©A PRODUCT OF INFOTHIRST

INCLUDES INDIAN ECONOMY, INDIAN POLITY WITH

AMENDMENTS, INDIAN HISTORY, GENERAL STUDIES
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HISTORY
Ancient Indian History
Indian Prehistory

• The fossils of the early human being have not been found in India. A hint of the earliest human presence in India
is indicated by stone tools of about 250,000 BC obtained from the deposits.

• However, recent reported artifacts from Bori in Maharashtra suggest the appearance of human beings in India
around 1.4 million years ago.

• From their first appearance to around 3000 BC humans used only stone tools for different purposes.

• This period is, therefore, known as the Stone Age, which has been divided into Paleolithic (early or Old Stone)
Age, Mesolithic (Middle Stone) Age, and Neolithic (New Stone) Age.

The Paleolithic Age in India (500,000 BC – 8000 BC):

• In India it developed in the Pleistocene period or the Ice Age.b.

• The earliest traces of human existence in India go back to 500,000 BC.

• The Paleolithic sites are spread in practically all parts of India except the alluvial plains of Indus and Ganga.

• The people of this age were food gathering people who lived on hunting and gathering wild fruits and vegetables.

• Man during this period used tools of unpolished, undressed rough stones and lived in cave and rock shelters.
They had no knowledge of agriculture, fire or pottery of any material.

• They mainly used hand axes, cleavers, choppers, blades, scrapers and burin. Their tools were made of hard rock
called ‘quartzite’. Hence Paleolithic men are also called ‘Quartzite Men’.

• Homo sapiens first appeared in the last of this phase.

• It has been pointed out that Paleolithic men belonged to the Negrito race.

• The Paleolithic Age in India has been divided into three phases according to the nature of stone tools used by the
people and also according to the nature of change in the climate – Early or lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic
and Upper Paleolithic.

• The Early Paleolithic Age covers the greater part of the Ice Age. Its characteristic tools are hand axes, cleavers
and choppers. Such tools have been found in Soan and Sohan river valley (now in Pakistan) and in the Belan
Valley in the Mirzapur district of UP In this period climate became less humid.
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• Middle Paleolithic Phase is characterized by the use of stone tools made of flakes mainly scrapers, borers and
blade like tools. The sites are found in the valleys of Soan, Narmada and Tungabhadra rivers.

• In the Upper Paleolithic Phase, the climate became warm and less humid. This stage is marked by burins and
scrapers. Such tools have been found in APKarnataka, Maharashtra, Bhopal and Chhota Nagpur plateau.

The Mesolithic Era History (8000 BC – 6000 BC) :

• In this age, climate became warm and dry. Climate changes brought about changes in fauna and flora and made
it possible for human beings to move to new areas. Since then, there haven’t been major changes in the climate.

• The characteristic tools of the Mesolithic Age are known as Microliths-pointed, cresconic blades, scrapers, etc, all
made of stone.

• The people lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering; at a later stage they also domesticated animals.

• The last phase of this age saw the beginning of plane cultivation.

• Various Mesolithic sites are found in the Chhotanagpur region, Central India and also south of the Krishna River.

• In the Belan valley of Vindhyas, all the three phases of the Paleolithic followed by the Mesolithic and then by the
Neolithic have been found in sequence. Similar is the case with the middle part of the Narmada valley.

The History of Neolithic Era (6000 BC – 1000 BC) :

• In India Neolithic Age is not earlier than 6000 BC and at some places in South and Eastern India; it is as late as
1000 BC.

• During this phase people were again depending on stone implements. But now they used stones other than
quartzite for making tools, which were more lethal, more finished and more polished.

• Neolithic men cultivated land and grew fruits and corn like ragi and horse gram. They domesticated cattle, sheep
and goat.

• They knew about making fire and making pottery, first by hand and then by potters wheel. They also painted and
decorated their pottery.

• They lived in caves and decorated their walls with hunting and dancing scenes. They also knew the art of making
boats. They could also weave cotton and wool to make cloth.

• In the later phase of Neolithic phase people led a more settled life and lived in circular and rectangular houses
made of mud and reed.

• Important sites of this age are Burzahom and Gufkral in J&K (famous for pit dwelling, stone tools and graveyard in
house), Maski, Brahmagiri, Tekkalakota in Karnataka, Paiyampatti in Tamil Nadu, Piklihal and Hallur in AP, Garo
hils in Meghalaya, Chirand and Senuwar in Bihar (known for remarkable bone tools), Amri, Kotdiji, etc.

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• Koldihawa in UP revealed a three fold cultural sequence: Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Iron Age.

Chalcolithic Period :

• The end of the Neolithic Period saw the use of metals of which copper was the first. A culture based on the use of
stone and copper arrived. Such a culture is called Chalcolithic which means the stone-copper phase.

• Apart from stone tools, hand axes and other objects made of copperware also used.

• The Chalcolithic people used different types of pottery of which black and red pottery was most popular. It was
wheel made and painted with white line design.

• These people were not acquainted with burnt bricks. They generally lived in thatched houses. It was a
village economy.

• They venerated the mother goddess and worshiped the bull.

• Important sites of this phase are spread in Rajasthan, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Bihar, MP, etc.

Indus Valley Civilization in India

Ancient Civilizations in India

• The Indus Valley Civilization was an ancient civilization thriving along the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra
River in what is now Pakistan and north-western India. Among other names for this civilization is the Harappan
Civilization, in reference to its first excavated city of Harappa.

• An alternative term for the culture is Saraswati-Sindhu Civilization, based on the fact that most of the Indus Valley
sites have been found at the Halkra-Ghaggar River.

• R.B. Dayaram Sahni first discovered Harappa (on Ravi) in 1921. R.D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro or
‘Mound of the Dead’ (on Indus) in 1922. Sir John Marshal played a crucial role in both these.

• Harappan Civilization forms part of the proto history of India and belongs to the Bronze Age.

• Mediterranean, Proto-Australoid, Mongoloids and Alpines formed the bulk of the population, though the first two
were more numerous.

• More than 100 sites belonging to this civilization have been excavated.

• According to radio-carbon dating, it spread from the year 2500 – 1750 BC.

• Copper, bronze, silver, gold were known but not iron.

Geographical Extent :

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• Covered parts of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and some parts of Western UP. It extended from
Manda in Jammu in the north to Daimabad in the south and from Alamgirpur in W. UP to Sutkagendor in
Baluchistan in the west.

• Major sites in Pakistan are Harappa (on Ravi in W Punjab), Mohenjodaro (on Indus), Chanhu-Daro (Sindh), etc. In
India, major sites are Lothal, Rangpur and Surkotda (Gujarat), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Banwali (Hissar), and
Alamgirpur (Western UP).

• Largest and the latest site in India is Dholavira in Gujarat. Dr. J.R Joshi and Dr. R.S. Bisht were involved in it.

Indus Valley Civilization Town Planning :

• Elaborate town-planning. It followed the Grid System. Roads were well cut, dividing the town into large
rectangular or square blocks. Lamp posts at intervals indicate the existence of street lightning. Flanking the
streets, lanes and by-lanes were well-planned houses.

• Used burnt bricks of good quality as the building material. Elsewhere in the contemporary world, mud-bricks were
used.

• Houses, often of two or more storey, varied in size, but were quite monotonous a square courtyard, around which
were a number of rooms. No window faced the streets. The houses had tiled bathrooms.

• Good drainage system. Drains were made of mortar, lime and gypsum and covered with large brick slabs for easy
cleaning. Shows developed sense of health and sanitation.

• The towns were divided into 2 parts: Upper part or Citadel and Lower Part. The Citadel was an oblong artificial
platform some 30-50 feet high and about 400-200 yards in area It was enclosed by a thick (13 m at Harappa)
crenelated mud-brick wall. In Citadel public buildings, granaries, important workshops and religious buildings were
there. In lower part people used to live.
• In Mohanjodaro, a big public bath (Great Bath) measuring 12 m by 7 m and 2.4 m deep, has been found. Steps
led from either end to the surface, with changing rooms alongside. It was probably used for ritual bathing.

Excavations & Excavators :

Chanhudaro (on Indus) 1931 M.G Majumdar

Sutkogendor (on Dasak) 1927 Sir Aurel Stein

Kotdip (on Indus) 1955 Fazl Ahmed Khan

Ropar (on Satluj) 1953 Y.D. Sharma

Banwaii (on Saraswati) 1973 R.S.Bisht

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Lothal (on Bhogwa) 1954 S.R.Rao

Rangpur (on Mahar) 1931-53 M.S.Vats, B.B. Lal, S.R. Rao

Amri (on Indus) 1929 N.G. Majumdar

Kalibangan (on Ghaggar) 1961 B.B.Lai

Sorkotda - 1964 J. Joshi

Alamgirpur (on Hindon) 1958 Y.D. Sharma

Indus Valley Civilization Economic Life

Indus Valley Civilization Agriculture :

• The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plains in November, when the flood water receded, and reaped their
harvests of wheat and barley in Apr, before the advent of the next flood.

• Grew wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesamum, mustard, rice (in Lothal), cotton, dates, melon, etc. The Indus people
were the first to produce cotton.

• In Kalibangan, fields were ploughed with wooden ploughs.

• Domesticated animals on large scale. Besides the cattle, cats and dogs were domesticated. Horse wasn’t in
regular use but elephant was. Remains of horse at Surkotda and dogs with men in grave at Ropar have been
discovered.

• Produced sufficient to feed themselves.

• Food grains were stored in granaries.

Trade and Commerce in Ancient India :

• Well-knit external and internal trade. There was no metallic money in circulation and trade was carried through
Barter System.

• Weights and measures of accuracy existed in Harappan culture (found at Lothal). The weights were made of
limestone, steatite, etc and were generally cubical in shape.

• 16 was the unit of measurement (16, 64,160, 320).

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• Flint tool-work, shell-work, bangle making, pottery making, etc were practiced. Raw material for these came from
different sources: gold from N.Karnataka, silver and lapis lazuli from Afghanistan and Iran, copper from Khetri and
Baluchistan, etc.

• Bead making factory existed in Chanhudaro and Lothal. They were items of export.

• A dockyard has been discovered at Lothal. Rangpur, Somnath and Balakot functioned as seaports. Sutkagendor
and Sutkakoh functioned as outlets.

• The inland transport was done with bullock carts.

• Every merchant or mercantile family probably had a seal bearing an emblem, often of a religious character, and a
name or brief description, on one side. The standard Harappa seal was a square or oblong plaque made of
steatite stone. The primary purpose of the seal was probably to mark the ownership of property, but they may
have also served as amulets.

• The Mesopotamian records from about 2350 BC onwards refer to trade relations with Meluha, the ancient name
of the Indus region. Harappan seals and other material has been found at Mesopotamia. Also traded with Sumer.

Indus Valley Civilization Art and Craft :

• The Harappan culture belongs to the Bronze Age.

• Bronze was made by mixing tin and copper. Tools were mostly made of copper and bronze. For making bronze,
copper was obtained from Khetri in Rajasthan and from Baluchistan, and tin from Afghanistan.

• Cotton fabrics quite common. Woolen in winter.

• Very fond of ornaments (of gold, silver, ivory, copper, bronze, precious stones) and dressing up. Ornaments were
worn by both men and women. Women wore heavy bangles in profusion, large necklaces, ear-rings, bracelets,
fingure-rings, girdles, nose studs and anklets. The Harappans were also an expert bead makers.

• Potter’s wheel was in use. Their pottery was red or black pottery. Played dice games. Their favourite pastime was
Gambling.

• The Harappans most notable artistic achievement was their seal gravings, esp. those of animals. The red
sandstone torso of a man is particularly impressive for its realism. However, the most impressive of the figurines
is perhaps the bronze image of the famous dancing girl (identified as devadasi), found at Mohenjodaro.

• For their children, they made cattle-toys with movable heads, model monkeys which could slide down a string,
little toy-carts, and whistles shaped like birds, all of terracotta.

The Indus Valley Civilization Religious Life :

• Main object of worship was the Mother Goddess. But the upper classes preferred a god, nude with two horns,
much similar to Pasupati Siva. Represented on the seal is a figure with three horned heads in a yogic posture. He

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is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger and a rhinoceros, and below his throne is a buffalo. Near his feet are two
deer. Pashupatinath represented male deity.

• Phallus (lingam) and yoni worship was also prevalent.

• Many trees (pipal), animals (bull), birds (dove, pigeon) and stones were worshipped. Unicorn was also
worshipped. However, no temple has been found, though idolatry was practiced.

• At Kalibangan and Lothal fire altars have been found.

• Although no definite proof is available with regard to the disposal of the dead, a broad view is that probably there
were three methods of disposing the dead – complete burial, burial after exposure of the body to birds and
beasts, and cremation followed by burial of the ashes.

• The discovery of cinerary urns and jars, goblets or vessels with ashes, bones and charcoal may, however,
suggest that during the flourishing period of the Indus Valley culture the third method was generally practiced. In
Harappa, there is one place where evidence of coffin burial is there. The people probably believed in ghosts and
evil spirits, as amulets were worn.

• Dead bodies were placed in the north-south orientation.

Indus Valley Civilization Script :

• The script is not alphabetical but pictographic (about 600 undeciphered pictographs).

• The script has not been deciphered so far, but overlaps of letters show that it was written from right to left in the
first line and left to right in the second line. This style is called ‘Boustrophedon’.

Indus Valley Civilization Political Organization :

• There is no clear idea of the political organization of the Indus Valley people. Perhaps they were more concerned
with commerce and they were possibly ruled by a class of merchants.

• Also, there was an organization like a municipal corporation to look after the civic amenities of the people.

Vedic Period in India

The Aryans History :

• Many historians have given various theories regarding the original place of the Aryans.
• However, the Central Asian theory, given by Max Muller, is the most accepted one. It states that the Aryans were
semi-nomadic pastoral people and originated from area around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia.
• Entered India probably through Khyber Pass (in Hindukush Mountains) around 1500 BC.
• The holy book of Iran ‘Zend Avesta’ indicates entry of Aryans to India via Iran.

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Early Vedic Or Rigvedic Period

Region : The early Aryans settled in Eastern Afghanistan, modern Pakistan, Punjab and parts of western UP The whole
region in which the Aryans first settled in India is called the ‘Land of Seven Rivers or Sapta Sindhava’ (The Indus and its
five tributaries and the Saraswati).

Political Organisation :

• Monarchial form, tribe was known as Jan and its king as RaJan He was the leader in battle and protector of tribe.
His office was not hereditary and was selected among the clan’s men. The rajan was not an absolute monarch,
for the government of the tribe was in part the responsibility of the tribal councils like sabha, samiti, gana and
vidhata. Even women attended sabha and vidhata.
• Many clans (Vish) formed a tribe. The basic social unit was the Kula or the family and Kulapa was the head of the
family.
• The king was assisted by a number of officers of which purohita was the most important. Next important
functionary was the Senani (leader of the army), although there was no regular or standing army. The military
technique of the early Aryans was much advanced. The Aryans succeeded everywhere because they possessed
chariots driven by horses.
• There was no regular revenue system and the kingdom was maintained by the voluntary tribute (Bali) of his
subjects and the booty won in battle.
• Villages were headed by Gramini who used to represent village in sabha and samiti. Later, Gramini was handed
over the charge of Vrajapati also (an officer who enjoyed authority over the pasture ground).

Social Life :

• When the Aryans entered India there was already a class division in their tribal structure.
• As they settled among the dark aboriginals, the Aryans seem to have laid greater stress than before on purity of
blood, and class divisions hardened, to exclude those dasas who had found a place in the Aryan society, and
those Aryans who had intermarried with the dasas and adopted their ways.
• Gradually, the tribal society got divided into three groups warriors, priests and commoners. Later, the fourth dasas
or shudra was also added.
• The term varna was used for color, the Aryans being fair, the dasas dark.
• Family was the basic unit of society. The family was patriarchal in nature. But women enjoyed equal power with
men. Marriage was usually monogamous and indissoluble, but there are few instances of polyandry, levirate and
widow-marriage. There are no examples of child-marriage. The marriageable age seems to have been 16 to 17.
• The word ‘Arya’ came to refer to any person who was respected.
• Aryans were fond of soma, sura, food and dresses. Soma was drunk at sacrifices and its use was sanctified by
religion. Sura was purely secular and more potent, and was diapproved by the priestly poets.
• The Aryans loved music, and played the flute, lute and harp. There are references to singing and dancing, and to
dancing girls. People also delighted in gambling. They enjoyed chariot racing. Both men and women wore
ornaments.

Rivers in Rigveda :

Modern Names Rigvedic Names

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Modern Names Rigvedic Names

Indus Sindhu

Jhelum Vitasta

Chenab Asikni

Ravi Purushni

Beas Vipasa

Sutlei Sutudri

Gomati Gumal

Kurram Krumu

Ghaggar Drisshadvati

Early Vedic Period Economy :

• Their bronze smiths were highly skilled, and produced tools and weapons much superior to those of Harappan
culture. There were artisans like carpenters, weavers, cobblers, potters, etc.
• Aryans followed a mixed economy – pastoral and agricultural – in which cattle played a predominant part.
• Most of their wars were foughtfor cow (most important form of wealth). Cattle were in fact a sort of currency, and
values were reckoned in heads of cattle (man’s life was equivalent to that of 100 cows), but they were not held
sacred at this time. The horse was almost as important as the cow.
• Standard unit of exchange was cow. At the same time coins were also there (gold coins like Nishkq, Krishnal and
Satmana).
• Gavyuti was used as a measure of distance and Godhuli as a measure of time.
• Lived in fortified mud settlements.
• Physicians were there called ‘Bhishakas’.
• The staple crop was ‘yava’, which meant barley.

Vedic Period Religion :

• The Aryans personified the natural forces and looked upon them as living beings.
• The most important divinity was Indra who played the role of warlord (breaker of forts – Purandar, also associated
with storm and thunder).
• The second position was held by Agni (fire-god). He is considered as an intermediary between gods and men.
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• Varuna occupied the third position. He personified water and was supposed to uphold the natural order. He was
ethnically the highest of all Rigvedic gods.
• Soma was considered to be the god of plants. Maruts personified the storms. Some female deities are also
mentioned, like Aditi and Usha, who represented the appearance of dawn.
• Didn’t believe in erecting temples or idol worship. Worshipped in open air through yajnas.

The Mahajanpadas

The Mahajanpadas

S.No. Mahajanapadas Capital Present Day Location

1. Kashi Varanasi Around Varanasi

2. Kosala Shravasti Eastern UP

3. Anga Champanagri Bhagal and Munger distts of Bihar

4. Magadh Girivraj or Rajgriha Patna and Gaya distt

5. Vajji Vaishali Vaishali distt of Bihar

6. Malla Kushinagar and Pavapuri South of Vaishali distt

7. Chedi Shuktimati Eastern parts of modern Bundelkhand

8. Vatsa Koushambi Around modern Allahabad

9. Kuru Hastinapur, Indraprastha and Isukara Around the Delhi-Meerut region

10. Panchal Ahichhatra and Kampilya Rohilkhand

11. Matsya Viratnagar Jaipur-Bharatpur-Alwar distts

12. Surasen Mathura Mathura region

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S.No. Mahajanapadas Capital Present Day Location

13. Assaka Paudanya Near Paithan in Maharashtra

14. Avanti Ujjaini Ujjain distt

15. Gandhara Taxila Between Kabul and Rawalpindi

16. Kamboj Rajpur Punchh area in Kashmir

Buddhism in India

Ancient Buddhism in India

Buddhism stands for 3 pillars :

• Buddha : Its Founder.

• Dhamma : His Teachings.
• Sangha : Order of Buddhist monks and nuns.

The Buddha History :

• Also known as Sakyamuni or Tathagata.

• Born in 563 BC on the Vaishakha Poornima Day at Lumbini (near Kapilavastu) in Nepal.

• His father Suddhodana was the Saka ruler.

• His mother (Mahamaya, of Kosala dynasty) died after 7 days of his birth. Brought up by stepmother Gautami.

• Married at 16 to Yoshodhara. Enjoyed the married life for 13 years and had a son named Rahula.

• After seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse and an ascetic, he decided to become a wanderer.

• Left his palace at 29 (with Channa, the charioteer and his favourite horse, Kanthaka) in search of truth (also called
‘Mahabhinishkramana’ or The Great Renunciation) and wandered for 6 years.

• He first meditated with Alara Kalama. But he was not convinced that man could obtain liberation from sorrow by
mental discipline and knowledge. His next teacher was Udraka Ramputra. He then joined forces with five
ascetics- Kondana, Vappa, Bhadiya, Mahanama and Assagi, who were practicing the most rigorous self-
mortification in the hope of wearing away their karma and obtaining final bliss.

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• For six years he tortured himself until he was nothing but a walking skeleton. But after six years, he felt that his
fasts and penance had been useless. So he abandoned these things. The five disciples also left him.

• Attained ‘Nirvana’ or ‘Enlightenment’ at 35 at Gaya in Magadha (Bihar) under the Pipal tree.

• Delivered the first sermon at Sarnath where his five disciples had settled. His first sermon is called
‘Dharmachakrapravartan’ or ‘Turning of the Wheel of Law’.

• Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (identical with village Kasia in Deoria district of UP) in 483 BC at the age
of 80 in the Malla republic.

The Dhamma Indian History :

1. The Four Great Truths :

• The world is full of sorrow and misery.

• The cause of all pain and misery is desire.
• Pain and misery can be ended by killing or controlling desire.
• Desire can be controlled by following the Eight Fold Path.

2. The Eight Fold Path : It consists of Right Faith, Right Thought, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Efforts, Right
Speech, Right Remembrance and Right Concentration.

3. Belief in Nirvana :

• When desire ceases, rebirth ceases and nirvana is attained i.e. freedom from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth
is gained by following the 8-fold path.

• According to Buddha, soul is a myth.

4. Belief in Ahimsa : One should not cause injury to any living being, animal or man.

5. Law of Karma : Man reaps the fruits of his past deeds.

The Sangha History :

• Consists of monks (Bhikshus or Shramanas) and nuns.

• Bhikshus acted as a torch bearer of the dhamma.
• Apart from Sangha, the worshippers were called Upasakas.

Buddhist Councils : The monks gathered 4 times after the death of Buddha and the effect of these events had their
effect on Buddhism.

First Council : At Rajgriha, in 483 BC under the chairman ship of Mehakassaapa (King was Ajatshatru). Divided the
teachings of Buddha into two Pitakas – Vihaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka. Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka and Ananda
recited the Sutta Pitaka.

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Second Council : At Vaishali, in 383 BC under Sabakami (King was Kalasoka). Followers divided into Sthavirmadins and
Mahasanghikas.

Third Council : At Pataliputra, in 250 BC under Mogaliputta Tissa (King was Ashoka). In this, the third part of the
Tripitaka was coded in the Pali language.

Fourth Council : At Kashmir (Kundalvan), in 72 AD under Vasumitra (King was Kanishka). Vice-Chairman was
Ashwaghosha). Divided Buddhism into Mahayana and Hinayana sects.

Note:
In Mahayana, idol worship is there. It became popular in China, Japan, Korea, Afghanistan, Turkey and other SE
countries.

Hinayana became popular in Magadha and SriLanka. It believed in individual salvation and not in idol-worship.

Apart from these 2, there is a third vehicle, called ‘Vajrayana’, which appeared in 8th century and grew rapidly in Bihar
and Bengal. They did not treat meat, fish, wine, etc, as a taboo in dietary habit and freely consumed them.

Buddist Literature :

• In Pali language.
• Buddhist scriptures in Pali are commonly referred to as Tripitakas, ie ‘Threefold Basket’.

Vinaya Pitaka : Rules of discipline in Buddhist monasteries.

Sutta Pitaka : Largest, contains collection of Buddha’s sermons.

Abhidhamma Pitaka : Explanation of the philosophical principles of the Buddhist religion.

Note:

1. Mahavansh and Deepvansh are the other Buddhist texts. They provide information about the then SriLanka.
2. Jataks are the fables about the different births of Buddha.

Growth of Buddhism :

Causes of New Movement :

1. The Vedic rituals were expensive & the sacrifices prescribed were very complicated & had lost their meaning.
2. The caste system had become rigid.
3. Supremacy of Brahmins created unrest.
4. All the religious text was in Sanskrit, which was not understandable to the masses.

Causes of decline of buddhism :

1. It succumbed to the Brahmanic rituals and ceremonies, such as idol worship, etc, which Buddhism had earlier
denounced.

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2. Revival of reformed Hinduism with the preaching of Shankaracharya from ninth century onwards.
3. Use of Sanskrit, the language of intellectuals, in place of Pali, the language of the common people.
4. Deterioration in the moral standards among the monks living in Buddhist monasteries.
5. Entry of women into Buddhist monasteries.
6. Attacks of Huna king Mihirkula in the sixth century and the Turkish invaders in the twelfth century AD.

Jainism in India

History of Jainism Religion

• Founded by Rishabhanath.
• There were 24 tirthankaras (Prophetsor Gurus), all Kshatriyas.First was Rishabhanath (Emblem: Bull). His
reference is also 4n Rigveda. But there is no historical basis for the first 22 Tirthankaras. Only the last two
Tirthankaras are historical personalities.
• The 23rd Tirthankar Parshwanath (Emblem: Snake) was the son of King Ashvasena of Banaras. His main
teachings were: Non-injury, Non-lying, Non-stealing, Non-possession.
• The 24th and the last Tirthankar was Vardhman Mahavira (Emblem: Lion).

Vardhman Mahavira History :

• He was born in Kundagram (Distt Muzafffarpur, Bihar) in 599 BC.

• His father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan. His mother was Trishla, sister of Lichchavi Prince Chetak of
Vaishali.
• Mahavira was related to Bimbisara.
• Married to Yashoda, had a daughter named Priyadarsena, whose husband Jamali became his first disciple.
• At 30, after the death of his parents, he became an ascetic.
• In the 13th year of his asceticism (on the 10th of Vaishakha), outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama, he attained
supreme knowledge (Kaivalya).
• From now on he was called Jaina or Jitendriya and Mahavira, and his followers were named Jains. He also got
the title of Arihant, i.e., worthy.
• At the age of 72, he attained death at Pava, near Patna, in 527 BC.
• Mahavira preached almost the same message as Parshvanath and added one more, Brahmcharya (celibacy) to
it.
• After the death of Mahavira, during the reign of King Chandragupta Maurya, a severe famine led to a great
exodus of Jain monks from the Ganga valley to the Deccan, where they established important centers of their
faith.
• This migration led to a great schism in Jainism. Bhadrabahu, who led the emigrants, insisted on the retention of
the rule of nudity which Mahavira had established.
• Sthulabhadra, the leader of the monks who remained in the north, allowed his followers to wear white garments,
owing to the hardships and confusions of the famine. Hence arose the two sects of the Jains, the Digambaras
(sky-clad, i.e., naked) and the Svetambaras (white-clad).

