Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S.

Kadhim)

2. Permeability
Permeability is a property of the porous medium that measures the capacity and ability of the
formation to transmit fluids. The rock permeability, k, is a very important rock property because it
controls the directional movement and the flow rate of the reservoir fluids in the formation. This
rock characterization was first defined mathematically by Henry Darcy in 1856. In fact, the equation
that defines permeability in terms of measurable quantities is called Darcy’s Law. Darcy developed a
fluid flow equation that has since become one of the standard mathematical tools of the petroleum
engineer. If a horizontal linear flow of an incompressible fluid is established through a core sample of
length L and a cross-section of area A, then the governing fluid flow equation is defined as:
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
The velocity, ʋ, in Equation (1) is not the actual velocity of the flowing fluid but is the apparent
velocity determined by dividing the flowrate by the cross-sectional area across which fluid is
flowing. Substituting the relationship, q/A, in place of ʋ in Equation (1) and solving for q results in:

With a flow rate of 1 cubic centimetre per second across a cross-sectional area of 1 square
centimetre with a fluid of 1 centipoise viscosity and a pressure gradient at 1 atmosphere per
centimetre of length, it is obvious that k is unity. For the units just described, k has been arbitrarily
assigned a unit called Darcy in Honor of the man responsible for the development of the theory of
flow through porous media. Thus, when all other parts of Equation (2) have values of unity, k has a
value of 1 Darcy.

One Darcy is a relatively high permeability, as the permeability of most reservoir rocks are less that
1 Darcy. In order to avoid the use of fractions in describing permeability, the term milli-Darcy is
used. As the term indicates, 1 milli-Darcy, i.e., 1 md, is equal to one-thousandth of 1 Darcy, or

1 Darcy =1000 md
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Equation (2) can be integrated when the geometry of the system through which fluid flows is known.
For the simple linear system shown in the following Figure, the integration is performed as follows:

It should be pointed out that the volumetric

flow rate, q, is constant for liquids because
the density does not change significantly
with pressure.
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Since p1 is greater than p2, the pressure terms can be rearranged, which will eliminate the negative
term in the equation. The resulting equation is:

Equation (3) is the conventional linear flow equation used in fluid flow calculations. Standard
laboratory analysis procedures will generally provide reliable data on permeability of core samples. If
the rock is not homogeneous, the whole core analysis technique will probably yield more accurate
results than the analysis of core plugs (small pieces cut from the core). Procedures that have been used
for improving the accuracy of the permeability determination include cutting the core with an oil base
mud, employing a pressure-core barrel, and conducting the permeability tests with reservoir oil.

Permeability is reduced by overburden pressure, and this factor should be considered in estimating
permeability of the reservoir rock in deep wells because permeability is an isotropic property of
porous rock in some defined regions of the system, that is. In other words, it is directional. Routine
core analysis is generally concerned with plug samples drilled parallel to bedding planes and, hence,
parallel to direction of flow in the reservoir. These yield horizontal permeabilities (kh). The measured
permeability on plugs that are drilled perpendicular to bedding planes is referred to as vertical
permeability (kv). The following Figure shows a schematic illustration of the concept of the core plug
and the associated permeability.
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

:
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
As shown in the above Figure, several factors must be considered as possible sources of error in
determining reservoir permeability. These factors are:
1. Core sample may not be representative of the reservoir rock because of reservoir heterogeneity.
2. Core recovery may be incomplete.
3. Permeability of the core may be altered when it is cut or when it is cleaned and dried in
preparation for analysis. This problem is likely to occur when the rock contains reactive clays.
4. Sampling process may be biased. There is a temptation to select the best parts of the core for
analysis.

Permeability is measured by passing a fluid of known viscosity µ through a core plug of measured
dimensions (A and L) and then measuring flow rate q and pressure drop Δp. Solving Equation (3) for
the permeability gives:

The following conditions must exist during the measurement of permeability:

• Laminar (viscous) flow.
• No reaction between fluid and rock.
• Only a single phase present at 100% pore space saturation.
This measured permeability at 100% saturation of a single phase is called the absolute permeability
of the rock.
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Example 1
A brine is used to measure the absolute permeability of a core plug. The rock sample is 4 cm long
and 3 cm² in cross section. The brine has a viscosity of 1.0 cp and is flowing at a constant rate of 0.5
cc/sec under a 2.0 atm pressure differential. Calculate the absolute permeability.

