Synopsis on Elementary Mathematics and Calculus - XI (2020)

Definition of Angle in Radian Measure

B
length of an arc r
 (in radian) = Radius of circle r
1C
O r A

1 Radian : Radian is the angle subtended at the centre of circle by an arc whose length is equal to the radius.
Relationship between degree and radian
180
2 radian  360 or  radian  180 ; 1 radian   5716 ' (approximately)

Angle and Sense of Rotation

Values of trigonometric function with some angles

The values of cot  , sec  and cosec 

can be found from the above table by
cos  1
using the relations cot   =
sin  tan 
1 1
sec   and cosec   .
cos  sin 

Quadrant System
Important
IInd quadrant Ist quadrant
(i) In the first quadrant, all are +ve. sin & cosec() All trigononmetric
Rest of all () function ()
(ii) In the second quadrant, sin and cosec are +ve
(iii) In the third quadrant, tangent and cotangent are +ve
(iv) In the fourth quadrant, cosine and secant are +ve IIIrd quadrant IVth quadrant
tan & cot() cos & sec()
sin( )   sin  cos( )  cos  Rest of all () Rest of all ()
tan( )   tan  cosec( )   cosec
sec( )  sec  cot( )   cot 

Finding the value of a trigonometric function

sin   sin( N  90   ) . ( N  90   ) gives quadrant in which the angle lies. Then using the trigonometric function the sign
that will be associated with the function can be determined.
Let n  An integral value. Then 2n respresents even numbers; (2n  1) or (2n  1) respresents odd numbers.
(a) If N is an even number i.e. N  2n then trigonometric function remains same.
(i) sin(2n  90   )  (sign)sin  (ii) cos(2n  90   )  (sign) cos  (iii) tan(2n  90   )  (sign) tan 
(iv) cosec(2n  90   )  (sign)cosec (v) cot(2n  90   )  (sign) cot  (vi) sec(2n  90   )  (sign)sec 

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(b) If N is an odd number i.e. N  (2n  1) or N  (2n  1) then trigonometric function changes.
(i) sin[(2n  1)  90   ]  (sign) cos  (ii) cos[(2n  1)  90   ]  (sign)sin  (ii) tan[(2n  1)  90   ]  (sign) cot 
(iv) sec[(2n  1)  90   ]  (sign)cosec (v) cot[(2n  1)  90   ]  (sign) tan  (vi) cosec[(2n  1)  90   ]  (sign)sec 
Trigonometric formulae to remember
(i) sin( A  B )  sin A cos B  cos A sin B (ii) sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  cos A sin B (iii) cos( A  B )  cos A cos B  sin A sin B
tan A  tan B tan A  tan B
(iv) cos( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B (v) tan( A  B)  (vi) tan( A  B ) 
1  tan A tan B 1  tan A tan B
Trigonometric ratios of multiple angles
2 tan  2 2 tan 
(i) sin 2  2sin  cos   (ii) cos 2  cos 2   sin 2   1  2sin2   2cos2  1  1  tan  (iii) tan 2 
1  tan 2  2
1  tan  1  tan 2 
Exercise-01
6 2 6 2
(i) sin 75º  (ii) cos 75º  (iii) tan 75º  cot 75º  4 (iv) tan15º  2  3
4 4
Inverse trigonometric function
1
If sin ( x)   then sin   x ; If sin 1 ( x )   then sin  x If cot 1 ( x )   then cot  x
 1 1  1   If cos 1 ( x )   then cos  x If cosec 1 ( x)   then cosec  x
Example : If sin  then sin   If tan 1 ( x )   then tan  x If sec 1 ( x)   then sec  x
4 2  2 4
Graph and equation - straight line
A linear equation of x and y will represent a straight line in y vs x graph. Linear equations: ax  by  c  0 or ax  by  c or y  ax  b
Slope intercept form of straight line ; y  mx  c
Equation y  mx  c is called slope intercept form. Where m  slope of straight line and c  y-intercept m is tangent of
angle made by straight line with +ve x direction. c is the position on y axis where straight line cuts the y axis.
+ve
+ve +ve
 x direction   x direction  x direction
O
x
   

m  tan( )  m  tan( )
General knowledge
(i) x-intercept  the position where straight line cuts the x - axis
(ii) If straight line passes through origin then equation of straight line will be of form y  mx .
(iii) Any point lying on the straight line will satisfy the equation of the line.
(iv) Writing equation from graph of straight line : (i.e. relation between x and y coordinates of point lying on the graph)
(v)
L1 L1 2
nd st
1
L2 2
nd
1st L2

  x
x x  
x   x x x x
rd th
 
3 4
rd th
3 4

m will be negative as  lies in second quadrant and  lies in

fourth quadrant. m will be positive as lies in first quadrant and lies in third quadrant.
When angle lies in second or fourth quadrant then tangent of the When angle lies in first or third quadrant then tangent of the angle
angle will be negative. will be positive.

(vi) Equation of x-axis : y  0 (vii) Equation of y-axis : x  0

(viii) Equation of line parallel to x-axis : y  k where k is position on axis where the line cuts y-axis
(ix) Equation of line parallel to y-axis : x  k where k is position where the line cuts x-axis

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 Point slope form of the equation of straight line
y
(x1,y1)
( y  y1 )  m( x  x1 ) where m  tan( ) or m  tan( )  x


Some general discussion about the motion of an object

(a) Motion of an object in one dimension (i.e. one dimensional motion) : Motion of an object in a straight line (also termed as
rectilinear motion). Line of motion remains same.
(b) Two dimensional motion : Motion in a plane. Line of motion changes in a plane .
(c) Three dimensional motion : Motion in space. Line of motion change in space.
General knowledge : (i) In one dimension a vector can be represented by ‘+’ or ‘  ’ sign, where plus or minus sign will
represent the direction of the vector. For example : If a particle is moving along x-axis then velocity v = +5 implies v  5iˆ and

v  5 implies v  5iˆ (ii) The term velocity, speed, acceleration impies instaneous velocity, instaneous speed and instaneous
acceleration respectively. (iii) Instantaneous means at any particular instant of time. (iv) Instantaneous speed is defined as the
magnitude of instantaneous velocity. For example : If particle moves along z-axis and at an instant of time its velocity is given
as v  7 in SI unit then we can interpret that speed of particle is 7m/s and direction of motion (i.e. direction of velocity) is
along -ve z-axis.
Modulus function or absolute value function
The absolute value function or modulus function represents the magnitude and should always be positive.

|  5 | 5 |  5 | 5
For example :
Expression Expression
(a) | (Expression) | (Expression) when Expression  0 (b) | (Expression) |  (Expression) when Expression < 0
Example : When | x | : (i) | x | x for x  0 (ii) | x |  x for x  0
5
Example : When | 3x  5 | : (i) | 3x  5 | (3x  5) when  3x  5  0 i.e. x 
3
5  x  2 when x  2
(ii) | 3x  5 |  (3x  5) when  3x  5  0 i.e. x  (iii) | x  2 | 
3  x  2 when x  2
General knowledge : Function of a variable(s) implies an expression of variable (s)
Ex : (a) f ( x )  ( x 2  3 x  5) ; f ( x )  an expression of variable x . (b) h( x, y )  x 2 y  y 3  3 ; h( x, y )  an expression of variables x, y
Point to note : When we write y  h( x) then it implies that y is an expression of x. Example : v  f (t ) implies velocity is a
function or expression of time.
Graph and equation - conic section
 Four standard forms of parabola :

(a) (b) (c) (d)

2 2
 An equation of an circle with centre at ( ,  ) and radius r :  x      y     r 2
2 2 2
 An equation of an circle with centre at origin and radius r : x  y  r

( x   )2 ( y   ) 2
 An equation of an ellipse with centre at ( ,  ) :   1 ; a  Semi-major axis; b  Semi-minor axis
a2 b2

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 x2 y2 y
 An equation of an ellipse with centre at origin :  1
a 2 b2 C
b
AB  Major axis; OA  OB  Semi-Major axis;
A O a B x
CD  Minor axis ; OC  OD  Semi-Minor axis
x2 y 2 D
 An equation of hyperbola with centre at origin :  1
a2 b2
A conic section : Parabola
If y  f ( x) and f ( x) is qudratic expression of x i.e. f ( x )  ax 2  bx  c
Open mouth
then y vs x graph will be a parabola i.e. graph will be parabolic in nature.

Example : A particle moving along x axis and its position changes with Axis of
parabola Vertex
time according to relation x  t 2  3t  5 . As x is quadratic expression of
t so x vs t graph will be parabolic in nature.
Plotting a parabolic graph
If y  ax 2  bx  c or x  ay 2  by  c then Step - I : Find the equation in form ( x   )2  k ( y   ) or ( y   )2  k ( x   ) .
We can arrive to this form using perfect square method. Step - II : To find coordinate of vertex put expression on either side of
‘=’ sign seperately equal to zero. For example : ( x   )2  k ( y   ) . Putting ( x   )2  0 we get x   ; Putting
( y   )  0 we get y    . So co-ordinates of vertex : ( ,  ) . Step - III : To find direction of open mouth, we focus on

linear expression of variable lying on one of the part of ‘=’sign. In example ( x   )2  k ( y   ) the term k ( y   ) is linear

expression of y, so open mouth will be along y axis. For ( x   )2  ky  k  (i) if coefficient of y is +ve then open mouth along
+ve x - axis and (ii) if coefficient of y is -ve then open mouth will be in -ve y-direction/axis. Step - IV : Find x and y intercepts.
To find x-intercept put y  0 and to find y-intercept put x  0 .
Limit
When we write x  a then it implies that x is approaching a that means x can have value slightly greater than a or slightly less
than a but x can’t be exactly equal to a and can be expressed as x  a  h or x  a  h, where h  0 and h  0
Differential calculus and differentiation of a function
 If y is function of x i.e. y  f ( x) then whenever value of x will change, the value for y will change.
If y  f ( x) then x is called independent variable and y is called dependent variable y depends on choice of x.
y change in y y
 ; is called change in y with respect to x.
x change in x x
y dy
 x can be written as dx provided change in independent variable i.e. x is very small (mathematically represented as
dy dy
x  0 ); is called differentiation of y with respect to x. is also called rate of change of y with respect to x.
dx dx
dy y
 Definition of differentiation of y with respect to x :  lim
dx  x  0  x
General Knowledge
The concept of differentiation is used to find instantaneous value of a physical quantity.
s s ds
Examples : (a) Instantaneous velocity (vin ) : Velocity at any instant of time. As v  so vin  lim  vin  ;
t  t 0 t dt
Instaneous velocity is defined as rate of change of position(s) w.r.t time (t) .(b) Instaneous speed : The magnitude of instaneous
ds v v
velocity i.e. v  . (c) Instantaneous acceleration : Acceleration at any instant of time. As a  so ain  lim
dt t t  0  t

dv dv
 ain  ; Instaneous acceleration is defined as rate of change of velocity w.r.t.time. When v  f ( s) then ain  v 
dt ds

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 Standard formula for differentiation
d d
 differentiation with respect to x. ( p )  differentiation of p with respect to x.
dx dx
d d n d d d
(i) (constant)  0 (ii) ( x )  nx n 1 (iii) (sin x)  cos x (iv) (cos x )   sin x (v) (tan x )  sec 2 x
dx dx dx dx dx
d d d d 1 d x
(vi) (cot x)  cosec2 x (vii) (sec x)  sec x  tan x (viii) (cosec x )   cosecx cot x (ix) (ln x )  (x) (e )  e x
dx dx dx dx x dx
Mathematical operations with differentiation
dy d d dy d d
(a) If y  kf ( x) where k = constant then   kf ( x)   k ( f ( x)) (b) If y  f ( x)  g ( x) then  ( f ( x))  ( g ( x ))
dx dx dx dx dx dx
dy du dv
(c) Product rule of differentiation : If y  uv where u  f ( x ) and v  g ( x) then  v  u (d) Quotient rule of
dx dx dx
du dv
u  v  u
dy dx dx
differentiation : If y  where u  f ( x ) & v  g ( x) with v  0 then  (e) Chain rule of differentiation:
v dx v2
dy dy du dy dy dv du
(i) If y  f (u) and u  g ( x ) then   (ii) If y  f (v ) where v  g (u) and u  h( x) then   
dx du dx dx dv du dx
General Knowledge
(i) A function can be differentiated only with respect to its independent variable.
dy dy
(ii) is called first derivative of y with respect to x. If we defferentiate the result of w.r.t x then we can write
dx dx

