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Histology 11 – Digestive system Dr. Fadhil H. Ahmed

Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT)

• GIT is a long muscular tube. It begins with the oral cavity and ends in the anus.
• The parts of GIT are the oral cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine
and large intestine.

General Microscopic Features of GIT

The GIT consists of 4 layers (from inside to outside): -
1. Mucosa: consists of 3 layers: -
A. Epithelium: performs 3 functions: protection, absorption and secretion.
B. Lamina Propria:
• Supports the overlying epithelium.
• Composed of loose connective tissue.
• Rich in blood supply and lymphatics;
the digested food enters the blood in
this layer.
• Contain glands and lymphoid follicles.
C. Muscularis Mucosa
• The muscularis mucosa separates
mucosa from submucosa.
• It consists of inner circular and outer
longitudinal layers of smooth
muscles.
• It produces localised movements of the mucous membrane.
2. Submucosa: is present between mucosa and muscularis externa.
• It consists of loose connective tissue.
• Apart from blood vessels and lymphatics,
• It has a plexus of autonomic nerves, the submucosal plexus (Meissner’s plexus).
• It may also contain glands.
3. Muscularis Externa
• It consists of two layers of smooth muscle: the inner circular and the outer
longitudinal layers.
• In between these two layers of smooth muscles lies a plexus of autonomic nerves
called Auerbach’s or myenteric plexus.
• Contraction of this layer propels the food contents.
4. Serosa and Adventitia
• The outermost layer of GIT
• The adventitia consists of loose connective tissue
• In the abdominal part of the GIT, the adventitia is covered by simple squamous
epithelium (mesothelium); the adventitia and the mesothelium together are called
serosa.
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Histology 11 – Digestive system Dr. Fadhil H. Ahmed

Microscopic Features of GIT

The changes occur only in (mucosa layer) of the oesophagus, stomach, small intestine
and large intestine while the other layers remain almost the same.

Microscopic Features of Different Parts of GIT

Special features in other
Part of GIT Epithelium Lamina propria
layers
1- Oesophagus - Non-keratinised - A few lymphoid - Submucosa has mucous
stratified squamous follicles glands
- Muscularis externa in
upper one-third skeletal
muscle, in middle one-
third both skeletal and
smooth muscles and in
lower one-third smooth
muscle.
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Histology 11 – Digestive system Dr. Fadhil H. Ahmed

2- Stomach — - Short gastric

fundus & pits.
body - Gastric glands—
less coiled at
base, numerous
parietal and
chief cells - Muscularis externa has 3
Simple Columnar layers—inner oblique,
3- Stomach — Epithelium - Long gastric middle circular and outer
pylorus pits. longitudinal layers
- Gastric glands—
more coiled at
the base, very
few parietal
cells, no chief
cells
4- Duodenum - Plicae circulars composed of: - Brunner’s glands in
- Villi composed of: submucosa
- Simple columnar
5- Jejunum - Goblet cells
6- Ileum - Crypts of Lieberkühn
- Microvilli - Peyer’s patches

7- Colon - Simple columnar - Crypts of

- Numerous goblet Lieberkühn
cells - Taenia coli
- Microvilli
8- Appendix - Simple columnar - Crypts of
- Numerous goblet Lieberkühn
cells - Numerous - No taenia coli
- Microvilli lymphoid
follicles
9- Anal canal - Upper - Stratified - Circum-anal - The submucosa has
squamous glands numerous venous
nonkeratinized - Apocrine sweat plexuses (haemorrhoidal
- Lower - stratified gland plexuses)
squamous
keratinized

Accessory organs of digestive systems

1- Liver
• The liver is the largest gland of the body.
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Histology 11 – Digestive system Dr. Fadhil H. Ahmed

• Functions: These include synthesis of urea, formation and secretion of bile,

detoxification of metabolic wastes as well as many drugs, storage of glycogen,
metabolism of cholesterol and fat, synthesis of plasma proteins and gluconeogenesis
(i.e. conversion of lipids and amino acids into glucose).
Microscopic Structure of the liver
1- The liver covered by connective tissue capsule (Glisson’s capsule).
2- The liver consists chiefly from a polyhedral cell called (hepatocytes).
3- The liver is divided into hepatic lobules, each of which is surrounded by a thin layer
of fine connective tissue.
4- hepatic lobules are hexagonal in shape

5- At the 6 angles of the lobules, there are

portal triads (also called portal areas)
which contain a branch of
a. portal vein (the largest lumen in
portal triad)
b. branch of hepatic artery,
c. bile duct and occasionally a
lymphatic vessel.
6- In the centre of each lobule is the central
vein.
7- Inside a hepatic lobule, hepatocytes are
arranged in one- or two-cell thick plates.
8- Blood vessels of liver are sinusoid capillary
9- These sinusoids are lined by phagocytic
cells, also called Kupffer cells
10-There is a narrow space between the hepatic sinusoids, and the hepatocytes, and
this space is called the Space of Disse.
11-Portal Lobule is another way of dividing of the liver. This is based on the direction
flow of the bile.
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Histology 11 – Digestive system Dr. Fadhil H. Ahmed

2- Pancreas
• It is the main enzyme-producing accessory gland of the digestive system. It has
exocrine and endocrine functions. The pancreas consists of lobules, connective
tissue septa, ducts, and islets of Langerhans (paler staining, endocrine regions of
the pancreas, which makes up about 2% of the total).
• The exocrine part of the pancreas has serous acini (compound tubule-acinar gland).
• The acini of the pancreas contain centroacinar cells. Their secretion (pancreatic
juice) empties into ducts lined with a simple cuboidal epithelium, and then into
larger ducts with stratified cuboidal epithelium. This is then delivered to the
duodenum via the pancreatic duct.
• Pancreatic juice is an enzyme - rich alkaline fluid (due to bicarbonate ions).
• Islets of Langerhans contain cords of endocrine secretory cells (up to around 3000),
surrounded by fenestrated capillaries, and supported by reticular fibers, in a faint
capsule around each islet. They contain 3 types of secretory cells: -
1. Alpha cells (20%): which are peripherally located. These cells secrete glucagon,
in response to lowered levels of blood glucose. Glucagon acts on the liver to
raise glucose levels.
2. Beta cells (70%): which are centrally located. These cells secrete insulin in
response to increased levels of blood glucose. Insulin acts on the liver, striated
muscle, fibroblasts, and adipocytes to increase glucose uptake.
Clinical note: Loss or damage to beta cells in children causes:
A. Type 1 diabetes mellitus (insulin - dependent diabetes mellitus), and a
consequent lifelong dependence on exogenous insulin.
B. Type 2 diabetes mellitus (non - insulin - dependent) normally has a later
onset, is commonly caused by a combination of lifestyle (obesity) and
genetic factors and is caused by insulin resistance (reduced responsiveness
to insulin), and the inability of the beta cells to increase insulin production.
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Histology 11 – Digestive system Dr. Fadhil H. Ahmed

3. Delta cells (10%): which are peripherally located. These cells secrete gastrin
and somatostatin. Somatostatin appears to inhibit insulin and glucagon
secretion.
4. PP Cells: secrete pancreatic polypeptide hormone
• Each islet is supplied by up to three arterioles, which form the branching network of
fenestrated capillaries, into which the hormones are secreted.
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Histology 11 – Digestive system Dr. Fadhil H. Ahmed

• The alkaline pH helps to neutralize the acid chyme from the stomach, as
it enters the duodenum.
• The enzymes digest proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids
(including trypsin and chymotrypsin, which are secreted as inactive
precursors, and activated by the action of enterokinase, an enzyme
secreted by the duodenal mucosa).
• The release of enzymes is stimulated by cholecystokinin (CCK), which is
secreted by the duodenum.
• The release of watery alkaline secretions is stimulated by secretin, which
is secreted by neuroendocrine cells in the small intestine.
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Histology 11 – Digestive system Dr. Fadhil H. Ahmed

A fine network of connective tissue fibers (type III collagen) provides support to the
hepatocytes and sinusoid lining cell. The lack of connective tissue makes the liver soft, and
easy to tear in abdominal trauma.
Portal tracts at the edges of the lobules contain terminal branches of the hepatic artery,
the hepatic portal vein, and the bile duct.
The hepatic vein is found at the center of the lobule.
The liver is unusual because it has a dual blood supply. It receives:
A. Arterial blood from the hepatic artery (about 25% of the total blood flow).
B. Venous blood from the hepatic portal vein, which contains nutrients absorbed from
the gastrointestinal tract (about 75% of the total blood flow).
Blood leaves the liver in the hepatic veins.
Bile leaves the liver via hepatic ducts, merging into the bile duct. The bile is then delivered
to the gallbladder for storage. Importantly, blood flows from the portal tracts at the edges
of the lobule towards the central vein. Bile flows in the opposite direction, emptying
into short canals of Hering close to the portal tracts, and then into the bile ductule in the
portal tract itself.