PTRL2016 To Petrophysics: Formation Waters

The School of Petroleum Engineering
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
PROGRAM 3045
PTRL2016
Introduction
to Petrophysics
UNIT 7
Formation Waters
PTRL2016 – Unit 7 – Formation Waters page 7.1
Formation Waters
7.1 General Considerations

Many of the petrophysical parameters of a reservoir, oil and gas bearing or not,
are related to the nature and characteristics of the formation water that is
contained in the pore spaces of the reservoir. The more that is known about the
nature and composition of the formation water, the more reliable will be the
results of the reservoir evaluation. The most difficult and elusive of all the
formation parameters required to evaluate a reservoir is that which relates to the
characteristics of the formation water, especially if no physical water sample is
available as happens in most cases. A very high proportion of errors committed
in predicting reservoir performance and the nature of the fluids that can be
expected to be recovered are caused by a lack of knowledge or assumptions
related to the formation water characteristics.
Originally, most reservoirs were formed by the deposition of reservoir material –

for instance sand grains – at the bottom of the sea (marine deposition). In this
case the pore spaces between the grains were filled with seawater. If the grains
were deposited at the bottom of lakes (lacustrian deposition), the surrounding
fresh or brackish water would have filled the pore spaces. However, over the
millions of years since the reservoir rocks were laid down, these often were
disturbed by earth movements and many of these reservoirs, located thousands of
meters below the surface, may actually have ended up outcropping at the earth’s
surface hundreds of kilometres away. If this is the case, meteoric waters (fresh
water from rain, rivers or underground flows) will often have penetrated into the
reservoir rock over very large areas and contaminated the original formation
waters or connate waters. Thus the formation water characteristics, as we find
them today, may be significantly different from the original connate water
characteristics. When this contamination occurs, the present ionic composition of
the formation water may be altogether different from its initial composition,
depending on the ions brought in by the contaminating meteoric waters. Usually,
in this case, the present formation waters are fresher, often much fresher, than the
original connate seawater. In some cases the opposite may happen and, due to
the fact that shale acts as a semi permeable membrane, the present formation
waters may be saltier than the original connate seawater.
An important observation is that if a reservoir did not contain any oil or gas at the
time that the meteoric water contamination took place, this contamination will be
much more effective than if there had been oil or gas present. The contamination
is more thorough below the o/w contact than above this contact and the ionic
composition of these two types of water will be different. Thus, the formation
water in the oil-bearing section of the reservoir is often saltier than in the water-
bearing section. This possibility must be taken into account in reservoir
saturation determinations. Many errors in predicting reservoir behaviour have
been committed erroneously assuming that the two types of water must have
identical salinity.
School of Petroleum Engineering UNSW PTRL2016 Introduction to Petrophysics

The importance of having detailed information about the formation water can be
summarised in the following lines:
♦ knowledge of the ionic composition of the formation water makes it possible

to distinguish connate from meteoric waters (Sulin plots)
♦ knowledge of its ionic composition in several wells may disclose the
presence of structural and stratigraphic anomalies, such as faults,
unconformities and lenticular bodies (Stiff plots)
♦ knowledge of its ionic composition may aid in identifying the source of any
water produced after completion or recompletion of a well (Stiff plots)
♦ in geochemistry the ionic composition must be known to determine
hydrocarbon source rock and migration routes
♦ in microfossil studies it helps to determine ambient characteristics
♦ it is essential in well log analysis to determine an accurate value of Rw
(formation water resistivity). If the SP curve is used for this purpose, some
types of ions may affect the shape and magnitude of the curve or make it
impossible to use a predictable Rwe-Rw relationship
♦ it has to be known to make production predictions from core analysis
♦ it is important in enhanced oil recovery (EOR) where injection waters must
be compatible with the formation water to avoid physical, chemical and
biological reactions in the reservoir, which may affect reservoir permeability
It must be pointed out that in petrophysics formation water that is less salty than
seawater is called fresh water whereas formation water that is saltier than
seawater is called salt water. This definition is obviously not in agreement with
the taste of seawater as anybody who has swallowed it can testify. Seawater has
a salinity of about 30,000-35,000 ppm of NaCl equivalent
7.2 The Need for Accurate Values of Rw

As mentioned in Unit 2, the second Archie equation (equation 11) states that
Sw = (a×Rw /Φm ×Rt) 1/n
The value of Rw at reservoir temperature must be known before the hydrocarbon

saturation of a reservoir can be estimated.
A non-commercial reservoir may erroneously be considered to be of commercial

interest if too low a value is calculated for Rw. Worse, a commercially viable
reservoir may very well be abandoned if too high a value is calculated for Rw. An
example will show how a relatively small numerical error in the value of Rw can
affect the potential evaluation of a reservoir. Let us say that in a clean reservoir
the following parameters are known:
a = 1.0
m = 2.0

n = 2.0
Rt = 30.0 Ω–m
Φ = 0.20 (20%)
Rw = 0.45 Ω–m @ reservoir temperature (TR)
Using the above equation, we would calculate the hydrocarbon saturation (1–Sw)
to be about 39%. This would usually correspond to a reservoir of commercial
value.
If, by mistake, we have estimated Rw to be 0.60 Ω–m @ TR, the hydrocarbon

saturation will calculate to be 29%. This would almost certainly not correspond
to an oil or gas-producing reservoir
7.3 Techniques Available to Determine Rw

