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UNIT IV
INDUCTIVE AND CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS

 Inductive Transducer

Inductive transducers work on the principle of inductance change due to any appreciable
change in the quantity to be measured i.e. measured. For example, LVDT, a kind of inductive
transducers, measures displacement in terms of voltage difference between its two secondary
voltages. Secondary voltages are nothing but the result of induction due to the flux change in the
secondary coil with the displacement of the iron bar.
Inductive transducers can be made to work by changing the flux with the help of measured and
this changing flux obviously changes the inductance and this inductance change can be
calibrated in terms of measured. Hence inductive transducers use one of the following
principles for its working.
1. Change of self inductance
2. Change of mutual inductance
3. Production of eddy current

Self Inductive Transducer / Change of Self Inductance of Inductive

Transducer:

We know very well that self inductance of a coil is given by

Where, N = number of turns.
R= reluctance of the magnetic circuit. Also we know that reluctance R is given by

where μ = effective permeability of the medium in and around the coil.

Where, G = A/l and called geometric form factor. A = area of cross-section of

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coil. l = length of the coil. So, we can vary self inductance by

 Change in number of turns, N,

 Changing geometric configuration, G,
 Changing permeability
For the sake of understanding we can say that if the displacement is to be measured by the
inductive transducers, it should change any of the above parameter for causing in the change
in self inductance.

Mutual Inductive Transducers / Change of Mutual Inductance of Inductive

Transducer:

Here transducers, which work on change of mutual inductance principle, use multiple coils. We
use here two coils for the sake of understanding. Both coils have their self inductance as well. So
let‟s denote their self inductance by L1 and L2. Mutual inductance between these two coils is given
by

Thus mutual inductance can be changed by varying self inductance or by

varying coefficient of coupling, K. The methods of changing self inductance we already
discussed. Now coefficient of coupling depends on the distance and orientation between two
coils. Thus for the measurement of displacement we can fix one coil and make other movable
which moves with the source whose displacement is to be measured. With the change in distance
in displacement coefficient of coupling changes and it causes the change in mutual inductance.
This change in mutual inductance can be calibrated with the displacement and measurement can
be done.

Production of Eddy Current of Inductive Transducer:

We know that when a conducting plate is placed near a coil carrying alternating current, a
circulating current is induced in the plate called “EDDY CURRENT”. This principle is used in
such type of inductive transducers. Actually what happens? When a coil is placed near to coil
carrying alternating current, a circulating current is induced in it which in turn produces its own
flux which try to reduce the flux of the coil carrying the current and hence inductance of the coil
changes. Nearer the plate is to the coil, higher will be eddy current and higher is the reduction in
inductance and vice versa. Thus inductance of coil varied with the variation of distance between
coil and plate. Thus the movement of the plate can be calibrated in terms of inductance change to
measure the quantity like displacement.

Real Life Application of Inductive Transducer:

Inductive transducers find application in proximity sensors which are used for position
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measurement, dynamic motion measurement, touch pads etc. Particularly inductive transducer
is used for the detection of type of metal, finding missing parts or counting the number of
objects.

 Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT):

When an externally applied force moves the core to the left-hand position, more magnetic flux
links the left-hand coil than the right-hand coil. The emf induced in the left-hand coil, ES1, is
therefore larger than the induced emf of the right-hand coil, Es2. The magnitude of the output
voltage is then equal to the difference between the two secondary voltages and it is in phase
with the voltage of the left-hand coil.
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Construction of LVDT:
Main Features of Construction are
 The transformer consists of a primary winding P and two secondary winding S1 and S2
wound on a cylindrical former(which is hollow in nature and will contain core).
 Both the secondary windings have equal number of turns and are identically placed on the
either side of primary winding
 The primary winding is connected to an AC source which produces a flux in the air gap and
voltages are induced in secondary windings.
 A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former and displacement to be measured is
connected to the iron core.
 The iron core is generally of high permeability which helps in reducing harmonics
and high sensitivity of LVDT.
 The LVDT is placed inside a stainless steel housing because it will provide
electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding.
 The both the secondary windings are connected in such a way that resulted output is the
difference of the voltages of two windings.