d  dy  d 2 y d 2 y d  d2 y  d3y 3
   .  Second derivative of y with respect to x. Similarly  2   3 and d y  Third derivative of
dx  dx  dx 2 dx 2  
dx  dx  dx dx3

dny
y with respect to x. In general  nth derivative of y w.r.t x.
dx n
Definition of some physical quantities associated with motion of object
(i) Displacement : Change in position of moving object in a given interval of time. S f  final position (i.e. position at t  t2 );

Si  initial position (i.e. position at t  t1 ). If S  Displacement during t  t1 to t  t2 then S  S f  Si . (ii) Instantaneous

S S ds
velocity : Velocity at any perticular instant of time.As v  so vin  lim and vin  ( vin  Instaneous velocity).
t t  0 t dt
v
Instaneous velocity is defined as rate of change of position with respect to time. (iii) Instantaneous acceleration : As a 
t
v dv
so ain  lim and ain  . Instaneous acceleration is defined as rate of change of velocity with respect to time.
t 0 t dt
(iv) Instantaneous speed : It is defined as the magnitude of velocity at an instant of time and is represented as | vin | . M a g -

ds S
nitude of instaneous velocity i.e. v  . (v) Average velocity during a time duration : vavg  where S  displacement
dt t
of object during a time interval t  t1 to t  t2 and t  the time duration (i.e. t  t2  t1 ). (vi) Average acceleration during
v
a time duration : aavg  . Here  v  change in instantaneous velocity of object during a time interval and can be written
t
as v  v2  v1 where v1  velocity at t  t1 and v2  velocity at t  t2  t  the time duration (i.e. t  t2  t1 )
(vii) Distance travelled during a time duration : The total path length covered by moving object during a time duration.

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 General knowledge
(i) Uniform physical quantity : Physical quantity that is independent of time. Example : If P  3 then P is said to be uniform.
(ii) Non-uniform physical quantity : Physical quantity that is an expression or a function of time or position then the quantity
will be having different values at different instants of time and is called non-uniform. Example : If a  (12t  37) m /s 2 then a
is non-uniform where a  acceleration. (iii) Direction of motion implies the direction of velocity i.e. v . (iv) Velocity of an object
can change only if object experiences some resultant external force. (v) A particle can have acceleration only if it experiences

   F
force. As F  Ma so a  . Hence direction of a (i.e. instantaneous acceleration) at a given instant of time is in the
M

direction of force (i.e. F )
F
a

v
Direction of motion
 If a moving body experiences force in the direction of its motion (i.e. when direction of acceleration is in direction of motion)
then speed of body increases with time and the body is said to have positive acceleration.
Situations of positive acceleration i.e. when speed
increases with time.
a a
v v F
F
a is +ve ; v is +ve a is ve ; v is ve
Speed increases with time Speed increases with time

 If body experiences force opposite to the direction of motion then speed decreases with time and body is said to have
retardation or decceleration or negative acceleration.

Situations of retardation or negative acceleration when

speed decreases with time.
a a
F F
v v
a is ve ; v is ve a is +ve ; v is ve
Speed decreases with time Speed decreases with time
Points to note :
 If direction of velocity and acceleration are having sign then body will have positive acceleration.
 If direction of velocity and acceleration are opposite in sign then body will have retardation.
General knowledge :
(i) Cartesian sign convention for a vector physical quantity : Right implies +ve and left implies -ve ; upward implies +ve and
downward implies -ve.
upward ve
ve ve
direction downward
Right direction Left direction direction
ve
Knowledge Centre : If position is quadratic expression of time then position time graph will be parabolic in nature which
ds dv d
represents uniform acceleration. s  At 2  Bt  C ; v   2 At  B ; a    2 At  B   2 A
dt dt dt
If s-t graph is parabolic in nature then body will have uniform acceleration or uniform retardation.
Geometrical meaning of dy / dx (Tangent and Normal)
Let P ( x, y ) and Q ( x   x, y   y ) be two neighbouring points on the curve y  f ( x) , when  x  0  Q  P  through
R and Q  P through R, then the secant PQ approaches through PR to tangent at P..

