SURVEYING-II

(CE-229)

Lecture Notes
Edited By;
Engr. Arshad A. Azeemi
Lecturer, Department of Agricultural Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar, KPK
Email: arshadali@uetpeshawar.edu.pk
 CLASS OUTLINES
FIELD ASTRONOMY

• Astronomical Terms (Terminologies)

• Field Astronomy (Astronomical Terms)
• Time

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 3

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 17
 Astronomical Terms
The Celestial Sphere is an imaginary sphere upon the surface of which all the stars in the sky
appear to be studded to an observer stationed at its center. OR An imaginary sphere on which all
stars, moon, sun and planets etc are considered projected for analysis of position are called
Celestial Sphere.
The Zenith (Z) is the intersection of a vertical line through the observer’s station with the upper
portion of the celestial sphere. It is the point on the celestial sphere immediately above the
observer’s station. OR The point on Celestial Sphere vertically above the observer position on
earth is called Zenith. OR point immediately above the observer’s station.

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 5

 Astronomical Terms
The Nadir (Z1 or N) is the intersection of a vertical line through the observer’s station with the
lower portion of the celestial sphere. It is the point on the celestial sphere vertically below the
observer’s station. OR Point on Celestial sphere exactly below the observer’s position is called
Nadir. OR point immediately vertically below the observer’s stations.
Z-N Line: Line passing through Zenith and Nadir is called Zenith-Nadir Line (Z-N Line) just like the axis of the earth.
The Celestial Horizon (True or Rational Horizon) is the great circle in which a plane at right
angle to the Zenith and Nadir line and passing through the center of the earth intersects the
celestial sphere. The Zenith and Nadir are the poles of the celestial horizon. OR Great Circle (or
its cutting plane) perpendicular to the Z-N Line on Celestial Sphere is called Celestial Horizon.

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 6

 Astronomical Terms
The Polar Axis (Polar Diameter) is the diameter about which the earth spins. The extremities of
the axis of rotation (polar axis) of the earth are known as the poles. They are distinguished as the
North Pole and the South Pole.
The Terrestrial Equator (Polar Equator) is the great circle of the earth, the plane of which is
perpendicular to the axis of rotation (Polar axis).

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 7

 Astronomical Terms
Pole Points / Celestial Poles: Axis of rotation of earth meets Celestial Sphere at two points called
Pole Points. OR Points where earth axis of rotation meet with celestial sphere. OR The points of
intersection of the axis of the earth when produced with the celestial sphere.

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 8

 Astronomical Terms
Celestial Equator: The Great Circle whose plane is perpendicular to axis of rotation of earth on
Celestial Sphere is called Celestial Equator. OR Great circle at right angle to the axis of rotation.
OR The great circle in which the plane of the equator cuts the celestial sphere.
Ecliptic: Path traversed by the sun on Celestial Sphere is called Ecliptic. OR The Ecliptic is the
great circle which the sun appears to trace on the celestial sphere with the earth as a center in the
course of a year.

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 9

 Astronomical Terms
The Meridian of a place or an observer is the great circle, passing through the zenith, and nadir,
and the poles. OR Vertical circle passing through Zenith, Nadir and Pole Points is called Observer
Meridian (Just like the Prime Meridian and International Date Line).

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 10

 Astronomical Terms
Vertical Circle: All those great circles passing through Zenith and Nadir are called Vertical Circles
(just like meridians (Longitudes) on the surface of the earth running from North Pole to the South
Pole). The meridian of a place is also a vertical circle.
Prime Vertical: Vertical Circle perpendicular to the observer meridian is called Prime Vertical. OR
the vertical circle which passes through the east and west points of the horizon. It is at right angles
to the meridian of the place/observer.

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 11

 Astronomical Terms
Latitude: It’s the angular distance measured from equator to the north pole or south pole along the
meridian. OR The Latitude of a place or station is the angular distance measured from the equator
towards the nearer pole, along the meridian of the plane. The latitude is the declination of the
zenith.
Co-Latitude: of a place is the angular distance from the zenith to the pole. It is the complement of
the latitude, and it therefore equal to 90o – latitude.

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 12

 Astronomical Terms
Longitude: It is the angular distance taken from the prime meridian along the equator to either
side East or West. OR The longitude of a place is the angular measure of the arc of the equator
between some primary meridian and the meridian of the place.
Altitude: of a heavenly body is its angular distance above the horizon, measured on the vertical
circle passing through the body.

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 13

 Astronomical Terms
Co-Altitude: Also called the Zenith Distance, is the angular distance of a heavenly body from the
zenith. It is the complement of the altitude and equals to 90o – Altitude.
Azimuth: Angle between the Observer Meridian and the vertical circle (passing through the body
e.g. Sun, star, moon or planet). OR The Azimuth of a heavenly body is the angle between the
observer’s meridian and the vertical circle passing through the body.

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 14

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 4
 Field Astronomy
Spherical Trigonometry

Length of a Great Circle Arc

Length of a Small Circle Arc

Spherical Triangle

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 18

 Field Astronomy
Properties of Spherical Triangle
(Fig: Intersection of Three Great Circles forming the Spherical Triangle ABC)

Formulae in Spherical Trigonometry

Area of a Spherical Triangle

Latitude and Longitude

Parallel of Latitude

Nautical Mile

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 19

 Field Astronomy
Example 1: Find the distance between London (UK) and Baghdad (Iraq).
Let B is London while C is Baghdad.
London has Latitude of 51.30°N and a Longitude of 0.10°W.
Baghdad has Latitude of 33.20°N and a Longitude of 44.26°E.

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 20

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 4
 Time
The measurement of time is based upon the apparent motion of heavenly bodies caused by the
earth’s rotation on its axis.
Since the earth rotates on its axis from west to east, all heavenly bodies (the fixed stars and the
sun) appears to revolve from east to east (in clockwise direction) around the earth and, therefore,
they appear to cross the observer’s meridian twice each day.
The earth also moves in elliptic orbit round the sun and makes one complete revolution in one
year. Therefore, the sun appears to move relatively to the stars from west to east and to make a
complete circuit of the heavens in one year.
There are four kinds of time;
1. Sidereal Time
2. Apparent Solar Time
3. Mean Solar Time
4. Standard Time

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 13

 Mean Solar Time
Time when measure by the diurnal motion of the mean sun is called the mean solar time, or
simply, mean time.
The mean solar day is the average of all the apparent solar days of the year.
The time which is in common use by the people is the mean solar time or the civil time.
The time interval between two successive lower transits of the mean sun over the same meridian
is called a mean solar day or civil day (24 hr).

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 14

 Standard Time
In order to avoid confusion arising from the use of different local times by the people, it is
necessary to adopt the mean time on a particular meridian as the standard time for the whole of a
country. This meridian is known as the standard meridian and usually lies an exact number of
hours from Greenwich.
The mean time associated with this meridian is called the standard time which is kept by all
watches throughout the country.

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 15

Thursday, 24 August, 2023 21