Principle of Operation and Working

As the primary is connected to an AC source so alternating current and voltages are produced in
the secondary of the LVDT. The output in secondary S 1 is e1 and in the secondary S2 is e2. So the
differential output is, eout = e1 - e2 This equation explains the principle of Operation of LVDT.

Now three cases arise according to the locations of core which explains the working of LVDT
are discussed below as,

 CASE I When the core is at null position (for no displacement) When the core is at null
position then the flux linking with both the secondary windings is equal so the induced emf
is equal in both the windings. So for no displacement the value of output e out is zero as e1
and e2 both are equal. So it shows that no displacement took place.
 CASE II When the core is moved to upward of null position (For displacement to the
upward of reference point) In the this case the flux linking with secondary winding S 1 is
more as compared to flux linking with S2. Due to this e1 will be more as that of e2. Due to
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this output voltage eout is positive.

 CASE III When the core is moved to downward of Null position (for displacement to the
downward of reference point) In this case magnitude of e 2 will be more as that of e1. Due to
this output eout will be negative and shows the output to downward of reference point.

Output VS Core Displacement A linear curve shows that output voltage varies
linearly with displacement of core.

Some important points about magnitude and sign of voltage induced in LVDT

 The amount of change in voltage either negative or positive is proportional to the

amount of movement of core and indicates amount of linear motion.
 By noting the output voltage increasing or decreasing the direction of motion can be
determined
 The output voltage of an LVDT is linear function of core displacement .

Advantages of LVDT
 High Range - The LVDTs have a very high range for measurement of displacement.
They can used for measurement of displacements ranging from 1.25mm to 250mm
 No Frictional Losses - As the core moves inside a hollow former so there is no loss of
displacement input as frictional loss so it makes LVDT as very accurate device.
 High Input and High Sensitivity - The output of LVDT is so high that it doesn't
need any amplification. The transducer possess a high sensitivity which is typically
about 40V/mm.
 Low Hysteresis - LVDTs show a low hysteresis and hence repeatability is excellent
under all conditions
 Low Power Consumption - The power is about 1W which is very as compared to other
transducers.
 Direct Conversion to Electrical Signals - They convert the linear displacement to
electrical voltage which are easy to process
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Disadvantages of LVDT
 LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so they always require a setup to protect them
from stray magnetic fields.
 They are affected by vibrations and temperature.
It is concluded that they are advantageous as compared than any other inductive transducers.

Applications of LVDT
1. They are used in applications where displacements ranging from fraction of mm to few cm
are to be measured. The LVDT acting as a primary Transducer converts the displacement
to electrical signal directly.
2. They can also acts as the secondary transducers. E.g. the Bourbon tube which acts as a
primary transducer and covert pressure into linear displacement. Then LVDT coverts this
displacement into electrical signal which after calibration gives the ideas of the pressure
of fluid.

 LVDT Accelerometer:
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 RVDT (Rotary Variable Differential Transformer):

The RVDT stands for Rotary Variable Differential Transformer. It is one kind of
electromechanical transducer used to give the linear o/p which is proportional to the i/p angular
displacement. The main function of RVDT is to detect the angular displacement and converts it into
an electrical signal. The both the RVDT and LVDT workings are similar, but LVDT employs the
flexible iron core for displacement measurement whereas in RVDT employs a cam type core. This
core will turn among the two windings of the transformer using the shaft.

RVDT Construction and Its Working

RVDT transducer has two windings similar to a normal transformer such as primary winding and
two secondary windings shown in the following RVDT diagram. The two windings of the
transformer wounded, where the two secondary windings have an equivalent number of windings.
These are located on both sides of the primary winding of the transformer. A cam formed a
magnetic core which is made with a soft iron is coupled to a shaft. Thus, this core can be twisted
among the windings. The construction of both the RVDT and LVDT are similar but the main
difference is the shape of the core in transformer windings. This core will turn between the two
windings of the transformer due to the shaft.

