TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION - PART 2

NORWEGIAN SUBSEA TUNNELLING .

ROCK EXCAVATION AND SUPPORT TECHNIQUES
by:

Arild Palmström, Engineering Geologist, Nor-

wegian Geotechnical Institute, Oslo, Norway

Rolf Naas, Project Manager, Selmer A.S., Oslo,

Norway

SYNOPSIS

Norwegian experience is based on the construc-

tion of more than 80 km of subsea tunnels in
R Naas
hard rocks. The prediction of subsea rock
conditions is mainlybased on geophysical i¡ves-
tigations and engineering geological mapping.
- A high pumping capacityfor dewateringthe
tunnel in case of unforeseen water i¡flow.
From the former a map of the sea bottom
together with the distribution and thickness of
loose deposits is compiled. The total cost of
- High capacity execution of rock support
immediately after blasting to prevent deteri-
investigations for a subsea tunnel amounts to
oration of stability.
2.5 - 1Vo of the total construction cost.
All Norwegian subsea tunnels have been exca-
vated in hard rocks by the drill and blast
INTRODUCTION
method at an average tunnslling progess of 60 -
80 m/week. The total const¡uction cost of subsea
The rock excavation *d lunnslling techniques
road tunnels amounts, on average, to 4,500 -
in Norway have always been closely linked and
10,000 USD/m tunnel, of which the excavation
adapted to meet the actual ground conditions.
part (drill, blast and mucking out) constitutes
Therefore, it is appropriate for this paper to
about 1,500 USD/n. The rock supporting worls,
give a short overview of the ground conditions
which are designed for the actual rock mass
of importance for tunnelling.
conditions encountered in the tunnel, consist
mainly of fib¡e reinforced shotcrete and rock
bolts.
Most people involved i¡
f¡¡¡slling outside
Scandinavia believe that all rock conditions for
The permanent water leakage amounts to 0.L -
tunnelling in Norway are good. This is true in
0.45 ms/min per km tunnel.
many occasions as the rocks found a¡e 'ha¡d
rocks', i.e. rocks with compressive strength >
The following safety measures, - which today
50 Mpa. The rocks were formed during the
are standard in Norwegian subsea tunnelling -
Precambrian andPalaeozoic time, which means
are carried out as a routine to avoid or reduce
that they are older than 250 mill. years. The
possible problems caused by unforeseen ground
rocks are with a few exceptions þeous and
conditions:
metnmo¡phic.
- Drilling of probe holes ahead of the
These oldrocks have, however, suffered several
tunnel face.
periods of earth movements resulting in numer-
ous faults, shear zones and thrust zones [2].
- High pressure pre-grouting if water-
Such features generally cause the greatest
bearing zones and/or difficult rock
challenge and problems for the tunnel excava-
masses have been detected in the
probe holes.
tion as shown later. (Some examples from
Jumslling in Adverse Rock Conditions).

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Rock Excavation and Support Techniques
201
 TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION - PART 2

fffi cnrxrre

ffi o*lss
WEAKiCSS ZoNE

-
Figure 1 - Lefi: The truces of geotogical strucnres can often be obsened in the ice eroded surface of the
crystølline hud rocl<s in NorwaY'

Right: Surface obsenations combined with geologicøl data are used to work out øn engÌneeing
- geotogúcatmøp showingthe majorwea.lotess mnes. Faulß andwealctess mnes often cøuse
the møin problems ùtring tunnelling (afier [1]).

Another important feature of the Scandinavian NORWEGIAN SUBSEA TT'NNELLING

ground is the effect of the Ice Age which ended
some 10,000 years ago. The erosion from the Earlier experience
glacier activity'cleaned' the rock surface by
removing the weathered rocks, leaving a fresh Before construction of the many subsea tunnels
surface where their in situ state can easily be under fiords or between islands started in
observed (Fþre 1). Where the rocks are Norway in the 1-980's considerable experience
exposed at the surface it is possible to predict in this freld had alreadybeen gained from'land'
the underground conditions ¡e6 simple surface tunnels made for the hydropower development
observations [L]. as tunnels for lake taps and tunnels under rivers
or lakes.
Based on limited field investigations the under-
ground conditions may be predicted from The total length of all subsea tunnels con-
extrapolation of observed data. Therefore, the structed in Nonway is not known accurately. As
cost for the required investigations are generally presented in Figure 2 it is, however, estimated
low and the confidence of the geological prog- to be about 80 km. Included in this flrgure are
nosis relatively good [3]. more than 500 intakes in reservoirs which have
been successfrrlly made as submerged bottom
piercings [a]. This specialty of Norwegian (sub-
sea) tunnel construction, often called a "lake
tap" [3], is not dealt with further in this paper'

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Arild Palmström, Rolf Naas
202
TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION . PART 2

Current tunnel construction

During the last 10 years the subsea tunnels in

Norway have mostly been constructed for trans-
portation purposes. Some subsea tunnels have
also been built for the oil industry, mainly to
bring pipelines ashore from the No¡th Sea oil
fields. Altogether more than 60 km of subsea
tunnels have been constructed since 1980, as
shown in Table I. Among the subsea tu¡nel
Þ
t< projects under construction (spring L993) the
u2
Ét
following should be mentioned:
zz
Er - Tromsöysund, a 3.4 km long two lane road
h
tunnel (55 m'?)in gneiss and schist with the
E< deepest point 1-02 m below sea level [7]. It has
z SUBSEA TUNNELS a m¿x. gradient of. L:L2
5 FOR ROADS,
OILIGAS PIPELINES,
WATTR AND
LAKE TAPS,
- Troll, a 3.8 km long shore approach (66 m'?)
AND OTHER WATER CONDUCTING
tunnel for gas/oil pipelines. The deepest point
TUNNELS BENTAIH LAKES AND will be 260 m below sea level where a tunnel
RIVERS,
piercing up to the sea bottom will be perfor-
med. The rocks consist of va¡ious gneisses.
It has a max gradient of L:7.
1970 1980
YEÀR
- Hitra, a 5.6 km long two lane (55 m2) road
Figure 2 - Development of subsea and under- tunnel in various gneisses with the deepest
water tunnels in Norway (after [a]) point?llí m below sea level [L3]. It has a max.
gradient of L:L2.

TTJIINEL TYPE YEAR LENGTH DEEPEST CROSS ROCKS Ref.

