serve to reduce runoff
and soil losses during the rainy season. It might be a good idea to increase the size of some of
the ridges to counter big floods.
4.2.3 Stream banks
In order to be able to irrigate by gravity, the irrigation sites are usually located in low places
close to rivers and streams. The banks of rivers and streams are particularly vulnerable to
erosion and need to be protected. Area's within 30m from a stream bank should have a
permanent vegetation cover. No seasonal crops should be grown in areas that can be
occasionally flooded, to avoid the loss of soil and siltation of rivers and dams. Fodder grasses
can be used for this purpose, but also fruit trees, bananas, or sugarcane. It is recommended to
include the stream banks in the fenced enclosure. The fence should be placed as close to the
bank as possible in order to be able to protect it better.
4.2.4 Vetiver grass
The topography of an irrigation site dictates how and where the rainwater run-of will flow during
the rain season. Water ways (should) have been taken into consideration in the design of an
irrigation system; often they can be utilised as drains for excess irrigation water. But water
ways, depending on their ‘catchment area’ can also collect water from outside the irrigation site
and can therefore be prone to erosion. To protect water ways from the threat of erosion, care
should be taken to keep them covered.
Cover can be in the form of grass and or stones. Vetiver grass is a type of grass that does not
produce seed or runners and is very hardy and drought resistant at the same time. It does
therefore not spread as a weed that could affect the crops. These properties make Vetiver
grass extremely suitable to protect water ways. Vetiver grass is propagated by digging up a
clump and splitting it apart into small slips. The slips are then trimmed before planting at 5-
10cm intervals across the waterway. Vetiver grass can also be planted on contour ridges,
where it will form small hedges that trap the soil.

4.3. Improving/maintaining the fertility of the soil, feeding the
crops
Vegetables can be grown on almost any soil of a pH ranging from 6-7, as long as the required
nutrients are added in the form of fertilizer and manure. Good yields can even be achieved on
poor sandy soil provided sufficient nutrients are applied.
4.3.1 The use of organic matter or organic fertilizer.
Organic matter is derived from human, animal and plant waste and can be applied in the form
of manure (animal waste) or compost, which is predominantly plant residue, sometimes mixed
with manure. It is important to know that organic matter not only provides nutrients to the crops,
but it also improves the structure of the soil and helps the soil to better retain moisture and
nutrients.
Manure contains most of the nutrients that crops need. But manure from different animals has
a different composition. The composition further depends on what the animals eat. It is
therefore a good habit to add manure from different animals to the compost heap (see next
paragraph). When manure from chickens, cattle, pigs and donkeys are all added to the
compost it will have a well-balanced composition that will suit most crops. Manure can also be
applied to the soil directly, provided it is well rotted. Fresh manure can damage young plants.
For intensive cultivation manure alone is not sufficient to attain good yields; it is still necessary
to add inorganic fertilizer (see next page).
4.3.2 How to make compost
Compost can be made in a pit or in a heap on the surface of the ground. The advantage of
making compost in a pit is that there will be less evaporation and it can be easily irrigated.
A wide variety of waste can be used for making compost, both dry and green, for example:
leaves, grass, weeds, crop residues, manure, urine. A mixture of manure and crop waste gives
excellent results. Compost is made by bacteria that work best when there is both sufficient air
and sufficient water. Air can be added by turning over the compost regularly, say once a
fortnight. Water should also be added once a fortnight.
Compost that is made of organic matter (leaves, grass, plant stalks etc) with little or no manure,
will be better if one adds some agricultural lime and Ammonium nitrate fertilizer.
Compost, that is aerated and watered regularly, is ready after about 2 months when it does not
become hot anymore. Compost that is not watered and aerated will take as much as a year to
be ready. Recommended dimensions for a compost pit are: 1m. depth x 1.50m wide x 4m
length.
Compost should ideally be applied at the rate of 1 wheelbarrow per 3m2 every year, subject to
availability. Below is a suggestion how to make a good compost pit or heap:

How to make compost
First layer: approx. 30cm of coarse materials such as twigs, maize stalks etc.
Second layer: 1-5cm of kraal manure or chicken manure.
Third layer: 10cm cut up vegetable waste or green grass cuttings.
Fourth layer: 1-5cm of topsoil.
Fifth layer: 20cm dry leaves, straw etc.
Repeat from second layer to fifth until the compost is about 1.50 high.
Most soils have a tendency to gradually become more acid (low pH), especially when a lot of
compost is applied. As crops do not grow well in acid soil, it is a good practice to add
agricultural lime to compost or to apply agricultural lime directly to the soil every now and then,
when one suspects that the pH is going down.
4.3.3 Fertilizers
When manure and compost are used at the rate recommended above, one can use less
fertilizer. However for most crops a top dressing of Ammonium nitrate is recommended for
better growth at the rate of about 1 tablespoon per plant. This should be applied when the
plants are well established, but before they have grown too big. Most of the root crops respond
very well to an application of Compound-D fertilizer, which should be applied just before
sowing. Compound-D should also be applied to fruit trees; give small trees about a hand full
per year and mature trees up to 10 hands full (1kg) per year. Each crop has its specific nutrient
requirement, as recommended by the seed companies. But as a rule of thumb a market garden
of 1000m2 that is irrigated continuously throughout the year requires 50kg compound fertilizer,
which is applied at the time of planting and 25-50kg ammonium nitrate top dressing every
year, applied in small quantities during the growing stage.
Ammonium nitrate contains Nitrogen (N), which helps the plant to develop healthy dark green
leaves (Urea fertilizer also contains nitrogen).
Compound D fertilizer contains Nitrogen (N), Phosphate (P2O5), Potash (K2O) and Sulphur
(S). Phosphate is important for the development of the roots. Potash is important for the
development of fruits. And Sulphur is important for the oil containing fruits. There are other
compound fertilizers, but compound D is the most commonly available.
In addition to the elements listed above, there are a number of so-called trace elements, which
are needed by most plants in very small quantities. Boron and Zinc are the most important
trace elements and these can be found in most compound fertilizers other than compound-D.
4.3.4 Mulching
When surface irrigation is practised there is an erosion risk, which can become quite severe on
sandy soils. This erosion risk can be reduced considerably by mixing dry grass and leaves with
the upper 5cm of the soil; this is called mulching. One can also simply cover the soil with dry
grass and leaves. Covering the soil will protect the plant roots by reducing the temperature in
the soil, while it will also reduce evaporation (drying out of the soil). Especially when it is hot, it
is important to keep the soil covered.
4.3.5 Fertility trench