RVDT Construction

The typical RVDTs are linear over a +40 or -40 degrees, Sensitivity is about 2mV to 3mV per
degree of rotation and the input voltage range is 3V RMS at frequency ranges from 400Hz to
20kHz. Based on the movement of the shaft in the transformer, the three conditions will be
produced such as

 When the Core is at Null Position

 When the Core Rotates in Clockwise Direction
 When the Core Rotates in Anticlockwise Direction
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When the Core is at Null Position

In the first condition, when the shaft is placed at the null position then the induced e.m.f in the
secondary windings are similar although reverse in phase. Thus, the differential o/p potential will
be zero, and the condition will be E1 = E2, where E0 = E1-E2 =0

When the Core Rotates in Clockwise Direction

In the second condition, when the shaft rotates in the direction of clockwise; more section of the
core will enter across the primary winding. Therefore, the induced e.m.f across the primary winding
is higher than secondary winding. Hence, the differential o/p potential is positive, and the condition
will be E1 > E2, where E0 = E1-E2 = positive.

RVDT Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of RVDT include the following.

 The consistency of RVDT is high

 The exactness of RVDT is high
 The lifespan is long
 The performance is repeatable
 The construction is compact and strong
 Durability
 Low cost
 Easy to handle electronic components
 Resolution is infinite
 Linearity is Excellent
 A wide range of dimension ranges
The disadvantages of RVDT mainly include the following

 The contact among the measuring exterior as well as the nozzle is not possible for all time.
 The output of the RVDT is linear (about +40 or -40 degrees), so it restricts the usability.

 Synchros
Definition: The Synchro is a type of transducer which transforms the angular position of the
shaft into an electric signal. It is used as an error detector and as a rotary position sensor. The error
occurs in the system because of the misalignment of the shaft. The transmitter and the
control transformer are the two main parts of the synchro.

Synchros System Types

The synchro system is of two types. They are

1. Control Type Synchro.

2. Torque Transmission Type Synchro.
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1. Control Type Synchros System:

The controls synchros is used for error detection in positional control systems. Their systems
consist two units. They are

1. Synchro Transmitter
2. Synchro receiver

The synchro always works with these two parts. The detail explanation of synchros transmitter and
receiver is given below.

Synchros Transmitter – Their construction is similar to the three phase alternator. The stator of
the synchros is made of steel for reducing the iron losses. The stator is slotted for housing the three
phase windings. The axis of the stator winding is kept 120º apart from each other.

The coils of the stator windings are connected in star. The rotor of the synchros is a dumbbell in
shape, and a concentric coil is wound on it. The AC voltage is applied to the rotor with the help of
slip rings.
Consider the voltage is applied to the rotor of the transmitter as shown in the figure.
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The voltage applied to the rotor induces the magnetizing current and an alternating flux along its
axis. The voltage is induced in the stator winding because of the mutual induction between the rotor
and stator flux. The flux linked in the stator winding is equal to the cosine of the angle between the
rotor and stator. The voltage is induced in the stator winding.

Let Vs1, Vs2, Vs3 be the voltages generated in the stator windings S1, S2, and S3 respectively. The
figure below shows the rotor position of the synchro transmitter. The rotor axis makes an angle
θr concerning the stator windings S2.

When the rotor angle becomes zero, the maximum current is produced in the stator windings S 2.
The zero position of the rotor is used as a reference for determining the rotor angular position.

The output of the transmitter is given to stator winding of the control transformer which is shown in
the above figure.

The current of the same and magnitude flow through the transmitter and control transformer of the
synchros. Because of the circulating current, the flux is established between the air gap flux of the
control transformer.

The flux axis of the control transformer and the transmitter is aligned in the same position. The
voltage generates by the rotor of control transformer is equal to the cosine of the angle between the

rotors of the transmitter and the controller. The voltage is given as

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Where φ – angular displacement between the rotor axes of transmitter and controller.
Φ – 90º the axis between the rotor of transmitter and control transformer is perpendicular to each
other. The above figure shows the zero position of the rotor of transmitter and receiver.