POINT SECTION
Slemmestad v/ 1980 1.0 km - 93 m l0 m2 claystone, linestone
Vardö R 1982 2.6 km - 88 m 46 m2 slate md sandstone 5,6,7
Kårstö rw 1983 0.4 km - 58 m 20 m2 phyllite
Kamsundet o 1984 4.7 km -180 m 26 m2 gneiss, phyllite 6,8
Fördes{ord o 1984 3.4 km -160 m 26 m2 gneiss 6,8
Förlmds!ord o 1984 3.9 km -170 m 26 m2 gneiss, phyllite 6,8
Ellingsöy R 1987 3.5 km -140 m 68 m2 gneiss 6,7,9
Valderöy R 1987 4.2 km -137 m 68 m2 gneiss 7,9
Hjartöy o 1987 2.3 km -110 m 26 mz gnerss
Kvalsund R 1988 1.5 kn - 56 m 43 ñ gneiss 63
Godöy R 1989 3.8 km -153 m 48 m2 gneiss 6,'l,10
Flekkeröy R 1989 2.3 kn -101 m 46 m2 gneiss 6,7
Hvaler R 1989 3,8 km -120 m 45 m2 gneiss 6,7
Nappstraumen R 1990 1.8 km - 60 m 55 m2 gneiss 6,7
MÂursundet R 1990 2.1 km - 93 m 43 m2 gneiss 7
Fmne!ord R 1990 2.7 km -100 m 43 m2 gneiss 7
IVAR, Jaeren rù/ 1991 1.9 km - 80 m 2O m2 phyllite l1
Kalstö o 1991 1.2 km -100 m 38 m2 greenstone
Byfiord R 1992 5.8 km -223 m 70 m2 phyllite 12
Mastra{ord R 1992 4.4 km -132 m 70 m2 gneiss 12
Freifiord R 1992 5.2 km -130 m 70154 m2 gneiss 7
sum = 62.7 Uû

R = SUB-SF-A ROAD TUNNEL

W = SUB-SEA WATER TIJNNEL
o = sUB-sEA TT NNEL FoR oIL/cAS PIPELÍNE

Table I - Subsea tunnels constructed in Norway after 1980 (revised after [4])

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Rock Excavation and Support Techniques
203
 TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION - PART 2

Approximately L3 km of subsea tunnels are DESIGN CRIIERH FOR ST]BSEA TTJNNEI,S

presently under construction in Norway. A great
number of possible subsea tunnel projects have The alignment for a subsea tunnel is largely
been studied over the last L0 years, including influenced by the geological and the topographi-
three parallel6 m dia. 60 km long TBM tunnels cal conditions as well as the requirement of the
at 500 m depth to bring pipelines from the nea¡ maximum gradient of the tunnel. The minimum
offshore oil fields to the Norwegian mainland. safe distance between the tunnel roof and the
Also a 45 km long railway tunnel beneath a rock surface under the sea - the rock cover -
deep fiord has been studied. is a crucial dimension in locating a subsea
tunnel. Figure 3 shows the minimum rock cover
generally applied in Norwegian subsea tunnels.

In addition to documentation of ground condi-

tion, cross section and gradient which are
common for all tunnels, subsea tunnels require
special desþ criteria. These are mainly con-
nected to the conditions mentioned in Table IL
Ê A special feature here is the relatively steep
d¡6
gradient of these tunnels to reach the lowest
point within the shortest possible tunnel length.
Ì
k For road tunnels the maximum gradient is
between 1:l-0 and 1:16, depending on the traffic
load. For other tunnels the gradient is generally
restricted to the limitations of the tunnelling
equipment, which often is L:7 for tunnel slopes
less than L km and 1:9 for very long slopes.

u9a
RoCK CO/ER (0

Figure 3 - The minimum rock cover used in

Noruegian subsea tunnels (aÎter [a])

IFIELD INVESTfCATIONS
Sub-ses tùonels require u expMded i¡vestigatio¡ progmmmei compared to ordmary 'lmd'
tumels, becÂuse of their coÞplexißy,

+ROCK COVER IN THE SIJBMERCED PART

The minimum rock cover Eust b€ sufficienlly greÂt to allow uoexpected rock falls or cave-ns to
occur without pemitti¡g a critical situalioû to aris in the tuùel

'EXPLORATORY DRILLINC AND PRE-GROUTING

For sùb-æs tumels it ¡s imponMÌ to avoid large watcr leakages. This is æbieved by
perfomuce of systemÁtic explorÂtory drilli¡gs ahead of lhe tumel working fÂce so thst leakage
zo¡es are discovered far enough from tbe frc€ to måke them wÂter light by pre-grout¡¡g.

*SUPPORT MEASURES
As the enviroDmeDt in a sub-sea tûmel is padicularly Âgg.cssive, spÊcial requirements åre made
6 to the Daterials usd.
*TUNNELLINC TECHNIQUES UNDER THE SEA
Specisl eúergedcy aftugemenls, sucb 6 pump¡¡g capacity, have to be made to deal with major
water lerkÂges Also the rapid execulioD of prc-grout¡¡g codstitutes ù iÉpotut me¿sure

DRAINAGE
Tbe pumping system ¡s equ¡pped with ú eoergency reservoir havi¡g  capacity for at least 24
hours of wåter leskåge

Cable bridges md simi¡ar equipmenl 6ust h¡ve ú mti corrosive coati¡9, tbe equipmeot of 80A
hot d¡p galvúiation ud powder lecqueriDg witb epoxy

*Tb¡s tbeme ¡s dealt w¡th i¡ this psper,

Tøble II - Special requirements connected to subsea tunnels in hard rock (øfier [14])

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Arild Palmström, Rolf Naas
204
TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION - PART 2

The rock coyer above the tun¡el is measured on studies of naval maps showing the water
from a point in the tunnel roof, to the nearest depths in the sea. These maps do not, however,
registered rock surface. The minimum rock indicate the presence of possible loose materials
cover must be suffrciently thick to allow unex- covering the bedrock. Therefore, geophysical
pected rock falls or cave-ins to occur without measurements are ca¡ried out. In the area of
causing a critical situation in the tunnel [15]. interest for the tunnel location a map of the
Rock slide may occur so rapidly that the tunnel seabed is worked out from a grid of shallow
maybe flooded if the rock cover is too thin. For reflection seismic profiles. It is also possible
road tunnels a minimum cover of 50 m is used from these measurements to evaluate the seabed
during planning, until the results of detailed topography and the indicated thickness ofloose
investigations are available. Then the rock cover deposits covering the rock surface. Except for
requirements may be reduced to ¿lO m if the very abrupt topography this approach is gen-
ground conditions are thoroughly documented erally chosen instead of boreholes to determine
to have a satisfactory qualiry [f4]. the rock surface.

