Sexual Revictimization

Research Brief
This research brief explores the correlation between childhood sexual
abuse (CSA) and subsequent sexual victimization in adulthood. The articles
below, published between 2000 and 2011, demonstrate the significant link
between childhood and adulthood sexual revictimization, as well as related
health problems.

Review Articles mediating factors caused by CSA

contribute to higher risk of sexual
revictimization. Childhood abuse may
Lalor, K., & McElvaney, R. (2010). Child sexual interfere with normal development of
abuse, links to later sexual exploitation/high- interpersonal relatedness and affect
risk sexual behavior, and prevention/treatment regulation, which in turn decrease
programs. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 11, abuse victims’ awareness of danger.
159-177. doi:10.1177/1524838010378299 Negative long-term effects of CSA
may be attempts to avoid or cope
Aims: This article reviews research with negative emotional states, but
literature on the incidence of CSA, that such emotional avoidance can
with emphasis on the relation between create challenges in recognizing
CSA and later sexual exploitation, and danger cues. Some female CSA
apply this information for successful victims may associate sexuality with
CSA prevention. pain, punishment, and other negative
outcomes, leading them to believe that
Methods: The authors draw from coercion and trauma are “normal”
approximately 128 international aspects of sexual relations. This, in
turn, would leave CSA victims with a
scholarly articles on CSA published
“higher threshold of tolerance” for
between 1979 and 2009. coercive or forceful sexual advances.
Key Results yy Other researchers speculate that
yy Numerous studies suggest that social and cultural factors, rather
sexual victimization in adolescence than personal variables alone,
significantly increases the contribute to sexual revictimization.
likelihood of sexual victimization Victims’ experiences can be framed
in adulthood. Studies suggest that in an ecological model that takes
sexual victimization in childhood or into account the role of individual
adolescence increases the likelihood history, family, larger social systems,
of sexual victimization in adulthood and cultural norms and institutions
between 2 and 13.7 times. in facilitating sexual revictimization.
yy Several researchers speculate that Much of the literature on CSA

NSVRC • 123 North Enola Drive, Enola, PA 17025 • Toll free: 877-739-3895 • www.nsvrc.org • resources@nsvrc.org
 prevention emphasizes a holistic, ecological Aims: This study sought to determine whether
approach that addresses the CSA increases the risk for adult sexual assault
various systemic forces influencing among gay men, lesbian women, and heterosexual
children’s development. women. Additionally, it sought to determine what,
if any relationship exists between gender, sexual
Application: This article provides researchers
orientation, CSA, and adult sexual victimization.
and stakeholders with information on the body of
Finally, it explores the relationship between
research on CSA, sexual revictimization, and CSA
sexual revictimization and adverse mental health
prevention efforts. It can alert stakeholders to
outcomes, including substance use, suicidality, self-
vulnerable populations for sexual revictimization
injury, eating disorders, and psychological distress.
(i.e., CSA survivors, women involved in
prostitution). Closing the gaps identified by Methods: Researchers drew from questionnaires
this research can assist stakeholders in forging completed by 871 adult respondents, who
comprehensive CSA prevention campaigns. More consisted of 322 (37%) lesbian women,
information on prevention is available in the 214 (24.6%) gay men, and 335 (38.5%)
NSVRC information packet on CSA prevention. heterosexual women.
Key Results:
Empirical Studies yy 35.5% of respondents reported CSA, and 11.6%
reported adult rape. Lesbians reported higher
Balsam, K. F., Lehavot, K., & Beadnell, B. (2011). Sexual rates of both CSA (44%) and adult rape (15%)
revictimization and mental health: A comparison of lesbians, compared to gay men and heterosexual women.
gay men, and heterosexual women. Journal of Interpersonal yy 19.7% of respondents who experienced CSA
Violence, 26, 1798-1814. doi:10.1177/0886260510372946 reported adult rape.

2  Revictimization
yy Respondents who reported both CSA and adult emotional responses, mental health problems, and
rape were more likely to report psychological physical health problems.
distress, suicidality and self-injury than
Key Results:
respondents who had never experienced sexual
yy 18.3% of female respondents and 1.4% of
victimization, or experienced either CSA or
male respondents reported experiencing
adult rape.
rape (including completed forced penetration,
Application: This suggests that women who identify attempted forced penetration, and completed
as heterosexual and women and men who identify alcohol or drug facilitated penetration) during
as lesbian or gay experience similar rates of sexual their lifetimes.
violence revictimization and resulting adverse
mental health conditions. Service providers who
assist sexual assault victims should be cognizant
of the needs of survivors of all sexual orientations.
Additionally, collaboration between sexual assault
victim advocates, organizations serving gay and
lesbian communities, drug and alcohol counseling/
rehabilitation service providers, and mental health
service providers may prove efficacious in better
serving sexual assault survivors.