Some of the techniques, used to obtain Rw , are listed below. Each of them is
based on a set of environmental conditions that must be present and well defined:
♦ recovery of a sample of formation water from the reservoir by means of
formation or production tests. Chemical analysis of the sample, if at all
possible.
♦ from the SP (spontaneous potential) curve which is recorded together with
every Resistivity log
♦ from the resistivity values (Ro) read in a nearby water sand
♦ by the Rwa technique
♦ by the Movable Oil Plot (MOP)
♦ from cross-plots of certain log responses
♦ in salt water-bearing beds, sometimes from sonic and resistivity responses in
adjacent shales
Calculation of Reservoir Temperature

(Charts 7A and 7B at end of this Unit)
In order to be able to calculate Sw (see the Archie equation, above) the value of
Rw must be known at reservoir temperature. Often it is known only at surface
temperature. A simple calculation will allow us to achieve the necessary
conversion. Whichever of the above mentioned techniques is chosen to obtain
the value of Rw at reservoir temperature, we must first know this reservoir
temperature.
Basically, every logging device lowered into a borehole carries a mercury glass
thermometer set in a protective steel casing. The thermometer – which is built on
the same principle as that which we use on humans, but capable of measuring
much higher temperatures – will record and preserve the highest temperature
encountered in the drilling fluid in the wellbore. In practice, though theoretically

not quite true, the highest temperature is found at the bottom of a borehole. It is
known as BHT (bottom hole temperature). If we know, or estimate the
temperature at the surface, we can then calculate the geothermal gradient that
corresponds to a particular well. Chart 7A, at the end of this Unit or the
equations given with it, can be used to do this operation. However, the
temperature of the drilling fluid at any depth along the borehole is less than that
of the formation at that depth because it has been circulated from the surface
where temperatures are lower, often much lower. It takes many hours of
undisturbed heat exchange between formation and drilling fluid after circulation
has stopped, before their temperatures are in equilibrium. In effect, at the time
when the logs are run, this equilibrium has not yet been reached. Each successive
logging run is likely to record a higher BHT than the previous logging run.
Chart 7B, at the end of this Unit, is used to calculate the static formation
temperature taken to be the true BHT. It is a Horner-type plot for temperature
build-up.
It is at this point, once the true BHT has been determined, that Chart 7A is again
used to determine the reservoir temperature, also called formation temperature,
TR or TF
Use of Chart 7A: Estimation of Formation Temperature and Geothermal

Gradient
♦ Enter on the Y-axis the depth (in feet) at which the BHT has been
measured. Intercept with value of BHT (in oF) entered on the X-axis. The
X-axis offers 3 alternative scales depending on the average surface
temperature of the locality where the borehole is being drilled. Join the
point of interception with the origin and extend the connecting line away
from the origin. Enter on the Y-axis the depth of the reservoir (R) or any
formation of interest (F). Intercept with the line that comes from the origin.
Drop a vertical line from the point of intersection. It will indicate the TR or
TF on the X-axis. The line that intersects the origin will indicate the
geothermal gradient in oF/100 feet
Use of Chart 7B: Determination of Static BHT
♦ Enter on the Y-axis the BHT read from the first logging tool being run into
the borehole. Enter on the X-axis, for the same tool, the following ratio:
(time, in hours, between when mud circulation stopped and the logging tool
reached bottom) and (the sum of the time, in hours, during which the mud
had been circulated prior to pull out plus the time, in hours, since mud
circulation had stopped). All this information has been recorded on the log
heading. Intercept the values entered on the Y-axis and X-axis and mark the
point of intersection.
♦ Do the same for each of the following logging tool being run into the
borehole.
♦ Join the points of intersection marked by you on the chart.
♦ Extend the line until it intersects the grid line that corresponds to
Δt/(t+Δt)=1.
It will give you the static or real BHT.
♦ You can establish on the Y-axis any temperature scale (oF) that you like.
We will now look at different techniques of determining Rw:
Figure 7.1 Stiff plots

KEY
{ Tertiary (Texas) KEY
{ Tertiary and Cretaceous
z Cretaceous
(Texas & Venezuela) z Permian (Wyoming)
Palaozoic (USA)
Relative amounts of cations in typical Relative amounts of anions in oilfield water

concentrated field brines of connate type of artesian type
Figure 7.2 Sulin plots (Dickey)
7.3.1 Sample of Formation Water

(Charts 7C and 7D at end of this Unit)
It may appear that it should be quite easy to obtain a representative sample of

formation water from a reservoir and subsequently measure the value of Rw on
this sample. However, this procedure is far from being simple and in most
reservoirs Rw has to be determined by some indirect method.
The problem starts with the difficulty of obtaining an uncontaminated sample of

formation water. Mud filtrate, in the case of water-based muds – which are used
on most wells, worldwide – invades a reservoir to a depth anywhere from around
4 inches (10 cm) to perhaps 20 inches (50 cm). Thus, the fluid recovered on a
test is likely to be, to a large extent, either mud filtrate or a mixture of mud
filtrate and formation water. Rarely will an oil company let a well flow long
enough to recover uncontaminated formation water, as this would involve
expensive rig time. Many errors have been committed in assuming that the
recovered fluid samples represent the actual formation water. There is the added
problem that upon bringing a sample to the surface, where there is a lower
pressure environment than in the reservoir, certain ions may precipitate prior to
the sample reaching the surface. Thus it may not be representative of the fluid in
the reservoir.
A water sample that is analysed in the laboratory, will show a composition of

cations and anions specific to this water which is usually expressed as the
concentration of each ion of interest, in parts per million (ppm). Since all
formation waters are basically made up of sodium and chlorine ions, other ions
that may be present are customarily expressed in 'equivalent' concentrations of
sodium (in the case of cations) and chlorine (in the case of anions). A
multiplying factor is used for each type of ion. Chart 7C, at the end of this Unit,
describes this process and lists the multiplying factors. The final result will be
expressed as an equivalent NaCl concentration. To convert this result into a