Core drillings are generally performed, however,

INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUES FOR SUB- to investigate the rock and ground water condi-
SEA TI]NNELS tions as well as the conditions of possible weak-
ness zones. Investigation of the ground condi-
Subsea tunnels require an expanded investiga- tions beneath the seabed have, where possible,
tion programme, compared to ordinary 'land' been performed as iuclined holes from the
tunnels, because of their complexity [1a]. The shore. In crucial areas beneath the seabed,
depth of the sea bed, the presence of loose however, expensive core drillings have been
material deposits and the rock qualities are carried out from a drill-ship or similar.
significant factors affecting the amount and
types of investigations and the design of subsea After the map of the rock surface has been
tunnels [2]. compiled a tentative tunnel alienment is found.
Refraction seismic measurements are carried
For subsea tunnels, where the majority of the out to obtain more information on the ground
rock and the surface are covered by water, conditions in the actual area along the tunnel.
special investigation techniques have been In addition to a more accurate location of the
developed to collect information on the rock rock surface and thickness of possible loose
mass conditions. These are generally carried out deposits, these investigation gives qualitative
at two main stages: information of the rock mass conditions, as
shown in Figure 4. Especially important is its
- The investigations made before tunnelling capability to locate possible weaker zones or
starts. faults.

- The investþations (e4ploratory worls) done The main features of the geophysical investiga-
during tunnel excavation. tions applied in subsea tunnel investigations are
given in Table III. Promising new geophysical
Investigations carried out before construction techniques under development are radar and
starts cross hole methods.

The investigations for a subsea tunnel project Based on the geological and geophysical results
start with studies of available geological data the expected ground conditions are evaluated
and ai¡ photo interpretation of the area sur- and the f,rnal tuunel alignment is selected.
rounding the actual site. From this the main Important in this process are the requirements
structures of importance for tunnelling can be of the minimum rock cover and the gradient of
assessed. the tunnel.

The first evaluations of the possible area for the

subsea part of the tunnel alignment are based

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Rock Excavation and Support Techniques
205
 TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION . PART 2

--20=-ôo-m-7s- - - \__
--rl----
1 700 m/s
ó 000 m/s ù .. 2 100 m/s
ilt
>---r
xl
-
-
x ó000 m/s
;,r
0 Possible veakness zone (faull )

Figure 4 - Example of results from a refraction seismic profrle ([after 3]).

ECHO SOUNDINGS
Measurements performed to find the water depth. From these measurements a map of the sea
bottom is worked out. The contour interval is normally 5 m.

REFLECTION SEISMIC MEASUREMENTS

These measurements penetrate through sediments and are therefore used to produce a map of the
bedrock surface where it is covered by loose deposits. The bedrock may be detected below as
much as 200 m of sediments. When interpreting the thickness of loose materials from these
measurements, the sound velocities of the materials have to be estimated. The quality of the
results are therefore dependent on the interpreter's skill and experience. Refraction seismics can
be used for the 'calibration' of the sound velocities estimated. The main target for this type of
survey is to get an overall view of the soil distribution of tho area to produce a map of the rock
surface. These maps are of utmost importance for the design of sub-sea tunnels.
The total cost of 30 km of reflection seismics amounts to 15 - 20 000 USD, sometimes up to 35
000 usD

REFRACTION SEISMIC MEASUREMENTS

These can more accurately determine the thickness of loose deposits and the position of the rock
surface; they also give indications on soil type and rock quality based on sound velocities [17].
The measurements are performed by dropping a 48 channels hydroplione cable on the sea
bottom along the profile to be meaured. Small charges of dynamite are detonated to send pulses
through the sediments and along the bedrock surface. The resulting product gives thicknesses
and position of the different layers and their velocities, see Fig. 4.
Together with other information, i.e. geology on land, and the first,phase geophysical data, the
stratigraphy sub-sea can fairly well be indicated together with assumed ground conditions.
The total cost for 2 km refraction seismic profiles is normally 40 - 65 000 USD, but in special
cases it can enter up to 100 000 USD. Normally a total length of seismic refraction
measurements for a sub-sea tunnel amounts to 2-3 times the length of tunnel çey"r"d by water.

Table III - Møin types of geophysícal measurements used in subsea tunnels investigation
(revised øfter [16J)

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Arild Palmström, Rolf Naas
206
 TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION , PART 2

From the pre-investigations the major weakness The practical consequence of these investigation
zones are located. The range of rock mass works is that the ordinary d¡illing and blasting
qualities in the volumes between the zones are work is stopped and the drilling rig is used to
evaluated [1-8]. Based on this the expected types, perform the necessary amount of exploratory
methods and amounts of rock support and the or probe drilling, which normally takes L - 2
system for exploratory investigations to be used hours. A certain minimrm level of these dril-
during excavation are described. This informa- lings is carried out under the sea, typically
tion is applied in the detailed cost estimate as consisting of 2 holes, each 30 m long with a
well as in the tender documents [1-9]. minimum of 6 - 8 m overlap, see Fþre 5. The
number of holes are increased where zones of
weakness are expected and there is a risk of
Investiqations carried out during tunnel excava- leakage or it is important to check the rock
tion cover 12,20]. Alternatively this can be per-
fo¡med by core drilling carried out from the
An important part of the investigation for a tunnel working face. In this case the ordinary
subsea tunnel is carried out as exploratory or tunnel excavation work will be stopped for L -
probe drilling by the main drilling rig during 3 days. Core drillings provide significantly better
excavation. The aim of this is to detect any information about the quality of the rock condi-
water leakage zones or adverse ground condi- tions. Such exploratory drill holes can also be
tions before they are encountered in the tunnel. used for simple, seismic measurements that can
Experience has shown that the effect of water provide a better picture of the rock quality and
sealing is significantly better where it is carried leakages.
out as pre-grouting ahead of the tunnel face,
than where the grouting is done after the zone Where probe drillings, or drilling of the blast
has been penetrated by the tunnel. A more holes, reveal water bearing rocks in front of the
important effect is that pre-grouting may pre- face, the possibility of pre-grouting to seal this
vent possible larger water inflow occurring at zone is evaluated. This procedure is further
the face, which may cause serious problems or described later. (Excavation Operations).
even inundation of the tunnel.

MRE ORILL HOLT

FACE l/HEN

PLAN

Figure 5 - The principles for probe drilling ahead of the tunnel working face.