Poor soils can be improved by digging trenches up to 1m depth and filling them with organic
matter like leaves, maize stalks, twigs and dry grass. Apply coarse materials in layers up to
30cm and finer materials in layers up to 10cm. Cover each layer with soil. Manure should also
be added if available. Cover the trench with at least 30cm topsoil. A fertility trench provides
nutrients to crops for several years and it can permanently improve the structure of the soil.
The use of organic matter in the garden reduces the amount of fertilizers that need to be
bought. Vegetable waste should be recycled by turning it into compost. Dry grass, leaves and
crop residues should never be burned as they play and important role in improving the soil.
Vegetable waste that is affected by diseases should not be used for making compost, but
burned up to avoid the spread of diseases.

Module 5: Crops
5.1 Cropping seasons

A wide variety of crops can be grown in Matabeleland under irrigation: vegetables, staple food
crops, crops for the market, fodder crops for livestock, fruit trees etc. etc.
Some crops are grown in a specific season, while others can be grown throughout the year.
Table 1 below, lists some recommended crops and the time of the year when they can be sown
or planted.
The irrigation sector usually distinguishes two main growing seasons: winter and summer.
Summer coincides with the rain season. Crops grown during summer receive supplementary
irrigation as and when necessary.
Crops grown during winter are unlikely to receive rain and therefore need to be fully irrigated.
As there is a possibility of frost occurring during June-July, winter crops need to be frost
resistant.
The time it takes for a crop to mature varies considerably, from less than 3 months (beans) to 6
months (sweet potatoes?). However most crops take 3-4 months to mature. This implies that it
is possible to grow at least 3 crops per calendar year, in one irrigation unit. As soon as a crop
has been harvested, a new crop can be planted. Some vegetable growers are even known to
grow 4 crops in one year, which is possible if one has seedlings ready for planting as soon as a
crop has been harvested. It should be realised though that this requires heavy applications of
fertilizer and manure.
Although the large scale irrigation sector distinguishes two growing seasons, it is
recommended for the small scale irrigation sector to distinguish 3 growing seasons: April - July,
August - November and December - March. The planting times do not have to be adhered to
very strictly, depending on the type of crop, but generally speaking it is best to plant as early as
possible, weather conditions permitting. For example, it is better to plant a crop in April than in
May. Green maize should be planted in early August, as soon as the chance of frost is over. As
the saying goes: ‘The early bird catches the first worm’. The early harvested crop fetches the
best price, which is especially true for green maize.
5.2 Which crops to grow?
The table below lists some of the crops that are suitable to be grown in a market garden. The
table also indicates at what time of the year the crops should be planted. Some crops can be
planted almost throughout the year, while other crops are best planted during a particular time
of the year. Factors that determine the recommended planting time are the temperature, length
of the day (day light), frost and rain. The table is by no means exhaustive. The listed crops
take from 3 to about 6 months to mature. It makes good business sense to grow a variety of
crops (risk spreading). Consideration should also be given to growing fruit trees and perennial
crops such as sugarcane and banana. Whereas vegetables give a quick return, fruit trees can
take many years before they produce a return. Fruit trees can however be very profitable. And
an important advantage of fruit trees is that, once they are established, they do not need to be
watered as frequently as vegetables. Some fruit trees, especially those that have deep roots,
hardly need to be irrigated at all. In times of water shortage most fruit trees will survive several
months without being irrigated. Fruit trees can, in the long term, provide a useful supplementary
income. It is therefore recommended to set aside a portion of a market garden for an orchard.