Teachings of Mahavira :

1. Rejected the authority of the Vedas and do not attach any importance to the performance of sacrifices.

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2. He believed that every object, even the smallest particle, possesses a soul and is endowed with consciousness.
That is why they observe strict non-violence.
3. The Jains reject the concept of a Universal Soul or a Supreme Power as the creator or Sustainer of the universe.
4. Jainism does not deny the existence of gods but refuses to give gods any important part in die universe scheme.
Gods are placed lower than the Jina.
5. Attainment of salvation (moksha) by believing in penance and dying of starvation (Main difference between
Jainism and Buddhism).
6. Universal brotherhood (non-belief in caste system).

Note: In Jainism, three Ratnas (Triratnas) are given and they are called the way to Nirvana. They are Right Faith, Right
Knowledge and Right Conduct.

History of Jain Councils :

First Council : Held at Pataliputra by Sthulabhadra in the beginning of third century BC. It resulted in the compilation of
12 Angas to replace 14 Purvas.

Second Council : It was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) in the fifth century AD under the leadership of Devridhigani. It resulted
in final compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

Growth of Jainism in India :

Causes of New Movement :

• The Vedic rituals were expensive & the sacrifices prescribed were very complicated & had lost their meaning.
• The caste system had become rigid.
• Supremacy of Brahmins created unrest.
• All the religious text was in Sanskrit, which was not understandable to the masses.

Other Points:

• Jainism reached the highest point in Chandragupta Maurya’s time. In Kalinga, it was greatly patronized by
Kharavela in the first century AD.
• Various factors were responsible for the decline of Jainism in India. They took the concept of Ahimsa too far. They
advised that one should not take medicine when one fell sick because the medicine killed germs.
• They believed that there was life in trees and vegetables and so refrained from harming them. Such practices
could not become popular with common man. There was moreover no patronage from the later kings.
• Jain literature is in Ardh-Magadhi and Prakrit dialects.
• Due to the influence of Jainism, many regional languages emerged out, like Sauraseni, out of which grew the
Marathi, Gujarati, Rajasthani and Kannada.

The Magadha Empire

Period of Magadha Empire : 6th Century – 4th Century BC.

Extent of Magadha Empire : Magadha embraced the former districts of Patna, Gaya & parts of Shahabad & grew to be
the leading state of the time.

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Haryanka Dynasty : Originally founded in 566 BC by the grand father of Bimbisara, but actual foundation by Bimbisara.

King Bimbisara of Magadha (544 BC – 492 BC):

• Contemporary of Buddha.
• He conquered Anga (E.Bihar) to gain control over trade route with the southern states.
• His capital was Rajgir (Girivraja). He strengthened his position by matrimonial alliance with the ruling families of
Kosala, Vaishali, and Madra (3 wives).
• His capital was surrounded by 5 hills, the openings in which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This made
Rajgir impregnable.

Ajatshatru History (492 BC – 460 BC):

• Son of Bimbisara killed his father & seized the throne.

• Annexed Vaishali and Kosala (annexed Vaishali with the help of a war engine, which was used to throw stones
like catapults. Also possessed a chariot to which a mace was attached, thus facilitating mass killings). Kosala was
ruled by Prasenajit at that time.
• Buddha died during his reign; arranged the first Buddhist Council.

History of Udayin (460 – 444 BC): He founded the new capital at Pataliputra, situated at the confluence of the Ganga &
Son.

Shishunaga Dynasty :

• Founded by a minister Shishunaga. He was succeeded by Kalasoka (II Buddhist council). Dynasty lasted for two
generations only.
• Greatest achievement was the destruction of power of Avanti.

Nanda Dynasty :

• It is considered first of the non-Kshatriya dynasties.

• Founder was Mahapadma Nanda. He added Kalinga to his empire. He claimed to be the ekarat, the sole
sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling princes.
• Alexander attacked India in their reign. Dhana Nanda was there at that time.
• Nandas were fabulously rich & enormously powerful. Maintained 200,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry & 6,000 war
elephants. This is supposed to have checked Alexander’s army from advancing towards Magadha.

Causes of Magadha’s Success :

• Enjoyed advantageous geographical position, i.e., near richest iron deposits (thus effective weapons).
• The 2 capitals of Magadha, Rajgir and Patliputra, were situated at very strategic points.
• Fertile soil of the lower Ganga regions.
• First used elephants in wars.

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Note:
Archaeologically, 6th century BC marks the beginning of NBPW phase (Northern Black Polished Ware) which was very
glossy, shinning type of pottery. This marked the beginning of Second Urbanization in India.

Alexander’s Invasion of India

Invasion of Alexander in India

• Alexander (356 BC – 323 BC) was the son of Philip of Macedonia (Greece) who invaded India in 326 BC. At that
time NW India was split up into a number of small independent states like Taxila, Punjab (kingdom of Porus),
Gandhara etc.

Except Porus who fought the famous battle of Hydaspes (on banks of Jhelum) with Alexander, all other kings submitted
meekly.

• When Alexander reached Beas, his soldiers refused to go further, so he was forced to retreat.

To mark the farthest point of his advance, he erected 12 huge stones altars on the northern bank of Beas. Remained in
India for 19 months and died in 323 BC at Babylon.

The effects of Alexander’s invasion were indirect :

1. It exposed India to Europe, by opening up four distinct lines of communication, three by land and one by sea.
2. Due to cultural contact, a cosmopolitan school of art came up in Gandhara.
3. Paved the way for the unification of north India under Chandragupta Maurya by weakening small states.

The Mauryan Dynasty

Chandragupta Maurya History (322 – 297 BC):

• With the help of Chanakya, known as Kautilya or Vishnugupta, he overthrew the Nandas & established the rule of
the Maurya dynasty.

• Chandragupta is called Sandrocottus by the Greek scholars.

• Seleucus Necater was one of the generals of Alexander and after his death, had succeeded in gaining control of
most of the Asiatic provinces.

• Chandragupta defeated him in 305 BC and was compelled to yield parts of Afghanistan to Chandragupta. There
was also a marriage alliance between the two families.

• Built a vast empire, which included not only good portions of Bihar and Bengal, but also western and north
western India and the Deccan.

• This account is given by Megasthenes (A Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus to the court of Chandragupta
Maurya) in his book Indica. We also get the details from the Arthashastra of Kautilya.

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• Chandragupta adopted Jainism and went to Sravanabelagola (near Mysore) with Bhadrabahu, where he died by
slow starvation.

• Vishakhadatta wrote a drama Mudrarakshasa (describing Chandragupta’s enemy) & Debi Chandraguptam in
sixth century AD.

History of Bindusara (297 – 273 BC):

• Called Amitraghat by Greek writers.

• Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara in 297 BC. He is said to have conquered ‘the land between
the 2 seas’, i.e., the Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal. At the time of his death, almost the entire subcontinent came
under the Mauryan rule. Greek Ambassador, Deimachos visited his court.

• History of Ashoka (269 – 232 BC):

• Ashoka was appointed the Viceroy of Taxila and Ujjain by his father, Bindusara. He was at Ujjain when
Bindusara, died. His formal coronation was delayed for four years, suggesting a disputed succession. A Buddhist
literature says that he came to throne after killing his 99 brothers.

• Regarded as one of the greatest kings of all times. He was the first ruler to maintain direct contact with people
through his inscription.

• In his inscriptions following languages have been used:

• Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Armaic and Greek. (James Princep first deciphered the inscriptions).

• Ashoka became the Buddhist under Upagupta.

Extent of Empire : His empire covered the whole territory from Hindukush to Bengal & extended over Afghanistan,
Baluchistan & whole of India with the exception of a small area in the farthest south. Kashmir and Valleys of Nepal were
also included, first empire to do so.

The Kalinga War History : (261 BC, mentioned in XIII rock edict). It changed his attitude towards life. Ashoka became a
Buddhist after that.

Aspects of Ashoks’s Reign :

• Ashok’s empire was divided into provinces with a viceroy in each province. He established Dhramshalas,
hospitals and Sarais throughout his kingdom.

• He appointed Dharma Mahapatras to propagate dharma among various social groups including women.

• He organized a network of missionaries to preach the doctrine both in his kingdom and beyond. He sent them to
Ceylon, Burma (sent his son Mahindra & daughter Sanghamitra to Ceylon) and other south-east Asian regions,
notably Thailand.

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• Ashoka is called ‘Buddhashakya & Ashok’ in Maski edict and ‘Dharmasoka’ in Sarnath inscription. He was also
known as ‘Devanampiya’- beloved of the gods, and ‘Piyadassi’- of pleasing appearance.

Significance of Mauryan Rule :

• The emblem of the Indian Republic has been adopted from the 4 – lion capital of the Ashokan pillar at Sarnath.

• Gurukuls & Buddhist monasteries developed with royal patronage. Universities of Taxila & Banaras are the gifts of
this era.

• Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Bhadrabahu’s Kalpa Sutra, Buddhist texts like the Katha Vatthu & Jain texts such as
Bhagwati Sutra, Acharanga Sutra and Dasavakalik comprise some of the important literature of this era.

Causes of the fall of Mauryan Empire :

• Ashoka’s patronage of Buddhism and his anti-sacrificial attitude is said to have affected the income of the
Brahmins. So they developed antipathy against Ashoka.

• Revenue from agrarian areas was not sufficient to maintain such a vast empire as booty from war was negligible.

• Successors of Ashoka were too weak to keep together such a large centralized empire.

Note: The last Mauryan king Brihadratha was killed by Pushyamitra Shunga (Commander in Chief) in 185 BC, who
started the Shunga dynasty in Magadha.

Central Asian Contact

In Eastern India, Central India & the Deccan, the Mauryas were succeeded by a number of native rulers such as the
Shungas, the Kanvas & the Satavahanas. In N.W. India, they were succeeded by a no. of ruling dynasties from central
Asia.

1. The Indo-Greeks History :

• A number of invasions took place around 200 BC. The first to invade India were the Greeks, who were also called
the Indo – Greeks or Bactrian Greeks (because they ruled Bactria). It is said that they pushed forward as far as
Ayodhya and Pataliputra.
• The most famous Indo Greek ruler was Menander (165 – 145 BC), also known as Milinda. He had his capital at
Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Punjab.
• He was converted into Buddhism by Nagasena. The conversation between the two has been described in the Pali
text, Milinda panho or ‘The Questions of Milinda’.
• Greeks were the first to issue coins which can be definitely attributed to the kings, and also the first to issue gold
coins in India.
• They also introduced the practice of military governorship. The governors were called ‘Strategos’.
• The Greek rule introduced features of Hellenistic art in the north-west frontier of India. Gandhara art was its best
example.

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• The term ‘Horshastra’, used for astrology in Sanskrit is derived from the Greek term ‘Horoscope’.

2. The Shakas Or Scythians History (90 BC):

• The Greeks were followed by the Shakas, who controlled a larger part of India than the Greek did.
• There were 5 branches of the Shakas with their seats of power in different parts of India and Afghanistan.
• A king of Ujjain, who called himself Vikramaditya, defeated Shakas. An era called the Vikram Samrat is reckoned
from the event of his victory over the Shakas in 57 BC. (From this time onward, Vikramaditya became a coveted
title).
• The most famous Shaka ruler in India was Rudradaman I (AD 130 – 150). His achievements are highlighted in his
Junagarh inscription. This inscription records in details the repairs of Sudrashana Lake in Kathiarwar. It is the first
major inscription to be written in Sanskrit.

3. The Parthians History :

• Originally they lived in Iran, invaded at the beginning of Christian era, from where they moved to India. In
comparison to Greeks and Shakas, they occupied only a small portion in N.W. India in the first century.
• The most famous Parthian King was Gondophernes (AD 19 – 45), in whose reign St. Thomas is said to have
come to India for the propagation of Christianity.

4. The Kushans in India (45 AD):

• Came from north central Asia near China. Their empire included a good part of central Asia, a portion of Iran, a
portion of Afghanistan, Pakistan & almost the whole of north India.
• Kanishka (AD 78-144) was their most famous king. He had two capitals- first at Purushpur, near modern
Peshawar and second at Mathura.
• He patronized the following persons:

1. Ashwaghosha (wrote ‘Buddhacharita’, which is the biography of Buddha and ‘Sutralankar’)

2. Nagarjuna (wrote ‘Madhyamik Sutra’)
3. Vasumitra (Chairman of fourth Buddhist Council)
4. Charak (a physician, wrote ‘Sasruta’.

• Kanishka controlled the famous silk route in Central Asia, which started from China and passed through his
empire in Central Asia and Afghanistan to Iran and Western Asia which formed part of Roman Empire.
• Kanishka is known in history for two reasons:

1. He started an era in AD 78, which is now known as Saka era and is used by the Govt, of India.
2. He extended his whole-hearted patronage to Buddhism (Held the fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir).

• Some of the successors of Kanishka bore typical Indian names as Vasudeva.

• The Gandhara School of art received royal patronage of the Kushans.

Impacts of Central Asian Contacts :

• Introduced the use of burnt bricks for flooring and that of tiles for both flooring and roofing.

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• Introduced the use of riding horse on a large scale. The Shakas and Kushans introduced turban, tunic, trousers,
and heavy long coats. They also brought in cap, helmet and boots which were used by warriors.
• In the religious field, the Greek ambassador Heliodorus set up a pillar in honour of Vasudeva near Vidisa in M.R.
• The Kushan Empire gave rise to several schools of art – Central Asian, Gandhara & Mathura.
• Mathura produced beautiful images of Buddha, but it is also famous for the headless erect statue of Kanishka.
• Vatsyayana wrote Kamasutra.

Kingdoms after the Mauryans

The Sunga Dynasty History :

• Pushyamitra founded this dynasty. His dominions extended to South as far as the Narmada River & included
cities of Pataliputra, Ayodhya & Vidisha. He performed two Ashwamedha sacrifices. He also defeated the
Bactrian king, Dematrius.
• The fifth king was Bhagabhadra, to whose court Heliodoros, the Greek ambassador visited.
• A Shunga king, Agnimitra was the hero of Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram.
• They were basically Brahmins. This period saw the revival of Bhagvatism.
• Patanjali’s classic Mahabhashya was written at this time.

The Kanva Dynasty :

• The founder of this short-lived dynasty was Vasudeva, who killed the last Sunga king, Devabhuti.
• They were swept away by Satavahanas of the Deccan.

The Chetis of Kalinga :

• The Hathigumpha inscription (near Bhubhaneshwar, Orissa) of Kharavela, the third ruler of the dynasty, gives
information about the Chetis.
• Kharavela pushed his kingdom beyond the Godavari in the South.
• He was a follower of Jainism and patronized it to a great extent.

The Satavahanas Or The Andhras :

• They were the successors of the Mauryans in the Deccan & the central India.
• Simuka is regarded as the founder of this dynasty. The most important king was Gautamiputra Satakarni (AD 106
– 130) who raised the power and prestige of Satavahanas to greater heights. He set up his capital at Paithan on
the Godavari in Aurangabad distt.

Important aspects of Satavahanas :

• Mostly issued lead coins (apart from copper and bronze).

• Acted as a bridge between North and South India.
• Satavahanas rulers called themselves Brahmans. Performed Vedic rituals and worshipped gods like Krishna,
Vasudeva and others.
• However, they also promoted Buddhism by granting land to the monks.
• The two common religious constructions were the Buddhist temple that was called ‘Chaitya’ & the monasteries,
which was called ‘Vihara’. The most famous Chaitya is that of Karle in W. Deccan.

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• Their distt was called Ahara’, as it was in Ashoka’s time. Their officials were known as ‘amatyas’ and
‘mahamatras’, as they were known in Mauryan times.
• Started the practice of granting tax free villages to brahmanas & Buddhist monks.
• The official language was Prakrit & the script was Brahmi, as in Ashokan times. One Prakrit text called
Gathasattasai is attributed to a Satavahana king called Hala.

Sangam Age in India

History of Pandyas :

• Their capital was Madurai.

• First mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that their kingdom was famous for pearls and was ruled by a woman.
• The Pandya kings profited from trade with the Roman Empire and sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augus.

History of Cholas :

• The kingdom was called Cholamandalam or Coromondal. The chief centre was Uraiyur, a place famous for cotton
trade. Capital was Kaveripattanam/Puhar.
• A Chola king named Elara conquered SriLanka & ruled it over for 50 years.
• Karikala was their famous king.
• Main source of wealth was trade in cotton cloth. They also maintained an efficient navy.

History of Cheras :

• Their capital was Vanji (also called Kerala country).

• It owed its importance to trade with the Romans. The Romans set up two regiments there to protect their
interests.
• Fought against the Cholas about 150 AD.
• Greatest king was Senguttuvan, the Red Chera.

Other aspects of the 2 kingdoms :

• All the gathered information is based on Sangam literature. Sangam was a college or assembly of Tamil poets
held probably under Royal Patronage (esp. Pandyas)
• Sangam age corresponds to the post-Maurya and the pre-Gupta period.
• Three Sangamas were held. The first Sangam was held at Madurai but its work has not survived. Its chairman
was Agastya. The second Sangam was held at Kapatpuram.
• Its chairman was Tolkappiyar (author of Tolkappium). The third Sangam was held at Madurai. Its chairman was
Nakkirar. It was the third Sangam from which covers the entire corpus of Sangam literature.
• Silappadikaram by llano Adigal (story of a married couple) and Manimekalai by Sattanar are the famous epics of
this time.
• Other books are Tolkappium by Tolkappiyar, Jivikachintamani by Tirutakkdewar and Kural (called the ‘fifth veda’
or ‘the Bible of the Tamil Land’) by Tiruvalluvar.
• The chief local god was Murugan, who was also called Subramaniya.
• ‘Pariyars’ – agricultural laborers who used to work in animal skin.
• Civil and military offices held by vellalas (rich peasants).
• The ruling class was called “Arasar”.

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• Captains of the army were given the title ENADI in formal functions.

The Gupta Dynasty

Gupta Empire Golden Age of India

On the ruins of the Kushan empire arose a new empire, which established its way over a good part of the former
dominions of both Kushans and Satavahanas. The first two kings of the dynasty were Srigupta and Ghatotkacha.

Chandragupta I (AD 319 – 335):

• First important king of Gupta Dynasty.

• Started the Gupta era in 319-320 AD.

• He enhanced his power & prestige by marrying Kumara Devi, princes of the Lichchavi clan of Nepal.

• He acquired the title of Maharajadhiraj.

• Struck coins in the joint names of himself, his queen and the Lachchavi nation, thereby acknowledging his
marriage alliance.

History of Samudragupta (AD 335 – 375):

• The Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously by Chandragupta’s son & successor Samudragupta.

• His court poet Harisena wrote a glowing account of the military exploits of his patron. In a long inscription at the
Prayag Prashasti pillar (at Allahabad), the poet enumerated the people & countries that were conquered by
Samudragupta.

• Samudragupta believed in the policy of war and conquest and because of his bravery and generalship he is called
the ‘Napoleon’ of India (by the historian V.A. Smith).

• Samudragupta is said to have composed numerous poems of high merit. Some of his coins represent him playing
vina. He also performed Asvamedha sacrifice.

• He assumed the titles of Kaviraj and Vikramanka.

• Vasubandhu, a celebrated Buddhist scholar was his minister.

• Though a follower of the brahmanical religion, he was tolerant of other faiths; Received a missionary from
Meghavarman, the ruler of SriLanka, seeking his permission to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya, which he
granted.

History of Chandragupta – II (AD 380 – 413):

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• Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramgupta but Chandragupta II killed him and married his queen Dhruvadevi.

• He entered into matrimonial alliance with the Nagas (of upper and the Central Provinces) by marrying princess
Kubernaga whose daughter Prabhavati was married to Rudrasena-II of the Vakataka family.

• Took the title of Vikramaditya by defeating Rudrasimha III, a Kshatrap king of Ujjain. He also took the title of
Simhavikrama.

• He was the first ruler to issue silver coins. Also issued copper coins.

• The iron pillar inscription, fixed near Qutabminar in Delhi mentions a king Chandra (considered by many as
Chandragupta II only).

• His court was adorned by celebrated nine gems (navratnas) including Kalidasa, Amarsimha, Varahmihir, and
Dhanvantri.

• Chinese pilgrim Fahien visited India at this time.

History of Kumaragupta – I (AD 413 – 455):

• He adopted the title of Mahendraditya.

• Founded Nalanda University (a renowned university of ancient India).

• He was the worshipper of Lord Kartikeya (son of Lord Shiva).

• In the last years of his reign, the peace and prosperity of the empire was disturbed due to the invasion of Turko-
Mongol tribe, Hunas. During the war with the Hunas, Kumaragupta died.

History of Skandagupta (AD 455 – 467):

• Kumaragupta-I was followed by Skandagupta. He faced Hunas effectively.

• Restored Sudarshana Lake.

• After his death, the great days of the Guptas were over. The empire continued but central control weakened, and
local governors became feudatory kings with hereditary rights.

Fall of Gupta Empire :

• The weak successors of Skandagupta could not check the growing Huna power.

• Feudatories rose in Bihar, Bengal, MP, Vallabhi, etc.

• Note: Mihirkula was the most famous Huna king. Hjuen Tsang mentions him as a fierce per secutor of Buddhism.
He was defeated by Yashodharman (one of the feudatories of Guptas in Malwa).

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• Contributions of Gupta Rulers

Gupta Administration :

• Kings were called Parameshwara /Maharajadhiraja /Paramabhattaraka.

• The most important officers were Kumaramatyas.

• Their military organization was feudal in character (though the emperor had the standing army).

• They issued the largest number of gold coins in Ancient India, which were called Dinars. Silver coins were called
rupyakas.

Social Development of Guptas Empire :

• The castes were further divided into sub-castes.

• Vishti (forced labour) was there.

• Position of women declined further. First instance of Sati took place at Eran, MP.

• The position of shudras improved substantially.

• The practice of untouchability intensed. (Especially hatred for Chandalas). Fa-hien mentions that the Chandalas
lived outside the village and were distanced by the upper class.
• Nalanda (a university) was established as a Buddhist monastery during the reign of Kumara Gupta.

Gupta Religion :

• Bhagavad-Gita was written during this time only. Buddhism declined.

• Bhagavatism centered around worshipping Vishnu or Bhagvat.

• History was presented as a cycle of 10 incarnations of Vishnu.

• Idol worship became a common feature.

• Vishnu temple at Deogarh (near Jhansi), a small temple near Sanchi and a brick temple at Bhitragaon (near
Kanpur) belong to the Gupta architecture.

Gupta Art :

• Samudragupta is represented on his coins playing the lute (vina).

• 2 mt high bronze image of Buddha belonging to the Mathura school (The Gandhara Buddha represents mask-like
coldness, while the Buddha from the Mathura school imparts a feeling of warmth and vitality.

• The Buddha sitting in his Dharma Chakra mudra belongs to Sarnath.

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• Buddha images of Bamiyan belonged to Gupta period.

• Ajanta Paintings and paintings at Bagh, near Gwalior in MP, are of this time. They belong to the Buddhist art.

• Images of Vishnu, Shiva & some other Hindu Gods feature I time in this period.

Gupta Literature in India :

• Kalidas, the great Sanskrit dramatist, belonged to this period. His books are: Abhigyanashakuntalam, (considered
as one of the best literary works in the world & one of the earliest Indian work to be translated into European
language, the other work being the Bhagavadgita), Ritusamhara, Meghadutam, Kumarasambhavam,
Malavikagnimitram, Raghuvansha, Vikramurvashi etc. Out of these, Ritusamhara, Meghadutam, Raghuvansha
were epics and the rest were plays.

• Apart from Kalidas, others were Sudraka (author of Mrichchakatikam), Bharavi (Kiratarjuniya), Dandin
(Kavyadarshana and Dasakumaracharita). To this period belongs 13 plays written by Bhasa. Most famous of
these was Charudatta.

• Vishakhadatta wrote Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam.

• Vishnu Sharma wrote Panchtantra and Hitopdesh.

• The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and Patanjali. This period is
particularly memorable for the compilation of Amarakosha by Amarasimha.

• Ramayana & Mahabharata were almost completed by the 4th century AD.

Science and Technology of Gupta Period :

• Gupta period is unparalleled for its achievements in the field of mathematics and astronomy.

• Aryabhatta, the great mathematician wrote Aryabhatiya and Suryasiddhanta. In Aryabhatiya, he described the
place value of the first nine nos. & the use of zero. He also calculated the value of pie and invented Algebra.

• In Suryasiddhanta, he proved that the earth revolves round the sun and rotates on its axis. In this way he
discovered the cause of the solar and lunar eclipses and the methods for calculating the timings of their
occurrence. He also said that the heavenly bodies, like the moon, were spherical and they shone by reflecting the
light.

• Varahamihira wrote Panchasi- dhantika and Brihatsamhita. He said that the moon moves round the earth and the
earth, together with the moon, move round the sun.

• Brahmagupta was a great mathematician. He wrote Brahma-sphutic Siddhanta in which he hinted at the Law of
Gravitation.

• In the field of astronomy, Romakasidhanta was compiled.

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• Vagbhatta was the most distinguished physician of the Ayurvedic system of medicine.

• Palakapya wrote Hastyagarveda, a treatise on the disease of elephants.

• Court language was Sanskrit.

• Dhanvantri – famous for Ayurveda knowledge.

Other Dynasties and Rulers

(7th Century – 12th Century AD)

History of Harshavardhana (AD 606 – 647) :

• Belonged to Pushyabhuti family & son of Prabhakar Vardhan.