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 QL QQ   Q L QQ   PP  y   y  y  y
QPL : tan      
PL P Q OQ  OP  x   x  x  x

Now as Q  P i.e.,  x  0 ,    where  is the angle which

the tangent PT at P makes with the positive direction of the axis of x .
y dy dy
 tan  lim tan   lim i.e. tan  . Hence  slope
 x 0  x 0 x dx dx
dy
of the tangent at P. at any point (x, y) is equal to the gradient
dx
(or slope) of the tangent at that point of the curve.

m  slope of tangent at "P"

 dy 
m   tan 
 dx  ( x1 , y1 )

Points to remember
1. If y  f ( x) then dy / dx  slope of tangents at different points lying on the curve of y vs x graph. 2. Slope of a tangent at
a particular point lying on curve can be found by putting coordinate of that point in the expression of dy / dx . 3. If dy / dx
represents a vector quantity then (i) dy / dx i.e. | slope of tangent | represents the magnitude of that vector quantity (ii) Sign
associated with dy / dx i.e. sign associated with slope of tangent represents direction of that vector quantity..
General Knowledge
(i) Position (s)-time (t) graph : ds / dt  Slope of the tangent(s) . As v  ds / dt so v  Slope of the tangent in s-t graph
(ii) Velocity (v)-time(t) graph: dv / dt  slope of tangent(s) . As a  dv / dt so a  slope of tangent in v-t graph.
(iii)Acceleration(a)-time(t) graph: da / dt  slope of tangent(s) where da / dt  rate of change of acceleration wrt to time
dv dv
(iv) v-s graph: Using v-s graph into tangents acceleration can be found as a  v where  slope of tangent in v-s graph
ds ds
Differentiation concept to find the maxima and minima of a function.
Stationary points : Consider the graph of the function, y ( x ) , shown in Figure -1.
If, at the points marked A, B and C, we draw tangents to the graph, note that these
are parallel to the x axis. They are horizontal. This means that at each of the points
A, B and C the gradient of the graph is zero.
Figure 1. The gradient of this graph is zero at each of the points A, B and C.
We know that the gradient of a graph is given by dy / dx . Consequently dy / dx  0
at points A, B and C. All of these points are known as stationary points.
Key point : Any point at which the tangent to the graph is horizontal is called a stationary point. We can locate stationary
points by looking for points at which dy / dx  0
Turning points : Notice that at points A and B the curve actually turns. These two stationary points are referred to as turning
points. Point C is not a turning point because, although the graph is flat for a short time, the curve continues to go down as
we look from left to right.

dy dy
Key Point: At a turning point  0 . Not all points where  0 are turning points, i.e. not all stationary points are turning points.
dx dx
Point A in Figure 1 is called a local maximum because in its immediate area it is the highest point, and so represents the greatest
or maximum value of the function. Point B in Figure 1 is called a local minimum because in its immediate area it is the lowest
point, and so represents the least, or minimum, value of the function. Loosely speaking, we refer to a local maximum as simply
a maximum. Similarly, a local minimum is often just called a minimum.
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4. Distinguishing maximum points from minimum points and second derivative test
(a) Think about what happens to the gradient of the graph as we travel through the minimum turning point, from left to right,
that is as x increases.

dy
Figure - 2. goes from negative through zero to positive as x increases.
dx

dy d2 y
Key Point: if  0 at a point, and if  0 there, then that point must be a minimum.
dx dx 2
(b) Now think about what happens to the gradient of the graph as we travel through the maximum turning point, from left to
right, that is as x increases.

