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Historical criticism, which is also referred to as higher criticism, is a branch of

historical literary analysis that deals with the investigation of original texts in relation to
the political or economic events occurring at the time these texts were produced. In
some cases, historical events were also used in order to explain the concepts behind
these literary works. Authors and analysts conducting more in-depth analysis of a
literary piece at times, also attempt to recreate and visualize the cultures being depicted
in these works. A common example of this work would be the Bible and its content. This
manner of reading and analyzing literature prospered within the universities of the
Anglo-American around late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Ê

There are actually several types of historical criticism. The form criticism for
example, is a type of historical criticism that analyzes the forms and structures of the
literary texts so as to relate them to various sociological contexts. Narrative criticism on
the other hand utilizes questions and models based on literary theories in order to
interpret certain works. Indeed, critiquing a literary piece through historical means can
be carried out in different methods. For this paper, focus will be on one type of historical
criticism, known as cultural criticism. Works and concepts introduced by Mikhail Bakhtin
and Raymond Williams will be used to explain how cultural criticism is done. Most
importantly, the analysis of the contributions of these writers will determine the role and
significance of analyzing texts through historical criticism.Ê


 
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aultural criticism is a literary analysis approach that is centered on the historical,

economic, political and social concepts behind a literary work or piece. At present,
cultural critics utilize various strategies like deconstructionism, gender studies, new
historicism and psychology in order to analyze the relevant cultural aspect implied in a
literary work. This type of literary analysis has actually evolved over time as critics use
this approach not only in interpreting literary works but also other aspects of culture
including commercials, publications, music as well as television or radio programs.
There had been a number of analysts and writers who have contributed greatly to the
development of this literary analysis. Among these were Mikhail Bakhtin and Raymond
Williams.Ê

  
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Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin was a Russina literary scholar and philosopher who
had provided great contributions on rhetorical theory and literary criticism. In terms of
cultural criticism, Bakhtin¶s contributions were centered on his notions on dialogue and
language. In one of his later essays entitled c
 
  


 

, Bakhtin
aimed to explain how literary language differs from everyday language. In this work,
Bakhtin stresses that genres actually exist in communication and that these genres
were still unexplored. Thus, in this essay, Bakhtin noted that communication genres are
divided into two basic typologies: primary and secondary. While words, expressions and
phrases used and accepted in daily life fall under the primary genre, texts that have
legal or scientific features are considered secondary types.Ê

One of Bakhtin¶s famous works was the 
   
  where
he introduced three essential concepts relevant to language and dialogue (). One of
these concepts is that the individual self is unfinalizable. This concept emphasizes the
fact that people cannot be fully understood, finalized or labeled despite the possibility of
understanding others. Bakhtin explained this concept by citing that an individual cannot
be known or revealed fully in the world and that people have this capability of changing;
in some views, this concept may appear as a representation of what people know today
as the human soul, which symbolizes people¶s worth, capability and hidden
characteristics.Ê

Another concept introduced from this work is the interrelation of the individual
self to others. Bakhtin cited that a person is intertwined with another in some way and
that other people serve as a great influence to the individual. In this concept, Bakhtin
emphasizes the role of others to an individual¶s way of thinking and view of oneself.
Finally, the concept of polyphony, or many voices, was also introduced through this
work. According to Bakhtin, each Dostoevsky character has been given a voice different
from other, which actually represents the character¶s individual self. This final concept is
related to the other two concepts introduced as this stresses the unfinalizable character
of people; thus, they are capable of creating true polyphony. This contribution of Bakhtin
helped in developing modern cultural criticism as it stresses that low and high cultures
occur not only in well-known and classical texts but also within the dialogic voices found
in other great works.Ê

   Ê

Raymond Williams was a Welsh critic, novelist and academic. His works on
mass media, politics, culture and literature suggested his Marxist viewpoint. To this
point, he had been recognized as an influential figure in wider culture and the New left.
In line with cultural criticism, Williams have also provided several contributions through
his works and essays. In two of his works, a  
 

  and c
  
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 , Williams stressed that culture is anything but constant; he viewed culture as
a changing and living thing. When these works were first published, the conventional
historical and social understanding of culture was changed significantly. Similar to other
Marxists, Williams analyzed culture by means of relating it to ideologies.Ê

While there had been other cultural analysts at that time, Williams¶ principles and
concepts were different as it was not centered on how social class and class-related
conflicts shaped and changed culture. Moreover, Williams did not merely relate cultural
changes to the influence of various economic trends. In his essays, more focus was
given on the people themselves. Specifically, he analyzed how individuals creatively
react and respond to the different conditions that they encounter. This focal point of
analysis was emphasized further in his statements in one of his essays in 1958, a  

". In this literary piece, Williams cited the Marxist principle that culture can be
interpreted and understood by relating it to production and economic systems. However,
Williams noted in this work that culture should be viewed as a whole way of life and not
just a superstructure based on economic trends and practicesÊ

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Based from the cited works on cultural criticism of Bakhtin and Williams, a few
similar and contradicting points can be drawn. Their essays for instance are similar as
they are centered on people and the individuality of each. Both of their works also
highlighted how individual differences bring about essential society aspects such as
human interaction in Bakhtin¶s view and cultural materialism in Williams¶ view. In
general, the essays of both Bakhtin and Williams emphasizes on the role people play in
bringing about individual realization as well as cultural changes.Ê