• Originally belonged to Thaneshwar, but shifted to Kannauj (after Harsha’s death Kannauj was won from Harsha’s
successors by the Pratiharas).
• Brought ’5 Indies’ under his control (Punjab, Kannauj, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa).
• Defeated by Pulakesin – II, the great Chalukya king, on the banks of Narmada in 620. Pulakesin – II bestowed the
title of ‘Sakalottara – patha – natha’ – ‘the lord of the entire north’ – on him.
• Chinese pilgrim, Hieun Tsang (Prince of Travelers) visited during his reign. He spent about eight years (635 –
643) in the dominions of Harsha and earned his friendship. Hieun Tsang has left a detailed account of a grand
assembly held at Kannauj in 643 attended by representatives of Hinduism and Jainism.
• Harsha used to celebrate a solemn festival at Prayag (Allahabad), at the end of every five years.
• Harsha was a great patron of learning. He established a large monastery at Nalanda. Banabhatta, who adorned
his court, wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari. Harsha himself wrote 3 plays – Priyadarshika, Ratnavali and
Nagananda.
• After the death of Harsha in 647, the empire once again broke up into petty States.
• I – tsing, another Chinese pilgrim, visited in 670 AD.

The Vakatakas History :

• The Vakatakas came to control parts of the Deccan and Central India till the rise of the Chalukyas.
• The founder of this Brahmin dynasty was Vindhyasakti.
• Most important king was Pravarsen – I who performed 4 Ashwamedha yagyas.
• Chandragupta – II married his daughter Prabhawati to the Vakataka king, Rudrasena – II.

Chalukyas of Vatapi (Badami) :

• Founder : Pulakesin – I.
• Established their kingdom at Vatapi (modern Badami, Karnataka).
• Pulakesin – II Was their most famous king, who was a contemporary of Harsha. He sent an embassy to the
Persian king, Khusro – II. His court poet, Ravikirti, wrote Aihole inscription. Hiuen Tsang visited his kingdom.
• They were the maritime powers of their time.
• Much of the paintings and sculptures of the Ajanta and Ellora caves were completed during the Chalukyan reign.
They builr several magnificent temples in Aihole and other places. Aihole is called the cradle of Indian
temple architecture.

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Note :

1. There were two more Chalukya dynasties which were separate entities. They were Eastern Chalukvas of Vensi
and Western Chalukvas of Kaivani.
2. Vengi dynasty was founded by Pulakesin ll’s brother, Kubja – Vishnu-Vardhana. The power of Eastern Chalukyas
was weakened in the tenth century and they became the allies of Cholas.
3. The greatest ruler of Kalyani Chalukyas was Vikramaditya II Tribhuvanamalla. He was the hero of Bilhana’s
Vikramankadeva Gharita. He introduced the Chalukya – Vikrama era (1076 A.D).

The Rashtrakutas Dynasty :

• Founder : Dantidurga.
• Originally district officers under Chalukyas of Badami.
• Their king, Krishna – I is remembered for constructing the famous rock – cut Kailasha temple at Ellora. It was
constructed in the Dravidian style and elaborately carved with fine sculptures.
• Their king, Amoghvarsha, is compared to Vikramaditya in giving patronage to men of letters. He wrote the first
Kannada poetry named Kaviraj marg and Prashnottar Mallika. He built the city of Manyakheta as his capital.
• Their king, Krishna – III set up a pillar of victory and a temple at Rameshwaram.
• Rashtrakutas are credited with the building of cave shrine of Elephanta. It was dedicated to Shiva, whose image
as Mahesh (popularly known as Trimurti), counts among the most magnificent art creations of India. The three
faces represent Shiva as creator, Preserver and Destroyer.

The Gangas Dynasty :

• Also called Chedagangas of Orissa.

• Their king Narsimhadeva constructed the Sun Temple at Konark.
• Their king Anantvarman Ganga built the famous Jagannath temple at Puri.
• Kesaris, who used to rule Orissa before Gangas built the Lingaraja temple at Bhubhaneshwar.

The Pallavas History :

• Founder : Simhavishnu. They set up their capital at Kanchi (south of Chennai).

• Narsimhavarman was their greatest king. He founded the town of Mamalapuram (Mahabalipuram) which he
adorned with beautiful rock – cut Raths or Seven Pagoras. Hieun Tsang visited Kanchi during his reign.

Medieval Indian History

History of Ghazni Mahumud

Invasion of Ghazni Mohammed :

• Until the rise of the west, India was possibly the richest country in the world. Such a country presented an
irresistible target for the ravening Mongols and their descendents who settled in present day Afghanistan,
Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, all within comparatively easy reach of north-western India.
• The northwest was, at this time, a mish-mash of warring kingdoms, more interested in sending scores with their
neighbours than in unifying against the Mongols. It is then unsurprising that Mahmud Ghaznavi’s armies so
handily defeated those of the Indian kings.
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• Born in 971 AD, Mahmud Ghaznavi was the eldest son of Subuktagin, the king of Ghazni (in present day
Afghanistan). When Subuktagin attacked King Jaipala of Punjab, Mahmud fought for his father in the battlefield.

Though Mahmud was the eldest son of his father, it is said that in his last days, Subuktagin was not happy with Mahmud.
So, when Subuktagin died in 997 AD, his younger son Ismail became the king of Ghazni. Ismail reigned only for a little
time. Very soon, Mahmud defeated him and became the king.

• Mahmud began a series of seventeen raids into northwestern India at the end of the 10th
century. Nonetheless, he did not attempt to rule Indian Territory except for Punjab, which was
his gateway to India.

His first expedition was directed against the frontier towns in 1000 AD.
His second expedition was against Jaipala, the Hindushahi king of Punjab whom he defeated in the First Battle of
Waihind. Jaipala could not survive the shock of humiliation and he burnt himself to death. He was succeeded by his son,
Anandpala in 1002 AD.
In his sixth expedition, Mahmud defeated Anandpala in the II Battle of Waihind (1008). Anandpala had organized a
confederacy of rulers of Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar, Kannauj, Delhi and Ajmer, but the alliance was defeated.
In his other expeditions, Mahmud plundered Nagarkot, Thaneshwar, Kannauj, Mathura and Somnath.
His sixteenth expedition was the plunder of Somnath temple (dedicated to Shiva) in 1025 AD, situated on the sea coast
of Kathiarwar.
After looting the Somnath temple, when Mahmud was going back to Ghazni, the Jats had attacked his army. So, to
punish the Jats, he returned and defeated them in 1026.
The objective of Mahmud’s expeditions was to plunder the riches of temples and palaces and was not interested in
expanding his empire to India. However, he later annexed Punjab and made it a part of his kingdom, just to have easy
access.

He patronized 3 persons :

1. Firdausi (Persian poet, known as Homer of the east) who wrote Shahnama.
2. Alberuni (a brilliant scholar from Central Asia) who wrote Tahqiq-I-Hind.
3. Utbi (court historian), who wrote Kitab-ud-Yamni.

History of Somnath Temple Gujarat:

The Somnath Temple located in the Kathiarwar region of Gujarat, is one of the twelve Jyotiriings (golden lingas) symbols
of the God Shiva. It is mentioned in the Rig Veda. Somnath mean “The Protector of Moon God”. It is known as ‘the Shrine
Eternal’, as although the temple has been destroyed six times it has been rebuilt every single time.

The first temple of Somnath is said to have existed before the beginning of the Christian era. The second temple, built by
the Maitraka kings of Vallabhi in Gujarat, replaced the first one on the same site around 649 AD. In 725 Junayad, the Arab
governor of Sind sent his armies to destroy the second temple.

The Pratihara king Nagabhata II constructed the third temple in 815 AD, a large structure of red sandstone. Mahmud of
Ghazni attacked this temple in 1025 AD, and looted it of gems and precious stones. He then massacred the worshippers
and had the temple burnt. It was then that the famous Shiva lingam of the temple was entirely destroyed.

The temple and citadel were sacked, and most of its defenders massacred; Mahmud personally hammered the temple’s
gilded lingam to pieces and the stone fragments were carted back to Ghazni, where they were incorporated into the steps
of the city’s new Jamiah Masjid.

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The fourth temple was built by the Paramara King Bhoj of Malwa and the Solanki king Bhima of Gujarat between 1026 AD
and 1042 AD. The wooden structure was replaced by Kumarpal who built the temple of stone. The temple was razed in
1297 when the Sultanate of Delhi conquered Gujarat, and again in 1394 AD. The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb destroyed
the temple again in 1706 AD.

The present temple is the seventh temple built on the original site. It was completed on December 1, 1995 and the then
President of India, Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma dedicated it in the service of the nation. The present temple was built by the
Shree Somnath Trust which looks after the entire complex of Shree Somnath and its environs.

History of Muhammad Ghori

Muhammad Ghori History

• The real founder of the Muslim Empire in India was Shihab – ud – Din Muhammad Ghori or Muhammad of Ghur.
It is true that Muhammad bin Qasim was the first Muslim invader of India but he failed to carve out a Muslim
empire in India on account of his premature death.
• Mahmud also failed to set a Muslim empire in India and the only permanent effect of his invasions was the
annexation of Punjab. It was left to Muhammad Ghori to build up a Muslim Empire in India on a secure footing.
• He was also a ruler of a small kingdom in Afghanistan. But he was interested in conquering northern India and
adding it to his kingdom, and not merely in getting gold and jewellery like Mahmud.
• His first invasion was directed against Multan in 1175 AD, which was successful. By 1182, Sindh was also
captured. Punjab was captured by 1186 AD.
• Prithviraj Chauhan, who was the king of Delhi at that time, received contingents from other Rajput kings and
defeated him in the First Battle of Tarain (1191).
• But he defeated Prithviraj in the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192. Captured Delhi and Ajmer and thus laid the
foundation of Muslim Rule in India. Also defeated Jaichandra (Gahadval Rajput, ruler of Kannauj) at the Battle of
Chandweri in 1194 AD.
• Ikhtiyar – ud – din Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, one of Ghori’s commanders, annexed Bihar and Bengal and
destroyed Nalanda and Vikramshila University.
• Died in 1206 AD, leaving Qutab – ud – Din Aibak the charge.

Rajput King Prithviraj Chauhan

Prithviraj III (1179-1192), also called Rai Pithaura by Muslim historians, was a king of the Rajput Chauhan (Chahamana)
dynasty, who ruled a kingdom in northern India during the latter half of the 12th century. He was born to king Someshwara
Chauhan and his wife Karpuravalli. He succeeded to the throne while still a minor, and ruled from the twin capitals of
Ajmer and Delhi.

His elopement with Samyukta, the daughter of Jai Chandra, the Gahadvala king of Kannauj, is a popular romantic taleand
is one of the subjects of the Prithviraj Raso, an epic poem composed by Prithviraj's court poet, Chand Bardai.

His kingdom included much of the present-day Indian states of Rajasthan and Haryana, and parts of Uttar Pradesh and
Punjab. In Prithviraj Raso, Chand Bardai depicts Prithviraj as a romantic, chivalrous and an jextremely fearless king.

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His fast rise aroused the envy of the then powerful ruler of Kannauj, Jaichand Gahadwala, and caused ill-feeling between
the two. Samyogita also known as Samyukta in folklore, daughter of Jaichand, fell secretly in love with Prithviraj and
began a secret correspondence with him. Her father got wind of this and resolved to have her safely wed at an early date.

He arranged a Swayamwara, a ceremony where a maiden date. He arranged a Swayamwara, a ceremony where a
maiden selects her husband from a number of suitors who assemble at the invitation of her guardian. Jaichand invited
many princes of acceptable rank and heritage, but deliberately failed to invite Prithviraj.

To add insult to injury, Jaichand had a statue of Prithviraj made and placed at the door of the venue, thus parodying
Prithviraj as a doorman. Prithviraj came to hear of this. He made his plans and confided the same to his lover, Samyukta.

On the day of the ceremony, Samyukta emerged from an inner chamber, entered the venue of the, swayamwara, walked
straight down the hall past the assembled suitors, bypassing them all. She reached the door and garlanded the statue of
Prithviraj. The assemblage was stunned at this brash act, but more was to follow:

Prithviraj, who had been hiding behind the statue in the garb of a doorman, emerged, put Samyukta upon his steed, and
made a fast getaway. Jaichandra and his army gave earnest chase, to no avail. This incident resulted in a string of battles
between the two kingdoms and both of them suffered heavily. The Chauhan-Gahadvala feud led to the weakening of both
Rajput kingdoms.

After the Second Battle of Tarain, Prithviraj was taken as a prisoner in Ghor and was brought in chains before Mahmud.
He haughtily looked Ghori straight into the eye. Ghori ordered him to lower his eyes, whereupon a defiant Prithviraj
declared that the eyelids of a Rajput are lowered only in death.

On hearing this, Ghori flew into a rage and ordered that Prithviraj's eyes be burnt with red hot iron rods. This heinous deed
was committed. The blind Prithviraj was then regularly brought to the presence of the barbaric warlord to be taunted by
Ghori and his courtiers.

Chand Bardai came to Ghor to be near Prithviraj in his misery. Chand Bardai came in disguise and secured himself a
place in Mahmud's court by purveying his skills as a composer of poems. The two got the revenge opportunity when Ghori
announced an archery competition. Chand Bardai told Ghori that Prithviraj was so skilled an archer, that he could take
aim based only on sound, and did not even need to look, at his target.

The blind and hapless Prithviraj was brought out to the field and given a bow and arrows. In the a spirit of the occasion,
Mahmud Ghori personally gave Prithviraj the order to shoot. Thus, Chand Bardai provided Prithviraj with an aural
indication of where Ghori was seated. He gave Prithviraj one further indication of the same, by composing a couplet on
the spot and reciting the same in Prithviraj's hearing.

The couplet, composed in a language understood only by Prithviraj went thus:

Char bans, chaubis gaj, angul ashta praman,

Ete pal hai Sultan, (Taa Upar hat Sultan),

ab mat chuko hey Chauhan.

(Ten measures ahead of you and twenty four feet away, is seated the Sultan. Do not miss him now Chauhan).

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Ghori then ordered Prithviraj to shoot, Prithviraj turned in the direction from where he heard Ghori speak, and, taking aim
based only on the voice and on Chand Bardai's couplet, he sent an arrow racing to Ghori's throat. Ghori was thus stuck
dead by Prithviraj.

Naturally, after this deed, Prithviraj was killed by Mahmud's courtiers. But the brave Rajput had avenged the betrayals and
humiliations suffered by him. Selects her husband from a number of suitors who assemble at the invitation of her
guardian. Jaichand invited many princes of acceptable rank and heritage, but deliberately failed to invite Prithviraj.

To add insult to injury. Jaichand had a statue of Prithviraj made and placed at the door of the venue, thus parodying
Prithviraj as a doorman. Prithviraj came to hear of this. He made his plans and confided the same to his lover, Samyukta.

The Ilbari Dynasty

The Ilbari Dynasty or Slave Dynasty of India

• Out of all the kings belonging to the so – called Slave Dynasty, only three, viz., Qutab – ud – din Aibak, Iltutmish
and Balban were slaves and even they were manumitted by their masters.
• The dynasty is called Ilbari dynasty because all rulers of this dynasty, except Aibak, belonged to the Ilbari tribe of
Turks.

Qutab – ud – din Aibak History (1206 – 1210) :

• Md. Ghori left his Indian possessions in his hands. He ruled on the death of his master and founded this dynasty.
• Lahore and later Delhi were his capitals.
• Famous for his generosity and earned the sobriquet of lakh – baksh (giver of Lakhs).
• Laid the foundation of Qutab Minar after the name of famous Sufi saint, Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
• Died of a horse fall at Lahore, while playing Chaugan (polo). The Turks only introduced polo in India.
• Built the first mosque in India – Quwwat – ul – Islam (at Delhi) and Adhai Din Ka Jhonpara (at Ajmer).
• He was a great patron of learning and patronized writers like Hasan Nizami, who wrote Taj – ul – Massir, and
Fakhr – ud – din, writer of Tarikh – i – Mubarakshahi.

History of Aram Shah (1210) :

• When Qutab – ud – din Aibak died all of a sudden at Lahore, the Amirs and Maliks of Lahore put Aram Shah on
the throne. Some texts say that he was the son of Aibak while others deny so.
• He was a weak and worthless young man and was rejected by the people of Delhi. Iltutmish, who was the
Governor of Badaun at that time, defeated him and acquired the throne.

Iltumish (1210 – 36) :

• Shams – ud – din Iltutmish was the son – in – law of Aibak. He is considered the greatest of the slave kings and
the real consolidator of the Turkish conquest in India.

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• He suppressea the revolts of ambitious nobles and sent expeditions against the Rajputs in Ranthambor, Jalor,
Gwalior, Aimer, Malwa.
• Prevented Chengiz Khan attack by refusing to give refuge to an enemy of Khan, Jalaluddin Mangabarani (a ruler
from Iran). Thus, due to his diplomatic skill he prevented Mongol attack.
• He got his authority (Sultanate of Delhi) recognized by the Caliph of Baghdad (Khalifa), as a member of world
fraternity of Islamic states.
• He formed Turkan – i – Chahalgani or Chalisa (a group of 40 powerful Turkish nobles to suppress nobles).
• Divided his empire into IQTAS, an assignment of land in lieu of salary, which he distributed to his officers. Every
Iqtadar had to maintain law and order and collect revenue. After deducting his salary and the expenses of the
government, he sent the surplus revenue to the Central Government. Iqtadars were transferable.
• He introduced the silver tanka and the copper jital – 2 basic coins of the Sultanate.
• He patronized Minhaj – ul – Siraj, the author of Tabaqat – i – Nasiri.
• He is called the Father of Tomb Building (built Sultan Garhi in Delhi).
• As his successor, declared Razia, thus deviating from the normal practice.

• History of Qutub Minar Delhi :

Qutub Minar in Delhi is the tallest brick minaret in the world. It is 72.5 metres (239ft) high. The diameter of the
base is 14.3 metres wide while the top floor measures 2.7 metres in diameter. Inspired by the Minaret of Jam in
Afghanistan and wishing to surpass it, Aibak commenced construction of the Qutub Minar in 1193; but could only
complete its basement.
• His successor, Iltutmish, added three more stories and, in 1368, Firuz Shah Tughluq constructed the fifth and the
last story.
• The development of architectural styles from Aibak to Tughlak are quite evident in the minaret. The minaret is
made of fluted red sandstone covered with intricate carvings and verses from the Quran.
• The purpose for building this beautiful monument has been speculated upon, apart from the usual role of a
minaret that of calling people for prayer in a mosque – in this case the Quwwat – ul – Islam mosque.
• Other reasons ascribed to its construction are as a tower of victory, a monument signifying the might of Islam, or a
watch tower for defence. Controversy also surrounds the origins for the name of the tower.
• Later, Ala ud din Khilji started building another minaret near Qutab Minar, the Alai Minar, which was conceived to
be two times higher than Qutub Minar. The construction was abandoned, however, after the completion of the
24.5 meter high first storey; soon after death of Ala – ud – din.
• The Qutab Minar complex also houses Quwwat – ul – Islam mosque, built by Aibak. The mosque is said to be
built by the parts taken by destruction of twenty – seven Hindu and Jain temples.
• To the west of the Quwwat – ul – Islam mosque is the tomb of Iltutmish which was built by the monarch in 1235.
The Ala – i – Darwaza is a magnificent gateway to the complex. It was built by Ala ud din Khilji. The iron pillar,
situated behind Qutab Minar is one of the world’s foremost metallurgical curiosities.
• Made up of 98% wrought iron of pure quality, it is 23 feet 8 inches (7.21 m) high and has a diameter of 16 inches
(0.41 m). It was erected by Chandragupta II Vikramaditya of the Gupta dynasty.
• It has attracted the attention of archaeologists and metallurgists as it has withstood corrosion for the last 1600
Years, despite harsh weather. A fence was erected around the pillar due to the popularity of a tradition that
considered good luck if you could stand with your back to the pillar and make your hands meet behind it.

History of Ruknuddin Firuz Shah (1236) :

• Iltutmish had many sons but as all of them were incompetent, he appointed his daughter Raziya as his successor.
• In spite of this, the nobles of the court who considered themselves too proud to bow their heads before a woman
put on the throne Ruknuddin Firuz Shah who was the eldest son of Iltutmish. But he was an utterly worthless
person.
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• He took pleasure in riding through the streets of Delhi on an elephant and scattering gold among the people. He
left the works of the government in the hands of his ambitious mother, Shah Turkan. She was originally a Turkish
handmaid. She had her revenge against all those who had offended her in her youth.
• The result of all this was that rebellions occurred on all sides. Finally Ruknuddin and her mother were put to death
and throne was given to Raziya.

Raziya History (1236 – 1240) :

• She was the first and the last Muslim woman ruler of medieval India. She succeeded her brother in 1236 and
ruled for 31 / 2 Years.
• She disregarded purdah, began to adorn male attire and rode out in public on elephant back.
• She promoted Jamaluddin Yaqut, an Abyssinian, to the important office of superintendent of the stables. It
provoked the Turkish nobles. There were simultaneous revolts in the various parts of the kingdom. The Governor
of Lahore was the first to create trouble but he was defeated.
• There was a serious rebellion in Bhatinda. Malik Ikhtiyaruddin Altunia, Governor of Bhatinda, refused to
acknowledge the suzerainty of Raziya. Raziya, accompanied by Yaqut Mared against Altunia. On the way, the
Turkish followers of Altunia murdered Yaqut and imprisoned Raziya. She had to marry Altunia to get out of the
situation.
• But she was killed, along with her husband, by Bahram Shah, a son of Iltutmish, on their way back to Delhi.
• Raziya was an excellent horsewoman who led the army herself. Her only problem was that she was a lady.

Note : After Razia, the battle of succession continued in which the following rulers ruled insignificantly :

1. Muizuddin Bahram Shah (1240 – 1242).

2. Alauddin Masud Shah (1242 – 1246).
3. NasiruddJn Mehmud (1246 – 1265).

Balban History (1266 – 1286) :

• He himself was a member of Chalisa. To guard himself, he got every member of Iltutmish family killed and gave a
death blow to the Turkish nobility (Chalisa). He ordered the separation of military department from the finance
department (diwan – i – wizarai), and the former was placed under a ministry for military affairs (diwan – i – ariz).
• The declared the Sultan as the representative of God on earth. He impressed upon the People that king was the
deputy of God (niyabat – i – khudai) and the shadow of God (zil – i – ilahi).
• Introduced Sijdah or Paibos practice, in which the people were required to kneel and touch the ground with their
head to greet the Sultan. He also instructed to the ulemas to confine themselves to religious affairs and not to
engage in political activities. He also started the festival of Nauroz.
• In order to win the confidence of the public, he administered justice with extreme impartiality. He employed an
efficient spy system.
• He was a liberal patron of Persian literature and showed special favour to the poet, Amir Khusro.
• He was deeply racist and excluded non – Turks from the administration.
• He strengthened the frontiers against Mongols.
• But his son, Muhammad’s death was a smashing blow to Balban and the death – knell to his dynasty.
• After Balban’s death, Kaiqubad (1287 – 1290) sat on throne but he was an inefficient and fun – loving person.

Khalji Dynasty in India

Coming of Khaljis marked the end of monopolization of power by the Turkish nobility and racial dictatorship.

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Jallaluddin Firuz Khalji History (1290 - 1296):

• He was the first ruler to put forward the view that since a large majority of people in India are Hindus, the state in
India could not be a total Islam state.
• The most important event of his reign was the invasion of Devagiri in 1294 by his nephew and son-in-law, Ali
Gurshap or Ala-ud-din Khalji. Devagiri was the capital of the Yadava kingdom in the Deccan and Ala-ud-din
plundered the vast treasury.
• Married his daughter to Ulugh Khan, a descendent of Chengiz Khan, to win their goodwill.
• He assassinated his uncle and proclaimed himself Sultan winning over the nobles and soldiers to his side by a
lavish use of gold (accumulated from Devagiri).
• After coming to power, he massacred the old Balbani and Jalali nobles and the Mongols who had settled in Delhi,
and some of his own family members.
• His first conquest was of the rich kingdom Gujarat, (ruled by the Vaghela king, Rai Kama Dev II). This conquest is
notable.for two reasons - first, he married the Raja's wife, Kamla Devi; and secondly, there only he acquired Malik
Kafur, a eunuch, who later on rose to become a great military general.
• Then he captured Ranthambhor, Chittor and Malwa. Chittor was ruled by a Gahlot king, Ratna Singh whose
queen Padmini committed jauhar when his husband was defeated. Alauddin named Chittor as Khizrabad, after
his son.
• After his conquest of north India, he sent Malik Kafur towards South.
• Malik defeated Yadavas of Devagiri (king was Ram Chandra Deva), Kakatiya king Pratap Rudra Deva I of
Warangal, Hoysalas of Dwarsamudra (king was Vira Ballala III) and Pandyas of Madurai (king was Maravarman
Kulasekhara). He is said to have reached as far as Rameshwaram where he built a mosque. Thus, the whole of
Deccan was subjugated.
• He strengthened the North West Frontier under his trusted commander Ghazi Malik.
• He adopted Balban's policy of 'Blood and Iron' in tackling the Mongol menace.
• Added an entrance door to Qutab Minar, Alai Darwaza and built his capital at Siri.
• Also built Hauz Khas, Mahal Hazaar Satoon and Jamait Khana Mosque in Delhi.
• Adopted the title Sikandar-i-Sani.

Administration of Alauddin Khilji :

• First Sultan to have permanent army- paid soldiers in cash, imported horses, detailed description of each soldier
(Chehra) and each horse (Dagh) was kept (first time).
• He took radical preventive measure to prevent rebellion.
a. Confiscation of the religious endowments and free grants of lands.
b. An efficient espionage system was built.
c. Sale of liquor and intoxicants prohibited.
d. Restrictions and strong checks on social gatherings, marriages between the families of nobles etc.
• Revenue Reforms :
a. Measured the cultivable land and fixed land revenue accordingly; Biswa was declared to be the standard
unit of measurement.
b. The state demand was half of the produce / Biswa.
c. House tax (ghari) and pasture tax (chari) were imposed.
d. A special post Mustakhraj was created for the purpose of collection of revenue.
• Market control / Economic regulations:
a. The price was fixed by the state of commodities.
b. Four separate markets were established for various commodities-Central grain market, market for
manufactured goods, market for general items and market for horses, cattle and slaves.
c. The Sultan received daily reports of these from independent sources (spies).
d. Strict punishment for cheating and underweightment.
• First Turkish Sultan of Delhi who separated religion from politics. He proclaimed - "Kingship knows no kinship".
• Though Alauddin was illiterate, he was a patron of learning and art. There were many great poets in his court.
Both Amir Khusro and Mir Hasan Dehlvi enjoyed his patronage.

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Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah History (1316 - 1320):

• He was one of the sons of Alauddin who, somehow, escaped the preying eyes of Malik Kafur. After the death of
Kafur he became the king.
• After seating himself on the throne, he tried to win over the goodwill of the people. He cancelled all harsh
regulations started by his father.
• During his reign, many revolts took place across the country. Although he was able to crush them, he wasn't able
to run the administration smoothly.

