PART II: STEEL DESIGN

Concepts in Structural Steel

Design
Prepared by: Engr. Peter Adrian T. Ngo
 PART II: STEEL DESIGN
CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
The design of a structural member entails the selection of a cross section that will safely and economically resist the
applied loads.
Economy usually means minimum
weight—that is, the minimum
Having established this objective, amount of steel.
the engineer must decide how to do
it safely, which is where different
approaches to design come into This amount corresponds to the cross
play. The fundamental requirement section with the smallest weight per
of structural design is that the foot, which is the one with the smallest
required strength not exceed the cross-sectional area. Although other
available strength; that is, considerations, such as ease of
construction, may ultimately affect the
required strength ≤ available choice of member size, the process
strength begins with the selection of the lightest
cross-sectional shape that will do the
job.
 PART II: STEEL DESIGN
CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
In allowable strength design (ASD), a member is selected that has cross-sectional properties such as area and moment of inertia that
are large enough to prevent the maximum applied axial force, shear, or bending moment from exceeding an allowable, or permissible,
value. This allowable value is obtained by dividing the nominal, or theoretical, strength by a factor of safety. This can be expressed as

required strength ≤ allowable strength

Where

Strength can be an axial force strength (as in tension or compression members), a flexural strength (moment strength), or a shear strength.

If stresses are used instead of forces or moments, the relationship of the preceding equation becomes

maximum applied stress ≤ allowable stress

This approach is called allowable stress design. The allowable stress

will be in the elastic range of the material. This approach to design is
also called elastic design or working stress design. Working stresses are
those resulting from the working loads, which are the applied loads.
Working loads are also known as service loads.
 PART II: STEEL DESIGN
CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
Plastic design is based on a consideration of failure conditions rather than working load conditions. A member is
selected by using the criterion that the structure will fail at a load substantially higher than the working load. Failure
in this context means either collapse or extremely large deformations. The term plastic is used because, at failure,
parts of the member will be subjected to very large strains—large enough to put the member into the plastic range.
When the entire cross section becomes plastic at enough locations, “plastic hinges” will form at those locations,
creating a collapse mechanism. As the actual loads will be less than the failure loads by a factor of safety known as
the load factor, members designed this way are not unsafe, despite being designed based on what happens at failure.

This design procedure is roughly as follows:

1. Multiply the working loads (service loads) by the load factor to obtain the failure loads.
2. Determine the cross-sectional properties needed to resist failure under these loads. (A member with these
properties is said to have sufficient strength and would be at the verge of failure when subjected to the factored
loads.)
3. Select the lightest cross-sectional shape that has these properties.

Members designed by plastic theory would reach the point of failure under the factored loads but are safe under
actual working loads.
 PART II: STEEL DESIGN
CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) is similar to plastic design in that strength, or the failure condition, is
considered. Load factors are applied to the service loads, and a member is selected that will have enough strength to
resist the factored loads. In addition, the theoretical strength of the member is reduced by the application of a
resistance factor. The criterion that must be satisfied in the selection of a member is

Factored load ≤ factored strength

In this expression, the factored load is actually the sum of all service loads to be resisted by the member, each
multiplied by its own load factor. For example, dead loads will have load factors that are different from those for live
loads. The factored strength is the theoretical strength multiplied by a resistance factor. Therefore

The factored load is a failure load greater than the total actual service load, so the load factors are usually greater
than unity. However, the factored strength is a reduced, usable strength, and the resistance factor is usually less than
unity. The factored loads are the loads that bring the structure or member to its limit. In terms of safety, this limit
state can be fracture, yielding, or buckling, and the factored resistance is the useful strength of the member, reduced
from the theoretical value by the resistance factor. The limit state can also be one of serviceability, such as a
maximum acceptable deflection.
 PART II: STEEL DESIGN
CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

SAFETY FACTORS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR ASD

For allowable strength design, the Load Combinations for ASD:
relationship between loads and 1. D + F
strength can be expressed as 2. D + H + F + L + T
3. D + H + F + (Lr or R)
4. D + H + F + 0.75[L + T + (Lr or R)]
5. D + H + F + (W or E/1.4)
Where:
D = Dead Load
E = Earthquake Load
F = load due to fluids with well-defined pressures and maximum heights
H = load due to lateral pressure of soil and water in soil
L = live load, except roof live load, including any permitted live load reduction
Lr = roof live load, including any permitted live load reduction
R = rain load on the undeflected roof
T = self-straining force and effects arising from contraction or expansion resulting from
The required strength Ra is the sum of temperature change, shrinkage, moisture change, creep in component materials,
movement due to differential settlement, or combinations thereof
the service loads or load effects. W = load due to wind pressure
 PART II: STEEL DESIGN
CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

SAFETY FACTORS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR ASD

The following values are the safety factor Ω in ASD:

• For limit states involving yielding or compression buckling, Ω = 1.67.

• For limit states involving rupture, Ω = 2.00.

If both sides of the preceding equation are divided by area (in the case of axial load) or section modulus
(in the case of bending moment), then the relationship becomes

f≤F
where
f = applied stress
F = allowable stress

This formulation is called allowable stress design.

 PART II: STEEL DESIGN
CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS, AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD

where
Qi = a load effect (a force or a moment) The resistance factor ϕ :
γi = a load factor
Rn = the nominal resistance, or strength, of the
• 0.90 for limit sates involving yielding or
component under consideration compression buckling
ϕ = resistance factor • 0.75 for limit states involving rupture
(fracture).
The factored resistance ϕRn is called the design strength.

where
Ru = required strength = sum of factored load effects
(forces or moments)
 PART II: STEEL DESIGN
CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS, AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD

Load combinations using LRFD

• 1.4(D + F)
• 1.2(D + F + T) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(Lr or R)
• 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or R) + (f1L or 0.8W)
• 1.2D + 1.6W + f1L + 0.5(Lr or R)
• 1.2D + 1.0E + f1L
• 0.9D + 1.6W + 1.6H
• 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H

Where:
f1 = 1.0 for floors in places of public assembly, for live loads in excess of 4.8
kPa, and for garage live load
= 0.5 for other live loads
SEE NSCP 2015 Section 2 for more details
 PART II: STEEL DESIGN
CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

EXAMPLE
PROBLEM 1. A column (compression member) in the upper story of a building is subject to the
following loads:
Dead load: 109 kips compression
Floor live load: 46 kips compression
Roof live load: 19 kips compression

a. Determine the controlling load combination for LRFD and the corresponding factored load.
b. If the resistance factor is 0.90, what is the required nominal strength?
c. Determine the controlling load combination for ASD and the corresponding required service load
strength.
d. If the safety factor is 1.67, what is the required nominal strength based on the required service
load strength?
 PART II: STEEL DESIGN
CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

EXAMPLE
PROBLEM 2. A beam is part of the framing system for the floor of an office building. The floor is
subjected to both dead loads and live loads. The maximum moment caused by the service dead load is
45 ft-kips, and the maximum moment for the service live load is 63 ft-kips (these moments occur at the
same location on the beam and can therefore be combined).

a. If load and resistance factor design is used, determine the maximum factored bending moment
(required moment strength). What is the controlling load combination?
b. What is the required nominal moment strength for a resistance factor of 0.90?
c. If allowable strength design is used, determine the required moment strength. What is the
controlling load combination?
d. What is the required nominal moment strength for a safety factor of 1.67?