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Rock Excavation and Support Techniques
207
 TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION . PART 2

Cost in 7o of construction cosfs

012)45670
PRE INVESTI6ATIONS

Engineering geological
mapprn9

Accoustic measurements

Refraction seismic
me as u ¡em e nts

Core driIting

INVESTIGATIONS OURIN6
TUNNELI N6

Probe dritling

Figure 6 - Apprortmak distribution of investigation costs for Norwegiøn subsea rock tunnels (afier [a])

Costs for investieations tunnelling that is equalled in few other count¡ies

in the world. An important feature of this
The experience over the last L0 years of subsea success has been the willingness among
tunnel construction is that the cost for pre- tunnelling people to accept new methods and
investigations is in the range of 2 - 1Vo of the to take them into use to further develop excava-
construction cost, while the probe drillings tion techniques. This has resulted in in¡ovations
amount to L.5 - 2 Vo, as shown in Figure 6. and improvements in rock drilling, blasting and
support as well as muck removal and under-
As mentioned earlier this low frgure is mainly ground safety.
a result of the good information obtained from
simple surface observations of e4posed rock and All Norwegian subsea tunnels have been exca-
the confidence of the ground conditions in the vated by the drill and blast method. The main
Scandinavian hard rock province. reasons for this are:

- The steep 1-3 km long descending part on

ROCK EXCAVATION both sides of the tunnels excludes use of a
TBM which generally requires rail-bound
Over the past 40 years of hard rock tunnelling transport.
Norway has become among the most skilled in
this type of underground construction. The - A larger and more expensive cross section has
many hundreds of kilometres of tunnel driven to be excavated by TBM because of its circu-
in connection with hydropower development, lar cross section.
underground storage and transportation have
resulted in an accumulation of experience in

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Arild Palmström, Rolf Naas
208
TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION . PART 2

- The hard rocks inScandinavia a¡e generally Mønøgement steff

more expensive to excavate by TBM than The management of the main contractors will
by drill and blast. vary according to the size and requirements of
the project; as a rule 4 - 6 engineers a¡e needed
- Drill and blast is more flexible regarding for working a one-face job with an addition of
rock support and pre-grouting performed 3 - 4 where the tunnelling is carried out on two
at the face. It is also generally easier to faces. TableW shows a normal division of tasks
perform the probe drilling ahead of the for a one-face job.
face in drill and blast tunnels.
Equipment

ManDower Themain elements for equipping a one-face job

vary very little from one tr nnel to another. This
Foreign visitors to Norwegian tunnel construc- is because the actual technical solutions and
tion sites Íue very surprised to find that only official regulations in subsea tunnelling a¡e often
th¡ee men a¡e doirg the drilling, blasting and similar. Table WI shows the main eqripment
mucking out, as well as the rock support works. used, except trucks for transportation of the
Successful driving of a tunnel depends heavily blasted rock (which is normally done by the
on personal craftsmanship and the attention to sub-contractor as mentioned above).
detail in the ground. Hence, the abilities and
attitudes of the individual miners and their All the equipment underground is generally
foremen plays an important role in subsea subjected to severe saltwater corrosion which
tunnelling. has consequences for its performance and
durability. This is to a large part solved by
Tunnel crew established routines to check, clean and protect
The tunnel excavation is generally carried out exposed parts by special coatings.
by 3 shifts. A special established routine for
working hours and time offhas been developed
so that only 2 shifts are on the site at the same Excavation operations
time, the so-called (2+L) shift routine. Each
shift is working 10 hours from 06m to 1600 (I) The rounds are usually drilled by 4.8 - 5.5 m
or from L60o to 02oo 0D with a few adjustments long drill rods resulting in a round length of 4.2
during weekends, as shown in Table IV. These - 4.5 meters. The diameter of the holes is 43
people take their time offin sequence with theL mm. In the cut the 3 - 5 unloaded holes are
home journeys according to agreement with the reamed to 75 - 100 mm. For blasting of a two-
management. lane road tunnel with theoretical cross section
60 m2 90 - L00 charge holes are made. Figure
In addition to the normal shift force there are 7 shows an example of a drilling plan.
a number of specialists who work daytime (I)
only. Thus, the full tunnel crew of the main Special care is made to improve the tunnel
contractor consists of L2 persons. Regulations contour [9 minimizs the need for rock support
of the Norwegian Directorate of labour inspec- and overbreak in blasted tunnels. The require-
tion permit 33.6 hours/week in underground ment for the accuracyinposi¡i6ning of the holes
works. The (2+ 1) shift arrangement results in is usually + L0 cm with a deviation in direction
a little more than l-00 working hours in a normal of less than S%.Thtsmeans that the drilling rig
week. Table V shows normal division of the must be equipped with automatic positioning-
tasks for the different tunnel workers. Subcon- ¿¡d di¡sstisninginstruments so thatit automati-
tractors will traditionally do the transportation cally follows a preset drilling pattern. If the
of blasted rock from the face. They will also operator wishes he can correct or steer man-
usually supply all the concrete. ually. The most advanced equipment of this type
is manufactured by Beve¡control, see Figure 8.

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Rock Excavation and Support Techniques
209
 TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION . PART 2

Workers
Activities F R L w E B
(3) (3) (3) (1) (1) (1)

Dritling rig o a a o

Probe drilling o o o

Drilling of the round o o

Charging o o o o

Scaling and loading of o o (o)

blasted rock

Rock bolting a a

Shotcreting o (o) (.) o

Concrete lining (24 hours) a a a o o

Grouting (24 hours) o o a a a

Regular supervision and

service on the shift :

Drilling rig a

Loader o

Regular supervision
and daily service :

Ventilation a

Headlamps o

Pumping stations o a

Electrical supply unit o

Regular weekly supervision and o

cleaning. of main machines

Major repair o

Mixing of explosives a

F : Foreman, R : Repairman,. L : Loader operator, W : Repairman in workshop,

E : Electrician, B : Behind face worker
Tøble V - Nonnø.l division of tusks for the tunnel crew

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Arild Palmström, Rolf Naas
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TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION - PART 2

Week 1, 4 etc. Week 2, 5 etc. Week 3, 6 etc.

shifr I tr I tr I tr
shifr 1 o o

shift 2 a a

shift 3 a o
Table IV - Alterations between shifts on s tunnel site

Management
Activities SS CE ME s F

Site management o

Invoicing o
Reporting o O

Quality assurance o o
Health Environment and Safety a

Purchasing a
Maintenance of machinery and equipment O

Planning o O

Supervision production a o
Administration of labour o o
Surveying work o
Administration od sub-contractors O o

Storage facitlities O

Site meetings with owner o a

Meetings with foremen o o

SS : Site Superviser, CE : Contract Engineer,

ME : Mechanical Engineer, S : Surveyor, F:Foreman
Table W - The generøl division into tasks for a one face tunnel excavøtion

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Rocl< Excavation and Support Techniques
211
 TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION - PART 2

tlachine/Rig Application
Drilling rig Driììing of bìasting holes, probe holes,
Eìectro-hydraulic of the type A.C. Boomer grouting hoìes, bolt holws; charging the
or similar with 3 drilìing machines and blast hoìes, pìacing boìts, scaling.
charging basket. Equiprnnt for automatic
oositionino of drill holes.
Wheel-loader Loading of blasted rock, scaling, trans-
Diesel-powered of the type Cat 980 C or port of full lining shield, grouting
similar with side-tip. equipnent, venti lation equiprnnt, putping
eou i onent.