Such fruit trees should include mango, citrus (orange, lemon and naartjie), guava and avocado.
Banana and sugar cane can also produce attractive returns. But it is important to be aware that
these returns will not be realised without proper husbandry and care. Fruit trees need fertilizer
and manure and spraying to prevent pests and diseases, just like any other crop.
Another option is to include fodder crops for livestock in the crop rotation plan.
Table : Crop calendar

Crop: When to plant or sow
English Ndebele Shona Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep 0ct Nov Dec
Tomato Itamatisi Madomasi ∨ ∨ ∨ P P ∨ ∨ ∨
Pepper Ibilebile Mhiripiri P P ∨ ∨ ∨
Cabbage Ikhabitshi Kavichi ∨ P P P ∨ ∨
Kale Chomolia Chomorya ∨ P P P ∨ ∨
Rape Rebhu Repu/Tsunga ∨ P P P ∨ ∨
Green bean Indumba Bhinzi ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨
Sugar bean Indumba Bhinzi P ∨ ∨ ∨
Pea Ipizi Ndodzi P ∨ ∨
Cow pea Indumba Bhinzi ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨
Squash Ikhomane Budzi ∨ P P ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨
Carrot Umqwente Karotsi ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨
Onion Ihanyanisi Hanyanisi ∨ P ∨ ∨
Spring onion Ihanyanisi Hanyanisi ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨
Okra Dedele Dedere ∨ ∨ ∨
Sweet potato Imbambayila Mabura ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨
Maize Umumbu Chibage ∨ ∨ P P ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨
Swiss chard Isipinitshi Sipinichi ∨ ∨ P ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨
Lettuce Letisi Retisi ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨
Garlic
Ground nut ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨
Wheat P v v
Butternut P ∨
Pumpkin P ∨
Note: ∨ represents the months when the crop can be sown or planted.
P represents the most favourable time to sew or plant the concerned crop.

Assignment
Select 4 crops that are suitable to be planted in April, 4 crops that can be planted in August and
4 crops to be planted in December.
5.3 Crop rotation plan

Although it is possible to grow crops almost continuously on the same area, provided
applications of fertilizer (especially ammonium nitrate) and manure are made after each crop,
this can only be done on a sustainable basis, when the crops are rotated. It is strongly advised
not to grow the same crop twice on the same area, within one year. Crops must be rotated
systematically in order to prevent pests and diseases, as well as depletion of the soil. For the
purpose of crop rotation, crops can be divided in families or groups. Crops that belong to the
same group should not be planted in succession. Some crops, such as maize, need a break of
at least one year before they can be grown again in the same place. Others, such as tomatoes,
need a break of at least 3 years, before they are grown again in the same place. If systematic
crop rotation is not practised, the yields will drop dramatically, while pests and diseases will
become a serious problem.
The most important groups of crops, which should be treated as one for the purpose of crop
rotation are:
1 Members of the cabbage family, which include crops such as cabbage, chomolia and
rape. These crops need a break of at least one year before they are grown again in the same
place. A common pest that affects the cabbage family is the bagrada bug. Although the bug
can be controlled by a number of pesticides, it is almost impossible to kill them all. The only
effective way to prevent them from reproducing is to remove all plants of the cabbage family for
at least one crop season.
2 Members of the bean family, which include green bean, sugar bean, pea and cowpea.
These crops have the ability to fix Nitrogen (N) from the air and release it to the soil. As
Nitrogen is an important element for the development of the leaves, the crop that follows beans
will benefit from the increased amount of N in the soil. It is therefore recommended to grow a
bean crop once a year, to increase the amount of N in the soil.
3 Members of the tomato family, which include tomato, potato, paprika and chillies.
These crops are very sensitive to a number of soil borne diseases, such as nematodes (knots
on the roots). The only effective way to combat and prevent these soil borne diseases, is to
grow these crops not more than once in 3 or 4 years in the same place.
Other crops should not be grown more than once per year; if for instance maize is grown after
maize within the same year ‘streak virus’ can become a very serious problem, that will
dramatically reduce the harvest.
In order to rotate crops effectively, a crop rotation plan should be made. A crop rotation plan
helps to keep a record of crops previously grown, in a particular section or basin, something
that one easily forgets, but it also helps a lot in planning the sewing and planting activities.

A crop rotation plan shows where and when to plant a particular crop and when that crop will
be ready for marketing. The planting time of some crops can have a big impact on its yield and
the selling price.
Initially a crop rotation plan should be prepared for one year, during which period 3 crops can
be grown in each section, or 2 crops depending on the choice of crops
In order not to make the plan too complicated, it is assumed that planting or sowing will take
place 3 times per year in April, August and December. It is further assumed that the irrigation
scheme is divided in individual lots, according to each member's requirements. Each plot is to
be divided in 3 or 4 parts and 3 crops should be selected for each part. An example of a crop
rotation plan is shown in table 2 below:
Table 2a: crop rotation plan (year 1)

Name: Frank Ndlovu Year: 2007
Irrigation unit (divided into 4 equal parts) April-July August-Nov Dec-March
Section 1 Carrots Green maize Sugar bean
Section 2 Onion Green maize Tomato
Section 3 Rape Green maize Cowpea
Section 4 Cabbage Water melon Sugar bean
Once the choice of crops has been made for one year, it is easy to extend the plan to the
following years; simply move carrots, maize and sugar beans from Section 1 to Section 2,
onions, maize and tomatoes to Section 3, rape, maize and cowpeas to Section 4 and cabbage,
watermelons and sugar beans to Section 1.
Table 2b: crop rotation plan (year 2)

Name: Frank Ndlovu Year: 2007
Irrigation unit (divided into 4 equal parts) April-July August-Nov Dec-March
Section 1 Cabbage Water melon Sugar bean
Section 2 Carrots Green maize Sugar bean
Section 3 Onion Green maize Tomato
Section 4 Rape Green maize Cowpea
If one has selected a crop that takes longer than 3 months to mature, the corresponding cell in
the next growing season should be left blanc, which means that 2 crops will be grown in a 12
month period instead of 3. Ideally a farmer should have seedlings ready to plant (see next
chapter on seed beds) before a crop is harvested and the crop residues are removed.
Assignment
Design your own crop rotation plan for a 2 year period, using the crops that you have
selected in the previous assignment from the crop calendar.

5.4 Seed beds
A small section of a market garden should be set aside for seed beds to grow seedlings for
transplanting. Seed beds should be in the shade; germinating seeds should not be exposed to
direct sun light. But before they are transplanted, seedlings need to be hardened by gradually
exposing them to more sunshine. Seeds can be sown in especially prepared beds on the
ground or on raised beds in trays. The advantage of growing seedlings in trays is that they can
be easier controlled and monitored, while they suffer less from transplanting. The soil mixture
of seed beds should be sandy and rich in (well composted) compost. If the soil is heavy (clay),
some river sand can be added to encourage the development of a strong root system.
Seeds that have just germinated are sometimes affected by damping-off disease, especially
when the conditions are moist and hot. Damping-off disease is a disease tat is associated with
fungi, that kills tiny seedlings just after emergence from the soil. The plant stems decay and the
plants fall over and die. One tablespoon of Jeyes or Dettol fluid in 10l water, poured over the
soil before sowing will give effective control.
5.5 Fruit trees and perennial crops
At the beginning of this module it was suggested that perennial crops, such as banana,
sugarcane and fruit trees could provide substantial additional income, provided they are well
taken care off. In this section we are taking a closer look at a number of specific perennial
crops and fruit trees. For good result, all fruit trees and perennial crops require regular
applications of fertilizer (compound D) and compost.
5.5.1 Banana
Banana plants are very common and often taken for granted. As a result they don’t produce
much fruit. They however have the potential to generate a good return. Bananas prefer frost
free low lying areas and should be sheltered from strong winds. Bananas are propagated by
planting suckers. The best season to plant suckers is after the winter, in August-September.
Bananas are heavy feeders. They can grow on a wide range of soils, but the physical condition
of the soil is important as the development of the root system required both water and air. The
soil should therefore be enriched with plenty of compost and well rotted manure. The suckers
should be planted at a distance of about 3m in the row and 2m distance between the rows.
The established plants need applications of ammonium nitrate 4 times per year. Before the
suckers start producing fruit they will produce new shoots at the base of the stem. Most of
these suckers should be removed leaving only 1 or 2 of different height to take over from the
mother stem after it has produced a bunch of fruit. If too many shoots are allowed to grow they
will reduce the size and quality of the fruit. Ideally a clump of bananas should only have three
shoots at any one time, one which is fruiting one which is flowering and one which has not yet
flowered. After the fruit has been harvested, the shoot which bore the fruit should be removed
and another sucker allowed to develop. A banana plantation needs generous irrigation on
average once a week, but during the winter season intervals of 2 weeks are usually sufficient.
The soil in between the plants need to be kept free of weeds to prevent nutrient competition
and to remove possible sources of virus diseases. A banana will flower and produce fruit within
6-18 months after planting. After 5 years the yield might start to decline. If a significant decline
in the size of the bunches is observed, it is recommended to replant (suckers) at a new site.
5.5.2 Sugar cane

Sugar cane is a useful crop to be grown, along with bananas, on the lower part of a market
garden, at the tail end of the basins, in waterways and on river banks. The crop can provide
protection against erosion, but sites that are subject to flooding for extended periods should be
avoided. There is usually a ready market for (raw) sugar cane within the local community,
which can provide useful additional income for the market gardener. It is therefore
recommended to grow sugar cane in small quantities unless there is a possibility to extract the
juice and produce sugar. Sugar cane is grown from cuttings (8-12 months old), preferably short
pieces with 2 to 3 knots (buds). They should be planted horizontally in trenches of about 25 cm
deep and covered with 5 cm soil, after the soil has been (deep) ploughed. The distance in the
row should be about 0.50m and between the rows 1-2m. The beginning of the rain season is a
good time to plant sugar cane cuttings. Sugar cane can be grown on a wide range of soils, but
heavy soils are preferred. The crop responds well to an application of well rotted manure or
compost and compound D fertilizer at the time of planting. During the growth stage repeated
applications of ammonium nitrate as top dressing are recommended. Too much ammonium
nitrate reduces the sugar content of the crop. The young plants require 9-24 months to mature.
During the growth stage the irrigation interval should be about 1 week, when it is hot and
reduced to 2 weeks when it is cool. The crop is perennial and re-planting is only necessary
after several crops have been harvested.
5.5.3 Citrus
Citrus includes a variety of trees (or shrubs) such as orange, naartjie and lemon. Citrus trees
grow on a wide range of soils. Citrus fruit grows best under sub-tropical conditions, but it can
be grown successfully in most climatic regions of Zimbabwe, including Matabeleland, under
irrigation. Citrus trees are evergreen and require irrigation throughout the year. The rate of
water use is relatively small compared to other crops as irrigation intervals of 2 weeks in
summer (in the absence of rain) and 2-3 weeks in winter are sufficient on most soils (for
mature trees). A rest period during winter followed by generous watering in early summer will
induce blossoming and fruit setting. Citrus trees are susceptible to frost and strong winds and
therefore like a wind break. Citrus trees are grown from seed and grafted, when they are about
a year old. It is not recommended to grow citrus trees from un-budded seedlings, although
seedlings from lemon can produce acceptable fruit. Budded citrus trees bought from a nursery
are vastly superior to trees grown from seed. Navel oranges are early varieties that grow well in
Matabeleland (particularly Washington Navel). A late variety that is well suited to the climatic
conditions of Matabeleland is Valencia. Citrus can be planted at any time of the year. The
recommended distance between the plants is about 8m. For healthy vigorous growth it is
important to plant square holes of at least 0.60x0.60m and one meter deep. At least one
wheelbarrow of compost mixed with well rotted manure should be added to each plant hole.
Established trees respond well to a few hands full of compound D fertilizer every year at the
beginning of summer or the beginning of the rain season. The stem of a citrus tree should not
be exposed to direct sun light; it is normally protected from sunlight by the branches. Citrus
trees normally do not require pruning; only branches that touch the ground should be removed.
But a tree that has been ‘browsed’ by goats or cattle needs to be ‘thinned’ to prevent it from
growing too dense. Citrus trees are susceptible to a number of diseases and pests. Among the
most serious are scales and aphids. Scales often occur on neglected trees; the scales attach
themselves to the woody branches and stay there for life. They cause a serious reduction in the
number and quality of the fruit and eventually lead to the withering of the tree. They should be
removed by hand, as soon as they appear, and/or controlled by a pesticide, preferably during