Black, M. C., Basile, K. C., Breiding, M. J., Smith, S. G.,

Walters, M. L., Merrick, M. T., Chen, J., & Stevens, M. R. (2011).
National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2010
summary report. Retrieved from the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention
and Control: http://www.cdc.gov/ViolencePrevention/pdf/
NISVS_Report2010-a.pdf

Aims: This report charts the prevalence and

characteristics of intimate partner violence, sexual
violence, and stalking in a U.S. sample of adult men
and women. Additionally, the report discusses
revictimization patterns and health consequences
correlated with experiencing these forms of violence.
Methods: The study draws data from random
telephone interviews with 16,407 adults (9,086
women and 7,421 men) in 2010. Subjects were asked
about lifetime and 12-month exposure to sexual
violence, stalking, and intimate partner violence
(including psychological aggression, physical
violence, and sexual violence), as well as adverse

Research Brief  3
yy 44.6% of female respondents and 22.2% of that rape before age 18 is significantly correlated
male respondents reported experiencing sexual with adult rape among women. Stakeholders can
violence other than rape during their lifetimes. target both primary and secondary prevention
efforts at youth so as to prevent both initial and
yy Among female respondents who reported
later adult sexual victimization.
experiencing a completed rape before age 18,
35.2% also experienced a completed rape as
an adult, compared to 14.2% of women who Desai, S., Arias, I., Thompson, M. P., & Basile, K. C. (2002).
did not experience rape before age 18. Too few Childhood victimization and subsequent revictimization
men reported experiencing rape in adulthood to assessed in a nationally representative sample of women and
examine revictimization rates. men. Violence and Victims, 17, 639-653.

Application: This study reminds stakeholders that Aims: This study sought to determine whether
women report high lifetime prevalence of sexual childhood physical or sexual abuse increased
victimization (including but not limited to rape), and victims’ risk for physican or sexual revictimization
in adulthood.
Methods: The study drew data from the National
Violence Against Women Survey, which obtained
data from 8,000 adult men and 8,000 adult
women between November 1995 and May 1996.
Respondents answered questions about physical
and sexual victimization in childhood and adulthood.
Key Results:
yy Childhood sexual victimization was reported
by 7% of women and 2% of men. Adult sexual
victimization was reported by 11.5% of women and
1% of men. Finally, 8.7% of women and .4% of men
reported having experienced sexual abuse by an
intimate partner.
yy Women who experienced CSA were twice as
likely to report adult sexual victimization as
women who did not experience CSA.
yy Women who experienced both CSA and
childhood physical victimization were three
times more likely to report physical or sexual
victimization in adulthood.
yy Women who experienced CSA were twice as
likely to experience intimate partner physical
victimization. However, women who experienced
CSA were not more likely to have experienced
sexual violence by an intimate partner in

4  Revictimization
 adulthood than women who had not Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000). Full report of the
experienced CSA. prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against
women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women
yy Men who experienced CSA were almost six
Survey (NCJ 183781). Retrieved from the U.S. Department
times more likely to experience adult sexual
of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of
victimization than men who did not Justice: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/183781.pdf
experience CSA.
yy Men who experienced both physical and sexual Aims: This study sought to determine the incidence
victimization in childhood were six times more and prevalence of violent victimization among men
likely to experience sexual victimization. and women, including victimization in childhood
and adulthood.
yy Men who experienced CSA were thirteen times
more likely to experience adult intimate partner Methods: The study drew data from the National
sexual victimization. Men who reported both Violence Against Women Survey, which obtained
CSA and physical victimization during childhood data from 8,005 adult men and 8,000 adult women
were 10 times more likely to report adult intimate between November 1995 and May 1996. Subjects
partner sexual victimization. were asked about their experiences with rape,
Application: This article helps illuminate areas of physical assault, stalking, and intimate partner
intersection for prevention and intervention by violence in both childhood and adulthood.
focusing on the relationship between childhood Key Results:
and adult victimization. It provides clear direction yy Over half of the women and three-quarters of
to victim service professionals to increase early the men who reported attempted or completed
intervention and prevention efforts to address the rape were minors at the time of their first
victimization of boys. sexual victimization.