Full lining shield Used for rock support by concrete ìining.

Designed and constructed by the contrac- The shield has nornnììy a length of 5
tor to fit the actual tunnel cross sec- metres. The curved and planar surfaces of
tion. the shieìd are nrcved by hydrauìics from
transoort oosition to castino oosition.
Shotcrcte robot Cleaning of rock and spraying concrete
for rock support. Spraying nembrane on
concrete.

Grouting equipment Seaìing of water Ieakages.

Mixing station for explosives Production of explosives.

Water supply Supply of water for production drilìing
and dustbinding during mucking out from
the face.
Pumping system Pump-pipes with rud separation for
Drosess and leakaqe water.

Ventilation plant Fresh air for labour force and machines

in the tunneì. l{ay of transport for
bìastino oasses after blastino.

Table WI - The main nnnelling equipment used in subseø tunnel excavation

Explosives used a¡e usually A¡fo which is a Chøging of the blast holes in Norway is still
mixture of ammoni rm nitrate and diesel oil. In carried out al¡nost simultaneously with the
addition to its low price - close to one fourth d¡illing ¡sing electrical detonators. This is
of ordinary dynamite - Anfo has great safety carriedoutfromahydraulicchareingbasketon
benefitsrega¡dingstorage.Therearenospecial the¿¡lllingrig.
restrictions for storage of a--onium nitrate
except that it must be at some distance from
diesel oil. Production of the required amount
of Anfo is carried out on each shift.

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Arild Palmström, Rolf Naas
212
TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION - PART 2

-x-x,-x-x-x-t-r-
o o -*-"
,r"' o
x
o
" o
x
x o a o x
(
X o\ 'x
o
x(
I
x o
C
a o\ X-
I \:
x Xø
I
o) oi
I
T
x x

x
I oÐ a ol x
oi
I I
x
I
o
G o a
x x
I I

o- o a- a a aaa
cut

LEN6ÏH OF ROUNO:4m

x h/eak charges l
O Reduced chroes I

O Norma[ charqes I

. Norma I clrarges )
o Uncharged ?ómm hote

Figure 7 - Principle of ø drilting plan for 50 m2 tu.nnel

Ventilation is carried out with a special affange- transport. The largest type, the so-called semi-
ment where fresh air is blown into the face trailer, has proved most useful, largely because
during drilling and mucking-out, and the it does not need extra space when turniag
airstream is reversed to suck out blasting gasses around inside the tunnel. The number of
after the blast. Figure 9 shows the principle of vehicles varies from 2 - 3 n the outer part of
this two-way ventilation. The equipment often the tuunel and increases with approximately 1-
used is ANML4/I09. vehicle per km. As mentioned later the time for
mucking out is generally 2 hours.
Trønsportøtion of the blasted rock out of the
tunnel is done by trucks with a loading capacity
of 10 - l-5 m3. This solution is chosen because
ofthe relatively steep and long descending parts
of the tunnel with gradients between l-:7 and
1:12. This is too steep for normal rail mounted

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Rock Excavation and Support Techniques
213
 TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION . PART 2

Printout of blast repods

Drillpattern

,. Computerized drill rig

-.tJ

PC for planning of drill patterns and tunnelcentreline

Equipment for computerized drilling

Figure 8 - Example of the Bevercontrol drilling positioning equipment

Pre-grouting It is usual to carry out pre-grouting where the

leakage from one or more probe holes exceeds
In subsea tunnel excavation it is important that 6llmin and the distance from the leakage to the
possible water inflows are discovered far enoueh face is less than 10 m. Commonly a full cone
ahead of the face so that these can be sealed of grouting holes is first drilled. At the start of
by pre-groutngf2l,22]. This is carried out in the grouting ¡hin grout (Vc : 2) is used; if
areas where possible leakage zones or other pressure does not develop thicker grout is used.
adverse rock conditions are detected by the The cut off pressure is adapted to the situation,
systematic probe drillings ahead of the tunnel but 40 bar is usually used for ordinary rapid
face (see later [Investigations Ca¡ried out Dur- cement. To shorten the curing time of the grout
ing Tunnel Excavation] and Fþre 5). The prin- to enable blasting to start earlier, the process
ciple of water sealing by pre-groutiug is shown is often completed by use of a special fast
in Figure 10. hardening cement (Cemsil), at a cut-off-pressure
In addition to the sealing effect the grouting of 60 bars. In this way the time until a new blast
also often improves stability of poor rock can be performed is reduced from about 24
masses. hours to 2 hours. If the leakage zoîe obviously
consists of open joints, admixtures to enhance
clogging are used. A special grout (Mauring)

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Arild Palmström, Rolf Naas
214
TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION . PART 2

Figure 9 - The two møin types of tunnel

ventiløtion

Top: Traditíonølventiletion(blowingfresh
air to rock face)
Middle: Two-way fresh øir to rock-face
Bottom: Two-way suction of bløstíng gosses
frorn the face

Figure 10 - Principle for probe dilling and pre-

grouting
Top: Afi er the w ater c on t aining zone h as
been detected pre-grouting ß d¿cided
Middle: Several long grouting holes are
dilled and cement mixture is
ínjected
Bottom: The tunnel excavationis continued
øfter curing of the grout

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Rock Excavation and Support Techniques
215
 TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION . PART 2

is often applied. This is a fast hardening Emergency power supplies available in case
cement-based product containing large ligbr of power failure.
weight particles (up to 4 --).
All necess¿ìry equipment and materials
In the Godöy tunnel, with a large amount of required for pre-grouting are located on site
open tension cracks, 40 Vo of the whole tu¡nel before ¡u¡¡slling starts.
length was pre-grouted in this way. The necess-
ary amount of cement grout injected varied During construction of the subsea part of the
between 1 - 50 t for each round of grouting tunnel, a fu[ lining shield is available which
where the time used for each round of grouting can quickly be placed at the face. The time
was 2.5 - 48 hours. required to move this shield from outside the
tunnel (bywheel loader or similar) to the face
Continqency Measures is L5-30 mi¡utes. The shield is designed to
allow closure of the face end, in case the face
In addition to the pre-grouting described above, must be concreted.
special emergency ¿¡¡angements are made to
deal with possible major water leakages in
subsea tunnel excavation [1-4]:

- The pumps have sufficient capacity to deal

with a major leakage and extra pumps
available on short notice in case of an
emergency.