dy
Figure 4. goes from positive through zero to negative as x increases.
dx
dy d2y
Key Point if  0 at a point, and if  0 there, then that point must be a maximum.
dx dx 2
Student’s Exercises
Locate the position and nature of any turning points of the following functions.
1 2
1. y  x  2 x 2. y  x 2  4 x  1 3. y  12 x  2 x 2 4. y  3 x 2  3 x  1 5. y  x 4  2 6. y  7  2 x 4
2
( x  1) 2
7. y  2 x 3  9 x 2  12 x 8. y  4 x 3  6 x 2  72 x  1 9. y  4 x 3  30 x 2  48 x  1 10. y 
x 1
Answers
1 7
1. Minimum at (2, 2) 2. Minimum at (2, 3) 3. Maximum at (3, 54) 4. Maximum at  ,  5. Minimum at (0, 2)
2 4
6. Maximum at (0, 7) 7. Maximum at (1, 5), minimum at (2, 4) 8. Maximum at (2,89) , minimum at (3, 161)
9. Maximum at (4,31) , minimum at (1, 23) 10. Maximum at (1, 0) , minimum at (3,8) .
Integral Calculus - Integration

 Integration is summation for continuous function

 y dx represents integration of y with respect to x where y  f ( x)

Integration as inverse of Differentiation

d f (x) d [ f ( x)  C ]
If  g ( x ) then  g ( x)dx  f ( x) . Similarly as  g ( x ) so  g ( x )dx  f ( x)  C
dx dx

In general :  g ( x )dx  f ( x)  C ; As C is an unknown constant. So the integration is called indefinite integration.

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 Formulae to be remembered - Integration
x n 1
n
As
d n
( x )  nx n 1 so  x dx 
n 1
C
dx
(Here n is a constant and n  1)
d
As  sin x   cos x so  (cos x) dx  sin x  C
dx
d d
As  cos x   sin x or (  cos x)  sin x so  (sin x) dx   cos x  C
dx dx
d
As (tan x)  sec 2 x so  (sec
2
x ) dx  tan x  C
dx
d d
As  cot x    cosec 2 x or (  cot x)  cosec2 x so  (cosec
2
x ) dx   cot x  C
dx dx
d
 cosec x  cosec x  cot x
dx
As so  (cosec x  cot x) dx  cosec x  C
d
or ( cosec x )  cosec x  cot x
dx
d
As
dx
(sec x )  sec x  tan x so  (sec x  tan x) dx  sec x  C
d x
As (e )  e x so x
 e dx  e
x
C
dx
d 1 1
As (n x )  so x dx  n x  C
dx x
d
As (C )  0(where C is constant) so  0 dx  C
dx
Standard substitutions
2 2 2 2
(i) If ( a  x ) or a 2  x 2 then substitute x  a sin  or x  a cos  ; (ii) If ( x  a ) or x2  a 2 then substitute x  a tan 
or x  a sinh  ; (iii) If ( x 2  a 2 ) or x2  a 2 then substitute x  a sec  or x  a cosh  ; (iv) If the integrand is a rational
2t 1 t 2
function of sin x or cos x or both then substitute t  tan( x / 2) and use the results: sin x  ; cos x 
1 t2 1 t2
x b xb
Definite Integration :  g ( x) dx   f ( x ) x  a   f (b)  f (a) 
xa

Significance of integration in the graph

x b
If y  f ( x) then  y dx = Area under the curve bounded between x  a to x  b
xa
y y=f (x) y y=f (x)

f (x ) f (x )
f(x ) f(x)
x b
dA  f ( x)dx ; A f ( x) dx
xa
dx A
x a x x x x dx x b
x xa xb
x
Velocity-Time graph( v-t graph) :
t  t2 v
 v dt = Area under the curve bounded between t  t1 to t  t 2
t t1

ds s  s2 t  t2 t  t2 t  t2 t  t2
v  ds  vdt   ds   dt  [ s ]ss  ss12   v dt  ( s2  s1 )   v dt  s   v dt
dt s  s1 t t1 t  t1 t t1 tt 1
A
Displacement ( s ) = Area under the curve in v  t graph bounded between t  t1 to t  t 2 t t1 t t2 t
Accleration-Time graph (a-t graph) :
t  t2
a
 a dt = Area under the curve bounded between t  t1 to t  t 2
t t1

