Law of Universal Gravitation

Isaac Newton
• Born in England in 1642
• Discovered laws of motion and gravity
• Invented calculus in early twenties
• Finally published work in gravity in 1687
– The Principia
The Apple & the Moon
Isaac Newton realized that the motion of a falling apple and the motion of the Moon were
both actually the same motion, caused by the same force - the gravitational force.
Law of Universal Gravitation
• Gravity is a FUNDAMENTAL force
• Gravity is an ATTRACTIVE force
– Pulls objects together
• Gravity is a UNIVERSAL force
– Affects material everywhere in the Universe
– Works over large scales
• Gravity is a MUTUAL force
– Operates between pairs of objects

Newton concluded that the gravitational force is:

 Directly proportional to the masses of both objects.
 Inversely proportional to the distance between the objects
Two variables can change the force of gravity:
the mass of the objects
the distance between the objects
In symbols, Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation is:

Fg = G M1M2
r2
 where F is the force of gravity
 M1 is the mass of one object
 M2 is the mass of a second object,
 r is the distance between them, and
 G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2/kg2 is a constant called Newton’s Universal Gravitational
Constant.
Force of Gravity
• Depends on the masses of the objects
– More massive, stronger gravitational force
• Depends on the distance between the objects
– More distance, weaker gravitational force
• DOES NOT DEPEND ON ANYTHING ELSE!

The force of gravity keeps

planets in orbit, causes
objects to fall, or holds
objects to the surface of the
Earth.
Orbital Motion
Is the motion of a body around another one.
• Examples:
– A solar system planet around the Sun
– A star around a companion star (binary system)
– A Galaxy around another (like LMC around the
Milky Way)
- A satellite around a planet

The Force of Gravity keeps objects in Orbit

• Without Gravity: Moon would move in straight line at constant speed (at 1000 m/s)
– Newton’s First Law
– It would move away from the Earth
• Gravity of Earth pulls Moon into a curved path
– Causes Moon to orbit, constantly “falling” to Earth
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
1: Planets orbit on ellipses with the Sun at one focus
2: Planets sweep out equal areas in equal times
3: The orbital period squared is proportional to the size of the semi-major axis cubed
Newton generalized these laws using his Law of Universal Gravitation to apply to any two
objects
First Law of Orbital Motion – Kepler
• Planets orbit on ellipses with the Sun at one focus
• A circle is just a special case of an ellipse with no eccentricity
• Eccentricity: the degree by which the shape of an orbit differs from a circle.
• An ellipse with an eccentricity of 0 is a circle. An ellipse with an eccentricity 1 is a line
segment.
Two types of Orbits:
Closed curves (Ellipses, Circles)
Open curves
Speed dictates type of orbit
First Law of Orbital Motion – Newton
• Escape Speed: minimum speed needed to escape the force of gravity of the central body
pulling object into a closed orbit
• Trajectory follows an open curve
• If v>escape speed, does NOT ORBIT

The minimum launch speed from the Earth’s surface for a projectile to escape the Earth
entirely is 11.2 km/s.
This is called the escape velocity from Earth - the velocity an
object needs to be moving at to escape the Earth’s
gravitational attraction.The more massive planets (e.g.
Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus) have higher escape velocities

• Escape velocity doesn’t just depend on the planet’s mass -

it also depends on the
distance between the planet and the escaping object.
• The velocity ve of an object is inversely proportional
to its distance d from the planet:
Second Law of Orbital Motion
• Move faster when closer to the central object.
• Move slower when farther away from the central object.
• Kepler: Planets sweep out equal areas in equal times