Solution
Applying Darcy’s equation, i.e., Equation 3, gives

Rework the preceding example assuming that an oil of 2.0 cp is used to measure the permeability.
Under the same differential pressure, the flow rate is 0.25 cm3/sec.
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Laboratory Measurement of Permeability

Laboratory measurement of permeability usually uses air as the flow fluid and thus then value
obtained is permeability to air (Kair). Common device that may used to determining (k) is shown
below.

Dry gas is usually used (air, N2, He) in permeability determination because of its convenience and
availability, and to minimize fluid-rock reactions. The measurement of the permeability should be
restricted to the low (laminar/viscous) flow rate region, where the pressure remains proportional to
the flow rate within the experimental error. For high flow rates, Darcy’s equation as expressed by
Equation (3) is inappropriate to describe the relationship of flow rate and pressure drop.
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
In using dry gas in measuring the permeability, the gas volumetric flow rate q varies with pressure
because the gas is a highly compressible fluid. Therefore, the value of q at the average pressure in the
core must be used in Equation (3). Assuming the used gases follow the ideal gas behaviour (at low
pressures), the following relationships apply :

P1V1= P2V2 =PmVm

In terms of the flow rate q, this equation can be equivalently expressed as:
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
The gas flow rate is usually measured at base (atmospheric) pressure Pb, and therefore the term Qgsc
is introduced into Equation (4) to produce:
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
The Klinkenberg Effect

Klinkenberg (1941) discovered that permeability measurements made with air as the flowing fluid
showed different results from permeability measurements made with a liquid as the flowing
fluid. The permeability of a core sample measured by flowing air is always greater than the
permeability obtained when a liquid is the flowing fluid. Klinkenberg postulated, on the basis of his
laboratory experiments, that liquids had a zero velocity at the sand grain surface, while gases
exhibited some finite velocity at the sand grain surface. In other words, the gases exhibited slippage
at the sand grain surface. This slippage resulted in a higher flow rate for the gas at a given pressure
differential. Klinkenberg also found that for a given porous medium, as the mean pressure increased
the calculated permeability decreased.

Mean pressure is defined as upstream flowing plus downstream flowing pressure divided by 2,
[pm = (p1 + p2)/2]. If a plot of measured permeability versus 1/pm were extrapolated to the point
where 1/pm = 0, in other words, where pm = infinity, this permeability would be approximately
equal to the liquid permeability. A graph of this nature and the absolute permeability is determined
by extrapolation is shown in the following Figure.
Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

The magnitude of the Klinkenberg effect varies with the core permeability and the type of gas used
in the experiment as shown in the following Figures. The resulting straight-line relationship can be
expressed as:

Klinkenberg suggested that the slope c is a function of the following factors:

• Absolute permeability k, i.e., permeability of medium to a single phase completely filling the pores
of the medium kL.
• Type of gas used in measuring the permeability, e.g., air.
• Average radius of the rock capillaries.
Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Radial Flow

Equation (2) can be expanded to describe flow in any porous medium where the geometry of the
system is not too complex to integrate. For example, the flow into a wellbore is not linear but is
more often radial. The following Figure illustrates the type of flow that is typical of that occurring
in the vicinity of a producing well. For a radial flow, Darcy’s equation in a differential form can be
written as:

The term dL has been replaced by dr, as the length term has now become a radius term. The minus
sign is no longer required for the radial system shown in the following Figure, as the radius
increases in the same direction as the pressure. In other words, as the radius increases going away
from the wellbore, the pressure also increases.
Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
At any point in the reservoir, the cross-sectional area across which flow occurs will be the surface
area of a cylinder, which is 2Лrh. Since the cross-sectional area is related to r, A must be included
within the integral sign as follows:

This equation assumes that the reservoir is homogeneous and is completely saturated with a single
liquid phase.
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Averaging Absolute Permeabilities

The most difficult reservoir properties to determine usually are the level and distribution of the
absolute permeability throughout the reservoir. They are more variable than porosity and more
difficult to measure. Yet an adequate knowledge of permeability distribution is critical to the
prediction of reservoir depletion by any recovery process. It is rare to encounter a homogeneous
reservoir in actual practice. In many cases, the reservoir contains distinct layers, blocks, or concentric
rings of varying permeabilities. Also, because smaller-scale heterogeneities alwaysm exist, core
permeabilities must be averaged to represent the flow characteristics of the entire reservoir or
individual reservoir layers (units). The proper way of averaging the permeability data depends on how
permeabilities were distributed as the rock was deposited.