the (winter) rest period. For details of chemical treatment, see module 6 (Control of pests and
diseases).
Aphids are (black) sucking insects which damage new growth; they mainly occur on the tops of
the branches. Aphids are spread by ants, who feed on them by ‘milking’ them. Aphids (and to
a lesser extent scales as well) can be controlled by denying ants access to the tree. This can
be achieved effectively by tying a piece of cloth around the stem and spraying the cloth with ant
kill. This usually causes the aphids to disappear within a few weeks. It is unwise not to control
the spread of aphids and scale as they can also be the cause of virus infections (which are very
difficult to treat).
5.5.4 Mango
Mango trees can be grown successfully from seed; collect seed from healthy ripe fruits and
keep them moist under a cover of leave mold or compost. As the young seedlings are difficult
to transplant, it is best to germinate the seeds at their destination. The best fruit however is
obtained from grafted trees bought at a nursery. A mango tree is drought resistant and does
not need irrigation during winter, but applying irrigation a few times during the dry season does
enhance the growth and increases the yield.
There is a ready market for mango fruits, especially the big fleshy grafted mangoes, but the
price can drop dramatically when there is an oversupply. However that should not discourage
a farmer from growing mangos, as the fruit can be sun dried and preserved in order to be sold
later.
As mango trees can grow very big, they should be planted at 10m intervals.
5.5.5 Guava
Guavas are easy to grow from seed. The fruits are popular and can be sold within the
community. The market however is limited as the fresh guava fruit can not be kept for a long
time. Fruits that cannot be marketed can be sun dried or processed into juice.
A guava tree or shrub responds well to irrigation, but can also withstand fairly long periods of
drought when water is in short supply. A guava tree likes a rest period of 2-3 months (May-July)
after harvesting the fruit, after which flowering and fruit setting can be induced by applying
irrigation in August-September.
There are three types of guava fruit; red, pink and white. The white fruits are the most in
demand, but they are vulnerable to pests and diseases, particularly fruit fly. Fruit fly can affect
a range of fruits; the spread of fruit fly can be limited by collecting and destroying (or burying)
any affected fruit.
Guavas should be planted at intervals of 8m.
5.5.6. Paw-paw
Paw-paws are common at many homesteads and well known. Paw-paw trees are grown from
seed. Make sure you harvest seed from a good quality ripe and tasty fruit. There are male and
female trees, only the female trees bear fruit. When the trees are small, one can not
differentiate between male and female trees, until they produce their first flowers. It is therefore
recommended to grow at 3-5 seedlings in one plant hole and remove the male trees, when they
start flowering and can be recognized as such. A few male trees are needed for pollination, but
not more than one male per ten females.
Paw-paw trees like compost rich fertile soil that is well drained. They do not like water logging
and can die from applying too much water. Like guavas and mangos, they can survive fairly

long periods without watering, especially during winter (which is useful when water is in short
supply). Paw-paws do not have a long live-span and should be replaced by young seedlings
after 5-10 years. An annual application of compound D is recommended (1kg per adult tree), to
ensure that the tree continues to bear good quality fruit.
The recommended spacing is 3-5 m apart. Paw-paws are ideal trees to plant alongside
irrigation channels as the roots are not strong and are unlikely to cause damage to a channel.
Paw-paws need to be sheltered from strong winds (wind breaks) and they can be damaged, or
even killed by frost.
If you want to sell paw-paw fruit, they should be harvested when the first traces of yellow
appear on the skin and they should be cut with a sharp knife; they will take 4-5 days to ripen.
5.5.7. Moringa
Moringa is a shrub or small tree that is grown from seed. It is not a fruit tree as such, but it
produces seed (beans) that can be eaten as a vegetable when young and green. Its leaves are
very tasty and also used as a vegetable. The leaves can also be dried and mixed as a powder
with porridge. The leaves are very nutritious and highly recommended by nutritionists for sick
people, including aids patients. The dried seeds, when crushed, can be used to purify water for
drinking.
Moringa does not require special treatment; it grows on a wide variety of soils and does not
need to be irrigated frequently. It can survive long periods without watering.
The dried leaves, crushed into a powder, can be sold; there is a ready demand for moringa
powder at the traditional markets in the urban areas.
5.5.8. Other fruit trees
Tree tomato
Avocado
Pecan nut
Peach