dv v v2 t t2 t t2 t t2 t t2

a  dv  adt   dv   a dt  [v]vvvv12   adt  (v2  v1 )   a dt  v   a dt
dt v v1 t t1 t t1 t t1 t t1 A
t t1 t t2 t
Change in velocity ( v ) = Area under the curve in a  t graph bounded between t  t1 to t  t 2
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 Accleration-position graph (a-s graph)

s  s2 a
s s1 a ds  Area under the curve in a - s graph bounded between s  s1 and s  s2
s  s2
v2  u2
 a ds  where u  speed of object at s  s1; v  speed of object at s  s2
2 A
s  s1
s
s=s1 s=s 2
v2  u 2
 Area under the curve in a-s graph bounded between s  s1 to s  s2
2
Factorial and combination
 n!  1  2  3  ....  n or n!  n  (n  1)  (n  2)  ...  2  1  n!  n  (n 1)!  n  (n 1)  n  2!  n  (n  1)  (n  2)  (n  3)!
n!
nCr  ( ; n and r are non -negative integrals)
r !(n  r )! r  n
Binomial theorem and Binomial expansion
(i) n ! or n is called factorial of non-negative integral. n ! n  (n  1)  ...  2  1 or n !  1  2  ...  (n  2)  (n  1)  n
Some representations : n !  n  (n  1)! ; n!  n  (n  1)  (n  2)! ; (n  r )!  (n  r )  (n  r  1)!
n n!
(ii) Cr  where r  n and n  non-zero positive integral and r  non-negative integral.
r !(n  r )!
n! n! n!
Use of the formula : n Cr  ;  n C0   1  n C1   n  n C2 
n!

n  (n  1)
r !(n  r )! 0!(n  0)! (n  1)! (1!) (n  2)! (2!) 2
n! n  (n  1) n! n  (n  1)  (n  2)
n! n  (n  1)  (n  2)  n C2    n C3   ; ........
 n C3   (n  2)! (2!) 2 (n  3)! (3!) 6
(n  3)! (3!) 6
n! n!
 n Cn 1   n  n Cn  1
(n  1)! (1)! (n)! (0)!
General knowledge : n Cr  n Cn  r . Examples : n C0  n Cn ; n C1  n Cn 1 ; n C2  n Cn 2 ; n C3  n Cn 3 ......

Binomial expansion of (a  b )n when n is a positive integeral value

(a  b)n  n C0 (a n )(b 0 )  n C1 (a n 1 ) (b1 )  n C2 (a n  2 ) (b 2 )  ........  n Cn 1 (a)1 (b n 1 )  nCn (a 0 ) (b n )
OR
n(n  1) n 2 2 n (n  1)(n  2) n 3 3
(a  b ) n  (1)a n b 0  (n )a n 1b1  a b  a b  .....  (n )a1b n 1  (1)a 0 b n
2! 3!
Total number of terms in the expansion is (n  1) .
Binomial expansion of (a  b )n when n is a non-positive integeral or a rational numbr of the form p / q
where p and q are integral value and q  0

n n 0 n 1 1 n(n  1) n2 2 n(n  1)(n  2) n3 3

Total number of terms will be infinite. (a  b)  (1)a b  (n)a b  a b  a b  .......
2! 3!
Examples :
(a) (1  x)1  (1)(1)1 ( x)0  (1)(1)2 ( x)1  (1)(1  1) (1)3 ( x )2  ....  (1  x)1  1  x  x 2  x3  x 4  x5 .......
2
1 1 0 2 1 (1)(1 1) 3
(b) (1  x)  (1)(1) ( x)  (1)(1) ( x)  (1) ( x)2  ....  (1  x)1  1  x  x 2  x3  x4  x5  x6 .....
2
n n ( n  1) 2 n( n  1)( n  2) 3
General knowledge : (1  x)  1  nx  x  x  ..... .If | x | 1 then ignoring higher order terms
2! 3!
(1  x )n  (1  nx ) . Similarly in the expansion of (1  x )n ignoring higher order terms when | x | 1 will be (1  x)n  (1  nx)
Example : Find approximate value of (1  x)50 where | x | 1 . Sol. As x  1 so (1  x )50  (1  50 x)

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