History of Nasiruddin Khusro Shah (1320):

• He killed Mubarak Shah and usurped the throne. But like his mentor, he too was an incapable ruler.
• He was defeated and killed by Ghazi Malik. With him, the thirty year rule of Khalji dynasty also came to an end.

History of Malik Kafur :

• He was an Indian eunuch and slave who became a general in the army of Alauddin Khilji. In 1297, he was
purchased for 1,000 Dinars by Nusrat Khan. That is the reason why Malik Kafur is sometimes called Hazar-
Dinari. It is reported that Alauddin fell in love with his effeminate handsomeness and named him senior
commander in his army after he agreed to convert to Islam.
• Perhaps due to the favor of the sultan, Kafur rose quickly in the army; He led the sultan's army against the
Yadava kingdom of Devagiri, the Kakatiya kingdom and eventually into the Pandyan kingdom in far southern
India, winning immense riches for the sultanate.
• Kafur's invasion of Pandya was the farthest south that any Muslim invasion would ever reach in India; Kafur's
success in the Deccan made him so powerful that Alauddin became merely a puppet in his hands. This "evil
genius of the Sultan" told Alauddin that his wife and sons were conspiring against him and got them imprisoned.
• After the death of Alauddin he placed, Kafur was responsible for the execution of all those princes of royal blood
who had any claim to the throne. Thirty six days after the death of Alauddin, Kafur and his associates were killed.

Amir Khusro (1253 - 1325):

• Ab'ul Hasan Yamin al-Din Khusro, better known as Amir Khusro Dehlavi, is one of the iconic figures in the cultural
history of India. A Sufi mystic and a spiritual disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi, Amir Khusro was not only one
of India's greatest poets, he is also credited with being the founder of both Hindustani classical music and
Qawwali (the devotional music of the Sufis).
• He was born of a Turkish father, Saif Ad-din and an Indian mother, in India. He was associated with royal courts
of more than seven rulers of Delhi Sultanate. He created the fusion of Indian Arabic and Persian music. He is
credited to have invented tabla and sitar and modified veena. He was given the title Tuti-i-Hind (parrot of India).
One of his famous Persian couplet goes like this:

"Agar firdaus bar roo-e zameen ast,

Hameen ast-o hameen ast-o hameen ast."
If there is paradise on face of the earth,
It is this, it is this, it is this (India)

• His famous works include Tuhfa-tus-Sighr (his first divan), Wastul-Hayat (his second divan), Ghurratul-Kamaal,
Baqia-Naqia, Nihayatul-Kamaal, Qiran-us- Sa'dain, Miftah-ul-Futooh (in praise of the victories of Jalauddin Khalji),
Ishqia / Mathnavi Duval Rani-Khizr Khan (a tragic love poem about Gujarat's princess Duval and Alauddin's son
Khizr Khan), Mathnaui Noh Sepehr (Khusrau's perceptions of India and its culture), Tughlaq Nama (Book of the
Tughlaqs), Khamsa-e-Nizami (five classical romances: Hasht-Bahisht, MatlaulAnwai, Sheerin-Khusrau, Majnun-
Laila and Aaina-Sikandari, Ejaaz-e-Khusrovi, Khazain-ut-Futooh, Afzal-ul-Fawaid (utterances of Nizamuddin
Auliya), Khaliq-e-Bari, Jawahar-e- Khusrovi.

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The Tughlaq Dynasty

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320 – 25) :

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq or Ghazi Malik was the founder of the Tughlaq Dynasty. This dynasty is also known as the
dynasty of the Qaraunah Turks as the father of Ghiasuddin Tughlaq was a Qaraunah Turk.
• He was the first Sultan of Delhi who took up the title of Ghazi or slayer of the infidels.
• He liberalized Alauddin’s administrative policies and took keen interest in the construction of canals and
formulated a famine policy. The judicial and police arrangements were made efficient. The Chehra and Dagh
system introduced by the Alauddin was continued. Efficient postal services were restored.
• Built the fortified city of Tughlaqabad and made it his capital.
• Dispatched his son, Jauna Khan to re-establish the authority in Warangal (Kakatiyas) and Madurai (Pandyas).
• Had troublesome relationship with the sufi saint, Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia.
• Died in 1325, after a fall from a high-raised pavilion. Ibn Batuta, the Moroccon traveller, who was in Delhi at that
time, opined that his death was due to sabotage arranged by his son, Jauna Khan.

History of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1325 – 1351) :

• Real name was Jauna Khan.

• Regarded as the most controversial figure in Indian history, because of his five ambitious projects.
1. Increase in the land revenue in the Doab, between Ganga and Yamuna in north India. The measure
proved to be ill – timed, as Doab was passing through famine which was followed by plague.
2. He was committed to maintaining the Sultanate’s expansion into the newly – conquered provinces of
peninsular India. To have better administration of these southern parts of the Empire, Muhammad moved
the capital from Delhi to Devagiri in the Deccan, renaming that city Devagiri as Daulatabad.

Instead of moving just his government offices there, he forcibly moved the entire population of Delhi to the
new capital. The plan failed due to inadequate water supply arrangements in Devagiri; the capital had to
be shifted back again to Delhi after two years.

A vast amount of the population died during the moves due to the inadequate travel arrangements. It was
said that Delhi was a ghost town for years after the move back.

3. He also had the idea of introducing token currency for the first time in India, modelled after the Chinese
example, using copper coins, backed by silver and gold kept in the treasury. However, very few people
exchanged their gold/silver coins for the new copper ones and the tokens were easy to forge, which led to
heavy losses. Later, the Sultan repealed his verdict and all the copper coins were redeemed in silver or
gold from the treasury, making it empty.
4. Muhammad Tughlaq planned an expedition for the conquest of Khurasan and Iraq. But the scheme was
abandoned as conditions in Iraq improved (paid the extra army for one full year).
5. The plan for the conquest of Karajal (Kumaon hills) also met with a disastrous end.

• During his last days, the whole of S.India became independent and three major independent states – The Empire
of Vijaynagar, The Bahmani kingdom and Sultanate of Madura were founded.
• A new department for agriculture Dewan – i – Kohi was setup.
• He knew Arabic and Persian languages. He was also an expert in philosophy, astronomy, logic and mathematics.
He was also a good calligrapher.

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• He built the fortress of Adilabad and the city of Jahanpanah.

• The famous traveller, Ibn Batuta came to Delhi during 1334. He acted as the Quazi of the capital for 8 years. He
has recorded the contemporary Indian scene in his ‘Safarnamah’ (called Rehla).

History of Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351 – 1388) :

• He was Muhammad’s cousin. He was chosen the Sultan by the nobles.

• He tried to appease everybody. He cancelled the loans of peasants which had been advanced by his
predecessor. He did not give any harsh punishment and banned the inhuman practices like cutting hands, nose,
etc. Agriculture was developed by the reclamation of wastelands and by providing irrigation facilities. He
constructed four canals for irrigation.
• He made iqtadary system hereditary. The principle of heredity was recognised not only in civil
offices, but also in army. Soldiers were given land assignments instead of cash payment.
• Imposed some new taxes :
1. Kharaj : a land tax equal to 1/10 of the produce of the land (by Hindus only).
2. Jaziya : a tax by non – muslims (even by brahmins).
3. Zakat : Tax on property (@ 2.5%) (by Muslims only).
4. Khams : 1 / 5th of booty captured in war.

• Took steps to translate Hindu religious texts & Sanskrit books on music into Persian.
• Built new towns : Hissar, Firozpur, Fatehabad, Firozabad (the present day Firoz Shah Kotla in Delhi) and
Jaunpur.
• Set up hospitals, dug a number of canals, dams, mosques.
• Repaired Qutab Minar when it was struck by lightening.
• Built his capital Firozabad and to beautify it, brought 2 Ashoka Pillars, one from Topara in Ambala & the other
from Meerut.
• Was fond of slaves (had around 1,80,000 slaves).
• Wrote a book ‘Fatuhat Firozshahi’.
• Gained notoriety for temple breaking and Mathura was destroyed during his period.
• Barani, the historian was in his court. He wrote two well known works of history: Tarikh – i – Firozshahi and Fatwa
– i – Jahandari.
• Khwaja Abdul Malik Isami wrote Futuh – us – Sulatin.
• He formed Diwan – i – Khairat and built Dar – ul – Shafa or a charitable hospital at Delhi. Also introduced 2 new
coins – Adha (50% jital) and bikh (25% jital).

The Later Tughlaqs History :

• Firoz Tughlaq was succeeded by his grand son who took up the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah II. He was a
pleasure – loving king who tried to strengthen his position by merely disposing of all possible rivals.
• Ghiyasuddin was replaced by Abu Bakr Shah in 1389.
• Abu Bakr was replaced by Nasiruddin Muhammad in 1390, who ruled till 1394. His son Alauddin Sikandar Shah
ascended the throne briefly in 1394. But he fell sick almost immediately after his accession and died in 1394 only.
• The vacant throne now fell to Nasiruddin Mahmud Tughlaq. In his reign, Timur invaded India.

Timur’s Invasion :

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• He was a great Mongol leader of Central Asia. He became the head of the Chaghtai Turks at the age of 33.
Before reaching India, he had already conquered Mesopotamia and Afghanistan. He reached Delhi in December
1398. At that time, Nasiruddin Mahmud was the ruler.
• Timur ordered general massacre in Delhi and robbed people mercilessly.
• He is said to have inflicted on India more misery than had ever before been inflicted by any conqueror in a single
invasion. The Tughlaq Empire could never recover from such a terrible blow and came to an end.

Sayyid Dynasty

History of Sayyid Dynasty

• Khizr Khan (1414 – 1421) founded the dynasty and claimed to have descended from the prophet of Islam.
• He helped Timur in his invasion, so he was given the governorship of Lahore, Multan & Dipalpur.
• When Khizr Khan got possession of Delhi, his position was very weak and he didn’t take up the title of king and
contended himself with that of Rayat – i – Ala.
• The coins were struck and Khutba was read in the name of Timur and after his death in the name of his
successor, Shah Rukh.
• Khizr Khan’s 3 successors – Mubarak Shah (1421 – 33), Muhammad Shah (1434 – 43) and Alauddin Alam Shah
(1443 – 51) were incapable leaders.
• Sayyid dynasty’s 37 Years remained troubled with external invasions, internal chaos, etc.
• Provided opportunity to Bahlul Lodhi.
• Yahya – bin – Ahmed – bin – Abdullah – Sirhindi wrote Tarikh – i – Mubarakshahi (history from Mahmud to
Muhammad Shah of Sayyid Dynasty).

The Lodhi Dynasty

Lodhi Empire

• They were Afghans by race (considered the first Afghan dynasty of India).
• They were ruling over Sirhind when Sayyids were in India.

History of Bahlul Lodhi (1451 – 1489):

• Conquested Jaunpur by ousting Sharqui dynasty.

• Revived Sultanate to quite an extent.

History of Sikandar Lodhi (1489 – 1517):

• Real name was Nizam Khan. Noblest of the three Lodhi rulers.
• Introduced the Gaz-i-Sikandari (Sikandar’s yard) of 32 digits for measuring cultivated fields.
• In 1504, he founded the city of Agra and made it his capital.

• Set up an efficient espionage system and introduced the system of auditing of accounts.
• Took care of department of Justice and department of agriculture.
• Was a poet himself and wrote verses in Persian under the pen-name of Gulrukhi.
• Repaired Qutab Minar.

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Ibrahim Lodhi (1517 – 1526):

• Repressive ruler.
• Was defeated and killed by Babur in the I Battle of Panipat in 1526.
• With this the Sultanate of Delhi ended.

Administration, Society and Economy Under the Delhi Sultanate :

• The country was divided into iqtas which was distributed among the nobles, officers and soldiers for the purpose
of administration and revenue collection. Iqtadars could also be transferred. Iqtadars maintained the iqtas, kept a
certain sum for the cost of administration and their personal expenses, and sent the rest to the Sultan.
• Civil administration was headed by Wazir (Chief Minister) who supervised the collection of revenue, the checking
of the accounts and the regulation of expenditure. His office was known as Diwan-i-wizarat.
• The next important department was diwan-i-arz headed by ariz-i-mumalik, who was responsible for the
recruitment, payment and inspection of troops.
• Diwan-i-Insha headed by dahir-i-mumalik managed the royal correspondence.
• Religious matters and endowments were dealt with by the diwan-i-rasalat headed by sadr-us-sadur.
• Barid-i-mumalik was the head of the state news agency.
• The provinces were divided into shiqs under the control of shiqdars. The next unit was parganas, groups of
hundred villages, headed by cbaudhary. The village was the smallest unit of administration.

Lodhi Dynasty Cultural Development (13th – 15th Century)

Art and Architecture India :

• The use of arch and the dome is the special feature of the Muslim architecture. As the arch and dome needed
strong cement finer quality of mortar became wide-spread in north India.
• For decoration, the Turks used geometrical and floral designs (instead of human and animal figures in Hindu
temples), with verses from Quran. They also used some Hindu motifs like bel motifs, lotus, swastik, etc.
• The Tughlaq built sloping walls called battar combining the principles of arch and the lintel and beam.

Music :

• New musical modes and instruments like rabab and sarangi were introduced.
• Amir Khusro introduced many Persian Arabic ragas. Also invented the sitar.

Painting in India : Paper was introduced by the Arabs in the 15th century and this patronized painting.

Literature India :

• Udayaraja wrote Raja Vinoda on Mahmud Begarha.

• Merutanga’s Prabandha Chintamani
• A no. of Sanskrit works – Rajatarangani, Mahabharata, Koka Shastra – were translated into Persian.
• Zai Nakshabi’s TutiNama (a translation of Sanskrit stories into Persian) was very popular.

Provincial Kingdoms

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Bengal Province :

• Broke away from Delhi under the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• In 1342, Ilyas Khan founded a new dynasty.
• Famous sultan was Ghiyas-ud-din Azam who established friendly relations withChina and encouraged trade
and commerce.
• The celebrated poet, Maladhar Basu, compiler of Sri-Krishna Vijay, was patronized by the Sultans and was given
the title of ‘Gunaraja Khan’.
• Shankaradeva and Chaitanya belonged to this time.
• The province was occupied by Sher Shah Suri in 1538.

Gujarat Province India :

• Broke away from Delhi in 1397, under Zafar Khan who assumed the title of Sultan Muzaffar Shah.
• His grandson Ahmed Shah-I, built a new city, Ahmedabad. He built Jama Masjid of Ahmedabad and Tin Darwaza.
• The next prominent ruler was Mahmud Begarha. In his reign, Portuguese set up a factory at Diu. His court poet
was the Sanskrit scholar, Udayaraja.
• In 1573, Akbar annexed Gujarat to his empire.

History of Malwa :

• Malwa was annexed by Alauddin Khalji in 1305 and remained a part of Sultanate until its Governor; Dihawan
Khan Ghuri asserted his independence in 1435.
• It became powerful under the reign of Hushang Shah. He beautified the city Mandu with Jama Masjid, Hindol
Mahal and Jahaz Mahal. Next ruler, Mahmud Khalji was defeated by Rana Kumbha.
• Malwa became a part of Gujarat in 1531, and was finally annexed by the Mughals in 1562.

History of Kashmiris :

• Kashmir continued to be under its Hindu rulers up to 1339. Its first Muslim ruler was Shamsuddin Shah.
• The greatest Muslim ruler was Zainul Abidin (1420-70). Accepted the policy of broad tolerance, introduced the art
of shawl-making in Kashmir, built Zaina Lanka and artificial island in the Wular Lake. Called the “Badshah” (the
great Sultan) and “Akbar of Kashmir” by the Kashmiris.
• Later ruled by Chak dynasty, which later submitted to Akbar in 1586.
• It is said that women played a leading role in their history.

History of Mewar :

• Alauddin Khalji captured its capital Chittor in 1303. But Rajput rule was soon restored by Rana Hamir (1326-64).
• The greatest ruler of this house was the famous Rana Kumbha Karan (1538-68). Rana Kumbha built the famous
victory tower or ‘Vijaya Stambh’ at Chittor to commemorate his victory over Mahmud Khalji of Malwa.
• His court was adorned by Mandan who wrote many books on architecture (Parsad Mandan, Rupa Mandan).
• Another important king was Rana Sangram Singh (1509-28), who defeated Mahmud-II of Malwa and Ibrahim
Lodhi. But he was defeated by Babur at Khanua in 1527.

Religious Movements in History

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History of Sufis :

• There were 3 chief orders of Sufis in India : The Chishti, The Suharawadi and the Silsilah of Firdausi.
• The link between the teacher or pir and his disciple or Murid was a vital part of Sufi system. Every pir nominated a
successor or Wali to carry out work. Khanqah was the place where Sufi mystics lived.

1. The Chishti History :

• The Chisti order was established by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (Ajmer). His two main disciples were Bakhtiyar
Kaki and Shaikh Hamiduddin Sufi.
• Others were Nizamuddin Auliya, Nasiruddin Chiragh – i – Dehlvi, the historian Barani and the poet Amir Khusro.
• It was popular in Delhi and the Doab region.

2. The Suhrawardi Sufi Order :

• It was popular in Punjab and Sindh.

• Popular saints were Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi and Hamid – ud – din Nagory.
• Saints of this order had big jagirs and had close contact with the state.

3. The Firdausi Order : It was a branch of the Suhrawardi order and its activities were confined to Bihar. It was
popularized by Shaikh Sharfuddin Yahya who was a disciple of Khwaja Nizamuddin Firdausi.

4. The Qadiri Order :

• It was founded by Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani of Baghdad. It was popularized in India by Shah Niamatullah and
Makhdum Muhammad Jilani.
• Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan, was a follower of this order.

5. Nakshabandi Sufi Order :

• It was founded in India by the followers of Khwaja Pir Muhammad. It was popularized in India by Khwaja Baqi
Billah who came to India from Kabul in the last years of the reign of Akbar.
• Of all the Sufi orders, it was nearest to orthodoxy and it tried to counteract the liberal policies of Akbar who was
considered by them as heretic.

6. Shattari Sufi Order :

• Shah Abdullah brought the Shattari order to India during the Lodhi Dynasty. Muhammad Ghhauth of Gwalior was
the most important saint of this order.
• Tansen was the follower of this order.

Bhakti Movements in India :

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• Among the Hindus, the Bhakti movement preached religion which was non – ritualistic and open to all without any
distinction of caste or creed.
• The real development of Bhakti took place in south India between 7th and 12th century. The bhakti saints came
usually from lower castes. They disregarded castes, encouraged women to join in the gatherings and taught in
the local vernacular language.

Ramanuja (12th century) : Earliest exponent of Bhakti Movement. According to him, the way of Moksha lies through
Karma, Gyan and Bhakti. The performance of duty without any selfish motive purifies the mind. He gave the concept of
Vishishtadvaita.

Nimbarkara History : The next leader of the bhakti movement was Nimbarkara, a younger contemporary of Ramanuja.
He was a worshipper of Krishna and Radha.

Madhavacharya (1238 – 1317) : He ranks with Ramanuja in the Vedanta system. He said that release from
transmigration can be secured only by means of knowledge and devotion. His successor was Jayatirtha.

Ramanand (15th century) : First great Bhakti saint of north India. Worshipper of Lord Ram. He put emphasis on Bhakti
and avoided both Cyan marg and Karma marg. His followers were Ravidas, Kabir, Dhanna, Sena, etc.

1. Namadeva – Tailor.
2. Ravidas – Cobbler (His 30 hymns are in Guru Granth Sahib).
3. Kabir – Weaver.
4. Sena – Barber.
5. Sadhana – Butcher.

Baba Guru Nanak History :

Histoey of Guru Nanak (1469 – 1539) was born in the village of Talwandi (now called Nankana in present day Pakistan).
He undertook wide tours all over India and then to Sri Lanka, Mecca and Medina. He laid great emphasis on the purity of
character and conduct as the first condition of approaching God and the need of a gurufor guidance.

He laid emphasis on the oneness or unity of God. His concept of God was Nirguna (attributeless) and Nirankar (formless).
He used the name of Hari, Ram, Allah and Khuda for God. He didn’t believe in the Vedas and the Quran.

History of Kabir :

History of Kabir (1440 – 1518) was not only concerned with religious reform but also wished to change the society. He
emphasized the unity of God and expressed his ideas in dohas or couplets. He composed Bijak, Sabads, Sakhis, Mangal,
Basant, Holi, Rekhtal, etc. He did not make any distinction betwee Hinduism and Islam.

Note : The followers of Kabir and Nanak founded independent religious communities, the Kabirpanthis and the Sikhs.

Vaishnavism : Popular in north India. They can be distinguished from other Ehakti saints as their teachings were not
influenced by Islamic ideas.

Chaitanya : (1485 – 1534) of Bengal traveled throughout India and popularized Krishna cult. ‘Kirtan system’ was given by
Chaitanya only.

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Meerabai History : (1498 – 1546) of Rajasthan was the follower of Lord Krishna. She was married to Rana Sanga’s
eldest son and heir-apparent Bhojraj. But Bhojraj died in the lifetime of his father leaving Mira a widow in her youth. After
the death of her husband, she devoted herself completely to religious pursuits. She wrote some poetic stanzas on Lord
Krishna.

Surdas History : (1479 – 1584) of western UP wrote lyrical poems on Radha and Krishna. Wrote Sur – Sarawali, the
Sahitya Lahari and the Sur – Sagar.

Vallabhacharya : (1479 – 1531), a Tailanga brahmana, advocated the worship of Krishna and dedication of everything to
Him alone.

Tulsidas History (1532 – 1623) was born in a Brahmin family in Varanasi. On account of a taunt of his wife, he is said to
have to the life of a religious hermit. Wrote Ram Charit Manas, Gitawali, Kauitawali, Vinay Patrika, etc. He also used
Arabic and Persian words in his writings.

Narsingh Mehta : was a saint from Gujarat who wrote songs in Gujarati depicting the love of Radha – Krishna. He is the
author of Mahatma Gandhi’s favourite bhajan ‘vishnaoajan ko’.

Vijaynagar Kingdom

History of Vijaynagar Kingdom

Founded in 1336 as a result of the political and cultural movement against the Tughluq authority in the south.

The Sangama History (1336 – 1485) :

• The empire of Vijaynagar was founded by Harihara – I and Bukka, two of the five sons of Sangama. They were
originally feudatories of Kakatiyas. Harihara – I was the first ruler. A Bhakti saint Vidyaranya motivated them.
• The next ruler was Deva Raya – I. He constructed a dam across the river Tungabhadra to bring die canals into
die city to relieve die shortage of water.
• Italian traveler Nicolo Conti visited during his reign (Also a Russian merchant, Nikitin).
• His court was adorned by the gifted Telegu poet Srinatha, the author of Haravilasam.
• There was a ‘Pearl Hall’ in the palace where he honored men of eminence.
• Devaraya – II (1423 – 46) was the greatest Sangama ruler.
• During his time, Vijaynagar became the most wealthy and powerful state.
• The commoners believed that he was the in carnation of Indra.
• The inscriptions speak of his tide ‘Gajabetekara’ i.e., die elephant hunter.
• He wrote ‘Mahanataka Sudhanidhi’ and a commentary on die Brahma Sutras of Badaryana (Both in Sanskrit).
• Persian ambassador Abdur Razzaq visited his court.
• Sangama dynasty was replaced by Saluva dynasty, which lasted for 2 decades. Ultimately, a new dynasty called
the Tuluva dynasty (1503 – 69) was founded by Vira Narsimha.

The History of Tuluvas :

• Krishnadeva Raya (1509 – 29) was their greatest ruler. Portuguese traveller, Domingo! Paes writes high about
him. Berbosa also came as a traveler.
• He was a warrior, an administrator and a patron of art and literature.

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• His political ideas are contained in his Telegu work ‘Amuktamalyada’ (also Jambavati Kalyanam in Sanskrit).
• As a great patron of literature, he was known as Abhinava Bhoja, Andhra Pitamaha and Andhra Bhoja.
• Eight great poets of Telegu, known as ‘Ashta Diggaja’ adorned his court. Pedanna wrote Manucharitam, while
Tenalirama was the author of Panduranga Mahamatyam.
• Built a new city ‘Nagalapuram’ and decorated it with Hazura temple and Vithalswamy temple.
• The successors of Krishnadeva Raya were weak and incompetent rulers. Achyuta Raya followed him. A
Portuguese traveler Fernoa Nuniz came during his reign.
• Sadasiva, the last ruler of the dynasty, was a puppet in the hands of his PM, Rama Raya, who was an able but
arrogant man.
• In 1565, Battle of Talikota was fought between an alliance of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golkonda and Bidar on one
side and Sadasiva on the other side. Sadashiv was defeated.
• After that, Aravidu dynasty was found by Rama Raya’s brother, Thirumala.
• Aravidu dynasty lingered on for almost 100 Years, but no political influence.
• Caesor Fredrick (1567 – 68 AD) visited Vijaynagar after the Battle of Talikota.
• Vina (musical instrument) acquired a prominent place in the Vijayanagar Empire.

The Nayakar and Ayagar Systems : The Nayakar and Ayagar systems were the backbones of the Vijayanagar
administration.

The Nayakar System : Under this system, military chiefs were assigned certain pieces of land called amaram. These
chiefs, known as nayaks, had revenue and administrative rights on their lands. They were required I to maintain
elephants, horses and soldiers in certain numbers which were included in the royal I army during wars.

They also had to pay a sum of money to the central exchequer. In course of time, nayaks began to assert their military,
administrative and economic powers which later became a major cause of the decline of the Vijayanagar empire.

The Ayagar System : It involved the constitution of a 12 – member officials group by the Centre to maintain
administration at the village level. These officials, called the ayagars, were village functionaries and constituted of groups
of families.

They were given, for their service, a portion, of or plot in the village, which were tax – free. The ayagars were hereditary
officials and there was to be no sale or purchase of land without their permission.

Bahmani Kingdom

History of Bahmani Kingdom

• The Bahmani Kingdom of the Deccan was the most powerful of all the independent Muslim kingdoms that arose
on account of the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Alauddin Hasan, who took the title of Abul Muzaffar Alauddin Bahman Shah, was the first king of Bahmani
Kingdom in 1347.
• Bahman Shah selected Gulbarga as his capital and gave it the name of Ahsanabad. At the time of his death, his
dominions had four provinces, namely Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Berar and Bidar.
• Bahman Shah (1347 – 58) was succeeded by his elder son, Muhammad Shah I (1358 – 75). He had troubled
relationship with Vijaynagar Empire.
• Mujahid Shah (1375 – 78) succeeded Muhammad Shah. During his rule, Raichur Doab was the bone of
contention between Vijaynagar and Bahmani kingdom.

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• The next ruler was Muhammad Shah II (1378 – 97). A man of peace, he set up monastries and public schools.
• Muhammad Shah II was followed by his two sons, namely Ghiyasuddin and Shamsuddin. However, their rule
lasted for a few months only.
• The throne was finally captured by Tajuddin Firoz Shah (1397 – 1422). During his term, Bahmani Kingdom and
Vijaynagar Empire were mostly in war.
• The next ruler was Tajuddin’s brother, Ahmad Shah (1422 – 36), who again had a fight with Vijaynagar Empire.
• Ahmad Shah was succeeded by his son Alauddin II (1336 – 58).
• Humayun (1458 – 61) succeeded his father Alauddin II. He was so cruel that he got the title of “Zalim” or the
tyrant.
• Humayun was succeeded by his son Nizam Shah (1461 – 63). He was succeeded by his brother Muhammad
Shah III (1463 – 82).
• During his reign, his minister Mahmud Gawan was practically the king. Mahmud won Konkan, Goa, Orissa,
Kanchi, etc. Nikitin, a Russian merchant, visited Bidar during his reign.
• Muhammad Shah III was succeeded by his son Mahmud Shah (1482 – 1518).
• The last ruler of the Bahmani Kingdom was Kalim Ullah Shah (1524 – 27).
• After the break up of the Bahmani Kingdom, five separate States of the Muslims came into existence :

1. Adilshahi Kingdom of Bijapur : Founded by Yusuf Adil Shah. It was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1686.

2. Nizam Shahi Kingdom of Ahmednagar : Founded by Malik Ahmad. It was annexed by the Mughals in 1636.

3. Imadshahi Kingdom of Berar : Founded by Fateh Ullah Imad Shah. It was annexed by Ahmednagar in 1574.

4. Qutub shahi Kingdom of Golconda : Founded by Qutub Shah. It was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1687.

5. Baridshahi Kingdom of Bidar : Founded by Amir AH Barid. It was annexed by Bijapur in 1618 – 19.

Mughal Emperors of India

The Mughal Empire of India:

• The Mughal era is the historic period of the Mughal Empire in India, it ran from the early sixteenth century, to a
point in the early eighteenth century when the Mughal Emperors power had dwindled.
• It ended in several generations of conflicts between rival warlords.
• During the Mughal period, art and architecture flourished and many beautiful monuments were constructed. The
rulers were skillful warriors and admirers of art as well.
• The Mughal Empire lasted for more than three centuries. The Mughal Empire was one of the largest centralized
states in premodern history and was the precursor to the British Indian Empire.
• More information about the famous Mogul rulers in our related sections.

The Mughal Emperors :

• Babur (1526 – 1530)

• Humayun (1530 – 40 & 1555 – 1556)
• Akbar (1556 – 1605)
• Jahangir (1605 – 1627)
• Shahjahan (1628 – 1658)

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• Aurangzeb Alamgir
• Later Mughal or Fall of Mughal

Salient Features of Mughal Dynasty in India :

• Mughal Administration in India

• Mughal Buildings in India
• Mughal Paintings in India
• Mughal Literature

Babar Emperor (1526 – 1530) :

• Was a descended of Timur on his father’s side and Chengiz Khan on his mother’s side. His family belonged to the
Chaghtai section of the Turkish race and were commonly known as Mughals.
• Originally ruledover Ferghana (Afghanistan). He became the Sultan at the early age of 12, when his father Sultan
Umar Shaikh Mirza died.
• He was invited to attack India by Daulat Khan Lodhi (Subedar of Punjab), Alam Khan (uncle of Ibrahim Lodhi) and
Rana Sanga. Defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526.
• In this Babar used the Rumi (Ottoman) device of lashing a large number of carts to form a defending wall with
breastwork in between to rest guns (Tulghama system of warfare). His artillery was led by Ustad Ali and Mustafa.
• Defeated Sangram Singh (Rana Sanga) of Mewar in the Battle of Khanua in 1527. This weakened the Rajput
confederacy and strengthened Babar’s position. Babar took the tide of “Ghazi” after that.
• Defeated another Rajput ruler, Medini Rai (of Chanderi) in the Battle of Chanderi in 1528.
• Defeated the Afghan chiefs under Mahmud Lodi brother of Ibrahim Lodi) in the Battle of
Ghagra in 1529.
• His victories led to rapid popularization of gunpowder and artillery in India.
• Died in 1530. Buried at Aram Bagh in Agra; later his body was taken to Aram Bagh, Kabul.
• His memoir, the Tazuk – i – Baburi in Turki language is a classic of world literature. It shows his humane outlook
and sensitivity to the beauty of nature. Also wrote ‘Masnavf.

Note : After the Kushans, Babur was the first to bring Kabul and Kandahar into the Indian Empire, which provided stability
since it was the staging post of invasions of India.

This helped in promoting trade since these towns were the starting points of caravans meant for China in the east and
Mediterranean in the west.

Humayun (1530 – 40 and 1555 – 56) :

• He was born to Mahim Begam and Babur. The throne inherited by Humayun was not a bed of roses.
• Babar had practically got no time to consolidate his position and authority. Before he could put the whole country
on a stable basis, he was gone.
• He did a blunder by dividing his empire among his three brothers – Kamran, Hindal and Askari.
• Built Dinpanah at Delhi as his second capital.
• Defeated the Afghan forces at Daurah in 1532.

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The Afghan Interlude

Sher Shah Suri History(1540 – 1545) :

• Real name was Farid. Given the title Sher Khan by Babar Khan Lohani (Governor of Bihar) who appointed him
Vakil (deputy).
• Became the master of Delhi after the exit of Humayun.
• Crushed the Rajput forces of Marwar at Samel in 1544.
• Died in 1545 while campaigning against Kalinjar Fort.

Shershah’s Administration :

• For administrative convenience, Shershah divided his whole empire into 47 divisions called sarkars, and sarkars
into smaller parganas. In the field of central administration, Shershah followed the Sultanate pattern. There were
– four main central departments, viz, Diwan – i – wizarat, Diwan – i – arz, Diwan – i – insha and Diwan – i –
rasalat.
• His Land Revenue System is noteworthy as he classified his land under 3 heads – good, middle and bad, and
claimed 1 / 3rd of the produce. Land was measured by using the Sikandari – gaz (32 points). Todarmal
contributed greatly in the development of revenue policy of Shershah. Akbar also adopted the same revenue
policy, albeit with some amendments.
• Shershah personally supervised the recruitment of the soldiers and paid them directly, He revived Alauddin’s
system of branding the horses (daag) and keeping a descriptive roll of soldiers (chehra).
• Shershah introduced a regular postal service. He also attempted to fix standard weights and measures.
• Introduced the silver ‘Rupaya’ and the copper ‘Dam’ and abolished all old and mixed metal currency. He
promoted the cause of trade and commerce by reducing the number of the customs duty collection points to just
two :

1. Goods produced in Bengal or imported from outside had to pay customs duty at Sikrigali (at the border of Bengal and
Bihar).

2. For the goods coming from West and Central Asia at the Indus.

• Shershah improved communication by building roads. The roads built by Shershah are called ‘the arteries of the
empire’. Sarais were built on roads. He restored the old imperial road called Grand Trunk road, from the Indus
River to Sonargaor, in Bengal.

• Built his tomb at Sasaram in Bihar.

• Built a new city on the bank of Yamuna River (present day Purana Qila).
• Malik Mohammad Jaisi composed Padmavat (in Hindi) during his reign.
• Abbas Khan Sarwani was his historian, who wrote Tarikh – i – SherShahi.
• Sher Shah Suri gradually gained power during his time.
• He was attacked by Sher Shah at Chausa (Battle of Chausa) in 1539, but escaped. Here Humayun was saved by
Nizam, a water carrier (saqqa).
• But in the Battle of Kannauj (also called Battle of Bilgram) in 1540, he was defeated by Sher Shah and had to flee.
• Passed nearly 15 years (1540 – 1555) in exile.
• First fled to Sind, which was under Shah Hussain Arghuna. In 1545, he went to the Persian emperor’s court.
• Had the chance to return in 1555. Sher Shah, the victor of Kannauj, died in 1545. He was succeeded by his son
Islam Shah, who ruled up to 1553. He was succeeded by Muhammad Adil Shah.
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• He was very fond of pleasures and left the affairs of his government in the hands of Hemu, his minister. His
authority was challenged by Ibrahim Shah and Sikandar Shah. There were a large number of bloody battles
among the various rivals. The net result of all this was that the Suri Empire was broken up.
• Bairam Khan, his most faithful officer, helped him in this.
• Died in 1556, due to a fall from his library building stairs (Sher Mandal, Delhi) seven months after he captured
Delhi. It is said about him that “Humayun tumbled through life and he tumbled out of it”.
• Gulbadan Begum, his half – sister, wrote Humayun – nama.

History of Akbar (1556 – 1605) :

• Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar was the son of Humayun and Hamida Banu Begam. He was born at Amarkot in
1542.
• Bairam Khan coronated him at Kalanaur when he was 14 years old.
• Bairam Khan represented him in the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556 against Hemu Vikramaditya. Hemu, the PM
of Muhammad Shah Adil of Bengal, was defeated. Hemu is considered the last Hindu king ofDelhi.
• Between 1556 – 1560, Akbar ruled under Bairam Khan’s regency. (Bairam Khan was as sassinated at Patan,
Gujarat, on his way to Mecca by one of his old Afghani enemies).
• Conquered Malwa in 1561 defeating Baz Bahadur. He was later made the Mansabdar to honour his skill as a
musician.
• Then defeated Garh – Katanga (ruled by Rani Durgawati) followed by Chittor and Ranthambhore.
• Akbar followed a policy of reconciliation with the Rajputs. Some of the Rajput princes entered into matrimonial
alliances with him. In 1562, he married the eldest daughter of Raja Bharmal of Jaipur. In 1570, he married
princesses from Bikaner and Jaisalmer. In 1584, Prince Salim was married to the daughter of Raja Bhagwan Das.
All these activities paved the way for friendship between Rajputs and Mughals (except Mewar).
• Won Gujarat in 1572. It was in order to commemorate his victory of Gujarat that Akbar got the Buland Darwaza
constructed at Fatehpur Sikri.
• Fought Battle of Haldighati with Mewar forces on 18 Jun, 1576. Mughals were represented by Raja Maan Singh
and Rajputs by Rana Pratap Singh. Rajputs were defeated.
• Raja Maan Singh conquered Bihar, Bengal and Orissa for him.
• In 1586, he conquered Kashmir and in 1593, he conquered Sindh. His last conquest was at the fort of Asirgarh in
Deccan.
• At his death in 1605, his empire included Kashmir, Sind, Kandhar and extended as far as the Godavary in the
Deccan.

Maharana Pratap :

A Rajput ruler of Mewar, he belonged to the Sisodia clan of Suryavanshi Rajputs. He was a son of Udai Singh II. In 1568,
during the reign of Udai Singh II, Mewar was conquered by the Akbar.

Battle of Haldighati was fought on Jun 18, 1576, in which Maharana Pratap was defeated by Akbar’s army, led by Raja
Maan Singh. Maharana had to flee the field on his trusted horse Chetak.

Thereafter, Pratap had to retreat into the Aravallis from where he continued his struggle through the tactics of guerilla
warfare. Using the hills as his base, Pratap harassed the large and therefore awkward mughal forces in their
encampments.

He ensured that the mughal occupying force in Mewar never knew peace. Rana Pratap died of injuries sustained in a
hunting accident.
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Important aspects of Akbar’s Rule :

• Ralph Fitch (1585) was the first Englishman to visit Akbar’s court.
• Abolished jaziyah in 1564 and the tax on pilgrims. The use of beef was also forbidden.
• Regularly visited the shrine of Sheikh Muinuddin Chishti at Ajmer.
• Believed in Sulh – i – Kul or peace to all.
• Built Ibadatkhana (Hall of prayers) at Fatehpur Sikri. He used to conduct religious discussions there with :
Purshottam Das (Hindu), Maharaji Rana (Parsi), Harivijaya Suri (Jain), Monserate and Aquaviva (Christian).
• In 1579, Akbar issued the ‘Decree of Infallibility.
• Formulated an order called Din – i – Ilahi or Tauhid – i – Ilahi in 1581. Birbal, Abul Fazl and Faizi joined the order.
• His Land Revenue System was known as Todar Mai Bandobast or Zabti System. Three salient features of Zabti
system were – measurement of land, classification of land and fixation of rates. Todar Mai and Muzaffar Khan
Turbati were the important revenue officers.
• Also introduced the Mansabdary System to organise the nobility as well as the army. Mansabdar meant holder of
a rank. There were two ranks: Zat and Sawar. Zat fixed the status and standing in the administrative hierarchy
while sawar fixed the number of troopers held by the Mansabdar. It wasn’t a hereditary system.

Akbar’s Navratna History :

• Abu’l – Fazl, the Wazir of Akbar and author of the Akbamama an account of Akbar’s reign. He also led the
Mughal imperial army in its wars in the Deccan. He was assassinated in a plot contrived by Akbar’s son, Salim.
• Faizi was historian Abul Fazl’s brother in Akbar’s court. He was a poet composing in Persian and an all – round
genius. Akbar highly recognized the genius in him and appointed him teacher for his son and gave place to him
among his decorative ‘Nau Ratnas’. His famous work Lilabati is on mathematics.
• Tansen, believed to be one of the greatest musician of all times, was born in a Hindu family in Gwalior. He served
as the court musician to King Ramachandra of Mewar and later to Akbar.
• Tansen accepted Islam at the hands of the great Sufi mystic and saint – Shaykh Muhammad Ghaus of Gwalior. It
was believed that Tansen made miracles such as bringing rain and fire through singing the ragas Megh Malhar
and Deepak, respectively.
• Raja Birbal, alias Mahesh Das, was a courtier in the administration of Akbar. Birbal was referred to as a court wit
as a result of the fact that he frequently had witty and humorous exchanges with Akbar.
• He was a poet and author whose wit and wisdom led the Emperor Akbar to invite him to be a part of the royal
court and to bestow upon him a new name – Birbal. Akbar also conferred on him the title of “Raja”.
• Raja Todar Mai was Akbar’s finance minister, who overhauled the revenue system in the kingdom. He introduced
standard weights and measurements, revenue districts and officers.
• His systematic approach to revenue collection became a model for the future Mughals as well as the British. He
had developed his expertise while working under Sher Shah. In 1582, Akbar bestowed on the raja the title Diwan
– i – Ashraf.
• Raja Man Singh was the Kacchwaha raja of Amber. He was a mansabdar and a trusted general of Akbar. He
was the grandson of Akbar’s father – in – law, Bharmal and the adopted son of Raja Bhagwan Das.
• He assisted Akbar in many battles including the well – known | battle of Haldighati, among others. He also led
campaigns in Orissa and Bengal.
• Abdul Rahim Khan – e – Khana was a poet and the son of Akbar’s trusted caretaker, Bairam Khan. After Bairam
Khan was murdered, Bairan Khan’s wife became the second wife of Akbar, which made Abdul Rahim Khan – e –
Khan his stepson. He had a high place I among Akbar’s Navratnas. Although a Muslim by birth, he was a devotee
of Lord Krishna.
• Faqir Aziao Din was one of Akbar’s chief advisors.

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• Mullah Do Piaza was among the Mughal emperor Akbar’s chief advisors. Akbar regarded his advice in high
esteem.

History of Jahangir (1605 – 1627) :

• Akbar’s eldest son Salim assumed the title of Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir and ascended the throne.

• He mostly lived in Lahore which he adorned with gardens and buildings.

• But soon, his eldest son Khusro revolted, which was suppressed.

• The fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjun Dev, had helped Khusro. So he was also executed after 5 days of torture.

• Rana Amar Singh (son of Maharana Pratap) of Mewar submitted before Jahangir in 1615. Rana’s son Karan
Singh was made a mansabdar in the Mughal court.

• Faced a formidable opponent in Malik Amber in his expedition to Ahmednagar.

• His greatest failure was the loss of Kandahar to Persia in 1622.

• The most important event in Jahangir’s life was his marriage to Mehr – un – Nisa, the widow of Sher Afghani in
1611. The title of Nur Jahan was conferred on her.

• She had great influence on Jahangir’s life, as she was given the status of Padshah Begum, coins were struck in
her name and all royal farmans beared her name.

• She got high positions for her father (Itmad – ud – daulah), and her brother (Asaf Khan). She married Asaf’s
daughter, Mumtaz Mahal to Khurram (later, Shahjahan). This cemented the alliance between Nurjahan, her
father, Asaf Khan and Khurram.

• This alliance practically ruled the empire for 10 years. Problem arose when Nur Jahan married her daughter by
Sher Afghani to Jahangir’s youngest son, Shahryar. Now Nur Jahan supported him for the heir – apparent.

• All these events hampered the military events for the recovery of Kandhar.

• Had a chain of justice outside his palace in Agra (called Zanzir – i – Adil). He also laid a number of gardens, such
as the Shalimar and Nishat gardens in Kashmir.

• Captain Hawkins (1608 – 11) and Sir Thomas Roe (1615 – 1619) visited his court. Due to the efforts of Sir
Thomas Roe English factories were established at Surat and some other places.

• Pietra Valle, famous Italian traveler came during his reign.

• Tobacco growing started during his reign. It was brought by the Portuguese.

History of Shahjahan (1628 – 1658) :

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• Able general and administrator.

• Had to face revolts in Bundelkhand (Jujjhar Singh Bundela of Orchcha) and in the Deccan (Khan – i – Jahan Lodi)
in the initial years.
• Shahjahan’s policy of annexing the Deccan was quite successful. Ahmednagar was annexed while Bijapur and
Golconda accepted his overlordship.
• Shahjahan also expelled the Portuguese from Hughli, as they were abusing their trading privileges.
• In 1639, Shahjahan secured Kandahar and immediately fortified it. But Persia wrested Kandahar from the
Mughals in 1649. Shahjahan sent three expeditions to recover Kandahar, but all failed.
• Made his son, Aurangzeb, the Viceroy of Deccan in 1636. Aurangzeb first tenure was till 1644.
• Aurangzeb’s second term as Viceroy in Deccan began in 1653 and continued till 1658. Aurangzeb built an
effective Revenue System there (Murshid Kuli Khan was his dewan there).
• Last 8 years of his life were very painful, as there was a brutal war of succession among his four sons – Dara,
Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad. Dara was his favourite but Aurangzeb was the ablest.
• Ultimately, Aurangzeb took control and he was made the prisoner in the Agra Fort, being looked after by his
daughter, Jahan Ara, till his death in 1666.
• His reign is considered the ‘Golden Age of the Mughal Empire’.
• 2 Frenchmen, Bernier and Tavernier, and an Italian adventurer Manucci, visited during his reign.

History of Taj Mahal :

• Taj Mahal, the eternal love monument is located in Agra. Shah Jahan commissioned its construction as a
mausoleum lor his favourite wife, Arjumancl Bano Begum, better known as Mumtaz Mahal, in 1631.
• It was constructed in 22 years (1631 – 1653) by a workforce of 22,000. It is generally considered the finest
example of Mughal architecture.
• The Taj Mahal was not designed by a single person. The project demanded talent from many quarters. Ustad Isa
and Isa Muhammad Effendi are edited with a key role in the architectural design of the complex.
• The main dome was designed by Ismail Khan. Qazim Khan cast the solid gold finial that crowned the Turkish
masters dome.
• Chiranjilal was chosen as the chief sculptor and mosaicist. Amanat Khan was the chief calligrapher.
• Muhammad Hanif was the supervisor of masons. Mir Abdul Karim and Mukkarimat Khan handled finances and
the management of daily production.
• The Taj rises on a high red sandstone base topped by a huge white marble terrace on which rests the famous
dome flanked by four tapering minarets. Within the dome lies the jewel – inlaid cenotaph of the queen.
• The only asymmetrical object in the Taj is the casket of the emperor which was built beside the queen’s as an
afterthought. It is often described as one of the seven wonders of the modern world.

Aurangzeb Alamgir (1658 – 1707) :

• At the time of Shahjahan’s illness, Dara was in Delhi and the other brothers were in different places – Shuja in
Bengal, Murad in Gujarat and Aurangzeb in Deccan.
• Aurangzeb first defeated the Imperial army in the Battle of Dharmat and then defeated a force led by Dara in the
Battle of Samugarh.
• Thereafter, he entered Agraand crowned himself with the title of ‘Alamgir’ (conqueror of the world).
• Under him, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent, and the largest single state ever known in India from
the dawn of history to the rise of British Power was formed.
• His reign can be broadly divided into two 25 year periods: first in the affairs of N.India when the Maratha power
under Shivaji emerged, and second marked by his preoccupations about the affairs of Deccan.

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• In his rule, various rebellions took place – Jat peasantry at Mathura, Satnami peasantry in Punjab and Bundelas
in Bundelkhand.

• He caused serious rift in the Mughal-Rajput alliance by his policy of annexation of Marwar in 1639 after the death
of Raja Jaswant Singh.
• In 1675, he ordered the arrest and execution of ninth Sikh guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur.
• In 1679, he reimposed jaziyah. Also, Nauraj, singing in the court, and the practice of ‘jharokha-darshan’ were
banned. Also forbade inscription of Kalima (the Muslim credo) on the coins.
• When he was conducting the campaign against Marwar, his son Akbar rebelled in 1681.
• The Mughal conquests reached the territorial climax during his reign, as Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687) were
annexed to the Mughal Empire. The Mughal Empire stretched from Kashmir in die north to Jinji in the south, from
the Hindukush in the west to Chittagong in the east.
• Patronized the greatest digest of Muslim law in India, Fatwa-i-Alamgiri.
• Mutasib (regulator of moral conduct) was appointed.
• He was called a ‘Darvesh’ or a ‘Zinda Pir’.
• He also forbade Sati.

Fall of Mughal Empire

• The empire lost power after Aurangzeb’s rule. His successors were weak and incapable rulers.
• Bahadur Shah (1707 – 1712) : Assumed the title of Shah Alam I was also known as Shah – i – Bekhabar. He
made peace with Guru Gobind Singh and Chhatrasal. He granted Sardeshmukhi to Marathas and also released
Shahu.
• Jahandar Shah (1712 – 13) : First puppet Mughal emperor. He abolished jaziya.
• Farrukhsiyar (1713 – 19) : Ascended the throne with the help of Sayyid brothers. He executed Banda Bahadur.
Farrukhsiyar himself was murdered by the Sayyid brothers with Maratha help in 1719.
• Mohammad Shah (1719 – 48) : Nadir Shah (of Iran) defeated him in the Battle of Karnal (1739) and took away
Peacock throne and Kohinoor diamond. During his tenure, Chin Kilich Khan (Nizam – ul – Mulk) founded
Hyderabad, Murshid Quli Khan founded Bengal and Saddat Khan laid down the foundation of Awadh out of the
realms of Mughal Empire. He was a pleasure – loving king and was nick – named Rangeela.
• Ahmad Shah (1748 – 54) : During his period, Safdarjung, the nawab of Awadh, was the Wazir or Prime Minister
of the empire.
• Alamgir II (1754 – 59)
• Shah Alam II (1759 – 1806) : Shah Alam II joined hands with Mir Qasim of Bengal and Shuja – ud – Daula of
Awadh in the Battle of Buxar against the British in 1764. They were defeated.

Note :

o Ambitious nobles became direct contenders of power. The Sayyid brothers (also known as King Makers)
put three princes on the throne. Ultimately these brothers were murdered by a conspiracy between
Mohammad Shah and Chin Kilich Khan (Nizam – ul – Muik).
o One of the generals of Nadir Shah, Ahmed Shah Abdali, invaded India repeatedly between 1748 – 1767.
He defeated the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761. In this battle, Marathas were led by
Sadashiv Rao Bhau, while the Peshwa at that time was Balaji Bajirao.

• Akbar II (1806 – 37) : He gave Rammohan the title ‘Raja’. He sent Raja Ram Mohan Roy to London to seek a
raise in his allowance.

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• Bahadur Shah II (1837 – 57) : He was confined by the British to the Red Fort. During the revolt of 1857, he was
proclaimed the Emperor by the rebels. He was deported to Rangoon after that.

Kohinoor Diamond History :

• Kohinoor is a 105 carat (21.6 gm) diamond that was once the largest known diamond in the world it originated in
India, belonged to various Indian and Persian rulers who fought bitterly over it at various points in history, and
seized as a spoil of war, it became part of the Crown Jewels of England when Queen Victoria was proclaimed
empress of India.
• It is reputed to bring misfortune or death to any male who wears or owns it. Conversely, it is reputed to bring good
luck to female owners.
• Most sources agree that the Kohinoor was mined at Rayalaseema in Andhra Pradesh. It was first owned by
Kakatiya dynasty, but the Kakatiya kingdom under Pratapa Rudra was ravaged in 1323 by Muhammad bin
Tughluq.
• From then onwards, the stone passed through the hands of successive rulers of the Delhi sultanate, finally
passing to Babur in 1526.
• Shah Jahan had the stone placed into his ornate Peacock Throne. It was taken away by Nadir Shah in 1739
along with the Peacock Throne. After the assassination of Nadir Shah in 1747 it came into the hands of Ahmed
Shah Abdali of Afghanistan. It was passed down to his descendants until it was taken by Maharaja Ranjit Singh
ofPunjab in 1813.
• From him, the gem passed on to the British. Ranjit Singhs successor, Duleep Singh gave the gem to Queen
Victoria in 1851. In 1852, under the personal supervision of Victoria’s consort, Prince Albert, the diamond was cut
from 1861 / 16 carats (37.21 gm) to its current 105.602 carats (21.61 gm), to increase its brilliance.
• The stone is presently used as the centre piece of the crowns of the Queens consort of the United Kingdom.
Queen Alexandra was the first to use the stone, followed by Queen Mary.
• In 1936, the stone was set into the crown of the new Queen Elizabeth (later known as the Queen Mother), wife of
King George VI. In 2002, the crown rested atop her coffin as she by in state.