Activity Godöytunnel Fannefjordtunnel

Vo Vo

I Drilling 36 33

2 I-oading of muck t6 18

3 Scaling 10 10

4 Rock bolting 11 I6
5 Probe drilling 3 2

6 Shotcreting 2 7

7 Pre-grouting T4 2

8 Concrete lining 0 10

9 Delay 8 2

Average progress 45 m/week 40 m/week

Table WII - The distribution of time for various activities involved in æcavation, rock support and grouting
worlcs for two-løne road tunnels (cross section 57 m2)

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Arild Palmström, Rolf Naas
216
TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION . PART 2

Excavation experience critical path (i.e. mainly the rock supporting

and water 5saling works). These are used to
The time generally required for the various work out adjustments to the completion date
operations included in the drill and blast exca- i¡ cases where gtound conditions other than
vation using 4.8 m long drilling rods (4.3 m those predicted have been encountered.
round length) in a 2-lane road tunnel is:

Scaling 3/4 hour ROCK SUPPORT

Drilling
section) 2 lz hour
(60 m2 cross Instability in the subsea tunnels in Norway has
Ventilation U4 hour been influenced by the same factors as in the
Muckins-out 2 hours 'land' tunnels, namely:
Totalling 5 % hours
- A combination of unfavou¡able joints
This results in a progress of 0.8 m/hour or 80 (unstable blocks),
m/weeþ excluclirg rock supporting worls, which
equals 8 - 9 manhours/m tunnel. Excavating - Faults with crushed zones with or without
through poor rock mass conditions where con- clay, showing especially low strength. Swelling
tinuous heavy rock support by rock bolts, shot- properties of the material in these zones may
crete and concrete lining are installed, reduce highly reduce the stand-up time and increase
the tunnelling progress to less than 20 ry'week. 1þe trnnslling problems.
This is because the ordinary drilling andblasting
work must stop while this rock support is - High stresses in brittle ¡ocks (rockburst) have
carried out. The production rates for these not been of importance in subsea tunnels.
support activities are approximately:
Rock bolting l-5 bolts/hour Though yielding of the tunnel surface has been
Fibre reinforced shotcrete 5 m3/hour recorded in some clay zones, instability from
Cast-in-place concrete lining 0.25 m/hour squeezing is not a problem encountered in
Probe drilling 50 m/hour Norwegian tunnels.

Table VIII shows the distribution of time for Princinles in rock support
the excavation of two subsea road tunnels; the
Godöy tunnel (3850 m long) with a lot of pre- The main principle in Norwegian tunnelling is
grouting (40% of.the length) and the Fannefiord that the rock support is designed for the actual
tunnel (2700 m) with a lot of rock supporting ground conditions. This requires flexible support
works. methods which can be quickly adjusted to meet
the ever changing quality of the rock masses.
Contractins practice Such flexibility is achieved by the use of rock
bolts and shotcrete or full concrete lining, either
Most contracts in Norway are formed as unit alone or as an integral element of the support.
price contracts, based on unit prices for the The Norwegian contractors have long experi-
different excavation operations expected to be ence in using these types of support and can
necessary during tunnel construction. therefore carry out the works efficiently. In
particular shotcrete which is now mostly fibre
In underground construction where the exact reinforced, maybe applied quickly and at a high
ground conditions are not known, it is not production rate.
possible to calculate the exact amount of the
various works to be carried out. Equaþ, it is The main principles for support as well as the
not possible to calculate the exact time required types and total amounts of support in the tunnel
for construction. The contracts make provisions a¡e estimated from the pre-investþations. Based
for other amounts and types of works other than on the geological mapping and field investiga-
those included in the contract, as well as rules tions the quality of the ground is assessed. The
for time extensions for works influencing the rock support evaluations are partly based on

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Rock Excavation and Support Techniques
217
 TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION . PART 2

experience from tunnels in the same region and Contracting practice does not appear to have
by use of the Q-system. As the underground any direct effect on the stability of a tunnel.
conditions are never known until they are However, the way the contract is structured may
revealed during excavation, the decision of the influence the manner in which a tunnel is sup-
amount and methods for rock support to be ported, which in turn has a direct effect on the
applied is not taken before they can be stability behaviour of the tunnel. The flexibility
observed in the tunnel. The rock supporting of Norwegian contracts obviously has an impact
works are carried out in two main stages: on the amount as well as the time used for rock
support.
L. The initial support, aiming at secure safe
in the tunnel for the
working conditions
crew during excavation. The amount is TVpes of rock support
determined by the tunnel miners and their
foremen, and the main types to be used The main types of rock support are rock bolts,
have been decided in the agreement sprayed concrete (shotcrete) with or without
between the owner and the contractor. fibre reinforcement, and cast-in-place concrete
linìng.
2. The permanent support, carried out to meet The types of support used for initial and perma-
the requirements for a satisfactory function nent support are generally selected so that they
of the tunnel during its life. This support may be combined. In this way the initial support
is determined after excavation by engineer- carried out can be included as a part of the
ing geologists who must cousider the long- permanent support, which therefore is installed
term behaviour of the rock masses. Based only where it is necessary to strengthen the
on the results from mapping of the ground initial support. This results in reduced total
conditions in the tunnel the amount and costs for the rock support.
types of support can be found according to
the Q-system, see Figure 1,L. The rock bolts are normally 2,5 - 4 m long.
Va¡ious types are used. For the initial support
at the tunnel face, where the blasting operations

ROCK I'TASS QUALITY

100

30

10
Ê
z.?
o-
v)
J1
lrJ
z.
z.
=) J
l--

,001 ,003 ,01 ,03 ,1 ,3 1 3 10 30 100 100 1000

O.-VALUE

Fígure 11 - The Q-system may be applied in the evøluations of rock support

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Arild Palmström, Rolf Naas
218
TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION . PART 2

should be disturbed as little as possible, bolts

which can be quickly installed are preferred.
Here the expansion shell and the polyester resin
anchored types are most commonly used. For
the additional, permanent support fully grouted
bolts a¡e mostly applied.