Third Law of Orbital Motion

The time it takes a planet to complete its orbit depends on the size of the orbit (i.e., the
distance from the sun)
• Kepler:
– The orbital period squared is proportional to the size of the semi-major axis cubed:
P2 = a3 (P in years, a in AU)
• Newton:
– Generalized the relationship beyond Sun-Earth
– There is also a dependency on the masses of the objects
• Kepler’s form was only an approximation when one object was much larger than the other
(i.e. planets orbiting the Sun).
Most Important
Take-away Points
Gravity:
– Gravity is a MUTUAL, ATTRACTIVE force
– Force of gravity is proportional to mass
– Force of gravity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance (Inverse
Square Law)
– Force = mass x acceleration; Fgrav = GM1M2/d2
Orbits:
– The speed of the object dictates the shape of its orbit
– Orbiting objects speed up close in to the central object and slow down at a distance
The Solar System
Our Solar System consists of a central star (the Sun), the nine planets orbiting the sun,
moons, asteroids, comets, meteors, interplanetary gas, dust, and all the “space” in
between them.
The nine planets of the Solar System are named for Greek and Roman Gods and
Goddesses.
 Inner and Outer Planets
• Inner Planets:Mercury,Venus,Earth,Mars
Outer planets: Jupiter,Saturn,Uranus,Neptune,Pluto
The Sun
The sun’s energy comes from nuclear fusion (where hydrogen is converted to helium)
within its core. This energy is released from the sun in the form of heat and light.
Remember: Stars produce light. Planets reflect light.
A star’s temperature determines its “color.” The coldest stars are red. The hottest stars
are blue.
The 9 Planets of the Solar System
Planets are categorized according to composition and size. There are two main categories
of planets:
– small rocky planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, and Pluto)
– gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune)
Characteristics of Small Rocky Planets
• They are made up mostly of rock and metal.
• They are very heavy.
• They move slowly in space.
• They have no rings and few moons (if any).
• They have a diameter of less than 13,000 km.
Mercury
• Mercury has a revolution period of 88 days. Mercury has extreme temperature
fluctuations, ranging from 800F (daytime) to -270F (nighttime).
• Even though it is the closest planet to the sun, Scientists believe there is ICE on Mercury!
The ice is protected from the sun’s heat by crater shadows
Venus
• Venus is the brightest object in the sky after the sun and moon because its atmosphere
reflects sunlight so well. People often mistake it for a star.
• Its maximum surface temperature may reach 900F.
• Venus has no moons and takes 225 days to complete an orbit.
Earth
• Earth is the only planet known to support living organisms.
• Earth’s surface is composed of 71% water.
– Water is necessary for life on Earth.
– The oceans help maintain Earth’s stable temperatures.
• Earth has one moon and an oxygen rich atmosphere.
Earth’s Moon
• It takes the moon approximately 29 days to complete one rotation. The same side of the
moon always faces us.
• The moon’s surface is covered in dust and rocky debris from meteor impacts. It has no
water or atmosphere.
• The moon reflects light from the sun onto the earth’s surface.
Mars
• Like Earth, Mars has ice caps at its poles.
• Mars has the largest volcano in our solar system: Olympus Mons. Olympus Mons is
approximately 15 miles high.
• Mars appears red because of iron oxide, or rust, in its soil.
• Mars has two moons and takes about two years to complete an orbit.
Pluto
• Pluto has only one moon and takes about 249 years to orbit the sun.
• Part of Pluto’s orbit passes inside that of Neptune, so at times Neptune is the planet
farthest from the sun.
• Pluto was located and named in 1930, but today Pluto is no longer considered a
planet.
Characteristics of Gas Giants
• They are made up mostly of gases (primarily hydrogen & helium).
• They are very light for their size.
• They move quickly in space.
 • They have rings and many moons.
• They have a diameter of less than 48,000 km
Jupiter
• Jupiter is the largest and most massive planet.
• It’s diameter is 11 times bigger than that of the Earth’s.
• It takes about 12 years for Jupiter to orbit the sun.
• Jupiter has 16 known moons.
Saturn
• Saturn is composed almost entirely of hydrogen and helium.
• Saturn has many rings made of ice. Saturn’s rings are very wide. They extend outward to
about 260,000 miles from the surface but are less than 1 mile thick.
• Saturn has 18 known moons, some of which orbit inside the rings!
• It takes Saturn about 30 years to orbit the sun.
Uranus
• Uranus is blue in color due to methane gas in its atmosphere.
• Uranus has 11 dark rings surrounding it.
• Uranus has 21 known moons and takes 84 years to complete one orbit.
Neptune
• Neptune has the fastest winds in the solar system: up to 2,000 km/hr.
• Neptune is also blue in color due to methane gas in its atmosphere.
• Neptune takes 165 years to orbit the sun and has 8 moons.
ASTEROIDS, COMETS AND METEOROIDS

Prepared by:
Jonnabelle Rose T. Linas,LPT