Consider the position of the rotor and the transmitter is changing in the same direction. An angle
θR deflects the rotor of the transmitter and that of the control transformer is kept θ C. The total
angular separation between the rotors is Φ = (90º – θR + θC)

The rotor terminal voltage of the Synchro transformer is given as

The small angular displacement between their rotor position is given as

Sin (θR – θC) = (θR – θC)

On substituting the value of angular displacement in equation (1) we get

The synchro transmitter and the control transformer together used for detecting the error. The
voltage equation shown above is equal to the shaft position of the rotors of control transformer and
transmitter.

The term synchro is associated with a family of electromechanical devices that can be discussed
under different headings. They are used primarily in angle measurements and are commonly
applied in control engineering as parts of servomechanisms, machine tools, antennas, etc.

The error signal is applied to the differential amplifier which gives input to the servo motor. The
gear of the servo motor rotates the rotor of the control transformer
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The figure above shows the output of the synchro error detector which is a modulated signal. The
modulating wave above shown the misalignment between the rotor position and the carrier wave.

Where Ks is the error detector.

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2. Synchros as Torque Transmitters:

A torque transmitter (TX) and a torque receiver (TR) make up a simple torque-synchro system.
Basically, the electrical construction of synchro transmitters and receivers is similar, but their
intended functions are different. The rotor of a synchro transmitter is usually geared to a manual or
mechanical input. This gearing may drive a visual indicator showing the value or quantity being
transmitted. The rotor of the receiver synchronizes itself electrically with the position of the rotor
of the transmitter and thus responds to the quantity being transmitted. BASIC SYNCHRO
SYSTEM OPERATION A simple synchro transmission system consisting of a torque transmitter
connected to a torque receiver (TX-TR) is illustrated in figure below. As you can see, in this
system the rotors are connected in parallel across the ac line. The stators of both synchros have
their leads connected S1 to S1, S2 to S2, and S3 to S3, so the voltage in each of the transmitter
stator coils opposes the voltage in the corresponding coils of the receiver. The voltage directions
are indicated by arrows for the instant of time shown by the dot on the ac line voltage.
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When both transmitter and receiver rotors in a synchro system are on zero or displaced from zero
by the same angle, a condition known as CORRESPONDENCE exists. In view A of figure above,
the transmitter and receiver are shown in correspondence. In this condition, the rotor of the TR
induces voltages in its stator coils (S2 = 52V; S1 and S3 = 26V) that are equal to and opposite the
voltages induced into the TX stator coils (S2 = 52V; S1 and S3 = 26V). This causes the voltages to
cancel and reduces the stator currents to zero. With zero current through the coils, the receiver
torque is zero and the system remains in correspondence. The angle through which a transmitter
rotor is mechanically rotated is called a SIGNAL. In view B of figure above, the signal is 60º.
Now, consider what happens to the two synchros in correspondence when this signal is generated
When the transmitter rotor is turned, the rotor field follows and the magnetic coupling between the
rotor and stator windings changes. This results in the transmitter S2 coil voltage decreasing to 26
volts, the S3 coil voltage reversing direction, and the S1 coil voltage increasing to 52 volts. This
imbalance in voltages, between the transmitter and receiver, causes current to flow in the stator
coils in the direction of the stronger voltages. The current flow in the receiver produces a resultant
magnetic field in the receiver stator in the same direction as the rotor field in the transmitter. A
force (torque) is now exerted on the receiver rotor by the interaction between its resultant stator
field and the magnetic field around its rotor. This force causes the rotor to turn through the same
angle as the rotor of the transmitter. As the receiver approaches correspondence, the stator
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voltages of the transmitter and receiver approach equality. This action decreases the stator currents
and produces a decreasing torque on the receiver. When the receiver and the transmitter are again
in correspondence, as shown in view C, the stator voltages between the two synchros are equal
and opposite (S1 = 52V; S2 and S3 = 26V), the rotor torque is zero, and the rotors are displaced
from zero by the same angle (60º). This sequence of events causes the transmitter and receiver to
stay in correspondence. In the system we just explained, the receiver reproduced the signal from
the transmitter. As you can see, a synchro system such as this could provide a continuous,
accurate, visual reproduction of important information to remote locations.