value of Rw at reservoir temperature (or any other temperature) Chart 7D, at the
end of this Unit, can be used. It is important to remember that resistivities are
temperature dependent while ion concentrations are not. It is therefore essential
that the resistivity of an electrolyte (for instance Rw or Rmf or Rmc) be always
expressed as a function of the corresponding temperature. A resistivity value
without mention of the corresponding temperature has no meaning whatsoever.
It is simple to convert the resistivity at a known temperature (in oF) into a

resistivity at a different temperature (in oF). It is a simple case of inverse
proportionality, knowing that resistivities decrease with decreasing temperatures.
Thus, if Rw = 0.1 Ω–m at 150oF, it will be 0.05 Ω–m at 300oF or 0.2 Ω–m at
75oF. Chart 7D can be used for this purpose.
The ion concentration of formation waters has many applications, as mentioned

earlier in this Unit. Stiff and Sulin plots are very useful to geologists and
engineers alike. Figure 7.1 shows the manner in which Stiff plots are prepared.
Figure 7.2 corresponds to a presentation of Sulin plots. Stiff plots are an easy
way to represent graphically the ionic composition of formation waters, thus
facilitating the comparison of waters from different reservoirs in any one well or
in different wells. Sulin plots show a way to distinguish formation waters from
meteoric waters.
Use of Chart 7C: Equivalent NaCl Concentrations
♦ Add together the total ion concentration of the solution. Enter on the
X-axis.
♦ Intercept this value with each of the curves that correspond to ions in your
solution. Each interception will give a value on the Y-axis that indicates a
multiplier that has to be applied to the corresponding ion concentration to
find the equivalent NaCl concentration for this type of ion
♦ Add up the equivalent NaCl concentrations for all the ions present.
This will give the total equivalent NaCl ion concentration in the solution.
Use of Chart 7D: Resistivity and Salinity of Brine Solutions
♦ Enter in the left hand column the temperature (oF) of the solution and in the
right hand column the resistivity measured at that temperature.
♦ Join both points. The intersection with the column headed NaCl (ppm) will
give the salinity of the solution.

Figure 7.3 Facies classification from the SP curve

The chart can also be used to determine the resistivity of a solution at any
temperature if the resistivity is known at another temperature. For this
purpose:
♦ Proceed as before.
♦ Enter in the left hand column the temperature at which you want to know the
resistivity.
♦ Draw a line from this point through the NaCl (ppm) column at the point of
the previous intersection.
♦ Extend this line to the right hand column and read the new resistivity value
7.3.2 The SP or Spontaneous Potential Curve
(Charts 7E and 7F at end of this Unit)
The SP curve has a number of applications in geology as well as in

petrophysics.
In geology it is used to:

♦ identify facies See Figure 7.3.
♦ analyse textural and structural characteristics
♦ study bed correlations between wells
In petrophysics it is used to
♦ compute Rw
♦ determine bed thickness
♦ study bed correlations between wells
♦ estimate shaliness of a sandstone bed
The Spontaneous Potential (SP) log is a record of the naturally occurring

potentials in a wellbore as a function of depth. It involves a single, moving
electrode in the borehole and a reference electrode, usually located at the
surface in the mud pit or shallow hole filled with water or mud. See Figure
7.4. The recording is a relative measurement of the DC voltage in the borehole
without a zero being recorded. Readings opposite shales are relatively constant
and are referred to as shale base line. Opposite permeable formations, on the
other hand, the SP curve shows deflections to the left (formation water saltier
than drilling mud) or to the right (drilling mud saltier than formation water).
The amount of deflection of the SP curve to the right or left of the shale base
line does not reflect the amount of permeability of a reservoir. An SP
deflection simply indicates that the reservoir has permeability to ions, not
necessarily to oil and gas. A reservoir with a small SP deflection may have
more, equal or less permeability than a reservoir with a large SP deflection.
The SP curve is recorded in the first (left-hand) track of each resistivity log
run in a borehole. The drilling fluid must be conductive, i.e. water-based and

not oil-based, to be able to obtain an SP curve. The Spontaneous Potential

curve is based on two types of electrical potential:
an electrochemical potential
an electrofiltration or electrokinetic or streaming potential. Any of these
3 names is correct
Usually only the electrochemical potential is important and we shall refer to this
type of potential when we talk about the SP curve, unless otherwise specified.
An electrofiltration potential is only generated in the case of formations of
extremely low permeability, of high differential pressures and high values of Rm.
It may then become significant.
Figure 7.4 Recording the SP (Dresser Atlas)

7.3.2.1 Electrochemical Component of the SP
Two waters of different salinities, together with shale and a permeable inert
membrane between the two fluids, generate an electromotive force and current
flow in the cell. Figure 7.5 shows the basic set-up of such a cell or battery. It is
very similar to conditions existing in a borehole where the drilling mud salinity is
usually – but not always – different from the formation water salinity. The
measured SP is the voltage observed in the borehole caused by the potential drop
as the currents flow through the mud. Generally, the potential drop is much
larger in the mud (borehole) than in the shale or permeable formations.
Figure 7.5 Electrochemical component of the SP (Dresser)
Assuming the solution contains only NaCl and the mud activity is limited to
the free fluid within it (mud filtrate) and that the formation water is saltier than
the drilling mud, we can use Figure 7.6 to describe the event. The shale, due
to its predominant clay content, acts as a cationic membrane. That is, it is
permeable to cations (Na+) but not to anions (Cl–) due to an apparently high
negative charge on the clay lattice. The sodium ions can move through the
shale from the high concentration salt water to the lower concentration fresh
water or mud. The movement of cations generates a membrane potential. See
Figure 7.7.

Figure 7.6 Fresh mud and salty formation water effects (Dresser)
At the salt water (formation water) and fresh water (mud filtrate) contact the
Cl– ions have greater mobility than the Na+ ions and thus move more rapidly.
This rapid movement generates a negative potential across the contact, called
liquid junction potential or diffusion potential. See Figure 7.8.
In the mud column opposite the shale, a positive potential is generated by the
Na+ ions while at the junction between the formation water and the mud
filtrate a negative potential is developed. These spontaneous potential
differences cause current flow in the mud column. The magnitude of this
potential can be calculated as follows:
SSP = –K log ( Rmfeq / Rweq ) (1 )
where:
SSP = static or fully developed SP value, in millivolts (mv)
K = a temperature dependent factor
Rmfeq = equivalent mud filtrate resistivity, which is inversely proportional to
the mud filtrate activity. In practice, Rmfeq is often replaced by Rmf

Rweq = equivalent formation water resistivity, which is inversely proportional

to the formation water activity. Rweq is usually less than Rw as
formation waters contain other ions besides Na+ and Cl–. The value of
Rweq has to be converted to Rw (Chart 7F) before this value can be
used in the Archie equation.
Charts 7E and 7F, at the end of this Unit, are used to compute a value for Rw.
Figure 7.7 Membrane Potential SP
Figure 7.8 Liquid junction effects

Use of Chart 7E: Graphic Solution of the SP Equation
♦ Enter on the Y-axis the maximum reading of the SP curve in the reservoir
of interest
♦ Intercept the line that corresponds to the reservoir temperature (TR)
♦ Read the value of the ratio Rmf/Rweq on the X-axis
Often, KCl (potassium chloride) is added to the drilling mud to prevent clay
swelling which can endanger the drilling operation and cause formation
damage. The KCl will affect the derivation of Rw. There are no mathematical
corrections that can be introduced to compensate for this effect. In this type of
mud it is customary to subtract 25 millivolts from the observed SP deflection
and then proceed with equation (1) as normal. The usual relationship between
Rmfeq and Rmf is also likely to change. Here again, it is quite common to
simply add 30% to the measured value of Rmf before entering Chart 7E,
unless it is preferred to consider Rmf and Rmfeq to be similar. Many people
believe that this better reflects reality.
Use of Chart 7F: (Butterfly Wing Chart): Rw from Rweq as Function of

Temperature
♦ Solve the ratio Rmf/Rweq with the result from Chart 7E for Rweq.
To do this you must convert the value of Rmf read on the log heading
to reservoir temperature.
♦ Enter the value of Rweq on the Y-axis
♦ Intercept with the curve that corresponds to the reservoir temperature
♦ Read the value of Rw on the X-axis
♦ It is important to note that accurate values of Rw can only be obtained
when the Rweq intercept is with a temperature curve that is drawn in a
solid, continuous line. Where it intersects a temperature line that that is
dashed, the Rw values are tentative only and may be quite inaccurate.
The following precautions apply when this method is used.

♦ it is only applicable in clean formations
♦ it is only valid for fluids with only sodium and chlorine ions and possibly
minor amounts of other ions in addition to these. If large amount of calcium
and magnesium ions coexist with the sodium, corrections can be made to be
able to calculate the value of Rw, but the ionic concentrations must be known
or estimated.
♦ beds must be of low to moderate resistivity
♦ some mud filtrate invasion must exist
♦ the relationship Rw–Rwe must be known
♦ beds must be more than about 15 feet (5 metres) thick. If they are not that
thick, Chart 7G must be used to make the necessary corrections prior to
using Charts 7E and 7F in order to determine the value of Rw
To use the chart, enter the bed thickness, in feet, on the Y-axis, intercept the
curve that approximates the correct Ri/Rm ratio and drop a vertical that will give

the correction factor. Multiply the SP value from the log by this factor to obtain
the bed-thickness corrected SP value of SSP. This correction must be made
ahead of any other correction.
On Chart 7G, the value of Ri is usually taken as the reading of the shallow
reading resistivity curve.
Figure 7.9 Hill Anderson chart to compute electrofiltration potential
7.3.2.2 Electrofiltration Potential
Should the conditions exist for the generation of an electrofiltration potential as

outlined earlier in this Unit, Rw can only be calculated from the SP curve once
the magnitude of the electrofiltration potential has been determined. It must then
be subtracted from the measured total SP value before Rw can be calculated from
the remaining potential. The result will be the electrochemical component of the
SP. The following equation may be used to estimate the magnitude of the
electrofiltration or electrokinetic potential (Ek):
Ek = 0.4 × Rm1.6 × ΔP 0.5 × log ( 21.5 / Rm )

(2)
where ΔP corresponds to the pressure differential between drilling fluid and

formation. Figure 7.9 shows a chart developed by Hill-Anderson of Shell Oil
Co., independently of the above equation, to compute the value of the
electrokinetic potential. Figure 7.10 shows an SP curve on track 1 of a
Resistivity log.

Figure 7.10
7.3.2.3 Clay Indicator
Any clay present in the reservoir will reduce the value of the electrochemical SP
creating what is called a pseudo-static SP or PSP. A fully developed SP in clean
formations is called static SP or SSP. In a shaly sand always PSP < SSP or
(PSP / SSP) < 1.0 Actually, the reduction of the SSP to a PSP due to shaliness
(clay content) can be used to estimate the amount of clay in a sand. The amount
of clay in a sand is known as Vcl (clay volume, sometimes represented,
erroneously, by the symbol Vsh ). It is an important parameter in petrophysics.