Three simple permeability-averaging techniques are commonly used to determine an appropriate

average permeability to represent an equivalent homogeneous system:
1. Weighted-average permeability.
2. Harmonic-average permeability.
3. Geometric-average permeability.
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
1. Weighted-Average Permeability

This averaging method is used to determine the average permeability of layered-parallel beds with
different permeabilities. Consider the case where the flow system comprises three parallel layers
that are separated from one another by thin impermeable barriers, i.e., no cross flow, as
shown in the following Figure . All the layers have the same width w with a cross-sectional area of
A. The flow from each layer can be calculated by applying Darcy’s equation in a linear form, as
expressed by Equation (3), to give:
Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
The total flow rate qt is equal to the sum of the flow rates through each layer, or:
qt= q1+q2+q3
Combining the preceding expressions gives:

The average absolute permeability for a parallel-layered system can be expressed in the following
form:

Above Equation is commonly used to determine the average permeability of a reservoir from core
analysis data.
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

The following Figure shows a similar layered system with variable-width layers. Assuming no
cross-flow between the layers, the average permeability can be approximated in a manner similar
to the previous derivation to give:
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Example
Given the following permeability data from a core analysis report, calculate the average permeability
of the reservoir.
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
2. Harmonic-Average Permeability
Permeability variations can occur laterally in a reservoir as well as in the vicinity of a wellbore. The
following Figure shows fluid flow through a series combination of beds with different values of
permeability. For a steady-state flow, the flow rate is constant and the total pressure drop Δp is
equal to the sum of the pressure drops across each bed, or
Δp =Δp1+ Δp2+Δp3
Substituting for the pressure drop by applying Darcy’s equation gives:
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

In the radial system shown in the following Figure, the preceding averaging methodology can be
applied to produce the following generalized expression:
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

The above radial system equation can be used as a basis for estimating a number of useful quantities
in production work. For example, the effects of mud invasion, acidizing, or well shooting can be
estimated from it.
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Example
A hydrocarbon reservoir is characterized by five distinct formation segments that are connected in
series. Each segment has the same formation thickness. The length and permeability of each section
of the five-bed reservoir follow:

Calculate the average permeability

of the reservoir by assuming:
a. Linear flow system.
b. Radial flow system.
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
For a radial system
The solution of the radial system can be conveniently expressed in the following tabulated form.
Assumes a wellbore radius of (riB=0.25 ft):
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
3. Geometric-Average Permeability
Warren and Price (1961) illustrated experimentally that the most probable behaviour of a
heterogeneous formation approaches that of a uniform system having a permeability that is equal to
the geometric average. The geometric average is defined mathematically by the following
relationship:

If the thicknesses (hi) of all core samples are the same, the above Equation can be simplified as
follows:
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Example
Given the following core data, calculate the geometric average permeability:
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Absolute Permeability Correlations
The determination of connate water by capillary-pressure measurements has allowed the evaluation
of connate-water values on samples of varying permeability and within a given reservoir to a wider
extent and to a greater accuracy than was possible beforehand. These measurements have
accumulated to the point where it is possible to correlate connate-water content with the
permeability of the sample in a given reservoir and, to a certain extent, between reservoirs.

Experience indicates a general relationship between reservoir porosity (Ф) and irreducible water
saturation (Swc) provided the rock type and/or the grain size does not vary over the zone of interest.
This relationship is defined by the equation:

C=(Swc)(Ф)

where C is a constant for a particular rock type and/or grain size.

Several investigators suggest that the constant C that describes the rock type can be correlated with
the absolute permeability of the rock. Two commonly used empirical methods are the Timur
equation and the Morris-Biggs equation.

Timur (1968) proposed the following expression for estimating the permeability from connate-water
saturation and porosity:
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Morris and Biggs (1967) presented the following two expressions for estimating the permeability of
oil and gas reservoirs.

For an oil reservoir,

Example
Estimate the absolute permeability of an oil zone with a connate-water saturation and average
porosity of 25% and 19%, respectively.
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Usually the effective permeability is expressed as a fraction of the absolute permeability, which is the
permeability at 100% saturation of the flowing fluid. This ratio of effective to absolute permeability is
termed the relative permeability. One of the phenomena of multiphase effective permeabilities is that
the sum of the effective permeabilities is always less than or equal to the absolute permeability, i.e.,

.Relative permeability is defined as the ratio of the effective permeability to a given fluid at a definite
saturation to the permeability at 100% saturation. The terminology most widely used is simply kg/k,
ko/k, kw/k, meaning the relative permeability to gas, oil, and water, respectively. Since k is a constant
for ma given porous material, the relative permeability varies with the fluid saturation in the same
fashion as does the effective permeability. The relative permeability to a fluid will vary from a value of
zero at some low saturation of that fluid to a value of 1.0 at 100% saturation of that fluid. Thus, the
relative permeability can be expressed symbolically as: