Précis on Geom 204 for BEinGE, KU

Astronomy
Astronomy is that branch of science, which deals with the study of universe as a whole
and of objects, which exist naturally in space, such as the moon, the sun, stars and planets. The
scientific study of matter in outer space, especially the positions, dimensions, distribution,
motion, composition, energy, and evolution of celestial bodies and phenomena “Imagine the
Universe Dictionary”.
The study of the principle of creation of the universe, movements and relative positions of the
sun, moon, planets and stars; and the skill of describing the expected effect that these are
believed to have on the character and behavior of humans is called astrology (Jyotish-Shastra).
There are mainly three branches of astrology; Siddhanta-Jyotish, Ganita-Jyotish and Phalita-
Jyotish. Siddhanta-Jyotish deals with the principle of creation of the universe, Ganita-Jyotish
deals with the study of the position and motion of the heavenly bodies and the Phalita-Jyotish
deals with skill of describing the expected effect of the position and motion of the planets and
stars that are believed to have on the character and behaviour of humans.

Definitions of Astronomical Terms:

1. Celestial Sphere
The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere of gigantic radius with the earth located at its
center. It is the large sphere surrounding the earth with which we can keep references to where
celestial bodies lie in the sky. At any one time, we see no more than half of this sphere. In
astronomy, we are concerned with the relative direction of the different celestial bodies rather
than their actual distances from the observer, so it is convenient to visualize that all the heavenly
bodies are studded over the inner surface of the celestial sphere of infinite radius, Fig. 1.

Fig: 1

Then each direction away from the observer will intersect the celestial sphere in one unique
point, and positions of stars and other celestial objects can be measured in angular coordinates
(similar to longitude and latitude on Earth) on this virtual sphere. This can be done without
knowing the actual distances of the stars. Moreover, any plane through the origin cuts the sphere
in a great circle.

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 Précis on Geom 204 for BEinGE, KU

2. Celestial poles and equator

The poles of the celestial sphere
are aligned with the poles of the Earth.
These are the points on the surface of the
celestial sphere at which the Earth's axis
of rotation on prolongation on either side
meets the surface of the celestial
sphere. The celestial pole towards the
terrestrial north is celestial North Pole and
the celestial pole towards the
terrestrial south is celestial South Pole.
The celestial equator lies along the
celestial sphere in the same plane that
includes the Earth's equator. If the earth's
equator was a rubber band, then the
celestial equator is the same rubber band
just stretched away from the earth at a much
greater radius. Fig. 1
3. Zenith and Nadir: Zenith
The point on the celestial sphere that is directly over
our heads at a given time is termed the zenith and the point
at the opposite end of the diameter of the celestial sphere from
the zenith is termed as the nadir. These points can be
obtained by the prolongation of the plumb line upwards and
downwards up to the celestial sphere. Zenith, observer's
station, center of the earth and nadir lie on a straight line, Zenith-Nadir Line
which is known as zenith-nadir point. Fig. 2
4. Great Circle and Small Circles: Nadir
The intersection of the surface of a sphere with any Fig. 2 plane
is a circle. If the plane contains the center of the sphere, the
circle is called the great circle. Thus, the diameter of the great
circle is equal to the diameter of the sphere itself. The celestial Small Circle
equator is an example of the great circle. The intersection of the
surface of a sphere with any plane, which does not contain the Great Circle
center, is a small circle. The diameter of the small circles is
always smaller than that of the sphere. All the parallels
(latitudes) except the equator are the examples of the small
circles. Fig. 3
Fig. 3

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5. The Celestial Horizon:

Zenith
The great circle traced upon the
celestial sphere by a plane passing through the
center of the earth and perpendicular to the
zenith-nadir line is called the celestial
horizon. It is also known as true, rational or
geocentric horizon. Celestial Horizon

6. The Visible Horizon:

The small circle of the earth, which is
obtained by visual rays passing through Nadir the
point of observation, is known as visible Fig. 4
horizon i.e. it is the circle generated by the
contact of the cone of the visual rays from the
point of observation with the surface of Visible Horizon
the
earth. Fig. 5
7. The sensible Horizon:
The circle obtained by the
intersection of the celestial sphere with the plane
passing through the observer station and being
tangential to the earth's surface and Fig. 5
perpendicular to the zenith-nadir line at the
point of observation is known as sensible
Sensible Horizon
horizon. Fig. 6
8. The terrestrial poles and equator:
The terrestrial poles are the two
points at which the earth's axis of rotation meets
the surface of the earth. The terrestrial
equator is the great circle of the earth the Fig. 6 plane
of which is perpendicular to the axis of Celestial NP
rotation. The two poles are equidistant from it.
9. The Celestial Meridians:
All the great circles passing through the Terrestrial NP
Terrestrial Meridians
celestial poles are called celestial meridians. These are
similar to the terrestrial meridians and may be simply Terrestrial SP
Celestial Equator

imagined as extensions of the terrestrial meridians to the

celestial sphere. Fig. 7
Celestial SP Celestial Meridians

Fig.7

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Zenith
10. The Vertical Circles:
The great circles of the celestial sphere, which pass Vertical Circles
through the zenith and nadir points, are called vertical circles.
They all cut the celestial horizon at right angles. Fig. 8
11. The observer's Meridian: Celestial Horizon
The great circle of the celestial sphere, which passes
through the zenith, nadir and celestial poles, is called the
observer's meridian. It is the vertical circle passing through the
poles or alternatively it is the celestial meridian passing through Nadir Fig.8
the zenith and nadir. The figure 9 shows the observer's meridian.
Zenith Zenith

12. The Prime vertical: Celestial NP

The vertical circle which is 900

Observer's Meridian
perpendicular to the observer's Prime Vertical Observer's Meridian

meridian is termed as the

Celestial Horizon
prime vertical. the prime
vertical passes through the Celestial Equator

east and west points of the Celestial SP

horizon. The figure 10 shows Fig.9
Nadir Nadir Fig.10
the prime vertical.

13. North, South, West, East points (Four Cardinal Points)

The north and south points correspond to the projection of the north and south celestial
poles on the celestial horizon. the meridian line is the line formed by the intersection of the plane
of observer's meridian with the plane of celestial horizon. the points on the extremities of the
meridian line are the north and
Z (Zenith)
south points. the direction
zenith to pole, in the plane of P (North Pole)
horizon, is the direction of
north while the direction pole
to zenith is the direction of
south. The east west line is the W
line in which the prime vertical
N (North Point)
meets the horizon and the east
and west points are the S (South Point) Horizon
extremities of it. Since the E Equator
meridian plane is perpendicular
to both the equatorial palne as
well as horizontal plane, the
intersection of the equator and P' (South Pole)
horizon determine the east and
west points. Fig. 11 Z' (Nadir)
Fig. 11

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13. The ecliptic:

Another important imaginary object P (North Pole) on the
celestial sphere is the "ecliptic" or "Road of the
Sun", which is the imaginary path that the Sun
follows on the celestial sphere over the course
of a year. The Sun traces out a closed path on the
celestial sphere once each year. This
apparent path of the Sun on the celestial Plane of ecliptic sphere
is called the ecliptic. Because the rotation 23027.5' axis of
Plane of Equator
the Earth is tilted by 23027.5' (obliquity) with
respect to the plane of its orbital motion, (which
is also called the ecliptic), the path of the Plane of Horizon Sun on
the celestial sphere is a circle tilted by
23027.5' with respect to the celestial
equator. Fig. 12. This angle of obliquity is
subjected to a diminition of about 5" in a
century.
The ecliptic is important P' (South Pole) Fig. 12
observationally, because the planets, the Sun (by definition), and the Moon are always found
near the ecliptic. The lines from the revolving earth, through the center of the sun, and out to the
space produce a plane which cuts the celestial sphere forming the ecliptic.

14. The Hour Circles:

The hour circles are the great circles passing through the north and south celestial poles.
these circles are secondaries to the celestial equator. The celestial meridians are actually the hour
circles. Fig. 7
15. The Declination Circle and the declination (δ):
The declimnation circle of a heavenly body is the great circle 90-δ
passing through the heavenly body and the celestial poles. That is it is δ
the celestial meridian or the hour circle through the heavenly body. The
declination of a celestial body is the angular distance from the plane of
equator measured along the declination circle to the celestial body.
Declination varies from 0-900 and is measured +ve or -ve according as
the body is north or south of the equator. Fig. 13
Fig.13
16. The Co-declination or Polar distance (p):
It is the angular distance of the heavenly body measured along the declination circle from
the near pole. It is the complement of the declination (p=90-δ). It is always positive, for the stars
at northern hemisphere the polar distance lies between 0 and 900. However when the declination
is south the polar distance is greater than 900. Fig. 13

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17. Azimuth (A): Z (Zenith)

The azimuth of a heavenly body is the angle between the A (Azimuth)
observer's meridian and the vertical circle passing through the P'
heavenly body. Fig 14
18. Altitude (α)
The altitude of a heavenly body is the anglular distance
A
above the horizon maesured along the vertical circle passing
through the heavenly body. Fig 15
P Fig.14
zenithj
19. Co-altitude or Zenith distance (z)
z
The co-altitude of a heavenly body is the anglular
observer's meridian Star
distance of it from zenith maesured along the vertical
circle passing through it. it is the comlement of altitude i.e. α
z = 90 - α. Fig 15
vertical circle

Fig 15

20. Hour angle NCP

H (Hour angle)
The hour angle of a heavenly body is the angle between the
plane of observer's meridian and the plane of the declination circle
or hour circle of the heavenly body. it is always measured Z
westward (clockwise when observed from the celestial pole) fig 16
21. Equinoctial points
The points where the ecliptic crosses the equatorial plane of
the celestial sphere are called Equinoxes or Equinoctial points. The
Sun's declination is zero at these points. In other words, the points Fig16
Z'
where the Sun is at zero declination are called the e Equinoxes or
Equinoctial points. Fig 16
22. First point of Aries (Vernal equinox) γ:
The first point of Aries or NCP
Vernal equinox γ is the point at
which the Sun's declination
changes from south to north and it
makes the commencement of Summer Solstice
Ω
spring season. It is the fixed point
on the celestial sphere and it is
very useful for taking as a γ
Winter Solstice
reference point in celestial
coordinate system. Fig 17
Fig17

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23. First point of Libra (Autumnal equinox) Ω

First point of Libra or Autumnal equinox Ω is the point at which the Sun's declination
changes from north to south and it makes the commencement of Autumn season. It is also a fixed
point on the celestial sphere.
This point is six months appart NCP
in time from the first point of
Aries. Fig 17
24. Solstices Ω
Summer Solstice
The most northern and
southern excursions of the sun
are called the solstices. The γ
Winter Solstice
most northern excursion of the
Sun i.e. the point at which the
Sun's north declination is a Fig17
maximum is called summer
solstice. The most southern excursion of the Sun i.e. the point at which the Sun's south
declination is a maximum is called winter solstice. The case NCP
is just reverse in southern hemisphere. Fig 17
25. Right Ascension (RA)
Right ascension is of a heavenly body is the arc of the
celestial equator intercepted between the first point of Aries Ω
and the declination circle through the body. Right ascension
is measured from the vernal equinox along the equator in γ RA
anticlockwise direction (while viewing from celestial North
Pole) from 00 to 3600 or 0 to 24 hrs. Actually, Right
ascension is a celestial longitude measured in the direction of Fig18
the Earth's rotation. Since that rotation makes a complete
circle in 24 hours, the notation adopted for right ascension was
in terms of hours and minutes with 24 hours representing the
full circle. It tells how east a star lies in the sky from the Sun's
position at March 21st. Fig 18
26. The Terrestrial Latitude
Imagine the Earth were a transparent sphere (actually
the shape is slightly oval; because of the Earth's rotation, its
equator bulges out a little). Through the transparent Earth
(drawing) we can see its equatorial plane, and its middle the
point is O, the center of the Earth. Fig 19

To specify the latitude of some point P on the surface, draw the Fig. 19
radius OP to that point. Then the elevation angle of that point
above the equator is its latitude λ--northern latitude if north of the equator, southern (or negative)
latitude if south of it.

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On a globe of the Earth, lines of latitude are circles of different size. The longest is the equator,
whose latitude is zero, while at the poles--at latitudes 90° north and 90° south (or -90°) the
circles shrink to a point. Fig 20

27. The terrestrial Longitude

On the globe, lines of constant longitude ("meridians")
extend from pole to pole, like the segment boundaries on a peeled
orange. Fig 21 Fig 20 : Lines of latitude
Every meridian must cross the equator. Since the equator is a
circle, we can divide it into 360 degrees, and the longitude φ of a
point is then the marked value of that division where its meridian
meets the equator.

What that value is depends of course on where we begin to

count--on where zero longitude is. For historical reasons, the
meridian passing the old Royal Astronomical Observatory in
Fig 21: Longitude lines
Greenwich, England, is the one chosen as zero longitude. Located at or "meridians"
the eastern edge of London, the British capital, the observatory is
now a public museum and a brass band stretching across its yard
marks the "prime meridian.".

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 Précis on Geom 204 for BEinGE, KU

28. Celestial latitude

The celestial latitude of a heavenly body is the arc of great circle perpendicular to the
ecliptic intercepted between the body and the ecliptic. It is positive while measured northwards
from ecliptic and negative while measured southwards.
29. Celestial longitude
The celestial longitude of a heavenly body is the arc of the ecliptic intercepted between
the great circles perpendicular to the ecliptic and passing througth the vernal equinox and the
heavenly body. It is measured eastward from first point of Aries, it ranges from 00 - 3600 .
30. Equinoctial Colure
The hour circle passing through the equinoctial points is called the equinoctial colure.
31. Almucantar
A small circle parallel to the horizon is called the Almucantar.

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Astronomical Triangles and Astronomical Coordinates

Astronomical Triangle:
Z
The astronomical triangle is the 90-θ P
spherical triangle obtained by joining the pole P, A
H1 H
zenith Z, and the position of the star M on the 90-α
celestial sphere by the arcs of the great circles. 90-δ
In figure the ZPM is the astronomical triangle M
The six elements of an astronomical triangle are Parallactic
Angle
ZP = 90 - θ (θ is the terrestrial latitude)
PM = 90 - δ (co- declination of the star)
ZM = 90 - α (Co- altitude of the star) Fig 26

PZM = A (Azimuth of the star)

ZPM = H1 = 360- H (East ward HA of the star)
This astronomical triangle ZPM can be solved for various practical problems.
The Celestial Reference System or Astronomical Coordinate
Systems
The system of determination of the location of any celestial (heavenly) body is termed as
the Celestial Reference System or the Astronomical Coordinate System. Since all the heavenly
bodies are in a continuous motion in the celestial sphere the position of a particular body can be
located for a particular moment of time. There are the following systems of referencing for the
celestial bodies at a particular moment of time.
Horizontal Coordinate System
Equatorial Coordinate System
Ecliptical Coordinate System
Glactic Coordinate System
1. The Horizon System
The horizon system is defined locally for each observer, or site, on Earth (or another
celestial body). Its origin is the observer's location, its reference axis is the local vertical or
plumb line (defined e.g. by the local gravitational field), and its reference plane is the apparent
horizon i.e. simply horizon perpendicular to the zenith nadir line at observer's position.
Through any direction, or point on the celestial sphere, e.g. the position of a star, a unique
plane (or great circle) perpendicular to the horizon can be found; this is what we call vertical
circle; all vertical circles contain (and intersect in) both the zenith and the nadir. Within the plane
of its vertical circle, the position under consideration can be characterized by the angle to the
horizon, called altitudeα. Alternatively and equivalently, one could take the angle between the
direction and the zenith, the zenith distance z. All objects above the horizon have positive
altitudes (or zenith distances smaller than 90 deg). The horizon itself can be defined, or
recovered, as the set of all points for which altitude = 0 deg (or zenith distance = 90 deg).

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In contrast to the apparent horizon which defines coordinates of objects as the observer
perceives them, the true horizon is defined by the plane parallel to the apparent horizon, but
through the center of Earth. The angle between the position of an object and the true horizon is
referred to as true altitude. For nearby objects such as the Moon, the measured position can vary
notably between these two reference systems (up to 1 deg for the Moon). Also, the apparent
altitudes are subject to the effect of refraction by Earth's atmosphere.
The second coordinate of a position in the horizon system is defined by the point where
the vertical circle of the position cuts the horizon. It is called azimuth A and, on the Northern
hemisphere it is the angle from the south point (or direction) taken to the west, north, and east to
the foot point of the vertical circle on the horizon, thus running from 0 to 360 deg. Taking the
astronomical standard, the south, west, north, and east points on the horizon are defined by A = 0
deg, 90 deg, 180 deg, and 270 deg, respectively. The vertical circle passing through the south
and north point (as well as zenith and nadir) is called local meridian (Observer's meridian,
Definition 11); the one perpendicular to it through west point, zenith, east point and nadir is
called prime vertical (Definition 12).

Z (Zenith)

P (North Pole)

A
W (West Point)
S (South Point) α N (North Point)

E (East Point)

P' (South Pole)

Fig 22

Z' (Nadir)

The Equatorial Coordinate System

The main disadvantage of the horizon system is the steady change of coordinates for a given
astronomical object as Earth rotates during the course of the day. This can be removed by using a
coordinate system which is fixed at the stars (or the celestial sphere). The most frequently used
such system is the equatorial coordinate system which is still related to planet Earth and thus
convenient for observers.
In principle, the celestial coordinate system can be introduced in the simplest way by
projecting Earth's geocentric coordinates to the sky at a certain moment of time. Practically,
projecting Earth's equator and poles to the celestial sphere by imagining straight half lines from
the Earth's center produces the celestial equator as well as the north and the south celestial pole.

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Great circles through the celestial poles are always perpendicular to the celestial equator and
called hour circles.

NCP
a) Right Ascension and Declination System
The first coordinate in the equatorial system,
corresponding to the latitude, is called Declination (δ), and is the
δ
angle between the position of an object and the celestial equator Ω
(measured along the hour circle). It remains to fix the zero point δ
of the longitudinal coordinate, called Right Ascension (RA). For
this, the intersection points of the equatorial plane with Earth's γ RA

orbital plane, the ecliptic, are taken, more precisely vernal

equinox or "First Point of Aries". During the year, as Earth
moves around the Sun, the Sun appears to move through this Fig23
point each year around March 21 when spring begins on the
Northern hemisphere, and crosses the celestial equator from south to north. The opposite point is
called the "autumnal equinox", and the Sun passes it around September 23 when it returns to the
Southern celestial hemisphere. As a longitudinal coordinate, RA can take values between 0 and
360 deg. However, this coordinate is more often given in time units hours (h), minutes (m), and
seconds (s), where 24 hours correspond to 360 degrees (so that RA takes values between 0 and
24 h); the correspondence of units is as follows:
So the vernal equinox, where the Sun appears to be when Northern spring begins around
March 21, is at RA = 0 h = 0 deg, the summer solstice where the Sun is when Northern summer
begins around June 21, is at RA = 6 h = 90 deg, the autumnal equinox is at RA = 12 h = 180 deg,
and the winter solstice is at RA = 18 h = 270 deg. Thus RA is measured from west to east in the
celestial sphere.
Because of small periodic and secular changes of the rotation axis of Earth, especially
precession, the vernal equinox is not constant but varies slowly, so that the whole equatorial
coordinate system is slowly changing with time. Therefore, it is necessary to give an epoch (a
moment of time) for which the equatorial system is taken; currently, most sources use epoch
2000.0, the beginning of the year 2000 AD.

b) Hour angle and Declination System

To go over from equatorial coordinates fixed to the stars to the horizon system, the
concept of the hour angle (HA) is useful. In principle, this means introducing a new, second
equatorial coordinate system, which co-rotates with Earth. This system has again the celestial
equator and poles as reference frames, and declination as latitudinal coordinate, but a co-rotating
longitudinal coordinate called hour angle. In this system, a star or other celestial object moves
contrary to Earth's rotation along a circle of constant declination during the course of the day.
The local meridian is taken as the hour circle for HA=0.
Celestial objects are at constant RA, but change their hour angle as time proceeds. If
measured in units of hours, minutes and seconds, HA will change for the same amount as the
elapsed time interval is, as measured in star time (ST), which is defined so that a sidereal rotation
of Earth takes 24 hours star time, which corresponds to 23 h 56 m 4.091 s standard (mean solar)
time. This is actually the reason why RA and HA are measured in time units. The standard

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convention is that HA is measured from east to west so that it increases with time, and this is
opposite to the convention for RA and HA.
Whenever the vernal equinox crosses the local meridian star time is ST = 0 h by
definition. As time proceeds, RA stays constant, and both HA and ST grow by the amount of
time elapsed, thus star time is always equal to the hour angle of the vernal equinox. also star time
is equal to the current Right Ascension of the local meridian.
More generally, for any object in the sky, the following relation between right ascension,
hour angle, and star time always holds:
HA = ST - RA

Transformation of Horizontal to Equatorial Coordinates, and Vice Versa

Measured (observed) coordinates in the horizontal system, azimuth A and altitude α, can
be transformed to (co-rotating) equatorial ones, hour angle HA and declination δ, for an observer
at geographical latitude θ, by the transformation formulae (mathematically, this is a rotation
around the east-west axis by angle (900 - θ)):
cos δ* sin HA = cos α * sin A
sin δ = sin θ * sin α + cos θ * cos α * cos A
cos δ * cos HA = cos θ * sin α + sin θ * cos α * cos A

The inverse transformation formulae from given HA, δ to A, α read:

cos α * sin A = cos δ * sin HA
sin α = sin θ * sin δ + cos θ * cos δ * cos HA
cos α * cos A = - cos θ * sin δ + sin θ * cos δ * cos HA
For practical calculation in either case, evaluate e.g. the second formula first to obtain δ
or α, and then use the result in the first formula to get HA or A, respectively. (Get HA from or
transform it to Right Ascension according to the relation, HA = ST – RA, if star time is known)

The Ecliptical Coordinate System

In the ecliptical coordinate system, the fundamental reference plane is chosen to be the
ecliptic, i.e. the orbital plane of the Earth around the Sun. Earth's revolution around the Sun
defines an orientation and thus the North and the South Ecliptic Pole.
The ecliptic latitude (θe) is defined as the angle between a position and the ecliptic and
takes values between -900 and +900 while the ecliptic longitude (λe) is again starting from the
vernal equinox and runs from 0 to 3600 in the same eastward sense as Right Ascension but along
the ecliptic.
The obliquity (ε) , or inclination of Earth's equator against the ecliptic, 230 27.5’ more
precisely 230 26' 21.448" (2000.0), and changes very slightly with time, due to gravitational
perturbations of Earth's motion. Knowing this quantity, the transformation formulae from
equatorial to ecliptical coordinates are quite simply given (mathematically, by a rotation around
the "X" axis pointing to the vernal equinox by angle ε = 230 26' 21.448"):

cos θe * cos λe = cos δ * cos RA

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cos θe * sin λe = cos δ * sin RA * cos ε + sin δ * sin ε

sin θe = - cos δ * sin RA * sin ε + sin δ * cos ε

And the reverse transformation:

cos δ * cos RA = cos θe * cos λe

cos δ * sin RA = cos θe * sin λe * cos ε - sin θe * sin ε
sin δ = cos θe * sin le * sin ε + sin θe * cos ε

Ecliptical coordinates are most frequently used for solar system calculations such as
planetary and cometary orbits and appearances. For this purpose, two ecliptical systems are used:
The heliocentric coordinate system with the Sun in its center, and the geocentric one with the
Earth in its origin, which can be transferred into each other by a coordinate translation.

Galactic Coordinates
This coordinate system is most useful for considerations of objects beyond the solar
system, especially for considerations of objects of our Milky Way galaxy, and sometimes
beyond.
Here, the galactic plane, or galactic equator, is used as reference plane. This is the great
circle of the celestial sphere which best approximates the visible Milky Way. For historical
reasons, the direction from us to the Galactic Center has been selected as zero point for galactic
longitude(λG), and this was counted toward the direction of our Sun's rotational motion which is
therefore at λG = 900. This sense of rotation, however, is opposite to the sense of rotation of our
Galaxy. Therefore, the galactic north pole, defined by the galactic coordinate system, coincides
with the rotational south pole of our Galaxy, and vice versa.
Galactic latitude θG is the angle between a position and the galactic equator and runs
from -900 to +900. Glalactic longitude runs of course from 00 to 3600.
The galactic north pole is at RA = 12 h 51.4 min, δ = +27007’, the galactic center at RA =
17 h 45.6 min, δ = -28056’. The inclination of the galactic equator to Earth's equator is thus
62.90. The intersection, or node line of the two equators is at RA = 18 h 51.4 min, δ = 00, and at
λe = 330, θe =00.

Summary of the Sun’s apparent motion in Ecliptic

Date Sun’s position Declination RA Longitude Latitude

21 March Vernal Equinox 00 00 00 00
21 June Summer Solstice 230 27.5’ 900 900 00
23 September Autumnal Equinox 00 1800 1800 00
21 December Winter Solstice -230 27.5’ 2700 2700 00

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 Précis on Geom 204 for BEinGE, KU

NCP

23 September
Autumnal Equinox Summer Solstice
Ω
21 June

γ
Winter Solstice Vernal Equinox
21 December 21 March

Fig 24

Some useful relationships:

• Altitude of the pole and latitude of the place:

From figure Z M2 90-δ2

QOP = 90 = QOZ + ZOP M1 P
90 = θ + ZOP ----- (i) δ1 90-δ3
NOZ = 90 = NOP + ZOP 90-θ M3
Q θ z2
90 = α+ ZOP ----- (ii) z1
z3 α
Substracting (i) & (ii) we get
α-θ=0 S
O
N
i.e. α = θ

Q’

Fig 25

Thus, Altitude of the pole = Latitude of observer

• Relation among the latitude θ, declination δ, altitude α of the celestial body

Case (i)
θ = QZ = QM1+M1Z = δ1+ Z1 = δ1 + (90- α1)
Case (ii)
90 - θ = ZP = Z2 + (90 - δ2 ) = (90 - α2 )+ (90 - δ2)
∴θ = δ2 – ( 90 - α2)
Case (iii)
90-θ = Z3 – (90- δ3 ) » 90-θ = (90-α3)– ( 90- δ3 )
∴θ = α3+(90- δ3 )

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θ = δ+Z is the general relation which holds good for all the three positions if the proper signs
are given to declination and zenith distance. If the celestial body is south of celestial equator δ is
–ve and if the celestial body is north of zenith, zenith distance is – ve.

Examples:
1) Find the hour angle and declination of a star from the following data
P 90-θ
Latitude of the place (θ) = 480 30' N A1 Z
Aximuth of the star ( A) = 500 W 90-δ H
90-α
Altitude of the star (α) = 280 24' M

We have, 90- θ = 90 – 480 30' = 410 30'

90 - α = 90 – 280 24 = 610 36'
δ=?
We know, for any spherical triangle
Cosa = Cosb Cosc + Sinb Sinc CosA Fig 27
0
∴ Cos(90-δ ) = Cos(90- α) Cos (90 - θ) + Sin(90 -α) Sin (90 - θ) Cos 50
= Cos 610 36' Cos 410 30' + Sin 610 36 ' Sin 410 30' Cos 500
= 0.7308848
0
∴ δ = 46 57' 38"
Again
Cos ( 90-α ) = Cos( 90- δ) Cos ( 90 - θ) + Sin ( 90 -δ) Sin ( 90 - θ) Cos H
Sinα − SinδSinθ
Cos H =
CosδCosθ

Sin 28 0 24 ' − Sin 46 0 57 ' 38" Sin 48 0 30 '

=
Cos 46 0 57 ' 38" Cos 48 0 30 '

= - 0.1587114
∴H =99007'55".95

2. Determine the Azimuth A and altitude α of a star from the following data.
Z 90-θ P
0 H1
Declination (δ) = 10 40' S A
90-α
HA of the star = 3250
Latitude of the observer 480 N 90-δ
M
δ = 100 40' S ∴ 90 - δ = 1000 40'
H= 3250 ∴ H1 = 360 – 325 = 350
θ= 480 N ∴ 90 - θ = 90 – 48 = 420
Solving the astronomical triangle ZPM. We get Fig 28
Cos ( 90-α ) = Cos( 90- δ) Cos ( 90 - θ) + Sin ( 90 -δ) Sin ( 90 - θ) Cos H1
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Madhusudan Adhikari
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Sinα = Cos 1000 40' Cos 42 + Sin 1000 40' Sin 42 Cos 35
= θ.4010962
∴α = 23038'48"
Again,

Cos (90 − δ ) − Cos (90 − α )Cos (90 − θ )

CosA =
Sin(90 − α ) Sin(90 − θ )

Cos100 0 40'−Cos 66 0 21'12".Cos 42

=
Sin66 0 21'12".Sin 42

= - 1420 01'25"

3. Calculate the sun's H.A. and Azimuth at the sun rise for a place in latitude 42030' S when the
declination is 220 12' N. Z P

We have
θ = 420 30' S
90-θ = 90- 42'30' M
= 470 30'
δ = 220 12' N
90-α
90+ δ= 1120 12' 90-δ
α =00 H1 A Fig 29
90 -α = 900 P’ 90-θ Z’

Cos112 012'−Cos90.Cos 47 0 30'

∴ CosA = 0
⇒ A = 120 0 49'
Sin90 Sin 47 30'

Cos90 − Cos112 012' Cos 47 0 30'

∴ CosH 1 = 0 0
⇒ H 1 = 68 0 2'26".5
Sin112 12' Sin 47 30'

∴H = 2910 57' 33"5

Different positions of the stars
Every star appears to move from east to west about the axis of rotation of the earth. For
the calculation of azimuth of the star at the time of observation the following are the position
of the star.

Star at elongation
A star is said to be at elongation when its distance east or west of observer’s meridian is
the greatest. At elongation the star does not move in azimuth, its motion being entirely in
attitude and as such the azimuth of the star is a maximum. At elongation the diurnal circles,

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the path of the star, and the vertical circle through the star are tangential to each other. The
angles PRZ and PR’Z are right angled triangles.
Z
R Western elongation
Eastern elongation R’ P
W M
S

E N

Gig 36

* Star at eastern elongation:

A star is said to be at eastern elongation when it is at its greatest distance to the east of the
observers meridian, point R is the eastern elongation of a star M. Fig 36

* Star at western elongation:

A star is said to be at western elongation when it is at its greatest distance to the west of
the observer’s meridian. Position R’ is the western elongation of the star M. Fig 36
When a star is at elongation its motion for a short time is in vertical direction (along the
altitude) and very slightly in horizontal direction i.e. in
Z
azimuth. It is there fore a very suitable position for the
observation of the azimuth as its horizontal movement is R
R’
very slow for some time before and after it reaches its P
W M
elongation. S
If the declination δ and latitude θ of the place of
observation are given the azimuth and hour angle of the E N
star elongation can be computed as follows:
When M is at R, the astronomical triangle ZPM becomes as Gig 37

Z 90-A1 90-α
A1
90-α
90-θ 90-(90-θ) 90-δ
90-H
H M
P 90-δ
So, we use Napir’s rule to compute
HA: Sin (90-H) = Tan (90 -δ) Tanθ
A: Sin (90-A1) = Cos( 90- δ) Cos(90-H)
α: Sin (90-α) = Cos θ Cos (90-H)

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Star at prime vertical: Z P

When the star lies at prime vertical of the observer the
astronomical triangle becomes a right angled
triangle with right angle at zenith. If the declination R δ
W
and latitude θ of the place of observation are known S the
hour angle H and altitudeα can be computed. N

Z E

90-θ Gig 38
H1 90-H1
P 90-(90-δ)
90-α
90-δ 90-R 90-θ
R
90-α

Using Napier's rule

Sin ( 90-H1) = Tan ( 90-θ) tanδ
Sin (90-∝) = Cosδ Cos (90 – H1)

Example: 1 Calculate the declination of the sun at Z 90-θ P the

place of latitude 280 30', if it rises at prime vertical H1
Sinδ = Cos 90.Cos (90-θ) 90-δ
90
Sin δ = 0 W
δ=0 S
S N
E

Gig 39
BU Z AU P
Stat at culmination
The durnal circle or the path of the star crosses AL
the
observer’s meridian twice in one revolution round BL
the
pole. A star is said to be at culmination when it W
crosses the observer’s meridian. At culmination S N the
astronomical triangle reduces to an arc of the
E
meridian. There are two culmination of the star.
Gig 40
Star at upper culmination: a star is said to be at
upper culmination when it crosses the observers
meridian above the celestial pole meridian above the celestial pole . At the upper culmination
the star attains the maximum altitude. AU and BU are the positions of upper culmination of
the stars A and B respectively. At upper culmination the star moves from east to west in
azimuth only .

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Star at lower culmination: a star is said to be at lower culmination when it crosses the
observer’s meridian below the celestial pole. At lower culmination the star attains a
minimum altitude. AL and BL are the positions of stars A and B at lower culmination
respectively. At lower culmination the star moves west to east in azimuth only.
The upper culmination of a star can occur to the north or south of the zenith depending
upon the declination of the star and latitude of the observer’s position.

Relations on zenith distance, latitude of the observer and declination when star is at
culmination are as follows
BU Z AU P
At upper culmination of star A the zenith distance is
given by AL
ZAU = ZP – PAU W
BL

= (90-θ) – (90- δ) S N
= δ -θ E

At upper culmination of the star B, The zenith Gig 41

distance is given by
ZBU = PBU- PZ
=90 - δ + 90-θ = 180 – (θ +δ)
At lower alimentation of the star B, the zenith distance is given by
ZBL = ZP+ PBL = 90 -θ+90-δ
= 180 – (θ+δ)

Stat at horizon
A star is said to be at horizon when its altitude is zero. Hence the zenith distance of a star
at horizon is 900 knowing the declination δ and latitude θ of the observer’s position the
azimuth A and the hour angle H of the star at horizon are calculated as follows
Z
Cos (90 − δ ) − Cos90Cos (90 − θ ) 90-θ P
CosA = A
Sin90.Sin(90 − θ )
H1

Sinδ 90 90-δ
=
Cosθ

∴CosA=Sinδ Secθ
Cos90 − Cos (90 − θ )Cos (90 − δ )
CosH 1 =
Sin(90 − θ ) Sin(90 − δ ) Fig 42

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0 − SinθSinδ
= = − tan θ tan δ
CosθCosδ

∴CosH1 = - tanθ tanδ

Circumpolar stars:
The stars which remain always above
Z
the horizon are called circumpolar stars. The P
circumpolar stars never set. Such stars appear to
the observer to describe a circle about the pole. δ R1
The number of circumpolar stars increases as
the latitude of the obverse position increases. Q R2
For an observer at equator the number of circum
W R3 N
polar stars is zero and at pole all stars are
circumpolar S
E 90-θ
δ> (90-θ) the star will be circumpolar . A star
will be a circumpolar star if its declination is Q’
greater than the co- latitude of the observer’s
position. What will happen to the star that has
declination equal to the co-latitude of the Fig 43
observer?

For field observation the circumpolar star should be near the pole i.e. the polar distance
should be less than 100

Problem 1:

At a place of 390 N the declination & HA of the star were 190 & 420 find the altitude and
azimuath of the star

Problem 2:

The greatest azimuth attained by a circumpolar star is 450, if the latitude of the observer’s place
is 450N prove that δ of the star is 600

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Z
Z
90-θ=90-45=45 P
45

90-α 90 H

90-δ P
M

90-45=45 90-H

90-45=45 90-δ
Fig 44
90-α

A circumpolar star attains maximum azimuth when the declination and altitude circles of
the star are perpendicular. So the Parallactic angle is 90. So, by using Napier’s rule-

Sin (90-δ) = Cos 45. Cos 45

Cos δ = ½
δ= 600
Hence proved

Variation in celestial coordinates Precision Nutation

Several effects lead to slightly depart the measured coordinates from those given in catalogs,
these measurements change with time, location and observing conditions. The proper motion of
solar system objects and stars causes the objects to come into another direction (and distance)
with respect to Earth.

Effects on Earth's motion, precession and nutation, advance to coordinates that don't change any
direction from the starlight coming but to the measurement (or the coordinate system) only. The
motion of Earth with a periodically varying direction of velocity is also responsible for the
aberration of light, an apparent deviation of stars from their position with annual periodicity.
Nearby objects in the solar system and nearby stars show positional and daily parallax effects
that can be measured. Besides proper motion, the Earth's atmosphere makes stars to appear in
another position than they are due to refraction.

Proper Motion
Stars are not really fixed in space but move according to their space velocity and the
gravitational field in their environment. As a star changes its absolute position in space, it will
slowly change the direction in which it appears to be from Earth (which also changes its position
as the Solar System moves through space). This will be visible as a continuously growing
displacement of the star from its original position.

The tangential component of the relative motion of a star shows up in proper motion, which is
measured in arc seconds per year or per century; the radial component (which changes the

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distance) can be measured with much higher accuracy in the Doppler shift of spectral lines
visible in the spectra of stars.

The star with the largest observed proper motion is 9.7 mag Barnard's Star with 10.27 "/y (arc
seconds per year). According to F. Schmeidler, only about 500 stars are known to have proper
motions of more than 1 "/y.

Precession
Precession of the Earth's polar axis is caused by the gravitational pull of the Sun and the Moon
on the equatorial bulge of the flattened rotating Earth. It makes the polar axis precess around the
pole of the ecliptic, with a period of 25,725 years (the so-called Platonic year). The effect is large
enough for changing the equatorial coordinate system significantly in comparatively short times
(therefore, Hipparchus was able to discover it around 130 B.C.).
Sun and moon together give rise to the lunisolar precession p0, while the other planets contribute
the significantly smaller planetary precession p1, which sum up to the general precession p;
numerical values for these quantities are (from Schmeidler; t is the time in tropical years from
2000.0):
p0 = 50.3878" + 0.000049" * t
p1 = - 0.1055" + 0.000189" * t
p = 50.2910" + 0.000222" * t
These values give the annual increase of ecliptical longitude for all stars.
The effect on equatorial coordinates is formally more complicated, and approximately given by
p_RA = m + n * sin RA * tan Dec
p_Dec = n * cos RA
where the constants m and n are the precession components given by
m = + 46.124" + 0.000279" * t
n = + 20.043" - 0.000085" * t
Precession will shift the North Celestial Pole even closer to Polaris (Alpha Ursae Minoris) until
2115, and around 14,000 AD, Vega (Alpha Lyrae) will be an extremely bright polar star. About
5000 years ago, closest to the celestial pole about 2850 BC, Thuban (Alpha Draconis) has been
the pole star.

Nutation
As Earth's axis precesses around the pole of the ecliptic, this motion is superimposed by small
periodic fluctuations called nutation. Ths nutation is caused by the motion of lunar orbital nodes,
which is retograde and has a period of 18.60 tropical years. Due to this effect, the celestial poles
follow small ellpises with a semimajor axis of 9.202", which is called constant of nutation.

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Time Systems in Astronomy

Time
The interval that elapses between any two events is known as time. The time is measured with
1
th
respect to the position of the object in periodic motion, the motion that occurs repeatedly. 60
of a complete rotation of the second arm of a clock is called one second time.
The period that elapses in making one complete revolution by the stars round the celestial
pole is called sideral day. The time interval in completing one revolution is equal to 23 hrs 56
min 4 sec.
The passage of heavenly body across the meridian is called its transit or culmination. The
rotation of the earth causes the heavenly body to transit or culminate in succession across the
meridian. The interval between to consecutive transit of the sun across the meridian at any place
is called Solar Day.
The instrument that measures the time is called the clock, watch or chronograph. The
clock that keeps the sidereal time is called astronomical clock. It records 00 0'0" when γ just
crosses the meridian, after the interval of one sidereal day again returns to the meridian. The
hours in the clocks are reckoned form o hours to 24 hours

Local sidereal Time

The figure shows the section of celestial pole. MPM' is the hour angle of ( first point of ) to the
weast of the meridian. The local sideral time at the p;ace of M
observation is represented by angular value of M'
accordilng as 150 = 1sideral hour.
The local sideral time is the time interval that has
elapsed since was γ was on meridian
On 21st march the sun is at γ . Thus at that date γ
crosses the meridian at noon i.e. at 12 o’clock with sidereal P HA’ E
W
time zero hour.
H1
If the star is at the west of the meridian HA
RA
γ RA’

Arc γM’ = Arc γS + Arc SM' S

S’
∴Local sidereal time = RA of star + HA of star.
LST M’ Fig 45
If the star is at the east of the meridian Arc γ M’= Arc γ S’
– Arc M' S’
=RA of star – H1 of star of star.
∴ In general LST = RA + HA/ RA-H1 Aphelion
According as the star is west/ east Ω
Q

Mean Sun: γ Q’

Perihelion
Suppose a fictitious body (imaginary body) to coincide
with the true sun at perihelion and to move round the ecliptic with Fig 46
the mean angular velocity of the true sun. When the fictitious body
reaches the γ, let us take a second fictitious body from γ which moves along the celestial equator

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with the mean angular velocity of the true sun. The second body is called mean sun and its RA
will increase uniformly through 3600 when mean sun is on the meridian at the upper transit it is
mean noon. When the mean sun is at the lower transit it is mean midnight.

Mean Solar Time MST

The time when measured by the durnal motion of the mean sun is called mean solar time.
Mean solar time is the hour angle of the mean sun. The time which is in common use by people
kept by our clocks or watches which should go at a uniform rate. The time interval between the
two successive lower transit of the mean sun over the same meridian is called the mean solar day
or civil day . Mean solar time begins at mean midnight.
Two systems of reckoning MST
There are two systems of reckoning MST.
1) Civil Time: Civil day is divided into two intervals
i) Mid- Night to Noon
ii) ii) Noon – Midinight.
The former is denoted by AM and the later by PM.
2) Astronomical time: The astronomical time is divided into 24 hrs starting from mid-night.
Conversion of civil time to astronomical time
1) If the civil time is AM the astronomical time is the same as civil time. E.g. If civil time is
6AM the astronomical time is 6 hrs .
2) If the astronomical time is less than 12 hrs the civil time is the same as astronomical time
and it is denoted by AM. If astronomical time is 9hrs then civil time is 9 AM.
3) If the astronomical time is greater than 12 hrs then, Civil time = Astronomical time – 12
hrs PM e.g. if astronomical time is 18 hrs the civil time is given by Civil time = 18 – 12 =
6 PM
4) If civil time is PM the astronomical time is calculated by adding 12 to the civil time in
PM
E.g. If civil time is 5 PM then the astronomical time is 12+5 = 17 hrs.

Apparent Solar Time

It is the sun's hour angle expressed in time . The time based upon the daily apparent motion of
the sun round the earth is known as apparent solar time .
The lower transit of the sun is chosen as the commencing point of the day so that the date
may change only at mid- night not at noon. The sun's apparent daily path is changed as it follows
the ecliptic, the great circle inclined tof the equator 230 27.5'. As the rate of movement of the
sun along the ediptic is not uniform .
The length of apparent solar day not uniform through out the year. Therefore the apparent
solar cannot be recorded by a clock having a uniform rate of movement . The apparent solar time
can only be recorded with the help of sun- dial.

Sun Dial

The sun dial gives the apparent solar time by means of shadow cast by a rod. It consist of a
horizontal graduated dial plate (or vertical wall faring south) together with a rod called gnomon

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or stile. The stile is faced with its edges parallel to the axis of the earth so that it points forwards
the celestial pole.
The angle between the stile and horizon is set equal to the latitude of the place. The place
through the stile and the sun is the plane of declination circle of the sun in the celestial sphere
and meets the sundial along the shadow of the rod. When the Sun is on the meridian the shadow
points towards the north thus the position of the noon is known and the known end of the shadow
on the dial plate is marked as 12. Since the suns HA increases as the rate of 150/h the plane
through the stile making angles 150 300 450 etc with the meridian plane cutting the edge of the
dial at point 1,2,3 etc give the position of the shadow at 1,2,3….. etc o'clock.

M
A

O A’
12 12
N

6 B1

B2
Fig 47
L

Let OA be the stile and plane through A and ⊥ϒ to OA meets the horizontal plane through O in
LM.
The direction of the shadow of OA at noon is ON. ∠AON = φ, the latitude o the place
AN
tan φ =
OA
=AN = OA tan φ
OA
φ=
Cos ON
ON = OA secφ
Let the plane ALM be rotated until it cuts with the horizontal plane along ONA'. Drown A'B1,
A'B2 …….etc so that each angle NA'B1, B1A'B2 etc is 15o. Then join OB1 OB2 etc. These meet at
the edge of the dial at 1, 2, 3…. etc.

Equation of time
Equation of time is the time period that is to be added to the mean solar time to obtain apparent
solar time. i.e.
Equation of time + mean solar time = apparent solar time Equation of time = apparent solar time
- mean solar time

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Or
Difference in time given by two suns is the difference in their hair hour angle is termed as
equation of time. i.e.
Equation of time = HA of true sun - HA of mean sun
Since,
Sidereal time = HA of sun + RA of sun
Equation of time = (sidereal time – RA of sun) –( sidereal time- RA of mean sun)
Equation of time = Ra of mean sun- RA of true sun

Two components of equation of time

The equation of time arises due to two causes.
1) Due to variable motion of the sun along the ecliptic (E1)
2) Due to obliquity of the ecliptic( E2)

∴ Equation of Time E= E1+E2

Equation of due to variable (unequal) motion of the sun along the ecliptic (E1)
The apparent path of the two suns round the earth is ecliptic. On 31st December the sun is nearest
to the earth and the sun is said to be in perigee (perihelion). On 1st July the sun is farthest to the
earth and the sun is said to be at apogee (aphelion). The velocity of the sun along the ecliptic is
dependent on the distance of it from the earth; it increases as the distance of the sun from earth
decreases and vice versa.
Let us assume that both the mean sun M and the true sun T start together to move from
perihelion (perigee) on 31st December along the elliptical orbit. The true sun is moving most
rapidly at perihelion (perigee) and most slowly at apogee (aphelion). True sun will move ahead
of the mean sun after perigee and the trueOct sun
1 will lag behind after apogee. They will meat at
apogee on July 1st.
T Equation of time +ve M
M

Perigee Apogee
T M Perihelion
st
E Aphelionst T M
Dec 31 July 1

M Equation of time -ve T

T M
April 1 Fig 48
Conclusions:
1) E1= 0 at apogee and perigee i.e. equation of time vanishes at apogee and perigee
2) E1> 0 (positive) from apogee to perigee
3) E1< 0(negative) from perigee to apogee
4) E1 reaches a maximum value at +7’ on 1st October.
5) E1 reaches a minimum value at -7’ on 1st April.

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There are many methods used to keep time, each having its own special use and advantage. Until
recently, when atomic clocks became available, time was reckoned by the Earth's motions: one
rotation on its axis was a "day" and one revolution about the Sun was a "year." An hour was one
twenty-fourth of a day, and so on. It was convenient to use the position of the Sun in the sky to
measure the various intervals.

Apparent Time

This is the time kept by a sundial. It is a direct measure of the Sun's position in the sky relative to
the position of the observer. Since it is dependent on the observer's location, it is also a local
time. Being measured according to the true solar position, it is subject to all the irregularities of
the Earth's motion. The reference time is 12:00 noon when the true Sun is on the observer's
meridian.

Mean Time

Many of the irregularities in the Earth's motion are due to its eccentric orbit and tidal effects. In
order to add some consistency to the measure of time, we use the concept of mean time. Mean
time uses the position of a fictitious "mean Sun" which moves smoothly and uniformly across
the sky and is insensitive to the Earth's irregularities. A mean solar day is 24 hours long. The
"Equation of Time," tabulated in almanacs and represented on maps by the analemma, provides
the correction between mean and apparent time to allow for the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit.

Local Mean Time (LMT)

Local mean time is determined by the mean Sun's position relative to the local meridian of the
observer. As with any "local" time, it depends on the observer's geographic location. The
reference time is 12:00 noon when the mean Sun is on the local meridian.

Mean Civil Time

Also called clock time or zonal time, this is the standard time by which most of our non-
astronomical activities are measured. The Earth's surface is divided into 24 time zones, each
spanning 15 degrees of longitude with some variance to accommodate political boundaries. The
central meridian of each zone is precisely defined, however, to be an integral multiple of 15
degrees longitude. The reference time for the entire zone is 12:00 noon when the mean Sun is on
the central meridian of the time zone.

Universal Time (UT)

This is the basis for all civil timekeeping and is very close to the LMT at 0 degrees longitude at
Greenwich Observatory. Hence, it is sometimes called Greenwich Mean Time or GMT. The
military often uses the term "Zulu" to refer to universal time.

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Standard time broadcast by radio stations such as WWV or CHU is Coordinated Universal Time
(UTC or UT1). This time is based on an atomic clock and is "corrected" by adding occasional
"leap seconds" to keep it in reasonable agreement with universal time.

International Atomic Time (IAT)

International atomic time is the time kept by atomic clocks. The Systemme Internationale (SI)
second is defined so that the frequency of a certain resonance of the cesium atom is
9,192,631,770 hertz.

Sidereal Time (ST)

Sidereal time is measured relative to the stars and is based on the true rotation period of the
Earth. Since the Sun appears to move relative to the stars, a sidereal day is 3 minutes 56 seconds
shorter than a solar day. Sidereal time is measured by the position of the vernal equinox relative
to the meridian. Depending on the exact reference used, sidereal time may be local (LST) or
mean (MST). We use sidereal time to adjust our setting circles.

Ephemeris Time (ET)

As the name implies, this is the time upon which the ephemeris is based. It is reckoned by the
orbital periods of the moon and the planets and, therefore, is not subject to the irregularities of
the Earth's rotation. It is a uniform measure which forms the basis of the theories of celestial
dynamics. It was chosen to be close to UT during the 19th century. By the end of the 20th
century, ephemeris time will differ from UT by some 50 seconds. While some almanacs list an
estimated correction factor for the current year, the true correction is always determined after the
fact by comparing measured planetary positions to the predicted positions.

29 Prepared by: 5/11/2009

Madhusudan Adhikari