Mesh reinforced shotcrete is rarely applied in

Norwegian tun¡els today. It has been replaced
by fibre reinforced shotcrete (fibrecrete ) contain-
ing 50 - 75 kg fibres per m3 concrete. In this
way the time-consuming installation of the mesh
is omitted. Thus, fibrecrete introduces a signifi-
cantly quicker shotcreting method. Experience
shows that it is often of higher quality than the Figu.re 13 - The combinøtion of rock bolts and
mesh reinforced type, especially where the shotcrete. The purpose of the former is to support
tunnel surface is uneven and irregular. the laryer bloclæ while the latter "takes care" of
the unstable fragments in the tunnel surface

In adverse rock mass conditions showing short

stand-up times it is normal to fust install shot-
crete shortly after blasting and then, as perma-
nent support, to install cast-in-place concrete
lining.

Special requirements to rock support installed

in subsea tunnels

The salt environment in subsea tunnels require

Figure 12 - Sprøyed concrete (shotcrete), often resistant materials. Thus concrete structures,
fibre reinforced, is generølly appliedfor reinforce- including sprayed concrete (shotcrete), are
ment of unstable fragments or smaller blocl<s made of concrete according to environmental
class MA (very aggressive) as specified in the
Both rock bolts and shotcrete are, as mentioned Norwegian standa¡d NS 4274. Rock bolts of
above, flexible rock supportìng methods as seen normal steel quality may be used. However,
in Figure L2 and 13. Where reduction in the stringent demands a¡e made on the anti-corros-
tunnel stability requires additional support it is ive coatings for bolts used in the salt water
easy to strengthen the bolting by installing zone. Hence, bolts are treated with a combina-
additional bolts, or by adding additional shot- tion of hot dip galvanizatio4 minimum thickness
crete layers with or without fib¡e reinforcement. 8Op,and powder lacquering with epoxy, or a
Thus these two methods a¡e suitable for a coating that gives comparable protection.
number of ground conditions, and are easily
adaptable to changing rock mass conditions. Princioles in the water shieldine and drainaqe
system
Large weakness zones are often supported using
concrete lining. Thts is performed using a full All subsea tunnels for traffic are desigaed to
lining shield designed to fit the actual cross operate as drained constructions. The pre-
section of the tunnel, see Table VIL Normally grouting works are designed to reduce the
it takes only 2 - 4 hours from the time that the quantities of water inflow to a level of 300 Vmin.
decision is taken to use this type of rock sup- per km tunnel. The full water pressure in the
port until the start of concrete casting. rock mass is taken up by the grouted zone
outside the tunnel or by the rock mass itself
where insigrrificant leakages occur. Thus, con-

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Rock Excavation and Support Techniques
219
 TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION . PART 2

crete lining used as rock support is not desþed - Crushed rock filter (15 - 30 mm) in ditches
for full water pressure. Usually an inner water on both sides of the tunnel and a 300 mm
shielding collects the leakage water to the thick layer below the road pavement.
drainage system see Figure 134. Any water
leaking up in the u¡lined floor will follow the - One to two j.50 - 200 mm PVC pipes in the
drainage layer until one of the cross drainage drainage ditches on one or both sides of the
ditches brings it to the side ditch. Finally the tunnel.
water ends up in the pumping station at the
bottom of the tuunel, from where it is pumped. - Pumping station in the lowest point in the
Typical elemeuts of the drainage system in a tunnel with a pump sump buffer for at least
road tunnel are according to [2L]: 24 hours leakage water (in case of power
loss).
- 45 mm polyethylene sheets mounted on
short rock bolts, or corrugated plates of - l-60 mm PE-pipes for pumping out of all
warm galvanized epory-coated steel or leakage water.
burn-painted aluminium.

SOME EXAMPI.,ES FROM TTJNNELLING IN

ADVERSE ROCK CONDITIONS

The main stability problems have occurred in

faulted and crushed rocks. During 20 years of
subsea tunnelling the following incidents have
been reported (see Table I for reference to the
tunnel):

- TWo cave-ins at the tunnel face in the Vardö

tunnel.

- One cave-in at the Ellingsöy tunnel.

- One minor case at the Slemmestad tunnel.

- Severe stability problems along 200 m of the

Karmsund tunnel.

- Collapse in several locations in the Vollsfiord

tunnel, which took place shortly after this
water-conveying tunnel was taken into use.

The major problems have all been in connection

with faulted, clay-containing rock and water
leakages of relativelyhigh pressure. The follow-
ing two examples briefly describe how the
Figtre 13A - Principles of water shielding where excavation and rock support were carried out
water leøkøges occur (revised after [21]). where adverse rock mass conditions were en-
L Grouted rock ma.ss where required countered in the Karmsund tunnel and in the
2. Possible shotcrete snd rock bolts where Ellingsöy tunnel.
required
3. Remaining leakøges
4. Shielding plates
5. Drainage ditch with pipes. (M ounting and ro ck
bolt are not shown)

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Arild Palmström, Rolf Naas
220
TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION . PART 2

Figure 14 - The principles of the rock support carried out during tunnel excavation through the poor rock
mass conditions in the Karmsund tunnel (revised øfter [20])

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Rock Excavation and Support Techniques
221
 TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION . PART 2

The Karmsund tunnel

This tunnel had a 200 - 300 m thick sequence

of loose sandstone where eKensive tunnelling
problems occurred at the deepest part of the V- ELLINGSOYFJORO

tunnel (- L80 m) where the rock cover was 50

m. An important factor during excavation
through this sequence was the very quick execu-
tion of hbre reinforced shotcrete only some 1-l2
hour after the rock was exposed and the
reduced length of the rounds during excavation.