Mughal Administration System

• The entire kingdom was divided into suba or pranta, suba into sarkar, sarkar into pargana and the pargana into
villages.
• Babar and Humayun had a Prime Minister known as Vakil. The office of Vakil, was, however, discontinued after
Bairam Khan.
• Wazir was the Prime Minister.
• Dewan was the head of the revenue department.
• Mir Bakshi : Military Department.
• Khan – i – Saman : Royal household.
• Qazi – ul – quzaf : Judicial Department. The qazis were helped by the muftis.
• Sadr – us – Sadr : Charitable and religious endowments.
• Mustaufi : Auditor – General.

• Amil : Judicial officer in civil and judicial disputes.

• Quanungo : Head accountant.
• Lambardar : Village headman.
• Patwari : Village accountant.
• During Akbar’s reign the empire was divided into 15 subas. The number reached 21 during Aurangzeb’s reign.

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• The territory of the empire was divided into khalisa (crown lands), jagirs (land granted to nobles) and inam (land
granted to religious and learned men).

Mughal Buildings in India

Babar : Built two mosques: one at Kabulibagh in Panipat and the other in Sambhal in Rohilkhand.

Buildings in Humayun Empire :

• Laid the foundation of the city Din Panah at Delhi.

• Built Jamali Mosque and the Mosque of Isa Khan at Delhi.
• Humayun’s tomb is called the prototype of Taj Mahal. It was built by his widow Haji Begum.

Akbar Buildings :

• Built Agra fort (in red sandstone).

• He also built Fatehpur Sikri (city of victory) near Agra. In Fatehpur Sikri are the Panch Mahal, Diwan-I-Khas,
Diwan-I-Aam, Jodhabai’s palace and Sheikh Salim Chishti’s tomb. Buland Darwaza (53 m high) is located here,
commemorating the emperor’s conquest of Gujarat.
• Built his own tomb at Sikandra, near Agra.
• Built the temple of Govindadeva at Vrindavan.

Buildings in Jahangir Mughal Empire :

• With Jahangir’s reign, the practice of putting up buildings in marble and decorating the walls with floral designs
made of semi-precious stones started. This method of decoration was known as Pietra Dura.
• Nurjahan built the tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula at Agra.
• Jahangir built Moti Masjid at Lahore and his own mausoleum at Shahdara (Lahore).

Shahjahan Architecture :

• Built Taj Mahal, Moti Masjid at Agra, Jama Masjid and Red Fort at Delhi, Shalimar Bagh at Lahore and city of
Shahjahanabad.
• Also built Mussaman Burz at Agra (where he spent his last years in captivity), Sheesh Mahal, etc.
• He got the peacock throne built by Bebadal Khan on which Amir Khusrau’s couplet – ‘If there is a paradise on
earth, it is here’, inscribed on it.

Aurangzeb Architecture :

• Built Moti Masjid at Delhi and Badshahi Mosque at Lahore.

• Built Bibi ka Makbara in Aurangabad.

Paintings of Mughal Period :: List of Mughal Emperors

Humayun :

He invited 2 Persian artists, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad, who became his court painters.

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Paintings of Akbar Mughal Empire :

• Organised painting in imperial karkhanas and also introduced European style.

• Abdus Samad, Farrukh Beg, Khusro Kuli, Jamshed, Basawan, Daswanth, etc were the prominent painters.
• Daswanth painted the Razm Namah (Persian Mahabharat).

Mughal Empire Jahangir Paintings :

• Painting reached its zenith under Jahangir.

• Special progress was made in portrait painting and painting of animals. Bishan Das was a master of portraits
while Ustad Mansur specialised in animal painting.

• Use of ‘Halo’ or Divine Lights started under Jahangir.

History of Mughal literature :: List of Mughal Emperors

• Khan Abdur Rahman translated Babur’s Tuzuk – I – Baburi from Turki to Persian during Akbar’s reign.
• Abul Fazal composed Ain – I – Akbari and Akbarnamah.
• Abdul Qadir Badauni, who was in Akbar’s court, wrote : Kitab – ul – Ahadish, Tarikh – i – Alfi and Muntakhab – ul
– Tawarikh.
• Khwaja Nizamuddin Ahmad Harawi wrote Tabaqat – i – Akbari.
• Jahangir composed his memoir, Tuzuk – I – Jahangiri (in Persian language), and patronized the valuable
dictionary, Farhang – I – Jahangiri.
• During Jahangir’s reign Hamid wrote Padshah Namahand Khafi Khan wrote Muntakhab – i – Lubab.
• Dara was a great scholar. He translated Upanishads and Bhagvadgita. He also wrote Majm – ul – Bahrain.
• Mirza Md. Qazim wrote Alamgirnama.
• Ishwar Das Nagar wrote Fatuhat – i – Alamgiri.

Communal and Regional Uprisings

The Sikhs History :

• Belong to a religious sect founded by Guru Nanak (1469 – 1539). His main teachings were the faith in one true
Lord, the worship of the Name and the necessity of a Guru in the worship of the name.
• After his death, Guru Angad (1539 – 52) became his successor. He invented the Gurumukhi script for the Punjabi
Language.
• Guru Amardas (1552 – 74) was the next guru. He reformed the institution of hangar and gave more importance to
it. He divided his spiritual empire into 22 parts called Manjis. Each Manjis was put under the charge of a Sikh.
• IV guru, Guru Ramdas (1575 – 81) had very cordial relations with Akbar. He laid the foundation of Amritsar city.
He dug a tank (sarovar) and it exists at Amritsar. In the midst of the tank, the Harmandir Sahib (Temple of God)
was constructed.
• V guru, Guru Arjun Dev (1581 – 1606) compiled the Adi Granth. He also completed the construction of Amritsar
and founded other cities like Taran Taran and Kartarpur. He was executed by Jahangir for helping his rebellious
son, Khusro.

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• VI guru, Guru Har Govind Rai (1606 – 44) defeated a Mughal Army at Sangrama. He transformed the Sikhs into
military community, estd. Akal Takhtat the Golden Temple and held court there to conduct secular matters. He
himself took up the tide of Sachcha Padshah.He also fortified Amritsar.
• Guru Har Rai (1644 – 61) and Guru Har Kishan (1661 – 64) were the VII and VIII gurus respectively.
• IX guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur (1664 – 75) revolted against Aurangzeb but was executed by him. He was beheaded
at Delhi’s Chandni Chowk in November 1675. The Sis Ganj Gurudwara marks the site of his martyrdom.
• X and last guru, Guru Gobind Singh (1675 – 1708) (born in Patna) organised Sikhs as a community of warriors
and called them as Khalsa (Baisakhi day, 1699). He summoned a big assembly of Sikhs at Anantpur and selected
5 persons who came to be known as Panj Piaras. They took the water of immortality.

The Sikhs were given a distinct dress and they were required to keep on their person five things beginning with K, viz.,
Kesh, Kripan, Kachha, Kanga and Kara. He compiled a supplementary granth called ‘Daswen Padshah ka Granth’.

After the death of Aurangzeb, Guru Gobind Singh had cordial relations with his son. Bahadur Shah I. He even agreed to
accompany the new king to Deccan. But the Guru was stabbed to death by a Pathan in 1708. At his death, he declared
that henceforth, the Guru shall be in the Khalsa and the Khalsa in the Guru. He declared that from now on Granth Sahib
should be treated as the Guru.

The Marathas Indian History :

• Rose to prominence under Shivaji.

• He was born to Shahji Bhonsle and Jijabai in 1627 at fortress of Shivner in Poona. Shahji was a military officer in
the state of Bijapur and he owned the territory of Poona as a jagir.
• He was highly impressed by his mother, Dadaji Kondadeo (his guardian), Guru Ramdas Samarth and Tuka Ram,
both Bhakti saints.
• From 1656, he started capturing many forts from the local officer’s of Bijapur.
• Ali Adil Shah, sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan to teach Shivaji a lesson in 1659. But Shivaji killed him in a
meeting with his tiger claws.
• Ultimately, in 1662, the Sultan of Bijapur made peace with Shivaji and acknowledged him as an independent ruler
of his conquered territories.
• Aurangzeb got worried by Shivaji’s extensive conquests. He sent Shaista Khan (Viceroy of Mughal Deccan) to kill
him. Here again, in a daring manner, Shivaji attacked Shaista Khan’s camp in night, injuring him.
• Then Aurangzeb sent Raja Jai Singh (of Amber) who forced him to sign the Treaty of Purandar in 1665. Under the
treaty, Shivaji had to surrender 23 of his major forts out of the total 35 forts. Shivaji also agreed to help the
Mughals in their attack of Bijapur.
• Shivaji visited Agra with his son Sambhaji in 1666. There he was put on a house arrest. But he escaped from
there, concealing in a basket of sweets.
• He very soon conquered all the forts which he had surrendered to the Mughals.
• He defeated a Mughal force in the Battle of Salher in 1672.
• He was crowned in 1674 at Raigarh and assumed the title of Chhatrapati. He became the sovereign ruler
of Maharashtra.
• Unfortunately, Shivaji didn’t live long. He died in 1680 at the age of 53.

Marathas after Shivaji :

• After Shivaji, his son Sambhaji (1680 – 89) succeeded throne (although a lot many supported his step-brother,
Rajaram). He was a man of loose character and spent all his time in merry – making.

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• When Aurangzeb was busy in his campaigns against Bijapur and Golconda, he and his followers did not take full
advantage of the opportunity. When Sambhaji gave shelter to Aurangzeb’s rebel son, Akbar, he was executed
and his infant son, Shivaji II, better known as Shahu, was taken captive by Aurangzeb.
• Sambhaji was succeeded by Rajaram in 1689. Rajaram also lacked the qualities of his father. He was hardly ten
when his father died and he was kept a prisoner by his brother Sambhaji. The result was that he failed to get the
education which was necessary for his status.
• However, he was fortunate in having brilliant advisors and helpers. Initially, he was successful against the
Mughals. But he was killed in 1700 when Aurangzeb himself conducted an expedition against him. After Raja
Ram’s death, his widow Tarabai put her infant son, Shivaji III on the throne.
• After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the Mughals tried to divide the Marathas. Shahu was released by
Aurangzeb’s successor, Bahadur Shah I. now he claimed the government. His release led to the Maratha civil war
between Shahu and Tarabai. In the civil war Shahu emerged victorious (Battle of Khed) with the help of Balaji
Vishwanath, the founder of the line of Peshwas. After the battle, Tarabai retired to Kolhapur with her son.
• In the reign of Shahu, the Peshwa or Prime Minister, Balaji Vishwanath, virtually became the ruler of the state.
From now onwards began the rule of the Peshwas who had their seat of power at Poona. (Shahu’s capital was
Satara).
• In all, there were seven Peshwas, namely :
1. Balaji Vishwanath (1713 – 20)
2. Balaji Baji Rao I (1720 – 40)
3. Balaji Baji Rao (1740 – 61)
4. Madho Rao (1761 – 72)
5. Narayan Rao (1772 – 73)
6. Madho Rao Narayan (1773 – 95)
7. Baji Rao II (1795 – 1818)

• Of these seven Peshwas, the ablest was Baji Rao I and the weakest and most incompetent was Baji Rao II.
• Baji Rao II signed the Treaty of Bassein in 1802 with the British, which gave the British effective control of not only
the Maratha region but also of the Deccan and western India.
• Under Peshwas, Maratha kingdom transformed into an empire based on the principle of confederacy, in which
prominent Maratha chiefs were assigned a territory as their ‘sphere of influence’, which they were supposed to
conquer on their own and which they can administer autonomously.
• Consequently, several Maratha families became prominent in different parts of India :
1. Gaekwad in Baroda
2. Bhonsle at Nagpur
3. Holkar at Indore
4. Scindia at Gwalior
5. Peshwa at Poona

Maratha Administration :

• Besides the land revenue, Chauth or 1/4th land revenue was the main revenue.
• Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% on those lands of Maharashtra over which the Marathas claimed
hereditary rights, but which formed part of the Mughal Empire.
• Shivaji was helped by 8 ministers or Ashta Pradhana.
a. Peshwa or Mukhya Pradhan (Prime Minister).
b. Majumdar or Amatya (Finance Minister).
c. Mantri or Waqianavis (Personal safety of king).
d. Sachiva or Surunavis (In charge of royal secretariat).
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e. Samant or Dabir (Foreign Minister) a Senapati (Commander in Chief).

f. Pandit Rao (Chief Religious Advisor).
g. Nyayadhish (Administration of justice).

• With the exception of Nyayadhish and Pandit Rao, all other ministers were required to command armies and lead
expeditions.
• Later, Rajaram created a new post of Pratinidhi, thus taking the total ministers to nine.

The Jats Indian History :

• First revolted in 1669 under Gokla.

• Second uprising in 1685 under Rajaram and Churaman. After Aurangzeb’s death, they set up separate Jat state
at Bharatpur (Churaman and Badan Singh).
• Suraj Mai (1756 – 63) took their state to glory. He is known as Plato of the Jat tribe.

Mysore India :

• In the second half of the 18th century, the rise of Mysore under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan and their alliance with
the French was seen as a danger to the British power in India.
• Mysore emerged as a powerful throne under Haider Ali who became the king in 1761.
• He used western military training to strengthen his army.
• In the I Anglo – Mysore war (1767 – 1769), Haider Ali faced the triple alliance of the English, the Nizam and the
Marathas. As Haider Ali was a great diplomat, he bought off the Marathas and won over the Nizam and thus
broke the alliance. The war was brought to an end by signing of the Treaty of Madras (1769).
• Hyder Ali died in 1782 during the II Anglo – Mysore war. His son Tipu Sultan carried on the war till 1784 when the
two sides concluded peace by signing the Treaty of Mangalore.
• Tipu planted a tree of liberty at Srirangapatnam. He employed French officers to train his army and showed a
keen interest in French Revolution and became a member of the Jacobin Club.
• He assumed the title of Padshah in 1797.
• In the III Anglo – Mysore war (1789 – 1792), he was defeated by the triple alliance of British, Nizam and the
Marathas and had to sign the Treaty of Sriranagapatnam. By this treaty, Tipu ceded half of his territory to the
English and paid a large amount as war indemnity.
• He was defeated and killed in the IV Anglo – Mysore war (1799) by Lord Wellesley.

Modern Indian History

Advent of Europeans in India

Portuguese in India :

• The Portuguese voyager Vasco da Gama reached Calicut on May 17, 1498. At that time Calicut was ruled by a
king named Zamorin. Vasco da Gama’s voyage was successful in establishing a sea route fromEurope to India
that would permit trade with the Far East, without the use of the costly and unsafe Silk Road caravan routes, of
the Middle East and Central Asia. In 1502, he established a factory at Cochin.
• The first Governor of Portuguese in India was Francisco Almeida.
• He was followed by Alfonso de Albuquerque in 1503. He gave them new heights. He captured Goa in 1510 from
the Bijapur ruler. He also abolished Sati.
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• Nino – da – Cunha transferred the Portuguese capital in India from Cochin to Goa in 1530 and acquired Diu (in
1535) and Daman (in 1559).
• Portuguese lost Hugly in 1631 during the reign of Shahjahan.
• In 1661, the Portuguese king gave Bombay to Charles II of England as dowry, for marrying his sister.
• Gradually, their Indian territories were taken away from them by various sources. The Dutch played an important
role to oust them.

Dutch East India Company :

• Dutch East India Company was formed in 1602.

• They set – up their first factory at Masulipatnam in 1605. Their other factories were at Pulicat, Chinsura, Patna,
Balasore, Nagapattanam, Cochin, Surat, Karikal, Kasimbazar.

English East India Company :

• The English East India Company was formed in 1599, and was given the royal Charter by Queen Elizabeth I in
1600 to trade in the east.
• Captain William Hawkins stayed in Jahangir’s court from 1609 – 1611. But he failed to get the king’s permission to
erect a factory at Surat. Captain Middleton succeeded in this effort in 1611.
• An imperial Farman allowed the Company to set up a permanent factory at Surat in 1613. Sir Thomas Roe played
an important role in this.
• In 1616, the Company established its first factory in the south in Masulipatnam. In 1633, it established its first
factory in east India in Hariharpur, Balasore (Orissa).
• The Company got the lease of Madras in 1639 and built Fort St. George in Madras, which acted as its
headquarter on the Coromandal coast.
• Bombay was made the Company’s main settlement on the west coast in 1668.
• Aurangzeb gave the Company the Farman in 1667 to trade in Bengal. In 1690, a factory was set up at Sutanuti
village. In Sutanati and nearby villages of Kalikata and Gobindpur, grew the city of Calcutta (now Kolkata). In
1696, the Company fortified the Calcutta factory into Fort William.
• In 1717, John Surman obtained a Farman from Farrukhsiyar which gave large concessions to the Company. This
Farman is called the ‘Magna Carta’ of the Company.

Danes in India :

• The Danish East India Company was formed in 1616.

• They established settlements at Serampur (Bengal) and Tranquebar (Tamil Nadu).
• The banes sold their settlements to the English in 1845.

French in India :

• The French East India Company was set in 1664, at the instance of a minister, Colbert, in the reign of Louis XIV.
• The French Company was created, financed and controlled by the State and it differed from the English Company
which was a private commercial venture.
• They established their first factor)’ at Surat in 1668 and at Masulipatnam in 1669.
• The foundation of Pondicherry was laid in 1673 which, afterwards, became its capital. They also developed a
factory in Chandernagar.

The British Conquest of Bengal :

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• The Mughal governor of Bengal, Murshid Quli Khan, made Bengal virtually independent of the Mughal Empire
during his reign (1717 – 1727).
• His son Shuja – ud – daulah succeeded him and ruled for 12 years.
• After his death, Alivardi Khan ruled till 1756.
• These three rulers gave Bengal a long reign of peace and orderly administration.
• They suppressed the East India Company, but never crushed it. On the other hand, the Company constantly
increased its power taking advantage of the corrupt officers.
• The result was the defeat of Siraj – ud – daulah (grandson and successor of Alivardi Khan) in the Battle of
Plassey in 1757. In this battle major part of the Nawab’s army (led by Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh) didn’t take part in
the battle. The Nawab was defeated and killed.

Robert Clive and Battle of Plassey :

Robert Clive is regarded as the true founder of British Political Dominion in India. He correctly read the intricacies of the
political situation of the time and struck boldly and in the right direction. He outdid his French adversary Dupleix and
achieved more permanent results. He was made the Governor of Bengal twice form 1757 – 60 and then from 1765 – 67.
He administered Bengal under the Dual government.

With the resources of Bengal, the English conquered South India and routed their only political rival in India, the French.
Above all, he transformed a mere trading body that the east India Company was into a territorial power with the role of
king – maker in Bengal. On his return to England, he committed suicide in 1774.

• The Battle of Plassey had great political significance as it laid the foundation of the British Empire in India. It is
regarded as the starting point of British Rule in India.
• A great transformation came about in the position of the English Company in Bengal. Before Plassey, the English
Company was just one of the European companies trading in Bengal and suffering various extractions at the
hands of Nawab’s officials. After Plassey the English Company virtually monopolized the trade and commerce of
Bengal.
• The alleged Black Hole Tragedy happened during the reign of Siraj – ud – daulah in 1757.
• Mir Jafar was made the next Nawab of Bengal. The Company was granted undisputed right to free trade in
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. It received the Zamindari of 24 Parganas.
• Next came Mir Qasim. He revoked against the British as he was angry that the British were misusing the dastaks
(free duty passes).
• The Battle of Buxar was fought in 1764 between the British forces (led by Major Munro) on one side, and the triple
alliance of Nawab Mir Qasim of Bengal, Nawab Shuja – ud – Daula of Awadh and Mughal emperor Shah Alam,
on the other side. But the triple – alliance was defeated. The importance of this battle lay in the fact that not only
the Nawab of Bengal but the Emperor of India was also defeated.
• If the Battle of Plassey had made the English a powerful factor in the politics of Bengal, the victory of Buxar made
them a great power of. North India and contenders for the supremacy of the whole country. The English now
faced the Afghans and the Marathas as serious rivals in the final struggle for the Empire of Hindustan.
• The Treaty of Allahabad followed (August 1765) in which the English got the Diwani (or right to collect revenue) of
Bengal and thus became the master of the whole of Bengal (i.e. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa). The Dual Government
of Bengal system followed wherein the Company acquired the real power, while the responsibility of
administration rested on the Nawab of Bengal.
• The Mughal emperor was virtually Company’s prisoner at Allahabad.

Note :

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Raja Sawai Jai Singh ruled Amber from 1681 – 1743. He was the most outstanding Rajput king of this period. He built the
city of Jaipur and set up observatories at Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura and Varanasi. He drew up a set of tables, titled Zij
Muhammadshahi, for astronomical observations.

Governor Generals of India

Governor Generals of British India

Warren Hastings Plan 1772 – 1785 :

• Brought the Dual Govt, of Bengal to an end by the Regulating Act, 1773.
• Deprived zamindars of their judicial powers and Civil and Criminal courts were established.
• Maintenance of records was made compulsory.
• The First Anglo – Maratha War (1776 – 82), which ended with the Treaty of Salbai (1782), and the Second Anglo
– Mysore War (1780 – 84), which ended with the Treaty of Mangalore (1784), were fought during Hasting’s
period.
• As a great patron of oriental learning, he founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal with William Jones in 1784. He
wrote introduction to the first English translation of “The Gita” by Charles Wilkins.
• Impeachment proceedings started against him when he returned on the charges of taking bribe. After a trial of 7
years, he was finally acquitted.

Note : Sir John MacPherson was made the acting Governor – General from 1785 to 1786.

Lord Cornwallis India (1786 – 1793) :

• Did the Permanent Settlement of Bengal (also called Zamindary System).

• First person to codify laws. The code separated the revenue administration from the administration of justice.
• Police Reforms : Each district was divided into 400 sq. miles and placed under a police superintendent assisted
by constables.
• The civil service was brought into existence.

Sir John Shore History (1793 – 1798)

Lord Wellesley in India (1798 – 1805) :

• Adopted the policy of Subsidiary Alliance a system to keep the Indian rulers under control and to make the British
the paramount power.
• He defeated the Mysore force under Tipu Sultan in the Fourth Anglo – Mysore War in 1799.

Subsidiary Alliance in India :

• The Subsidiary Alliance System was used by Weilesley to bring Indian Slates within the orbit the British political
power. The system played a very important part in the expansion of ll Company’s dominionsand many new
territories were added to the Company’s possessions.
• There were four stages in it. In the first stage, the Company undertook to lend its, friendly Indian prince to assist
him in his wars, in the second stage, the Company’s troops tot the field on their own account with the assistance
of an Indian ally who made common; them.

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The next stage was reached when the Indian ally was not to supply men but money. The company undertook to raise,
train and equip an. army under English officers and rende to the ally a fixed number of troops on receiving a sum of
money towards the cost of these troop Tire final stage was the next logical step.

The Company undertook to defend the territories of an Indian ally and for that purpose stationed a subsidiary force in the
territory of the state. 11 Indian ally was asked not to pay money but surrender territory from the revenue of which tl
expenses of the subsidiary force were to be met.

• The Indian states were to conduct negotiations with other states through the Company. The ste was to accept a
British Resident at its headquarters. The Alliance enabled the Company maintain a large standing army at the
expense of Indian princes. It disarmed the Indian states ai threw British protectorate over them.
• The states that accepted this policy were the Nizam of Hyderabad, the ruler of Mysore, the Raja Tanjore, the
Nawab of Awadh, the Feshwa, the Bhonsle Raja of Berar, the Scindia, the Rajputs Jodhpur, Jaipur, etc.

Land Revenue System in India :

Permanent Settlement (The Zamindari System) :

• Introduced in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and districts of Banaras and Northern districts of Madras by Lord Cornwallis in
1793.
• John Shore planned this.
• It declared Zamindars as the owners of the land. Hence, they could keep 1/11th of the revenue collected to
themselves while the British got a fixed share of 10/11th of the revenue collected. The Zamindars were free, to fix
the rent.
• Assured of their ownership, many Zamindars stayed in towns (absentee landlordism) and exploited their tenants.

Ryotwari System in India :

• Introduced in Bombay, Madras and Assam. Lord Munro and Charles Reed recommended it.
• In this, a direct settlement was made between the govt, and the ryot (cultivator).
• The revenue was fixed for a period not exceeding 30 years, on the basis of the quality of the soil and the nature of
the crop. It was based on the scientific rent theory of Ricardo.
• The position of the cultivator became more secure but the rigid system of revenue collection often forced him into
the clutches of the money – lender.

Mahalwari System in India :

• Modified version of Zamindari settlement introduced in the Ganges valley, NWFR parts of Central India
and Punjab. Revenue settlement was to be made by village or estate with landlords. In Western UR a settlement
was made with the village communities, which maintained a form of common ownership known as Bhaichara, or
with Mahals, which were groups of villages.
• Revenue was periodically revised.

George Barlow (1805 – 1807)

Lord Minto I Governor General of India (1807 – 1813) :

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• Concluded the treaty of Amritsar with Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1809).

• Charter Act of 1813 was passed.

Lord Hasting India (1813 – 1823) : The Anglo-Nepal War (1814 – 16) was fought during his reign which ended with the
Treaty of Sagauli (1816).

Lord Amherst (1823 – 1828)

Lord William Bentinck History (1828-1835) :

• Carried out the social reforms like Prohibition of Sari (1829) and elimination of thugs (1830).
• Made English the medium ofhighereducation inthe country (Afterthe recommendations of Macaulay).
• Suppressed female infanticide and child sacrifice.
• Charter Act of 1833 was passed; made him the first Governor General of India. Before him, the designation was
Governor General of Bengal.

Sir Charles Mercalfe History (1835 – 1836) : Abolished all restrictions on vernacular press (called Liberator of the
Press).

Lord Auckland 1842 (1836 – 1842) : The most important event of his reign was the First Afghan War, which proved to be
a disaster for the English.

Lord Ellenborough (1842 – 1844)

Lord Hardinge I (1844 – 1848)

Lord Dalhousie Reforms (1848 – 1856) :

• Opened the first Indian Railway in 1853 (from Bombay to Thane).

• Laid out the telegraph lines in 1853 (First was from Calcutta to Agra).
• Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and captured Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852),
Jhansi (1854) and Nagpur (1854) through it.
• Established the postal system on the modern lines through the length and breadth of the country, which made
communication easier.
• Started the Public Works Department. Many bridges were constructed and the work on Grand Trunk Road was
started. The harbors of Karachi, Bombay and Calcutta were also developed.