The following equation can be used to estimate Vcl from the SP curve:
Vcl ( SP ) ≤ 1 – ( PSP / SSP ) (3)
This equation is applicable only in low to medium high resistivity, water-bearing

sands, where the clay has a laminar distribution. Vcl would calculate too high if
hydrocarbons are present and/or if the clay distribution is dispersed, not laminar.
Equation (3) shows that an upper limit of clay content (shaliness) is calculated.
The reservoir can be less shaly than determined by using the equation. This point
will be discussed in another Unit.
7.3.3 Resistivity Values (Ro) in a Nearby Clean Water Sand

Occasionally a clean, water-bearing (Sw = 100%) sand can be found within a few
hundred feet (a few dozen metres) of the reservoir of interest which,
geologically, can be expected to have similar formation water. As it contains no
hydrocarbons, we can apply Archie's first equation: F = a / φm. Under these
conditions F = Ro / Rw. See Unit 2 equations (1) and (2).
Solving for Rw:
Rw = Ro / F (4)
The value of the porosity,Φ, can be obtained from the Sonic log or the Formation
Density log. The values of a and m are either known or can be estimated. Ro is
the resistivity measured in the water-bearing sand. Rw can, therefore, be easily
computed from equation (4). This value of Rw is then substituted in Archie's
second equation, Sw = ( a × Rw / φm ) 1/n and used to calculate hydrocarbon
saturation in the reservoir of interest.
The following precautions apply when this method is used to compute Rw in a

reservoir:
♦ the nearby sand must be clean and water bearing. This means that it must be
free of clay and contain no hydrocarbons
♦ the nearby sand must contain the same type of water as the reservoir of
interest. This would be a geological assumption, which sometimes may be
incorrect. It would be incorrect if one, or both sands had been exposed over
geologic times to the influx of meteoric waters and their formation waters
contaminated by these meteoric waters to a different degree. They would
therefore be of different salinities and this technique would part from a
wrong assumption. More and more cases are found where this phenomenon
has occurred.

Figure 7.11 Hingle plot principles
7.3.4 The RWa Technique

This method will be discussed in Unit 8. It is one of the most popular methods to
obtain a value for Rw. It must not be used where meteoric water contamination
has occurred when various reservoirs are being studied at a time.
7.3.5 The Movable Oil Plot (MOP)

This plot will be discussed in detail in Unit 13 of PTRL3023. It can be a very
helpful plot, especially if the reservoir has an oil-water (o/w) or a gas-water (g/w)
contact. It must not be used where meteoric water contamination has occurred
when various reservoirs are being studied at a time.
7.3.6 Cross-Plots of Certain Log Responses
When the values of Rwa have been computed across a shaly reservoir, see Unit 9,
a cross-plot of the Rwa values should be made against the values read from the
Gamma Ray log and/or the SP curve.
GR values must previously have been environmentally corrected.

The cross-plots used here require knowledge of the formation resistivity, Rt, and
of the porosity,Φ, obtained from the Sonic log or Formation Density log. Two
well-known such cross-plots are applicable if the reservoir is clean,
mineralogically homogeneous, when a wide range of porosities is available
throughout the reservoir and no differential meteoric water contamination has
occurred.
These cross-plots are:

♦ the Porosity-Resistivity or Hingle Cross-Plot
♦ the Pickett Cross-Plot.
7.3.6.1 The Porosity-Resistivity or Hingle Cross-Plot
In the late 1950’s, Hingle proposed a method based on resistivity and porosity
log data which allows the formation water resistivity and the percent water
saturation to be determined directly from a cross-plot. The method is based on
the well-known Archie equation, which in a rearranged form is plotted on special
grid-type paper.
The basic mathematical manipulation includes:

F = a / Φm
Ro = F × Rw
Ro = Swn × Rt
Φ = ( a / F )l/m
Φ = ( ( a × Rw ) / Ro ) )l/m
Φ = ( ( a × Rw ) / (Swn × Rt) )l/m
Φ = ( ( a × Rw ) / Swn )l/m × 1/Rt l/m (5)
Equation (5) will describe a set of straight lines fanning out from a common
point or origin when plotting porosity, Φ, vs resistivity, Rt, the latter on
a special grid (i.e.: Rt– l / m). Special graph paper is required (Figures 7.12
and 7.13) for sandstones (where F = 0.62 × Φ– 2.15) and carbonates (where
m = 2.0).

Figure 7.12 Resistivity/porosity Cross-Plots for sandstone

Figure 7.13 Resistivity/porosity Cross-Plots for carbonates
Figure 7.11 shows the basic principles of the Hingle plot. Lines of constant Sw
values originate at the matrix point where porosity Φ = 0% and Rt = ∞,
provided formation water salinity stays constant over the interval under study.
The water line (Sw = 1.0) can be drawn from the matrix point through the most
northwesterly points on the cross-plot. The slope of this water line defines Rw,
which can be calculated by:
Rw = Ro / F (6)
anywhere along the water line (Sw = 1.0).

Sw lines other than for 1.0 can be determined based on the Archie equation:
Rt = Ro / Sw2 (7)
For example, 4 × Ro corresponds to the line of Sw = 0.5, 11 × Ro corresponds

to Sw = 0.3, 25 × Ro to 0.2, etc. See Figure 7.11.
Any of three porosity logs (acoustic, density, neutron) can be used with any
deep-reading resistivity device (induction, laterolog, etc.). Further, if an Rxo
device is available, the amount of movable oil (MOP) can also be determined
graphically. For the cross-plot, the Rxo value has to be corrected for the
resistivity contrast between formation water (Rw) and filtrate (Rmf). This
normalisation is obtained by Rxo × (Rw / Rmf). The latter value is then entered
into the cross-plot.
The basic response of the three porosity logs is well-known and has been
discussed many times in well logging literature. These tool responses have to
be kept in mind when using the Hingle plot. Figure 7.14 shows the
generalised effects which may influence any interpretative results.
Figure 7.14 Generalised effects

Plotting procedure is outlined as follows:
1. Select proper cross-plot paper. Figure 7.12 or 7.13
2. Scale the x-axis in linear fashion for raw logging parameters (Δt, ρb) and
establish porosity scale. Porosity will be zero at the matrix point and
increases to the right. Make sure the scale is selected properly so the
highest expected porosity values will still plot on the graph paper.
3. Plot the resistivity (Rt) vs log data (Δt, ρb, ΦN). The resistivity scale can be
changed by any order of magnitude to fit the log data. This is done without
changing the validity of the graph paper grid.
4. The straight line drawn through the most north-westerly points defines
Sw = 1.0. Extrapolate this to the intersection with the X-axis
(Φ = 0, Rt = ∞ ).
5. At the intersection determine the matrix value (Δtma or ρma) for a proper
porosity scaling of the X-axis.
6. Calculate Rw from any corresponding set of Φ and Ro data along the water
line such as Rw = Ro / F.
7. Determine lines of constant Sw values based on Rt = Ro / Sw2 (for any

given
Φ-value). Keep in mind that all these lines have to converge at the matrix
point (Φ = 0, Rt = ∞ ).
8. Read and evaluate Sw values for all points plotted on the cross-plot. Make
sure points are numbered to avoid confusion, particularly if very long
sections are analysed.
9. As an extension of this method, in case Rxo data are also available, the
movable oil (MOP) can be determined since:
Sw2 = ( F × Rw ) / Rt Sxo2 = ( F × Rmf ) / Rxo.
MOP = Sxo – Sw
However, Rxo values have first to be normalised by multiplying Rxo by the

ratio Rw / Rmf before being plotted on the cross-plot graph. The comparison of
the computed Sxo and Sw values is then indicative of the amount of movable
hydrocarbons.

Field Examples
Example 1
Depth ρb Rt
No. ft g/cc Φm
1 7,160 2.57 28.0
2 68 2.51 11.0
3 74 2.62 16.0
4 80 2.53 7.0
5 85 2.58 4.5
6 99 2.53 20.0
7 7,212 2.60 19.0
8 30 2.57 20.0
9 41 2.53 15.0
10 47 2.55 16.0
11 64 2.52 6.3
12 69 2.52 2.0
13 75 2.62 9.0
Figure 7.15 Density-Resistivity Cross-Plot data from well logs
The table of Figure 7.15 lists pertinent logging data in a well drilled through
carbonate rock. Since hard-rock conditions prevail, the data have to be plotted
on the proper grid with m = 2.0.
Figure 7.16 shows the graphical display of the density and resistivity logging
data. The following conclusions can be drawn:
♦ The calculated points 5, 12 and 13 define the water-line, i.e.: Sw = 100%.
♦ The calculated value of Rw at, for example, Ro = 2.5 and Φ = 10% (F =
100), yields 0.025. This value compares favourably with drillstem test data
at
7,211 ft, where on the recovered water sample the measured Rw was
0.028 Φ–m at formation temperature.
♦ Intersection of the water-line with the X-axis (porosity) in the matrix point
(Φ = 0) defines the presence of a limestone interval exhibiting a density
of 2.71g/cc.
♦ Properly sealed lines of constant Sw can be drawn, all of which originate at
the matrix point.
♦ As can be seen in the cross-plot, only intervals 1, 2, 6, 8, 9 and 10 fall

below the 50% Sw line.
Figure 7.16 Resistivity/porosity Cross-Plots

Example 2
MOP
Depth Rt Rxo Δt Φ Sw Sxo (Sxo– Sw)
No. ft Ω–m Ω–m μsec/ft % % % %
1 ×524 20.0 13.0 58 10.0 33 46 13
2 28 9.5 8.0 59 11.0 42 54 12
3 31 18.0 12.0 57 9.5 35 53 18
4 33 50.0 35.0 55 8.0 25 35 10
5 ×536 30.0 16.0 56 9.0 29 47 18
Figure 7.17 Sonic-Resistivity Cross-Plot data from well logs
The table of Figure 7.17 lists pertinent logging data in a well drilled with
fresh mud. The target formation is known to be a dolomite (Vma = 23,000
ft/sec), and Rw = 0.02 Ω–m and Rmf = 0.28 Ω–m at formation conditions.
Knowledge of the above parameters is sufficient to omit plotting the logging

data, since a straightforward application of the Archie equation gives both Sw
and Sxo, the water and mud filtrate saturations, respectively, in the uninvaded
and flushed regions around the wellbore.
Sw2 = ( F × Rw ) / Rt
Sxo2 = ( F × Rmf ) / Rxo
Furthermore, close inspection of the data in the table of Figure 7.17 clearly
shows that reservoir porosity extends over a very small range, which would
make cross-plots of such data crowded and less advantageous. In other words,
logging data should be looked at prior to blindly starting out with a particular
cross-plot technique.
Conclusion
The Hingle Cross-plot technique is a powerful cross-plotting technique which
allows a long section of well logs to be analysed in a minimum of time.
Similar to any other formation evaluation technique, the Hingle method has
several advantages and limitations.
Advantages include:
1. A matrix value does not have to be assumed. It is determined from the
cross-plot.
2. Rw value can be computed from the graph.