Module 6: Control of pests and diseases
6.1. Prevention of pests and diseases

Damage to plants done by pests and diseases can be prevented or limited by applying the
following measures:
6.1.1. Measures without using chemicals
a) Rotation
Most pests and diseases have a preference for crops of specific families. By applying crop
rotation one can limit the spread of pests and diseases or prevent their occurrence.
b) Removal of affected plants

The spread of pests and diseases can be slowed down or arrested by removing and destroying
affected plants at an early stage.
c) Catching insects
Insects can be caught by hand and killed before they occur in large numbers. To do this
effectively one has to know the insects concerned and their life cycle. One has to inspect the
crops frequently and thoroughly to recognise pests in an early stage.
d) Protecting natural enemies

Pests are caused by insects and all insects have natural enemies.
Sometimes pests can be eliminated by helping the natural enemies to kill the insects causing
the pests.
e) General cleanliness
Keep the garden clean, remove remnants of harvested crops, control the weeds and cut grass
close to crops. Do not give insects an easy chance to breed.
f) Proper spacing
Keep the soil covered by crops as crops protect the soil from too much exposure to the sun,
while at the same time it will limit the chances for weeds to germinate.
On the other hand, if crops are planted too close, conditions will become favourable for
diseases like fungi to spread.
g) Scouting
Look for the first signs of pests and diseases and take action before it becomes serious.
6.1.2. Measures involving the use of chemicals.
Virtually all pests and diseases can be controlled by chemicals. Some kill indiscriminately,
others control only specific pests and diseases.
When applying chemicals one has to be aware that:
a) Chemicals can be extremely harmful to human beings. Some chemicals can still make
people sick when they eat vegetables, which were sprayed several weeks before. The spraying

itself can also be harmful to the gardener is proper precautions are ignored or not well
understood.
b) Chemicals often kill the useful insects as well as those that cause the damage.
c) Chemicals are usually expensive, the right type is not always available. One has to
consider whether it is worth spending a certain amount of money on chemicals. Will the money
be recovered from the sale of the vegetables or is it cheaper to remove and destroy the
affected crop?
d) You need expensive equipment to apply chemicals, such as a knapsack sprayer
6.2. Common pests and diseases

Below is a list of the most common pests and diseases that affect vegetable crops in Zimbabwe
and suggestions on possible remedies.
Aphids
Aphids or plant lice are small soft insects not bigger than 3mm. Their colours vary from green
to black and they live on the young shoots of a wide variety of plants, like cabbages, tomatoes,
beans and citrus.
As they move from plant to plant to plant they can transmit virus diseases.
Aphids excrete a sugary solution that attracts ants. Ants more or less milk aphids by stroking
their bodies. They protect them and even carry aphids from crowded places to unaffected
plants.
Fortunately aphids have natural enemies like lady birds, parasitic wasps and birds. Aphids can
be prevented from attacking citrus trees by tying a piece of cloth sprayed with ant kill around
the stem, as most aphids are carried from tree to tree by ants.
30Ml Dimethoate (other names: Perfection, Rogor) in 30l water sprayed in the afternoon will kill
most aphids. So does a salt solution, a solution of flour in water, a solution of soap in water or a
solution of paraffin and soap (1 bottle paraffin, 1 lifeboy soap, 20l water. Boil solution before
use).
Cutworms
Cutworms are brownish grey to purplish black smooth caterpillars, 20-40mm long. They live in
the soil, close to the plant roots. They come to the surface at night to feed on plants. They can
cut the stems of a variety of crops such as cabbage, beans, maize etc. Cutworms can be killed
by hand if it is possible to find them (look close to affected plants, up to 30mm deep in the soil).
A solution of Carbaryl sprayed on and around newly transplanted plants gives effective control.
Diamond back moth
Green caterpillars up to 8mm long, that feed on the underside of cabbage leaves. The
caterpillars rasp away the underside of leaves. Only a thin cover is left that dries up and falls
out, leaving holes in the leaf. Most of the damage is done between August and December.
The caterpillar damage can be controlled by checking the plants daily and killing any larvae or
eggs that can be found. An extract of onion and garlic also kills the larvae.

Diazinon is the recommended chemical, but as it is systemic (i.e. it will be absorbed by the
plant and kill the caterpillar as it eats from the plant), it will kill the caterpillars and not the eggs.
Malathion can also be used to control this caterpillar.
Fruit fly (pumpkin fly)
Fruit flies are pretty insects, about half the size of the housefly and more slender with a wasp
like waist.
The flies puncture fruits like guava or citrus, but also melons and pumpkin. The eggs hatch
after 3 days and the tiny white larvae start eating their way through the fruit. After a few weeks
they leave the fruit and drop on the ground where they change into a fly after a few days.
Fruit flies have several natural enemies that prey on them, like praying mantis, chameleon and
wasps. The flies can also be caught with bait traps, for instance 100ml sorghum beer with 1/4
teaspoon Tugon fly bait in small containers.
Lebaycid (10ml in 10l water) sprayed over the plants with 2 weeks intervals will kill the larvae
as soon as it hatches but Lebaycid will not kill the flies. Destroy infected fruit that has dropped
on the ground.
Grasshoppers and locusts
Grasshoppers and locusts lay their eggs in the soil and they hatch in spring as soon as the first
rains moisten the soil. They eat virtually anything that grows from young leaves to wood.
Control: they can be collected and killed by hand. Hot water or paraffin will also kill them, but
this will also damage the plants. The recommended chemical is carbaryl: a mixture of 100gr
carbaryl into 20l of water will kill grasshoppers and locusts on contact.
Bagrada bug
Bagrada bugs are black with orange-yellow marks, about 5mm long. They can be found hiding
under leaves of chomolia and other crops that belong to the cabbage family. They extract sap
from the leaves, causing the leaves to crumble and dry. They also transmit virus diseases that
will further destroy the plants. They lay clusters of eggs on the underside of the leaves or on
the soil.
Control: Adult bugs can be caught easily by hand and destroyed, especially on a cold morning.
Small bugs can be killed by flooding the soil for a short time. The recommended chemical to
control bagrada bug is folidol (10ml folidol in 10l water and 30ml liquid soap or dishwasher),
This mixture should be sprayed under the plants, on the soil and on the plants. Malathion can
also be used.
Red spider mite
Very small spider shaped mites, red in colour when they are full grown. They lay small yellow
eggs on undersides of leaves in fine silken webs. The mites walk from plant to plant, but are
sometimes blown by the wind as well. They extract sap from the plant cells as a result of which
the leaves slowly fade. Eventually the leaves crumble and die.
Tomatoes and beans are two crops that are often affected by red spider mite. Chemicals are
not very effective to control this pest as the mites become resistant to most chemicals in a short
time, but Morocycle can be tried or Dimethoate 40. More effective is spraying under the leaves
with a mixture of lacto, flour and water (1 cup lacto, 8 cups of flour and 50l of water). Repeat 3
times, once a week.

Washing the affected plants with a mixture of liquid soap (30ml in 10l water) can kill 90% of the
mites.
Scale
The scales vary in size from 0.1-2mm. They occur in many different shapes and sizes. The
females do not move; they push their beak into a plant cell and stay for life at the same spot.
The male flies to the female scales to mate. They damage the plant by sucking sap. All parts of
a plant, including the woody parts are attacked, especially citrus.
Control: remove the scale by hand and destroy them. The recommended chemical is carbaryl
80% ( 30gr in 15 litres of water) , malathion oil pesticide (not malathion powder), or dimethoate.
Eelworm
The eelworm is one of the root knot nematodes; tiny, glistening white and eel shaped. It cannot
be seen by the naked eye.
The eelworm lives in the small roots of plants like for instance tomato and cabbage. The roots
swell and form knots. Tomato plants infested with eelworm do not set fruit at all as the worms
consume most of the plant food.
Control: remove and destroy affected plants and plant a crop of a different family (crop
rotation). Sugar will also kill eelworms, but following crops might suffer when there is too much
sugar in the soil. Sugar can be leached out by frequent flooding.
Eelworms do not like certain plants such as marigold; planting marigold flowers between the
rows will keep eelworms away, although this will not kill them.
Damping-off disease
Damping-off disease is a disease that is associated with fungi, that kills tiny seedlings just after
emergence from the soil. The plant stems decay and the plants fall over and die.
One tablespoon of Jeyes or Dettol fluid in 10l water, poured over the soil before sowing will
give effective control.
Early and late leaf blight
Blight is a fungal infection that causes black spots on the leaves. This disease mainly affects
tomatoes.
Control: Dithane M45 or Copper oxychloride, spray weekly
Black rot
Black rot is a bacterial disease that affects members of the cabbage family. The symptoms are
black and yellow spots starting from the outer side of the leaves. Eventually the leaves can turn
pale yellow. When the affected leaf is pulled from the plant, black threads or dots can be seen
in the stem where the leaf is removed from the plant. Black rot can be carried in the seed.
It can also spread through mud under one's shoes or through irrigation water. A chemical cure
is unknown, but heating seeds with hot water will kill the bacteria. When the disease becomes
severe, do not plant members of the cabbage family for three years, as the bacteria can only
live about 30 months without a host plant. Do not make compost from cabbage leaves that are
affected.

Leafspot disease
Leafspot disease is caused by fungi that are carried by seeds. It affects leaves closest to the
soil first, but it can spread to other leaves fairly rapidly. The spots vary in size to about 10mm in
diameter. The affected leaves turn yellow to yellowish bronze and the spots dry up and turn
black, showing concentric rings. The fungi prefer moist conditions and warm weather.
Leafspot disease can be prevented by treating seed with hot water (20 minutes at 50ºC). The
recommended chemical to control leafspot is Dithane M45 (30gr mixed in 10l water)
Remove and destroy affected plants. Do not use affected plants for compost making.
Reference documents:
1. One-up business training

A comprehensive set of 8 workbooks for small businesses in general, developed in South Africa and
available in Zimbabwe from One-up Business Training Trust.
The modules are: Market investigation, Using a calculator to manage my business, Buying, Costing and
pricing for producers, Selling goods and services, Working out a business plan, Money management,
Stock control. (See appendix 1 for a more detailed breakdown of the modules)
2. Youth in business training
A draft trainer’s guide for a more basic introduction to business course developed by the Bulawayo
Projects Centre.
3. Farming is a business
A manual developed by One-up Training Trust.
4. Isifundo Sebhizimusi Yokulima Utshinda
A comprehensive trainer’s guide for (cotton) farmer training, available in English, Shona and Ndebele,
published in august 2002, funded by USAID through its LEAD program.
The modules are: Farming as a business (1), Record keeping (2), Management (3), Input management
(4), Marketing (5), Budgeting (6), Managing your cash (7), ‘Ukuphathwa Kwezimali Zokwebolekwa’ (8)
Profit and loss account (9), Balance sheet (10).
There are similarities between this trainer’s guide and the One-up business training workbooks.
5. Ostrich out growers notes (Khula Sizwe)
A trainer’s guide for the training of farmers who want to keep ostriches as out growers on contract with
Khula Sizwe Trust.
6. A series of booklets and handouts by Kushinge Phikelele National Farmer
Training Centre (Marondera).
The courses include: Maize, Soya beans, Tea, Coffee, Sorghums, Mushrooms, Tobacco, Cotton,
Paprika, Cassava, Sweet potatoes, Sugar cane, Horticultural crops, Beef cattle, Dairy, Piggery, Goat
production, Sheep production, Poultry, Apiculture, Rabbitry, Animal power, Conservation of natural
resources, Leadership, Food processing, Marketing of agricultural produce, Agribusiness, Principal of
Agricultural Production, Tractor maintenance, Safe use of pesticides.
7. Field guide on irrigated agriculture for field assistants (Malawi)
A trainer’s guide compiled and edited by FAO-IPTRID (Rome) and Wallingford (UK).
8. African Market Garden, a manual for Trainers and Farmers (Niger)
A colourful booklet produced by ICRISAT in Niger, which focuses on low cost drip irrigation systems.
9. Training for transformation (Kenya)
10. Draft Manual for Sustainable Irrigation Development in Matabeleland based on

Gravity Flow
(Compiled by Piet te Velde, SNV, incomplete).
11. Irrigation manual for Extension Workers (Arex, 1996)
12. Horticultural Handbook (Agritex, 1983)

13. Conservation farming
A farm management handbook by Brian Oldreive, funded by Rio Tinto (1993).
14. Well Watered Gardens
A simple instruction booklet, describing in English, Shona and Ndebele, how to make the most out of a
traditional garden of not more than 10x10m.
15. A (draft) Drip Kit Training Manual (91 pages, LEAD)
16. A set of 3 manuals on Micro Irrigation, by International Development
Enterprises:
a) Manufacturing manual
b) Marketing manual
c) Technical manual
17. Principles of planning vegetable production, by Fabeon Ngwerume (Swedish
Cooperative Centre, 1999)
18. Water and soil conservation, by Isaiah Nyagumbo and Francis Mugabe (Swedish
Cooperative Centre, 1999)
19. Garden guide, Windmill July 1992
Bulawayo, July 2008

Piet te Velde

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Habakkuk Trust

8a Jason Moyo Street, Bulawayo

A TRAINING GUIDE FOR MARKET

Picture: Training market gardeners in Beitbridge

Watermark Consultancy Page 1 of 45 Market gardening guide for trainers

a) Availability of a reliable water source and suitable land.

c) Knowledge about the potential business opportunities.

d) A sound management structure.

e) Technical advice and access to appropriate irrigation technology.

f) Funding support to develop the necessary irrigation infrastructure.

Watermark Consultancy Page 2 of 45 Market gardening guide for trainers

Module 1: Market gardening is a business.

Module 2: A sound management structure.

Module 3: Irrigation technique

Module 4: Soil and water

Module 6: Control of pests and diseases

Watermark Consultancy Page 3 of 45 Market gardening guide for trainers

Watermark Consultancy Page 4 of 45 Market gardening guide for trainers

Figure 2: A traditional vegetable

Watermark Consultancy Page 5 of 45 Market gardening guide for trainers

1.1. A business mindset; committing time and resources

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Watermark Consultancy Page 8 of 45 Market gardening guide for trainers

a) What is the size of your garden?

b) Which crops do you want to grow?

Watermark Consultancy Page 9 of 45 Market gardening guide for trainers

c) Which inputs do you need to grow those crops successfully?

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d) How much money do you need to raise?

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g) How will the produce be transported to the customer or to the market?

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Watermark Consultancy Page 14 of 45 Market gardening guide for trainers

Some of the issues to be covered in a constitution

• Name of the group, association or club

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• Rights and benefits

….. with respect to the project members

2.3. Management Committee

Watermark Consultancy Page 16 of 45 Market gardening guide for trainers

Discuss, before you elect a management committee:

a) How many committee members you need.

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Income and expenditure account:

Watermark Consultancy Page 18 of 45 Market gardening guide for trainers

How to use a calculator for money management

Watermark Consultancy Page 19 of 45 Market gardening guide for trainers

• Starting capital: R 2,000

Now calculate your profit

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3.2.1. Conveyance channels, or main channels

Watermark Consultancy Page 21 of 45 Market gardening guide for trainers

3.2.2. Field channels

3.2.3. How to construct an irrigation channel

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Area to be Width: Depth: Freeboard: Capacity at Capacity at

0.5 - 2.0ha 270 mm 152 mm 38 mm 51 m3/h 40 m3/h