Lord Dalhousie Doctrine of Lapse : The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie.
According to the Doctrine, any princely state or territory under the direct influence (paramountcy) of the British East India
Company, as a vassal state under the British Subsidiary System, would automatically be annexed if the ruler was either
“manifestly incompetent or died without a direct heir”.

The company took over the princely states of Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambalpur (1849), Nagpur and Jhansi (1854) and
Awadh (Oudh) (1856) using the Doctrine. The Doctrine is thought to be one of the major driving forces behind the Revolt
of 1857.

• Made Shimla the summer capital.

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• Started Engineering College at Roorkee.

• Encouraged science, forestry, commerce, mineralogy and industry.
• In 1854, “Wood’s Dispatch’ was passed, which provided for the properly articulated system of education from the
primary school to the university.
• Due to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s efforts, remarriage of widows was legalized by Widow Remarriage Act,
1856).

Revolt of 1857 in India

Causes of Revolt of 1857 :

Political Causes of the revolt of 1857 :

• Nana Sahib was refused pension, as he was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.
• The policy of Doctrine of Lapse.

Economic Causes of Revolt of 1857 : Heavy taxation, evictions, discriminatory tariff policy against Indian products and
destruction of traditional handicrafts that hit peasants, artisans and small zamindars.

Military Discrimination :

• Indian soldiers were paid low salaries; they could not rise above the rank of subedar and were racially insulted.
• They were also grieved because of the refusal of British to pay Foreign Service allowance (batta) while fighting in
remote regions such as Punjab and Sindh.

Religious Discrimination :

• British social reforms (widow remarriage, abolition of Sati, education for girls, Christian missionaries).
• The introduction of Enfield rifle, the cartridge of which was greased with animal fat, provided the spark.
• Inventions like railway and telegraphs spread of Western education also promoted the cause.

Outbreak :

• On Mar 29, 1857, a soldier named Mangal Pandey attacked and fired at his senior at Barrackpur in Bengal (in
19th and 34th Native infantry).
• On May 10, there was a mutiny of sepoys’ at Meerut (3rd native cavalry).
• Mutiny spread throughout UP along with some other parts of the country.
• ‘Mar to Delhi’ became the battle cry of the rebels. At Delhi, the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II was proclaimed
the Emperor of India.
• Where the rulers were loyal to the British, the soldiers revolted as in Gwalior and Indore. In some places, the
people revolted before the sepoys did.
• In the beginning, the rebels were successful. Europeans were killed, law courts and police stations were attacked
and revenue records were destroyed. But reverses soon began to occur.

Important Persons :

• Bakht Khan (captured Delhi, was from the Barreily unit of the army).

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• Nana Sahib alias Dhondhu Pant (from Kanpur, along with Tantia Tope and Azimullah) Begum Hazrat Mahal of
Awadh (declared her son as the Nawab of Awadh).

Rani Lakshmi Bai History :

Rani Lakshmi Bai, the queen of Jhansi, represents a symbol of resistance to British rule in India. Affectionately called
Manu, she was married to Raja Gangadhar Rao, the Maharaja of Jhansi in 1842. She gave birth to a son in 1851, but this
child died when he was about four months old. In 1853, the couple was forced to adopt a child as Gangadhar Rao fell very
ill and died.

Lord Dalhousie tried to annex Jhansi under the Doctrine of I.apse. But Rani was determined to defend Jhansi. She fought
valiantly and was even able to acquire Gwalior from the Sindhia rulers, who were British allies. But eventually, the Rani
reached her martyrdom at Kalpi, near Jhansi.

Because of her unprecedented bravery, courage and wisdom, and her progressive views on women’s empowerment, and
dAue to her sacrifices, she became an icon of Indian nationalist movement.

• Rani Lakshmibai, the widowed queen of Raja Gangadhar Rao of Jhansi (Tantia Tope joined her and they
defeated the Scindia of Gwalior, but both were defeated by Sir Hugh Rose. She died on Jun 17, 1858, while
Tantia was later captured and executed).
• Kunwar Singh and Amar Singh (Bihar).
• Maulavi Ahmedullah (First Awadh and then Rohilkhand).
• Devi Singh of Mathura.
• Kadam Singh of Meerut.

Suppression :

• Delhi : By John Nicholson and Hudson

• Kanpur : By Campbell, Havelock
• Lucknow : By Havelock, Outram, James Neill and
• Campbell Jhansi : Hugh Rose
• Banaras : James Neill
• The revolt was completely suppressed by the end of 1858.

Fate of the leaders of Revolt of 1857 in India :

• Bahadur Shah II : Deported to Rangoon, where he died in 1862. His sons were shot dead.
• Nana Sahib and Begum Hazrat Mahal : Escaped to Nepal.
• Rani Jhansi : Died in the battle field.
• Tantia Tope : Was captured and executed in 1859.

Causes of Failure of 1857 Revolt :

• Scindia of Gwalior, the Holkar of Indore, the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Raja of Jodhpur, the Nawab of Bhopal, the
rulers of Patiala, Sindh and Kashmir and the Rana of Nepal provided active support to the British.
• The military equipment of the rebels was inferior.
• Comparative lack of efficient leadership.

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• The modern intelligent Indians also didn’t support the cause.

Impact of the revolt of 1857 :

• The revolt was mainly feudal in character carrying with it some nationalist elements.
• The control of Indian administration was passed on to the British crown by the Govt, of India Act, 1858. The army
was carefully reorganized to prevent the recurrence of such an event.

Social and Cultural Uprisings

Brahmo Samaj Movement:

• Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828.

• He earlier started Atmiya Sabha in 1814.
• Criticized Sati Pratha, casteism and advocated widow remarriage.
• He gave enthusiastic assistance to David Hare, who founded the famous Hindu College in Calcutta.
• Established a Vedanta College in which courses both in Indian and Western social and physical sciences were
offered.
• He was a gifted linguist. He knew more than dozen languages including Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, English,
French, Latin, Greek and Hebrew.
• He was opposed to Sanskrit system of education; because he thought it would keep the country in darkness.
• Other important leaders were Devendranath Tagore (father of Rabindranath Tagore) and Keshab Chandra Sen.
• Tagore dismissed Keshab Chandra in 1865.
• Keshab started Sangat Sabha, Prarthana Samaj and Brahmo Samaj of India.
• Tagore’s organization came to be known as Tattvabodhini Sabha and Adi Brahmo Samaj.
• Anand Mohan Bose started the Sadharana Brahmo Samaj.
• Justice M.G. Ranade founded the Prarthana Sabha.

Arya Samaj India :

• Founded by Swami Dayanand (or, Moolshankar) in 1875.

• His motto was ‘Go back to the Vedas’ & ‘India for the Indians’. He disregarded Puranas, idol worship, casteism
and untouchability. He advocated widow remarriage.
• Dayanand’s views were published in his famous work, Satyarth Prakash. He also wrote Veda Bhashya Bhumika
and Veda Bhashya.
• Established a large number of educational institutions in India, viz., Gurukuls, DAV schools, etc.
• Also started the ‘Siddhi’ movement to convert non – Hindus to Hinduism.
• Other prominent persons of Arya Samaj were Lala Hans Raj, Pt. Guru Dutt, Lala Lajpat Rai, Swami
Shraddhanand.

History of Ramakrishna Mission :

• Founded by Vivekanand (earlier, Narendranath Dutta) (1863 – 1902) in 1897, 11 years after the death of his guru
Ram Krishna Paramhans.
• Vivekanand attended the Parliament of Religion at Chicago in 1893.
• He published two papers : Prabhudha Bharat in English and Udbodhana in Bengali.

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• Vivekanand’s Quotes :

• No social progress is possible without improving condition of women, who were most important instrument of
social change.
• So long as millions live in hunger and ignorance I hold every man a traitor who, having been educated at their
expense, pays not the least heed to them.
• All power is within you, you can do anything and everything. Believe in that; do not believe that you are weak. You
can do anything and everything, without even the guidance of any one. All power is there. Stand up and express
the divinity with you. Arise, awake, sleep no more. With each of you there is the power to remove all wants and all
miseries. Believe in this, that power will be manifested.

• Irish woman Margaret Noble (Known as sister Nivedita) popularized Ramakrishna Mission after Vivekanand’s
death.

Young Bengal Movement :

• During the late 1820 and early 1830, there emerged a radical intellectual trend among the youth in Bengal, which
came to be known as the ‘Young Bengal Movement’.
• Founded by Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (1809 – 31). He was a teacher in Hindu College in Calcutta.
• He also edited the papers, Hesperus and Calcutta Literary Gazette and was connected with the India Gazette.
• He urged the students to live and die for truth. He also supported women’s education and their rights.

History of Veda Samaj :

• Called Brahmo Samaj of South. Started by Sridharalu Naidu.

• He translated books of Brahmo Dharma into Tamil and Telegu.

Dharma Sabha :

• Initiated by Radhakant Deb in 1830.

• Was opposed to reforms and protected orthodoxy, but played an active role in promoting western education even
to girls.

Drain of Wealth Theory India :

• R.C. Dutta and Dadabhai Naoroji first cited the drain of wealth theory. Naoroji brought it to light in his book titled
“Poverty and Unbritish Rule in India”. R C Dutt blamed the British policies for economic ills in his book
“Economic History of India”.
• Drain of wealth refers to the portion of national product of India, which was not available for consumption of
Indians.
• Drain of wealth began in 1757 after the Battle of Plassey when the Company’s servants began to extort fortunes
from Indian rulers, zamindars, merchants and common people and send home.
• In 1765, the Company acquired the Diwani of Bengal and began to purchase the Indian goods out of the revenue
of Bengal and exported them. These purchases were known as Company’s investments.
• Duty free inland trade provided British merchants a competitive edge over their Indian counterparts.
• The actual drain, as a part of the salaries and other incomes of the English officials and the trading fortunes of
English merchants, was even more.
• The drain of wealth stunted the growth of Indian enterprise and checked and retarded capital formation in India.
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Lokahitawadi :

• Started by Gopal Hari Deshmukh. Advocated western education and a rational outlook. He advocated female
education for the upliftment of women.
• As a vptary of national self – reliance, he attended Delhi durbar in 1876, wearing handspun khadi cloth.

Indian (National) Social Conference :

• Founded by M.G. Ranade and Raghunath Rao. It held its first session in 1887.
• Its main focus was on abolition of polygamy and kulinism and it encouraged intercaste marriages. It also pledged
to fight child marriages.
• The Conference is sometimes referred as the social reform cell of the Indian National Congress.

Servants of India Society :

• Formed by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1915.

• It did notable work in providing famine relief and in improving the condition of the tribal.

Seva Samiti : Hridayanath Kunzru, a member of the Servants of India Society, organized the Samiti at Allahabad in 1914,
to improve the status of the suffering classes, reform criminals and to rescue those suffering in society.

Radhaswami Movement :

• Founded in 1861 by a banker of Agra, Tulsi Ram, popularly known as Shiv Dayal Saheb or Swami Maharaj.
• The sect preached belief in one Supreme Being, the Guru’s supreme position and a simple social life for the
believers (the Satsangis).

Deva Samaj History :

• Founded by Shiv Narain Agnihotri in 1887. it preached high moral and social conduct like, for instance, keeping
oneself away from gambling and intoxicants.
• Deva Shastra tells us about the ideals of Deva Samaj.

Theosophical Society Annie Besant :

• Founded by Westerners who drew inspiration from Indian thought and culture.
• Madam H P Blavatsky laid the foundation of the movement in US in 1875. Later, Col. M S Olcott of the US Army
joined her.
• In 1882, it was shifted to India at Adyar (Tamil Nadu).
• Annie Besant was elected its President in 1907. She founded the Central Hindu College in 1898, which became
Banaras Hindu University in 1916.
• The society accepted Hindu beliefs like re – incarnation, Karma and draws inspiration from Upanishads, Sankhya,
Yoga and Vedanta schools.

The Aligarh Movement :

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• Started by Sir Syyed Ahmed Khan. He encouraged Muslims to accept the virtues of western education and urged
them to apply the principle of enquiry to religion.
• For a rational and scientific order in society, he founded a scientific society in 1864, an Urdu journal, Tahzib – al –
akhlaq in 1870, and the Aligarh school in 1875. The school was made into the Muhammadan Anglo – Oriental
College in 1877. The college grew into the Aligarh Muslim University.

The Ahmedia Movement in Islam :

• Started by Mirza Ghulam Ahmed in 1889.

• His movement embraced the belief in a universal religion, opposed sacred wars and encouraged fraternal
relations among all.

The Deobandi Movement :

• In 1866, the Deoband School of Islamic Theology was set up at Deoband by Rashid Ahmed Gangohi and
Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi to promote studies in classical Islam and moral and religious regeneration of the
Muslims. The school did not support western education and. culture.
• Its liberal interpretations of Islam earned it a high reputation.

Satyashodhak Samaj :

• Founded by Jyotiba Phule in 1873 to fight Brahmanic domination and to liberate low castes by educating them
and teaching them their rights. He advocated the cause of untouchables.
• Jyotiba also started a school for untouchables and an orphanage for widows.
• His books, Ghulamgiri and Sarvajanik Satyadharma Pustak questioned the traditional customs and beliefs of
society.
• Met the Duke of York as the representative of poverty stricken Indian peasant.

The Justice Party Movement :

• Dr. T.M. Nair, Sir Pitti Theagaraja Chettiar and the Raja of Panagal formed the South Indian Liberal Federation
(SILF) in 1916 to protest against the domination of Brahmins in government service, education and in the political
field.
• The newspaper, Justice, was their main organ for expressing views and opinions.
• The SILF came to be called the Justice Party later on.

Self Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu :

• The radical movement was launched by Periyar or E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker in Tamil Nadu in 1925, to awaken
non – brahmins for overthrowing Brahmanic superiority.
• The movement organized weddings without involving the Brahmins and temple entry.

Self Respect Movement in India :

• Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar’s movement worked for the upliftment of the untouchables by fighting for their
educational, legal and political rights and encouraging them to throw off the traditional caste duties imposed on
them.

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• Ambedkar founded the Depressed Classes Institute (Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha) in Bombay in 1924, a Marathi
fortnightly Bahishkrit Bharat in 1927 and the Sarnaj Samata Sangha in 1927. He also founded the Independent
Labour Party.
• The Scheduled Caste Federation, a political party, was formed by him in 1942.

Viceroys of India

British Viceroys of India

Lord Canning History (1856 – 1862) :

• The last Governor General and the first Viceroy.

• Mutiny took place in his time.
• On November, 1858, the rule passed on to the crown.
• Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.
• The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were established in 1857.
• Indian Councils Act was passed in 1861.

Lord Elgin (1862 – 1863)

Lord Lawrence (1864 – 1869) :

• Telegraphic communication was opened with Europe.

• High Courts were established at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1865.
• Expanded canal works and railways.
• Created the Indian Forest department.

Lord Mayo History (1869 – 1872) :

• Started the process of financial decentralization in India.

• Established the Rajkot college at Kathiarwar and Mayo College at Ajmer for the Indian princes.
• For the first time in Indian history, a census was held in 1871.
• Organised the Statistical Survey of India.
• Was the only Viceroy to be murdered in office by a Pathan convict in the Andamans in 1872.

Lord Northbrook (1872 – 1876) :

Lord Lytton (1876 – 1880) :

• Known as the Viceroy to reverse characters.

• Organised the Grand ‘Delhi Durbar’ in 1877 to decorate Queen Victoria with the title of ‘Kaiser I Hind’.
• Arms act (1878) made it mandatory for Indians to acquire license for arms.
• Passed the infamous Vernacular Press act (1878).

Lord Ripon (1880 – 1884) :

• Liberal person, who sympathized with Indians.

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• Repeated the Vernacular Press act (1882)

• Passed the local self government act (1882)
• Took steps to improve primary & secondary education (on William Hunter Commission’s recommendations).
• The I Factory act, 1881, aimed at prohibiting child labour.
• Passed the libert Bill (1883) which enabled Indian district magistrates to try European criminals. But this was
withdrawn later.

Lord Dufferin (1884 – 1888) : Indian National Congress was formed during his tenure.

Lord Lansdowne (1888 – 1894) :

• II Factory act (1891) granted a weekly holiday and stipulated working hours for women and children, although it
failed to address concerns such as work hours for men.
• Categorization of Civil Services into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate.
• Indian Council act of 1892 was passed.
• Appointment of Durand Commission to define the line between British India and Afghanistan.

Lord Elgin II (1894 – 1899) : Great famine of 1896 – 1897. Lyall Commission was appointed.

Lord Curzon (1899 – 1905) :

• Passed the Indian Universities act (1904) in which official control over the Universities was increased.
• Partitioned Bengal (October 16, 1905) into two provinces Bengal (proper) & East Bengal & Assam.
• Appointed a Police Commission under Sir Andrew Frazer to enquire into the police administration of every
province.
• The risings of the frontier tribes in 1897 – 98 led him to create the North Western Frontier Province (NWFP).
• Passed the Ancient Monuments Protection act (1904), to restore India’s cultural heritage. Thus the Archaeological
Survey of India was established.
• Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper Currency act (1899) and put India on a gold standard.
• Extended railways to a great extent.

History of Lord Minto (1905 – 1910) :

• There was great political unrest in India. Various acts were passed to curb the revolutionary activities. Extremists
like Lala Laipat Rai and Ajit Singh (in May, 1907) and Bal Gangadhar Tilak (in July, 1908) were sent to Mandalay
jail in Burma.
• The Indian Council act of 1909 or the Morley Minto Reforms was passed.

Lord Hardinge (1910 – 1916) :

• Held a durbar in December, 1911 to celebrate the coronation of King George V.

• Partition of Bengal was cancelled (1911), capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911).
• A bomb was thrown at him; but he escaped unhurt (December 23, 1912).
• Gandhiji came back to India from South Africa (1915).
• Annie Besant announced the Home Rule Movement.

Lord Chelmsford (1916 – 1921) :

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• August Declaration of 1917, whereby control over the Indian government would be gradually transferred to the
Indian people.
• The government of India act in 1919 (Montague Chelmsford reforms) was passed.
• Rowlatt act of 1919; Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919).
• Non Cooperation Movement.
• An Indian Sir S.P.Sinha was appointed the Governor of Bengal.
• A Women’s university was founded at Poona in 1916.
• Saddler Commission was appointed in 1917 to envisage new educational policy.

Lord Reading (1921 – 1926) :

• Rowlatt act was repeated along with the Press act of 1910.
• Suppressed non – cooperation movement.
• Prince of Wales visited India in November, 1921.
• Moplah rebellion (1921) took place in Kerala.
• Ahmedabad session of 1921.
• Formation of Swaraj Party.
• Vishwabharati University started functioning in 1922.
• Communist part was founded in 1921 by M.N. Roy.
• Kakory Train Robbery on August 9, 1925.
• Communal riots of 1923 – 25 in Multan, Amritsar, Delhi, etc.
• Swami Shraddhanand, a great nationalist and a leader of the Arya Samajists, was murdered in communal orgy.

Lord Irwin (1926 – 1931) :

• Simon Commission visited India in 1928.

• Congress passed the Indian Resolution in 1929.
• Dandi March (March 12, 1930).
• Civil Disobedience Movement (1930).
• First Round Table Conference held in England in 1930.
• Gandhi Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931) was signed and Civil Disobediance Movement was withdrawn.
• Martydorm of Jatin Das after 64 days hunger strike (1929).

Lord Willington (1931 – 1936) :

• Second Round Table conference in London in 1931.

• On his return Gandhiji was again arrested and Civil Disobedience Movement was resumed in January, 1932.
• Communal Awards (August 16, 1932) assigned seats to different religious communities. Gandhiji went on a epic
fast in protest against this division.
• Third Round Table conference in 1932.
• Poona Pact was signed.
• Government of India act (1935) was passed.

Lord Linlithgow (1936 – 1944) :

• Government of India act enforced in the provinces. Congress ministries formed in 8 out of 11 provinces. They
remained in power for about 2 years till October 1939, when they gave up offices on the issue of India having
been dragged into the II World War. The Muslim League observed the days as ‘Deliverance Say’ (22 December)
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• Churchill became the British PM in May, 1940. He declared that the Atlantic Charter (issued jointly by the UK and
US, stating to give sovereign rights to those who have been forcibly deprived of them) does not apply to India.
• Outbreak of World War II in 1939.
• Cripps Mission in 1942.
• Quit India Movement (August 8, 1942).

Lord Wavell (1944 – 1947) :

• Arranged the Shimla Conference on June 25, 1945 with Indian National Congress and Muslim League; failed.
• Cabinet Mission Plan (May 16, 1946).
• Elections to the constituent assembly were held and an Interim Government was appointed under Nehru.
• First meeting of the constituent assembly was held on December 9, 1946.

Lord Mountbatten (March 1947 – August 1947) :

• Last Viceroy of British India and the first Governor General of free India.
• Partition of India decided by the June 3 Plan.
• Indian Independence Act passed by the British parliament on July 4, 1947, by which India became independent
on August 15, 1947.
• Retried in June 1948 and was succeeded by C. Rajagopalachari (the first and the last Indian Governor General of
free India).

Important National Activities

History of Indigo Revolt 1859–60 :

• In this, the peasants were forced to grow indigo in their lands unwillingly by the European factory – owners.
• The anger exploded in Govindpur village of Nadia district (Bengal) under Digambar Biswas & Vishnu Biswas.
• Others who played important role were Harish Chandra Mukherjee (editor of the newspaper Hindu Patriot),
Dinbandhu Mitra (writer of play, Neel Darpari) & Michael Madhusudan Datta (eminent Bengali poet-cum-play
writer, who translated Neel Darpan into English).
• The Govt appointed an Indigo Commission in 1860 and removed some of the abuse of Indigo cultivation.

The Indian National Congress :

• Formed in 1885 by A.O. Hume, an Englishman and a retired civil servant.

• Hume’s main purpose was probably to provide a “safety valve” to the growing discontent among the educated
Indians.
• Other important leaders during foundation were Dadabhai Naoroji, Badrudin Tyabji, Anand Mohan Bose,
R.C.Dutt, Ferozshah Mehta, G.K.Gokhale, G. Subramaniyam Aiyyar, Dinshaw Vacha, Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
Mahadev Govind Ranade, Madan Mohan Malviya.
• First session in Bombay under WC.Banerjee in 1885 (72 delegates attended it).
• In the first two decades (1885 – 1905), quite moderate in its approach and confided in British justice and
generosity.
• But the repressive measures of the British gave rise to extremists within Congress like Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lai, Bal, Pal), along with Aurobindo Ghosh.

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Partition of Bengal 1905 :

• By Lord Curzon on October 16, 1905, through a royal Proclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size by
creating East Bengal and Assam out of rest of Bengal.
• The government said that it was done to stimulate growth in eastern region.
• Actually, the objective was to set up a communal gulf between Hindus and Muslims.
• A mighty upsurge swept the country against the partition. National movement found real expression in the
movement against the partition of Bengal in 1905.
• Rabindranath Tagore composed the national song ‘Amar sonar Bangla’ for the occasion which was sung by
people everywhere. This song was adopted as national anthem by Bangladesh in 1971 after liberation
from Pakistan.
• The ceremony of Raksha Bandhan was observed on October 16, 1905. Hindus and Muslims tied rakhis on each
other’s wrist showing solidarity.
• The newspapers played a significant role in the movement. The main newspapers were K.K. Mitra’s Sanjeevani,
S.N. Banerjee’s Bengali, Motilal Ghosh’s Amrit Bazar Patrika, B.B. Upadhyaya’s Yugantar, Bipin Chandra Pal’s
New India, Aurobindo Ghosh’s Bande Mataram, Aji Singh’s Bharat Mata, etc.

Swadesh Movement Indian History :

• Had its origin in the anti – partition movement of Bengal. The leaders of Bengal felt that mere demonstrations,
public meetings and resolutions were not enoughand something more concrete was needed and the answer felt
was Swadeshi and Boycott.
• An important aspect of the Swadeshi movement was emphasis placed on self – reliance.
• Lai, Bal, Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh played the important role.
• INC took the Swadeshi call first at the Banaras Session, 1905 presided over by G.K. Gokhale.
• A resolution to boycott British goods was adopted on August 7, 1905 at a meeting of INC at Calcutta.
• Bonfires of foreign goods were conducted at various places.

Muslim League 1906 :

• Setup in 1906 under the leadership of Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and Nawab Mohsin – ul – Mulk.
• It was a loyalist, communal and conservative political organization which supported the partition of Bengal,
opposed the Swadeshi movement, demanded special saieguards of its community and a separate electorate for
Muslims.
• Swaraj : In December 1906 at Calcutta, the INC under Dadabhai Naorojiadopted ‘Swaraj’ (Self – Government) as
the goal of Indian people.

History of Surat Session of Inc :

• The INC split into two groups -The extremists and The moderates, at the Surat session in 1907. Extremists were
led by Bal, Pal, Lai while the moderates by G.K. Gokhale.
• Controversy rose over the elected president, Ras Bihari Ghosh, as extremists didn’t accept him. Extremists
wanted Lala Lajpat Rai to be chosen.
• The government after this launched a massive attack on extremists by suppressing their newspapers and
arresting their leaders.

The Indian Councils act 1909 (or) Minto Morley Reforms 1909 :

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• Besides other constitutional measures, it envisaged a separate electorate for Muslims.

• Aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderates and the Muslims to the Government’s side.

Ghadar Party of India 1913 :

• Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das and Sohan Singh Bhakna.

• The name was taken from a weekly paper, Ghadar, which had been started on November 1, 1913 to
commemorate the 1857 revolt.
• HQ was at San Francisco.
• The outbreak of the First World War provided the Ghadarites with an opportunity to free India from a Government
which was indifferent to their cause.
• They began to return to India in thousands for a co – ordinated revolt in collaboration with the Bengal
revolutionaries. Their plan was foiled at the last moment due to treachery.

Komagata Maru Incident 1914 :

• Komagata Maru was the name of a ship which carried a shipload of Sikh and Muslim immigrants from Punjab to
Vancouver, Canada.
• But the Canadian immigration authorities turned them back after months of uncertainty.
• The ship finally anchored at Calcutta on September 29, 1914.
• But the inmates refused to board the Punjab bound train and there was a clash with the police in which 22
persons died.
• This incidence fired up the revolutionary activities which sought to avenge the death of the innocents.