The principles for combined excavation and

rock support for the successful penetration
through this zone, is shown in Figure 14. Also OUARIERNARY SÊOIIIENIS

the extended exploratory drillings by the jumbo *ñ.lii:.,

as well as core drillings ahead of the face were

important measures duri'g this challenging part
of the tunnel excavation. $
r\-j'È
\ \:::::::::::;:::r:::
\txri
The Ellinesöy tunnel

In this tunnel a cave-in at the working face

occurred in the main faulting area where several
weakness zones were identified during the pre-
investigations. The tunnel face was located
about 700 m from the shore of the island of
Ellingsöy with a rock cover of 45 m at a sea Figutre 15 - The ødverse ground conditions øt the
depth of 70 m. Ellíngsöy tunnel (frorn [15])

A 2.5 m long (reduced) blast round was CONSTRUCTION COST AND WATER LEAK.
adopted to shape the tunnel face before con- AGE EXPERJENCE
crete casting. Within a short time, however, rock
falls from the working face developed. The A key to the improvements made and to suc-
application of shotcrete was not successful cessful construction of the manysubsea projects
because seeping water in combination with clay in Norway has been the continuous exchange
gave poor adhesion to the rock surface. There of experience and the close cooperation
was no point in placing spiling bolts as they between the engineering geologists, the planners
would not reach through the weak zone, see and the contractors. This has contributed to the
Figure 15. Within 6 hours, a cave-in developed hþh tunnelling outputs mentioned earlier, which
to about 7 m above the tunnel roof. It was then has resulted in low excavation costs also for
decided to seal the whole working face with a subsea tunnels (Figure 16).
concrete plug from the inner part of an earlier
section of concrete lining. The resulting plug The Fannelord tunnel has been selected for
was approximately 7 m long, containing about typical cost hgures of a Norwegian subsea road
700 ms of concrete [L5]. tunnel. The total costs for this two-lane tunnel
including excavation, rock support, sealing
Excavation through the concrete plug and the works (grouting) and installations are 5,000
weakness zoîq a total of 20 metres, was care- USD/m tunnel (35,000 NOK/m). Table IX
fully done within 5 weeks using short rounds shows the split into main cost items. Figure L7
and extensive use of fibre reinforced shotcrete. shows the average costs for stability protection
and water protection in Norwegian subsea

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Arild Palmström, Rolf Naas
222
 TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION . PART 2

Excavalion
Average cosl per meler in lhe subsea tunnel Fannellord.

Bæk bolling

Sholcret¡ng

Concrele lin¡ng

Probe drilling and grouling

Walerlrosl insulalion
Polyelhylene loam

Waler/lrosl insulalion
Polyethylene loam wilh
lire protection (sholcrele)

Waler/lrosl insulal¡on
Glasf ibre/aluminium

Waler/f rosl insulalion

Lighl Weighl Concrele

15.000

cosT

Figure 17 - Cost per meter tunnel for the systematic use of various worl{s in a 2-lane subseø ro&d tunnel
of 57 m2. Average costs per meter in the subsea tunnel Fannefiord are ølso shown

tunnels, with the cost for the Fannefiord tunnel

superimposed.

The experience from 7 subsea tunnels is that

the permanent water inflow varies between 100 -
450 Vmin per km tunnel [6].

6000 ã

l¡
ROCX SUPPORT
4000 â
EXCAVATION (DR¡LL AND
BLAs-r)

Figutre 16 -Approximate distribution of totel costs

¡ð¡v= È for Norwegian 2-lane subsea. road h"tnnels of 55
Ë=
tsd õ== m" cross section (from ftl)
i,jd É¿

sg gg Þg

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Rock Excavation and Support Techniques
223
 TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION . PART 2

Activity Costs
Vo

1 Management and rig 20

2 Salaries (of main contractor) 25

3 Machinery (of main contractor) 15

4 Materials 25

5 Sub-contractors 15

Table IX - Split of total cost (5000 USDIw tunnel) for the Fannefiord tunnel

Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Arild Palmström, Rolf Naas
224
TUNNEL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION . PART 2

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investigations for the Hitra and Fröya
L. Sel¡ner-Olsen R. General engineering geo- subsea rock tunnels. Proc.2nd. Symp.
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and Rock Engineering Association, Publ.
no. 5, 1-988, 53-59. 1.4. The directorate for public roads.
Norwegian design guide, road tun-
2. Palmström A. Subsea rock tunnels. Proc. nels. Public Roads Administration,
Int. Conf. on Strait Crossings, 1-986, LL1,- Norway, L990, 130 pp.
139.
15. Dahlö T. and Nilsen B. Stability and
3. Palmström A. Norwegian experience with rock cover of Norwegian hard rock
subsea rock tunnels. Proc. Int. Conf. on subsea tunnels. Proc.2nd. Symp. on
Tunnels and Water, 1-988, 8 pp. Strait Crossings, L990, L93-20L. *)

4. Palmström A. Introduction to Norwegian L6. Aagaard B. and $eld O.K.Intergra-

subsea tunnelling. Norwegian Soil and Rock ted and extended use of geophysical
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9-rz. shore subsea projects. Proc. 2nd.
Symp. on Strait Crossin gs, L990, \25-
5. Martin D. Vardö tunnel - an undersea 133. *)
unlined road tunnel, Norwegian style. Tun-
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the fiords requires deepwater seismic
6. Övstedal E. and Melby K, Future design of refraction techniques. Tunnels &
subsea road tunnels based on cost and Tunnelling, March L985, n 30.
technical experience. Proc.2nd, Syrrp. on
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technical prognosis and experience
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pp. L988, 13 pp.

8. Martin D. Undersea tunnels carry Norwe- 19. Beitnes A. and Blindheim O.T. Sub-
gian'Pluto' ashore. Tunnels & Tunnelling, sea rock tunnels. Preinvestigation and
December L982,3 pp. tunnelling processes. Våre Veger No.
8, 1-986 Supplement, 8-11.
g. Martin D. Undersea road links .Ä,lesund
with its airport. Tunnels & Tunnelling, 20. Martin D. Fibrecrete gives face lift
March L987,20-24. in delicate undersea blasting job.
Tunnel & Tunnelling July 1-983, 3 pp.
10. Beitnes A. and Seljeseth E, Godöy subsea
road tunnel - Cost-effective solutions for a 21.. Btindheim O.T. and Övstedal E.
low-traffic connection. Proc.2nd. Symp. on Water control in subsea road tunnels
Strait Crossings, 1990, 49-55. *) in rock. Proc. 2nd. Symp. on Strait
Crossings, 1990, 223-233 *)
Lt. Wallis S. Tunnelling to a cleaner coastline.
Tunnels & Tunnelling, September 1990,46- 22. Olsen A.B. and Blindheim O.T. Pre-
47. vention is better than cu¡e. Tunnels
& Tunnelling, March 1989,4L-M.
L2. Espedal T.G. and Nærum G. The Rennfast
link at the western coast of Norway with *) Also presented in Norwegian Soil and
world's longest aud deepest subsea road Rock Engineering Association. Nor-
tunnel. Norwegian Soil and Rock Engineer- wegian subsea tunnelling. Publ. no.
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Norwegian Subsea Tunnelling

Rock Excavation and Support Techniques
225