Research Brief  5
yy Women who reported being raped before age 18 Methods: Participants for this research included
were twice as likely to report being raped as an 160 women who were incarcerated. Researchers
adult. Specifically, 18.3% of female respondents administered a questionnaire that assessed
raped as minors also reported being raped as for childhood maltreatment, unwanted sexual
adults, compared to 8.7% of female respondents experienced, and emotional regulation (including
who were not raped as minors. impulse control difficulties, difficulty engaging
Application: This study can provide a general in goal-directed behavior, negative secondary
overview of sexual violence statistics (including responses to experiencing negative emotions, lack
statistics on revictimization, injury, and at-risk of emotional awareness, limited use of emotional
groups) to aid in public policy discussions about regulation strategies, and difficulty clearly
the need for more comprehensive and effective identifying emotions that one is experiencing).
prevention programs and early intervention
services for youth. Key Results:
yy Over half (53%) of respondents reported
Walsh, K., DiLillo, D., & Scalora, M. J. (2011). The cumulative experiencing CSA, and 56% reported experiencing
impact of sexual revictimization on emotion regulation at least one rape since age 14.
difficulties: An examination of female inmates. Violence yy Respondents who experienced CSA were
Against Women, 17, 1103-1118. doi:10.1177/1077801211414165 significantly more likely to have experienced
rape after age 14. More than a third (37%) of
Aims: This study explored the relationship between
respondents experienced both CSA and rape
childhood sexual abuse, adult sexual victimization,
after age 14.
and challenges that incarcerated women have with
emotional regulation.

6  Revictimization
yy Respondents who experienced both CSA and revictimization were more likely to have
rape after age 14 had higher levels of emotional experienced childhood sexual abuse that involved
dysregulation and difficulty clearly identifying physical force. Physical force experienced during
emotions. Furthermore, respondents who childhood sexual assault increased the probability
experienced both types of sexual victimization of adult sexual victimization by a factor of 4.3.
also reported less acceptance of their emotions,
yy Revictimized respondents were also more likely
greater difficulties engaging in goal-directed
to report having been hit by a partner than child
behavior, and limited access to emotional
sexual abuse victims who did not experience adult
regulation strategies.
sexual revictimization.
Application: This study suggests that women
who are incarcerated may experience higher rates
of sexual victimization than non-incarcerated
women. Clear collaboration between sexual assault
advocates, prison based counselors, and prison
chaplains is needed to provide trauma-informed
services to this often underserved population

West, C. M., Williams, L. M., & Siegel, J. A. (2000). Adult

sexual revictimization among black women sexually
abused in childhood: A prospective examination of seri-
ous consequences of abuse. Child Maltreatment, 5, 49-57.
doi:10.1177/1077559500005001006

Aims: This study documents the frequency and

correlates of adult sexual revictimization among
African-American women with documented histories
of childhood sexual abuse.
Methods: This study draws from face-to-face
interviews with 113 African-American women with
documented histories of childhood sexual abuse.
Respondents had been examined as children
in the emergency room of an urban hospital in
1973 and 1975 when they were age 12 or younger.
Subjects and/or their family members were
interviewed at the time as part of a prior study on
the consequences of sexual violence. Subjects were
re-interviewed in 1990 and 1991, whose ages at the
time ranged from 19 to 31 years of age.
Key Results:
yy Respondents who experienced adult sexual

Research Brief  7
yy Victims of adult sexual revictimization were professionals, mental health professionals, drug
more likely to report repeated vaginal infections, and alcohol counselors, and other service providers
problems conceiving, painful intercourse, and need to understand prior CSA as a context for later
sexually transmitted diseases than child sexual victimization, exploitation, and health problems.
abuse victims who did not experience adult
The studies examined in this research brief also
revictimization.
suggest that certain populations of CSA survivors
Application: Medical professionals (i.e., may be at greater risk for sexual revictimization
obstetricians, gynecologists, Sexual Assault Nurse due to the effects of oppression. People of color,
Examiners) may benefit from understanding the gays and lesbians, people living in poverty and
relationship between sexual victimization and those who are incarcerated may be at greater risk
reproductive health problems and make trauma for sexual exploitation and violence. Social justice
informed adaptations to their practice to increase organizations and service providers can serve
earlier intervention. vulnerable populations through collaboration,
early intervention, and greater service accessibility.
Summary Additionally, adult survivors of child sexual abuse
are in need of increased services from sexual
Research shows a significant correlation between assault programs.
CSA and adult sexual revictimization. The wider
lifetime public health impact of CSA includes adult The precise relationship between CSA and adult
sexual assault, intimate partner violence, mental, sexual victimization is complex, with researchers
sexual and reproductive health problems. This suggesting a variety of mediating and co-occurring
information can help stakeholders understand factors. Additional research on mediating and
the context of adult sexual violence and design co-occurring factors can enrich the field’s
comprehensive responses to sexual assault victims understanding of the links between CSA and
with multiple lifetime traumas. Sexual assault revictimization, which may help in the development
advocates, domestic violence advocates, medical of sexual assault prevention strategies.

© National Sexual Violence Resource Center 2012. All rights reserved.

This publication is supported by Grant No. 2009-TA-AX-K042 awarded by the Office on Violence Against Women,
U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions, findings, conclusions, and recommendations expressed in this
publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Department of Justice,
Office on Violence Against Women.