3. Quantitative Sw presentation, including visual quick-look at potential pay

sections.
4. Minimum calculations.
5. Well adapted for fresh- and salt-mud logging.
6. With Rxo data a typical MOP evaluation is possible.
Limitations include: a relatively large range of porosity is required; and shaly

sands, unconsolidated formations, gas effects, etc. require certain logging
suites and precautions. Also, formation water salinity (i.e.: Rw), lithology, and
degree of mud filtrate invasion have to stay fairly constant over the interval of
interest. Finally, a water zone has to be present or a reliable Rw value has to be
known.
7.3.6.2 The Pickett Cross-Plot
Introduction
The Pickett Cross-plot, like the Hingle Cross-plot, can provide some useful
information on formation characteristics. This cross-plot utilises a basic
rearrangement of the Archie equation.
a × Rw Ro
Swn = = (8)
Φ m × Rt Rt
where rearranged:
log Rt = – m × log Φ + log ( a × Rw ) – n × logSw (9)
If Sw = 100% this reduces to:
log Ro = – m × log Φ + log ( a × Rw ) (10)
This is a straight line plot on a log-log grid for Rt vs Φ where:
y = mx+b is the equation of a line
Rt can be plotted against Φ on Log-Log paper as follows: Figure 7.18
This plot of Rt vs Φ will give a straight line as long as Rw and Sw remain

constant. To determine the slope of the line shown on the example above,
which is m, simply divide the measured distance on Rt shown by the measured
distance on Φ. Note that to make this mathematically correct, simply turn this
sheet so that Φ will be the abscissa and Rt will be the ordinate.

Figure 7.18 Φ vs Rt Cross-Plot – each ‘x’ represents a point of analysis

made on the well
Figure 7.19 Φ vs Rt Cross-Plot
Figure 7.20 Φ vs Rt Cross-Plot

Example
1. If points (depth of analysis numbered for convenience) 1, 2 and 3 are

considered to represent 100% water saturated members, construct a line
through them as shown. The Rt at which this line intersects Φ = 100% will
represent a × Rw. Figure 7.19
2. The slope of the line will be equal to m which is the cementation factor in
the equation F = a/Φm. Remember: a negative slope will be determined.
3. If it is not known whether any of the intervals analysed are 100% water
bearing, but if a × Rw is known, then use the a × Rw at Φ = 100% and an
engineering estimate of m and construct the 100% Sw line. Figure 7.20
4. To construct additional water saturation lines on this graph, draw a

horizontal line to the right, beginning at the point where the 100% Sw line
crosses a “1” (Rt = Ro = 0.1, 1, 10, etc.). On this line mark the following
R’s which correspond to the indicated water saturations. Remember Swn =
Ro / Rt or Rt = Ro / Swn so for Ro = 1, Rt = 1 / Swn.
Rt (when Ro = 1.0) Sw%

1.0 100
1.2 90
1.55 80
2.00 70
2.88 60
4.00 50
6.25 40
11.1 30
25.0 20
100.00 10
Then construct the other Sw lines parallel to the 100% Sw line.

5. Now an excellent Φ vs Rt cross-plot has been made.
The slope of the line is m and the intersection of the line with Φ = 100% is a
× Rw.
A cross-plot of this type assumes that Rw and m are constant in the zone. To be
able to draw a straight line through these points it is assumed that there is a
sufficient variation in the porosity. If only a single porosity log is available
and the zone is clean ( ≅ 0% clay volume), Equation (10) can be rewritten as:
log Rt = – m × log ( ρma – ρlog ) + log (a × Rw) (11)

or
log Rt = – m × log ( Δt log – Δ t ma ) + log (a × Rw) (12)
and the cross-plot above is still applicable assuming ρma or Δ t ma remain

constant for the interval.
7.3.7 Sonic and Resistivity Responses in Adjacent Shales

This method is empirical and it is not often used, but if other data are not
available it may allow an estimate of Rw.
It is based on the following empirical formula:
Rw = Rsh × ( ( Δtsh – 70 ) / 500 ) (13 )
where
Rsh = the resistivity of the adjacent shale bed

Δtsh = the interval transit time in the adjacent shale bed
The reasoning for this equation is that the value of Rsh reflects compaction as
well
as the value of Rw in the shale, assuming that the shales are saturated with
formation water. It also assumes that the water in the shale has the same
composition as the formation water in the adjacent reservoir, which is frequently
not the case.
Rsh = Fsh × Rw. Empirically Fsh = 500 / (Δtsh – 70). The constant, given here as
500, may need adjustment between 500 and 600. The method will only find
application in beds where the formation water is salty.

CHART 7A
100
Chart 7A Estimation of formation temperature and geothermal gradient

CHART 7B
Chart 7B Formation temperature
Example Dimensionless
Time Temperature
Δt 7
log #1 = = 0.538 220ºF
t + Δt 6+7
Δt 7 + 4.5
log #2 = = 0.538 220ºF
t + Δt 6 + 7 + 4.5
Δt 7 + 4.5 + 8
log #3 = = 0.538 220ºF
t + Δt– 6 + 7 + 4.5 + 8
Δt = Time after circulation stopped (hrs)

t = Circulation time (hrs)

CHART 7C
Chart 7C Resistivities of filtrates and formation waters (Schlumberger)

CHART 7D
Chart 7D Resistivity (salinity) of brine solutions

CHART 7E
Rmf/Rweq
Chart 7E Graphic solution of the SP equation

CHART 7F
Chart 7F Rw from Rwe

CHART 7G
Chart 7G SP bed thickness correction

Test Your Knowledge of Unit 7
(Use the appropriate charts for your work. Do the work on photocopies, not on
the original charts, which should remain in the book.)
QUESTION 1
Shale in a reservoir containing saline formation water and drilled with a fresh
mud. Does it:
a) reduce SP amplitude
b) reverse SP deflection
c) have no effect
Which is correct? Explain your reasoning in not more than 2 lines.