 Microsyn
Another commonly used example of variable-reluctance transducer is the Microsyn, as illustrated
in Figure. In this arrangement, the coils are connected in such a manner that at the null position of
the rotary element, the voltages induced in coils 1 and 3 are balanced by voltages induced in coils 2
and 4. The motion of the rotor in the clockwise direction increases the reluctance of coils 1 and 3
while decreasing the reluctance of coils 2 and 4, thus giving a net output voltage eo. The movement
in the counterclockwise direction causes a similar effect in coils 2 and 4 with a 180° phase shift. A
direction sensitive output can be obtained by using phase-sensitive demodulators, as explained in
LVDT section of this chapter.
Microsyn transducers are used extensively in applications involving gyroscopes. By the use of
microsyns, very small motions can be detected, giving output signals as low as 0.01° of changes in
angles. The sensitivity of the device can be made as high as 5 V per degree of rotation. The
nonlinearity may vary from 0.5% to 1.0% full scale. The main advantage of these transducers is
that the rotor does not have windings and slip-rings. The magnetic reaction torque is also
negligible.

FIGURE A microsyn is a variable reluctance transducer that consists of a ferromagnetic rotor and
a stator carrying four coils. The stator coils are connected such that at the null position, the voltages
induced in coils 1 and 3 are balanced by voltages induced in coils 2 and 4. The motion of the rotor
in one direction increases the reluctance of two opposite coils while decreasing the reluctance in
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others, resulting in a net output voltage eo. The movement in the opposite direction reverses this
effect with a 180° phase shift.
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 Capacitive Transducers
A capacitor consists of two conductors (plates) that are electrically isolated from one another by
a nonconductor (dielectric). When the two conductors are at different potentials (voltages), the
system is capable of storing an electric charge. The storage capability of a capacitor is measured
in farads. The principle of operation of capacitive transducers is based upon the equation for

capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor as shown in Fig.

Where, A = Overlapping area of plates; m2,

d = Distance between two plates; m,

ε= Permittivity (dielectric constant); F/m.

Fig. Parallel plate capacitor

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The capacitance is measured with a bridge circuits. The output impedance Z of a capacitive
transducer is:

Z = 1/2πfC

Where: Z = Impedance

f = frequency, 50 Hz.
C = capacitance

In general, the output impedance of a capacitive transducer is high. This fact calls for a careful
design of the output circuitry. The capacitive transducers work on the principle of change in
capacitance of the capacitor. This change in capacitance could be caused by change in
overlapping area A of the plates, change in the distance d between the plates and change in
dielectric constant ε.

In most of the cases the above changes are caused by the physical variables, such as,
displacement, force or pressure. Variation in capacitance is also there when the dielectric
medium between the plates changes, as in the case of measurement of liquid or gas levels.
Therefore, the capacitive transducers are commonly used for measurement of linear
displacement, by employing the following effects as shown in Fig a and fig b.

i) Change in capacitance due to change in overlapping area of plates.

ii) Change in capacitance due to change in distance between the two plates.
iii) Change in capacitance due to change in dielectric between the two plates

Fig.a Variable capacitive transducer varies; (a) area of overlap, (b) distance between
plates, (c) amount of dielectric between plates

Fig.b Differential capacitive transducer varies capacitance ratio by changing: (a) area of
overlap, (b) distance between plates, (c) dielectric between plates
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As may be seen in Fig b, all of the differential devices have three wire connections rather than
two: one wire for each of the end plates and one for the common plate. As the capacitance
between one of the endplates and the common plate changes, the capacitance between the other
end plate and the common plate also changes in the opposite direction.

a) Transducers Using Change in Area of Plates

Examining the equation for capacitance, it is found that the capacitance is directly proportional
to the area, A of the plates. Thus, the capacitance changes linearly with change in area of plates.
Hence this type of capacitive transducer is useful for measurement of moderate to large
displacements say from 1 mm to several cm. The area changes linearly with displacement and
also the capacitance.