While there may be similarities, Bakthin¶s essays were also different from
Williams as it is more centered on language and dialogues that people use. Through the
identification of communication genres as well as the concept of polyphony, Bakhtin
was able to explain how language and dialogic notions serve as essential aspects of
culture and human individuality. Williams on the other hand is more concerned on the
behavior of people that makes up his concept of cultural materialism. Specifically, his
essays on culture were published with the aim of contradicting the Marxist tenet that
culture can be understood only by considering economic systems and social classes.Ê



 
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alearly, the works of Bakhtin and Williams have their own similarities and
differences. Nevertheless, both writers and critics were able to stress the role of
historical criticism, particularly to people and the society. For instance, the works and
concepts introduced by Bakhtin showed how individuals can understand their selves
and others. In today¶s context, this contribution of Bakhtin helped in building awareness
as well as appreciation of individual differences. Bakhtin¶s concept of polyphony clearly
implies this contribution. In particular, each individual is indeed different from others; in
order to interact well and harmoniously, these differences must be recognized and
respected by others. Through this, people can understand others more as well as build
better relationships.Ê

Williams¶ on the other hand introduced the concept that culture is a living thing
and that its growth is dependent on the people¶s ability to react to situations, and not
merely on their social statuses. This contribution of Raymond Williams to historical
criticism helped in bringing in better comprehension and depth to a social aspect as rich
and diverse as culture. Through this principle, people today now understand that culture
is multi-faceted and that it is a representation on how well people adapt to various
environmental changes.Ê

From these works, the role of historical criticism has been made apparent. For
one thing, this literary analysis approach led to the modification of conventional as well
as misunderstood concepts or beliefs. The work of Bakhtin for instance, clearly implied
how language and dialogues differ from one another, as well as how these made people
obtain distinct features or ³voices´. The works of Bakhtin and Williams also showed the
role of historical criticism in giving more meaningful depth to various human issues.
aulture during the historical times for example has only been limited to its relation to
economic trends, social classes and other Marxist principles. Yet the work of Raymond
Williams indicated that it is the people and not their social classes that make up culture.Ê

The modification and addition of depth to various human principles through

historical criticism also resulted to significant realizations. For example, the criticism of
Bakhtin to self and others made people more aware of their distinct capabilities and
characteristics. This realization in turn helped in making effective human interaction
possible as it promotes the appreciation and respect for individual differences. The
introduction of this principle encourages people to obtain more knowledge on individual
differences so as to conduct various aspects of contemporary living like trade and
cross-border business operations. The same also applies for Williams¶ contributions to
historical criticism; through his works cultural differences and behaviors have become
more recognized and people have become more open-minded when dealing with
diverse cultures.Ê

 Ê

Historical criticism has long been recognized as an approach to analyzing

literary works by means of tracing back historical events that occurred during the time
these pieces were produced. aultural criticism is a type of historical criticism that is
more centered on relating literary works to various cultural, social, economic, political
and human aspects for analysis or interpretation. Through the works and essays
of Mikhail Bakhtin and Raymond Williams, how cultural criticism is applied had been
explained.Ê
 Ê

However, in addition to this, the contributions of these writers also led to the
identification of historical criticism¶s role, particularly to the people and the society. In the
discussion, it has been stressed that this literary analytical approach is not only useful in
analyzing various literary pieces. Rather, historical criticism also plays a role in
modifying conventional beliefs, bringing more depth to various human principles as well
as encouraging essential realizations that somehow contributes to the improvement of
contemporary living. In conclusion, the contribution of historical criticism should not be
viewed limitedly on its relation to past but also on its contributions to the present and
future times.Ê
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New Historicism is a literary theory based on the idea that literature should be
studied and intrepreted within the context of both the history of the author and the
history of the critic. Based on the literary criticism of Stephen Greenblatt and
influenced by the philosophy of Michel Foucault, New Historicism acknowledges not
only that a work of literature is influenced by its author's times and circumstances,
but that the critic's response to that work is also influenced by his environment,
beliefs, and prejudices.

A New Historicist looks at literature in a wider historical context, examining both how the
writer's times affected the work and how the work reflects the writer's times, in turn
recognizing that current cultural contexts color that critic's conclusions.

For example, when studying Shakespeare's `
  #

$ one always comes to
the question of whether the play shows Shakespeare to be anti-Semitic. The New
Historicist recognizes that this isn't a simple yes-or-no answer that can be teased out by
studying the text. This work must be judged in the context in which it was written; in
turn, cultural history can be revealed by studying the work ² especially, say New
Historicists, by studying the use and dispersion of power and the marginalization of
social classes within the work. Studying the history reveals more about the text;
studying the text reveals more about the history.

The New Historicist also acknowledges that his examination of literature is "tainted" by
his own culture and environment. The very fact that we ask whether Shakespeare was
anti-Semitic ² a question that wouldn't have been considered important a century ago
² reveals how our study of Shakespeare is affected by our civilization.

New Historicism, then, underscores the impermanence of literary criticism. aurrent

literary criticism is affected by and reveals the beliefs of our times in the same way that
literature reflects and is reflected by its own historical contexts. New Historicism
acknowledges and embraces the idea that, as times change, so will our understanding
of great literature.
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