Add a drawing if it helps your explanation.
QUESTION 2
According to the log heading , BHT at 11,304 feet was 200ºF. If a
surface temperature of 70ºF is assumed, find:
a) temperature gradient in ºF/100 feet
b) temperature gradient in ºC/ metre
c) find formation temperature at 9,565 feet
Show your operation on the appropriate charts.
QUESTION 3
According to the log heading Rmf=0.08 at 75ºF. Find
a) Rmf at 180ºF
b) the salinity of the solution in ppm NaCl and in ppm Cl-
QUESTION 4
If sand # 1 has a 100 mV SP and sand # 2 has a 90 mv SP, sand # 1 has
a) a higher permeability
b) the same permeability
c) a lower permeability
d) not enough information


8000
B
9000
Example 7.1

QUESTION 5
Compute in the attached Example 7.1, at 8,950 feet:
a) Rw at 8,850 feet
b) water salinity in ppm NaCl
QUESTION 6
Given the following information, determine the static formation
temperature:
8:30am – Circulated six hours before pulling pipe.
TD (total depth) = 12,000 feet
10:00am – Logger on bottom with 1st log run. BHT=215ºF
2:30pm – Logger on bottom with 2nd log run. BHT=233ºF
8:00pm – Logger on bottom with 3rd log run. BHT=226ºF
Show your operation on the appropriate graph paper.
QUESTION 7
You would expect the measured BHT during the logging operation to be:
a) higher than the true static formation temperature
b) lower than the true static formation temperature

QUESTION 8
If the solid concentration of a CaCl water is 5,000 ppm, of which
2,500 ppm is Ca+ and 2,500 ppm is Cl– , determine the value of Rw at 70ºC
(not F).
QUESTION 9
Assume that in the attached Example 7.1 sand A is clean and wet (Sw = 100%).
Use the SP deflection in sand B to determine the clay content, Vcl.

0.36
Example 7.3
QUESTION 10
For Example 7.3 cross-plot the nine zones designated on the logs.
Use graph paper.
Answer also the following questions:
a) What is the Rw from the cross-plot (show work on chart)?
b) What is the Rw from the SP (show work on chart)?
c) What is the matrix travel time (show work on chart)?
d) On the log example mark the oil/water contact.

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The School of Petroleum Engineering

THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES

7.1 General Considerations

Originally, most reservoirs were formed by the deposition of reservoir material –

School of Petroleum Engineering UNSW PTRL2016 Introduction to Petrophysics

♦ knowledge of the ionic composition of the formation water makes it possible

7.2 The Need for Accurate Values of Rw

Sw = (a×Rw /Φm ×Rt) 1/n

The value of Rw at reservoir temperature must be known before the hydrocarbon

A non-commercial reservoir may erroneously be considered to be of commercial

School of Petroleum Engineering UNSW PTRL2016 Introduction to Petrophysics

If, by mistake, we have estimated Rw to be 0.60 Ω–m @ TR, the hydrocarbon

7.3 Techniques Available to Determine Rw

Calculation of Reservoir Temperature

School of Petroleum Engineering UNSW PTRL2016 Introduction to Petrophysics

Use of Chart 7A: Estimation of Formation Temperature and Geothermal

Use of Chart 7B: Determination of Static BHT

We will now look at different techniques of determining Rw:

Figure 7.1 Stiff plots

School of Petroleum Engineering UNSW PTRL2016 Introduction to Petrophysics

Relative amounts of cations in typical Relative amounts of anions in oilfield water

Figure 7.2 Sulin plots (Dickey)

7.3.1 Sample of Formation Water

It may appear that it should be quite easy to obtain a representative sample of

The problem starts with the difficulty of obtaining an uncontaminated sample of

A water sample that is analysed in the laboratory, will show a composition of

School of Petroleum Engineering UNSW PTRL2016 Introduction to Petrophysics

It is simple to convert the resistivity at a known temperature (in oF) into a

The ion concentration of formation waters has many applications, as mentioned

Use of Chart 7C: Equivalent NaCl Concentrations

Use of Chart 7D: Resistivity and Salinity of Brine Solutions

School of Petroleum Engineering UNSW PTRL2016 Introduction to Petrophysics

Figure 7.3 Facies classification from the SP curve

School of Petroleum Engineering UNSW PTRL2016 Introduction to Petrophysics

7.3.2 The SP or Spontaneous Potential Curve

(Charts 7E and 7F at end of this Unit)

The SP curve has a number of applications in geology as well as in

In geology it is used to:

The Spontaneous Potential (SP) log is a record of the naturally occurring

School of Petroleum Engineering UNSW PTRL2016 Introduction to Petrophysics

not oil-based, to be able to obtain an SP curve. The Spontaneous Potential

Figure 7.4 Recording the SP (Dresser Atlas)

School of Petroleum Engineering UNSW PTRL2016 Introduction to Petrophysics

7.3.2.1 Electrochemical Component of the SP

Figure 7.5 Electrochemical component of the SP (Dresser)

School of Petroleum Engineering UNSW PTRL2016 Introduction to Petrophysics

SSP = –K log ( Rmfeq / Rweq ) (1 )

School of Petroleum Engineering UNSW PTRL2016 Introduction to Petrophysics

Rweq = equivalent formation water resistivity, which is inversely proportional

Figure 7.7 Membrane Potential SP

Figure 7.8 Liquid junction effects

School of Petroleum Engineering UNSW PTRL2016 Introduction to Petrophysics

Use of Chart 7E: Graphic Solution of the SP Equation

Use of Chart 7F: (Butterfly Wing Chart): Rw from Rweq as Function of

The following precautions apply when this method is used.

School of Petroleum Engineering UNSW PTRL2016 Introduction to Petrophysics

Figure 7.9 Hill Anderson chart to compute electrofiltration potential

7.3.2.2 Electrofiltration Potential