For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is:

Where, l = length of overlapping part of plates; m, and

w = width of overlapping part of plates; m.

The sensitivity is constant and therefore there is linear relationship between capacitance and
displacement.

This type of a capacitive transducer is suitable for measurement of linear displacement ranging
from 1 to 10 cm. The accuracy is as high as 0.005%.

b) Transducers Using Change in Distance between Plates

Fig. 17.2(b) shows the basic form of a capacitive transducer employing change in distance
between the two plates to cause the change in capacitance. One plate is fixed and the
displacement to be measured is applied to the other plate which is movable. Since, the
capacitance, C, varies inversely as the distance d, between the plates the response of this
transducer is not linear. Thus this transducer is useful only for measurement of extremely small
displacements.

Thus the sensitivity of this type of transducer is not constant but varies over the range of the
transducer. The relationship between variations of capacitance with variation of distance between
plates is hyperbolic and is only approximately linear over a small range of displacement. The
linearity can be closely approximated by use of a piece of dielectric material like mica having a
high dielectric constant, such as, a thin piece of mica.
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c) Transducers Using Change in dielectric constant between Plates

If the area (A) of and the distance (d) between the plates of a capacitor remain constant,
capacitance will vary only as a function of the dielectric constant ε of the substance filling the
gap between the plates. If the space between the plates of a capacitor is filled with an insulator,
the capacitance of the capacitor will change compared to the situation in which there is vacuum
between the plates. The change in the capacitance is caused by a change in the electric field
between the plates.

The value of dielectric constant is initially set by design in the choice of dielectric material used
to make the capacitor. Many factors will cause the ε to change, and this change in ε will vary for
different materials. The major factors that will cause a change in ε are moisture, voltage,
frequency, and temperature. The dielectric constant of a process material can change due to
variations in temperature, moisture, humidity, material bulk density, and particle size etc. The ε
in the basic formula is the effective dielectric constant of the total space between the electrodes.
This space may consist of the dielectric material, air, and even moisture, if present. The figure
shows that how in a capacitor the position of the dielectric is varied to vary the capacitance.
Physical variables, such as, displacement, force or pressure can cause the movement of dielectric
material in the capacitor plates, resulting in changes in the effective dielectric constant, which in
turn will change the capacitance.

Fig. Change in capacitance due to movement of dielectric between plates

The major advantages of capacitive transducers are that they require extremely small forces to
operate them and hence are very useful for use in small systems. They are extremely sensitive
and require small power to operate them. Owing to their good frequency response they are very
useful for dynamic studies.

The disadvantages of capacitive transducers include their non-linear behaviour on account of

edge effects and the effects of stray capacitances especially when the transducers have a low
value of capacitance. Therefore guard rings must be used to eliminate this effect. The metallic
parts of the capacitive transducers must be insulated from each other. In order to reduce the
effects of stray capacitances, the frames must be earthed.

Capacitive transducers can be used for measurement of both linear and angular displacements.
The capacitive transducers are highly sensitive and can be used for measurement of extremely
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small displacements down to the order of molecular dimensions, i.e., 0.1x10 -6 mm. On the
other hand, they can be used for measurement of large displacements up to about 30 m as in
aeroplane altimeters. The change in area method is used for measurement of displacements
ranging from 10 to 100 mm. Capacitive transducers can be used for the measurement of force
and pressure. The force and pressure to be measured are first converted to displacement which
causes a change of capacitance. Capacitive transducers can also be used directly as pressure
transducers in all those cases where the dielectric constant of a medium changes with pressure.
They can be used for measurement of humidity in gases and moisture content in soil / food
products etc.
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Capacitive type Level Meter:

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 Capacitor Microphone:
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