Revolutionary Activities

National Revolutionary Movement

• The first political murder of a European was committed in 1897 at Poona by the Chapekar brothers, Damodar and
Balkishan. Their target was Mr. Rand, President of the Plague Commission, but Lt. Ayerst was accidentally shot.
• In 1907, Madam Bhikaiji Cama, a Parsi revolutionary unfurled the flag of India at Stuttgart Congress (of Second
International).
• In 1908, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki threw a bomb on the carriage of Kingford, the unpopular judge of
Muzaffarpur. Khudiram, Kanhaiyalal Dutt and Satyendranath Bose were hanged. (Alipur Case).
• In 1909, M L Dhingra shot dead Col. William Curzon Whyllie, the political advisor of ‘India Office’ in London.
• In 1912, Rasbihari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyal threw a bomb at Lord Hardinge at Delhi. (Delhi Conspiracy
Case)
• In Oct, 1924, a meeting of revolutionaries from all parts of India was called at Kanpur.

• The meeting was attended by old revolutionary leaders like Sachindra Nath Sanyal, Jogesh Chandra. Chatterjee
and Ram Prasad Bismil and some young revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh, Shiv Verma, Sukhdev, Bhagwati
Charan Vohra and Chandrashekhar Azad.
• They setup Hindustan Socialist Republic Association/ Army (HSRA). Their three objectives were:

• To raise the consciousness of people against the futility of Gandhian movement of non-violence.
• To perform directaction and revolutionto attain complete independence.
• To set up a republic of the United States ofIndia on the federal structure.

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• They carried out a dacoity on the Kakori bound train on the Saharanpur-Lucknow railway line on Aug 9, 1925. The
conspirators were later arrested and hanged (Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla, Roshan Lai and Rajendra Lahiri).
• Bhagat Singh, with his colleagues shot dead Saunders (Asstt. S.E of Lahore, who ordered lathi charge on Lala
Lajpat Rai) on Dec 17, 1928.
• Then Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Assembly on Apr 8, 1929. Thus, he,
Rajguru and Sukhdev were hanged on Mar23, 1931 at Lahore Jail (Lahore Conspiracy Case) and their bodies
cremated at Hussainiwala near Ferozepur.
• In 1929 only Jatin Das died in Lahore jail after 63 days fast to protest against horrible conditions in jail.
• Meerut Conspiracy Case started in 1929 and continued for four years against 31 communists accused of
conspiracy against the British sovereign. In this, Muzaffar Ahmed received transportation for life.
• Surya Sen, a revolutionary of Bengal, formed the Indian Republic Army in Bengal. In 1930, he masterminded the
raid on Chittagong armoury. He was hanged in 1933.
• In 1931, Chandrashekhar Azad shot himself at Alfred Park in Allahabad.

Revolutionary Organisations found outside India:

Organisation Year Founder Place

India House 1905 Shyamji Krishna Verma London

Abhinav Bharat 1906 V.D. Savarkar London

Indian Independence 1907 Tarak Nath Das USA

League Ghadar Party 1913 Lala Hardayal,Tarak Nath Das & Sohan Singh Bhakna San Francisco

Indian Independence 1914 Lala Hardayal and Birendra Berlin

League Nath Chattopadhyaya Indian Independence 1915 Raja Mahendra Pratap Kabul

League & Government Indian Independence 1942 Ras Behari Bose Tokyo

League Indian National Army 1942 Ras Behari Bose Tokyo

(in 1943, INA was reorganized by Subhash Chandra Bose in Singapore.)

Revolutionay Organisation in India:

Organisation Year Founder Place

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Mitra Mela 1899 Savarkar Brothers Poona

Anushilan Samiti (I) 1902 Gyanendranath Bose Midnapur

Abhinav Bharat 1904 V.D. Savarkar Poona

Swadesh Bandhav 1905 Ashwini Kumar Dutt Barisal

Samiti Anushilan Samiti (II) 1907 Birendra Kumar Ghosh and Bhupendra Dutt Dhaka

Bharat Mata Society 1907 Ajit Singh & Amba Prasad Punjab

Hindustan Republican Association 1924 Jogesh Chandra Chatterji, Sachindranath Sanyal Kanpur

Naujavan Sabha 1926 Bhagat Singh Lahore

Hindustan Socialist Republican Association 1928 Chandrashekhar Azad

Indian National Army

History of Indian National Army

• The idea of the Indian National Army (INA) to liberate India was originally conceived by Rasbehari Bose, who had
fled to Japan in 1915 and had become a Japanese citizen, with the help of Mohan Singh, arrindian officer of the
British Indian army in Malaya.
• S.C. Bose secretly escaped from India in Jan 1941, and reached Berlin. In Jul 1943, he joined the INA
atSingapore. There, Rasbehari Bose handed over the leadership to him.
• The soldiers were mostly raised from Indian soldiers of the British army who had been taken prisoners by the
Japanese after they conquered S.E.Asia. Two INA headquarters were Rangoon and Singapore (formed in
Singapore).
• INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhi, Azad and Nehru. Rani Jhansi Brigade
was an exclusive women force.
• The INA launched an attack on India and penetrated into the Indian Territory. It annexed Andaman and Nicobar
with Japanese help and named them as ‘Shaheed’ and ‘Swaraj’.
• But, it couldn’t face the British army and surrendered.
In this, S.C.Bose gave the call ‘Dilli Chalo’,

• INA trials were held at Red Fort, Delhi. RK. Sehgal, Shah Nawaz (commander of the INA battalion that had
reached the Indo-Burma front) and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon were put on trial.

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• The Congress took up their defence, with Bhulabhai Desai, TejbahadurSapru, Jawaharlal Nehru, K.N. Katju and
Asaf Ali defending them. Muslim League also joined for the countrywide protest.
• Nov 12, 1945 was celebrated as the INA Day.

Wavell Plan 1945 :

• Given by Lord Wayell.

• The plan was that the Viceroy’s Executive Council should be so reconstituted that its members, except the
Governor General and the Commander-in-Chief, were to be Indians (from various parties). Simla conference was
convened in this regard, but was rejected by Jinnah.

The Cabinet Mission Plan 1946 :

• The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945-46. The new Labour Party PM, Lord Attlee,
made a declaration on Mar 15, 1946, that British Cabinet Mission (comprising of Lord Pethick Lawrence as
Chairman, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander) will visit India.
• The mission held talks with the INC and ML to bring about acceptance of their proposals.

• On May 16, 1946, the mission put forward its proposals:

• Rejected the demand for separate Pakistan and instead a federal union consisting Princely States was
suggested. The union would deal into the following subjects: Foreign affairs, Defence and Communication and
would have the powers to raise the finances required for the above subjects. Full autonomy would be enjoyed by
the provinces in respect of all subjects other than the union subjects.
• There were to be three groups of Provinces: Group A with six Hindu majority provinces (Bombay, United
Province, Bihar, Central Province, Orissa, Madras); Group B with three Muslim majority provinces (Sind,
NWFP, Punjab) and Group C (Assam and Bengal). After the first general elections, a province could come out of
the group and after 10 years a province could call for reconsideration of the group or union constitution.
• The Union would consist of an executive and a legislature. The legislature would not be directly elected by the
people but by the provincial legislatures on the basis of communal electorates. Members of the Princely States
would be appointed by the rulers of the Princely States.
• Both Congress and Muslim League accepted it.
• The elections of the Constituent Assembly were held in Jul 1946. The Congress got 209 of the total 273 seats.
• Interim Government 1946 : Based on Cabinet Mission Plan, an interim government consisting of Congress
nominees was formed on Sep 2, 1946. J.L. Nehru was its Vice-President and the Governor-General remained as
its President. Muslim League did not join it initially but finally Wavell succeeded in having five members of the
League join the government on Oct 26, 1946.

History of Jinnah Direct Action Resolution :

• Jinnah was alarmed at the results of the elections because the Muslim League was in danger of being totally
eclipsed in the constituent assembly.
• Therefore, Muslim League withdraw its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on Jul 29, 1946.
• It passed a ‘Direct action’ resolution, which condemned both the British Government and the Congress (Aug 16,
1946).
• It resulted in heavy communal riots.
• Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on Mar 27, 1947.

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Formation of constituent Assembly of India : The constituent assembly met on Dec 9, 1946 and Dr. Rajendra Prasad
was elected as its president.

Mountbatten Plan of June 1947 :

• On Jun 3, 1947, Lord Mountbatten put forward his plan which outlined the steps for the solution of India’s political
problem. The outlines of the Plan were:

• India to be divided into India and Pakistan.

• Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and a referendum in NEFP and Sylhet district of Assam would be held.
• There would be a separate constitutional assembly for Pakistan to frame its constitution.
• The Princely states would enjoy the liberty to join either India or Pakistan or even remain independent.
• Aug 15, 1947 was the date fixed for handing over power to India and Pakistan.

• The British govt, passed the Indian Independence Act of 1947 in Jul 1947, which contained the major provisions
put forward by the Mountbatten plan.

National Movement Partition and Independence:

• All political parties accepted the Mountbatten plan.

• Two Commissions were appointed by the British Government with Sir Cyril Redcliffe as chairman of both to see
through the partition and fix the international boundaries of the two nations-to-be.
• At the time of independence, there were 562 small and big Princely states in India.
• Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, the first home minister, used iron hand in this regard. By Aug 15, 1947, all the States,
with a few exceptions like Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagarh had signed the Instrument of Accession. Goa was
with the Portuguese and Pondicherry with the French.

Constitutional Development in India

India Regulating Act 1773 :

• Subjected the Company’s actions to the supervision of the British Government

• End of Dual government.
• Governor of Bengal to be the Governor – General of British territories of India.
• Establishment of Supreme Court in Calcutta.
• The servants of the Company were forbidden to engage in private trade, accept presents or bribes, etc.

Pitts Act of 1784 :

• The commercial and political activities of the Company were now separated. Board of Control of six members
(including two cabinet ministers) set – up to guide and supervise the affairs of the Company in India.
• Three members will be there in Governor – General’s Executive Council.
• Secret Committee of three Directors were to look into political and military affairs. [Governor General and the
council were forbidden to declare war and make treaties without the sanction of secret committee].
• Madras and Bombay Presidencies were subordinated to the Governor – General – in – Council of Bengal in all
matters.

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• This act gave the British Government a measure of control over the Company’s affairs. In fact, the Company
became a subordinate department of the State.
• Act of 1786 : Governor General given the power to over – ride the council and was made Commander – in – Chief
also.

Charter Act of 1793 :

• Company given monopoly of trade for 20 more years.

• Expenses and salaries of the Board of Control to be charged on Indian revenue.
• The Governor General and the Governors could now over – ride the decisions of their respective Councils.
• All laws were to be translated in Indian languages.
• It laid the foundation of government, by written laws, interpreted by courts.

Charter Act of 1813 India :

• Company deprived of its trade monopoly in India except in tea and trade with China. This made the Company
more of an administrative body. All Englishmen could trade in India subject to few restrictions.
• A sum of

1 lakh earmarked annually for education of Indians.

• Further, Christian missionaries were also permitted to come to India and preach their religion.

Charter Act of 1833 :

• End of Company’s monopoly even in tea and trade with China. Company was asked to close its commercial
business at the earliest.
• All restrictions on European immigration into India and acquisition of land and property in India by them were
removed, legalizing European colonization of India.
• Governor General of Bengal to be Governor General of India; all powers, administrative and financial, were
centralized in the hands of the Governor – General – in – Council. (1st Governor General of India – Lord William
Bentinck).
• President of Board of Control became the minister for Indian affairs.
• A law member (without power to vote) was added to the Executive Council of the Governor General. Macaulay
was the first Law member. This increased the Council’s strength to four, with it began the Indian Legislature.
• A law commission was constituted for codification of laws.
• The Act threw open to ail, irrespective of religion, place of birth, descent and colour, services under the Company.

Charter Act of 1853 :

• The Act renewed the powers of the Company and allowed it to retain the possession of Indian territories in trust
for the British Crown but not for any specified period.
• The number of members of the Court of Directors was reduced from 24 to 18 of which 6 were to be nominated by
the Crown.
• The Law member was made a full member of the Governor General’s Executive Council.
• Legislation was treated for the first time as separate from executive functions.
• Questions could be asked and the policy of the Executive Council could be discussed, though the Executive
Council could veto a bill of the Legislative Council.
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• Recruitment to Civil Services was based on open annual competition examination (excluding Indians).

Government of India Act 1858 :

• Rule of Company in India ended and that of the Crown began.

• System of Dual government ended. Court of Directors and Board of Control abolished and substituted them with a
post of Secretary of State (a member of the British cabinet). He was assisted by a 15 – member council (called
Indian Council). He was to exercise the powers of the Crown.
• Secretary of State governed India through the Governor General.
• Governor General received the title of Viceroy. He represented Secretary of State and was assisted by an
Executive Council, which consisted of high officials of the Government.
• A unitary and highly centralized administrative structure was created.

The Indian Council Act 1861 :

• A fifth member, who was to be a jurist, was added to the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
• 6 – 12 additional members to be added to the Executive Council for legislation purpose. This implied that
Viceroy’s Executive Council, which was so long composed of officials, would now include certain additional non –
official members. Some of non – official seats were offered to natives of high ranks. Thus, a minute element of
‘popular’ participation was introduced in the legislative process. The additional members, though, had little
powers.
• The Executive Council was now to be called Central Legislative Council.
• Viceroy could issue ordinances in case of emergency.

Indian Council Act 1892 :

• Two improvements in both the Central and the Provincial Legislative Councils were suggested.
• Though the majority of the official members was retained, the non – official members were to be nominated by the
Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Provincial Legislative Councils. [The non - official members of the Provincial
Councils were to be nominated by certain local bodies such as universities, district boards, municipalities]. Indian
leaders like G.K. Gokhale, Ashutosh Mukherjee, Ras Bihari Ghosh and S.N. Banerjee found their way in the
Legislative Council.
• The Councils were to have the powers to discuss the annual statement of revenue and expenditure (i.e. the
budget) and of addressing questions to the Executive). They could also put questions, within certain limits, to the
Government on matters of public interest after giving six days notice.

Indian Council Act 1909 Or Morley – Minto Reforms :

• Morley was the Secretary of State, while Minto was the Indian Viceroy.
• Legislative Councils, both at the Centre and in the Provinces, were expanded.
• With regard to Central Government, an Indian member was taken in the Executive Council of the Governor
General.
• The size of the Provincial Legislative Councils were enlarged by including elected non – official members so that
the official majority was gone. Their functions were also increased. Now, they could move resolutions on Budget
and on some matters of public matters.
• An element of election was also introduced in the Central Legislative Council, but the official majority was
maintained.

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• The most notable and retrograde change introduced was that Muslims were given separate representation. Thus,
communal representation was introduced.

Government of India Act 1919 Or Montague – Chelmsford Reforms :

• Dyarchy system introduced in the provinces. It was considered to be a substantial step towards transfer of power
to the Indians). The Provincial subjects of administration were to be divided into two categories : Transferred and
Reserved.
• The Transferred subjects were to be administered by the Governor with the aid of ministers responsible to the
Legislative Council. The Governor and the Executive Council were to administer the reserved subjects without
any responsibility to the legislature.
• Devolution Rules : Subjects of administration were divided into two categories – Central and Provincial. Subjects
of all India importance (like railways and finance) were brought under the category of Central, while matters
relating to the administration of the provinces were classified as Provincial.
• The Provincial Legislature was to consist of one House only (Legislative Council).
• The number of Indians in the Governor General’s Executive Council was raised to three in a Council of eight. The
Indian members were entrusted with departments such as Law, Education, Labour, Health and Industries.
• The Centre was now to have a Bicameral Legislature for the first time. It actually happened after 1935 Act.
• Communal representation extended to Sikhs, Christians, Anglo – Indians, etc. Secretary of State to be henceforth
paid salary out of the British revenue.

Government of India Act 1935 :

• Provided for the establishment of All – India Federation consisting of the British provinces and the Princely States.
The joining of Princely States was voluntary and as a result the federation did not come into existence.
• Dyarchy was introduced at the Centre (e.g., Department of Foreign Affairs and Defence were reserved for the
Governor General).
• The other Federal subjects were to be administered by the Governor General with the assistance and advice of a
Council of Ministers to be chosen by him (but to include representatives of Princely States and minorities, and to
be responsible to the Central Legislature). Residuary powers were to be with the Governor General only.
• The Federal Legislature (Central Legislature) was to have two chambers (bicameral) – the Council of State and
the Federal Assembly. The Council of State was to be a permanent body with one – third of its membership being
vacated and renewed triennially. The Federal Assembly’s duration was fixed for five years.
• It made a 3 – fold division of powers: Federal (Central) Legisl1ative List Provincial Legislative List and the
Concurrent Legislative List. Residuary legislative powers were subject to the discretion of the Governor General.
Even if a bill was passed by the Federal Legislature, the Governor General could veto it, while even Acts
assented to by the Governor General could be disallowed by the King – in – Council.
• Provincial autonomy replaced Dyarchy in Provinces i.e., the distinction between Reserved and Transferred
subjects was abolished and full responsible government was established, subject to certain safeguards. They
were granted separate legal identity.
• The Governor was the head of the Provincial Executive and was expected to be guided by the advice of the
popular ministries. However, the Act gave arbitrary powers to the Governors to act in their ‘discretion’ in certain
matters.
• The Act also provided for a Federal Court (which was established in 1937), with original and appellate powers) to
interpret the Constitution. A Federal Bank (the Reserve Bank of India) was also established. The Indian Council of
Secretary of State was abolished.
• Principle of separate electorate was extended to include Anglo – Indians, Indian Christians and Europeans.

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• Burma (now Myanmar) and Aden were separated from India and two new provinces Orissa and Sind were
created.

British Educational Policy and Growth of Modern Education

British Educational Policy and Growth of Modern Education

First Phase (1758 – 1812) :

• The British East India Co. showed very little interest in the education of its subjects during this period, the 2 minor
exceptions being :
1. The Calcutta Madrsah set up by Warren Hastings in 1781 for the study and teaching of Muslim law and
subjects.
2. The Sanskrit college at Varanasi by Jonathan Duncan in 1792 for the study of Hindu Law and Philosophy.

• Both were designed to provide a regular supply of qualified Indians to help the administration of law in the courts
of Co.

Second Phase (1813 – 1853) :

• Due to the strong pressure exerted on the Co. by the Christian missionaries and many humanitarians, including
some Indians, to encourage and promote modern education in India, The Charter Act of 1813 required the Co. to
spend rupees 1 lakh annually for encouraging learned Indians and promoting the knowledge of modern sciences
in India.
• Two controversies about the nature of education arose during the part of this phase. They
were :

• Whether to lay emphasis on the promotion of modern western studies or on the expansion of traditional Indian
learning?
• Whether to adopt Indian languages or English as the medium of instruction in modern schools and colleges to
spread western learning?

• These 2 controversies were settled in 1835 when Lord William Bentinck (with the support of R.M. Roy) applied
English medium.
• In 1844, Lord Hardinge decided to give govt, employment to Indians educated in English Schools. The success
was thus assured (of English education). It made good progress in the 3 presidencies of Bengals Bombay and
Madras where the number of schools and colleges increased.
• Three other developments were :
1. A great upsurge in the activities of the missionaries who did pioneer work in quite a few fields of modern
education.
2. Establishment of medical, engineering and law colleges, which marked a beginning in professional
education.
3. Official sanction accorded to education of girls (Lord Dalhousie, in fact, offered the open support of govt.).
• The Govt, policy of opening a few English schools and colleges instead of a large number of elementary schools
led to the neglect of education of masses.

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• To cover up this defect in their policy, the British took recourse to the so – called ‘Downward Filtration Theory’
which meant that education and modern ideas were supposed to filter or radiate downward from the upper
classes.
• This policy continued till the very end of British rule, although it was officially abandoned in 1854.

Third Phase (1854 – 1900) :

• The Educational Dispatch of 1854 was also called Wood’s Dispatch (after Sir Charles Wood, the then President of
Board of Control, who became the first Secretary of State for India).
• It is considered as the Magna Carta of English Education in India (forms a landmark in the history of modern
education in India).
• It rejected the ‘filtration theory’ and laid stress on mass education, female education and improvement of
vernaculars, favoured secularism in Education.
• Creation of Education Departments in the provinces of Bombay, Madras, Bengal, N.W. Provinces and Punjab in
1855; Organizations of Indian Education Service in 1897 to cover the senior most posts.
• Establishment of universities of Calcutta (Jan 1857) Bombay (Jul 1857), Madras (Sep 1857), Punjab (1882) and
Allahabad (1887).
• Lord Ripon appointed Hunter Commission (under Sir WW Hunter) :
1. It recommended that local bodies (distt. boards and municipalities) should be entrusted with the
management of primary schools.
2. Also said that govt, should maintain only a few schools and colleges; others to be left to private hands.

Fourth Phase (1901 – 1920) :

• Lord Curzon appointed a Universities Commission under Thomas Raleigh (Law member of the Viceroy’s
Executive Council) in 1902, and based on his recommendations Indian Universities Act of 1904 was passed.
• It enabled the universities to assume teaching functions (hitherto they were mainly examining bodies), periodic
inspection of institutions, speedier transaction of business, strict conditions for affiliation etc.
• Criticized by nationalists for its tightening govt, control over universities.
• In 1910, a separate department of Education was established at the Centre.
• The Saddler Commission was appointed by Lord Chelmsford to review the working of Calcutta University (2
Indians: Sir Ashutosh Mukherji and Dr. Ziauddin Ahmed.). Main recommendations were:
• Secondary Education by a Board of Secondary education and duration of degree course be 3 yrs.
• 7 new universities were opened (Total 12 now). They were : Banaras, Mysore, Patna, Aligarh, Dhaka, Lucknow
and Osmania.
• Kashi Vidyapeeth and Jamia Milia Islamia were established.
• University course divided into pass course and Honours.

Fifth Phase (1921 – 1947) :

• Came under Indian control officially, as it became a provincial subject administered by provincial legislature. Thus,
expansions started everywhere.
• Increase in number of universities (20 in 1947); improvement in the quality of higher education (on
recommendations of Saddler Commission); establishment of an inter – University Board (1924) and beginning of
inter collegiate and inter – university activities.
• Achievement in women’s education and education of backward classes.

Hartog Committee 1929 :

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• Recommended the policy of consolidation and improvement of Primary education.

• Recommended a selective system of admission to universities and diversified courses leading to industrial and
commercial careers.
• Universities should be improved.
• Wardha scheme of Basic Education (1937), worked out by the Zakir Hussain Committee after Gandhiji published
a series of articles in the HariJan.

Sargeant Plan of Education 1944 :

It envisaged :

• Establishment of elementary schools and high school.

• Universal and compulsory education for all children between the ages of 6 – 11.
• High schools of 2 types :

• Academic.
• Technical and Vocational.

• Intermediate courses were to be abolished.

Venue, Year and Presidents of Indian National Congress (INC)

Presidents of Indian National Congress (INC)

Year Venue President

1885, 1882 Bombay W.C.Bannerji

1886 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji

1893 Lahore Dadabhai Naoroji

1906 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji

1887 Madras Badruddin Tyyabji (first Muslim President)

1888 Allahabad George Yule (first English President)

1889 Bombay Sir William Wedderburn

1890 Calcutta Sir Feroze S.Mehta

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Year Venue President

1895, 1902 Poona, Ahmedabad S.N.Banerjee

Year Venue President

1905 Banaras G.K.Gokhale

1907, Surat, Madras Rasbehari Ghosh

1908

1909 Lahore M.M.Malviya

1916 Lucknow A.C.Majumdar (Re - union of the Congress)

1917 Calcutta Annie Besant (first woman President)

1919 Amritsar Motilal Nehru

1920 Calcutta Lala Lajpat Rai

(sp.session)

1921, Ahmedabad, C.R.Das

1922 Gaya

1923 Delhi (sp.session) Abdul Kalam Azad (Youngest President)

1924 Belgaon M.K.Gandhi

1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu (first Indian woman President)

1928 Calcutta Motilal Nehru (first All India Youth Congress Formed)

1929 Lahore J.L.Nehru (Poorna Swaraj resolution was passed)

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Year Venue President

1931 Karachi Vallabhbhai Patel (Here, resolution on Fundamental rights and the National Economic Program was passed)

1932, Delhi, Calcutta (Session Banned)

1933

1934 Bombay Rajendra Prasad

1936 Lucknow J.L.Nehru

1937 Faizpur J.L.Nehru (first session in a village)

1938 Haripura S.C.Bose (a National Planning Committed set - up under J.L.Nehru).

1939 Tripuri S.C.Bose was re - elected but had to resign due to protest by Gandhiji (as Gandhiji supported Dr.Pattabhi Sitaramayya).
Rajendra Prasad was appointed in his place.

1940 Ramgarh Abdul Kalam Azad

1946 Meerut Acharya J.B.Kriplani

1948 Jaipur Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya

Newspapers and Journals

Newspaper / Journal Founder / Editor

Bengal Gazette (1780) (India's first newspaper) J.K.Hikki

Kesari B.G.Tilak

Maharatta B.G.Tilak

Sudharak G.K.Gokhale

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Newspaper / Journal Founder / Editor

Amrita Bazar Patrika Sisir Kumar Ghosh & Motilal Ghosh

Vande Mataram Aurobindo Ghosh

Native Opinion V.N.Mandalik

Kavivachan Sudha Bhartendu Harishchandra

Rast Goftar (First newspaper in Gujarati) Dadabhai Naoroji

New India (Weekly) Bipin Chandra Pal

Statesman Robert Knight

Newspaper / Journal Founder / Editor

Hindu Vir Raghavacharya and G.S.Aiyar

Sandhya B.B.Upadhyaya

Vichar Lahiri Krishnashastri Chiplunkar

Hindu Patriot Girish Chandra Ghosh (later Harish Chandra Mukherji)

Som Prakash Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

Yugantar Bhupendranath Datta and Barinder Kumar Ghosh

Bombay Chronicle Firoze Shah Mehta

Hindustan M.M.Malviya

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Newspaper / Journal Founder / Editor

Mooknayak B.R.Ambedkar

Comrade Mohammed Ali

Tahzib - ul - Akhlaq Sir Syyed Ahmed Khan

Al - Hilal Abdul Kalam Azad

Al - Balagh Abdul Kalam Azad

Independent Motilal Nehru

Punjabi Lala Lajpat Rai

New India (Daily) Annie Besant

Commonweal Annie Besant

Pratap Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi

Essays in Indian Economics M.G.Ranade

Samvad Kaumudi (Bengali) Ram Mohan Roy

Mirat - ul - Akhbar Ram Mohan Roy (first Persian newspaper)

Indian Mirror Devendra Nath Tagore

Nav Jeevan M.K.Gandhi

Young India M.K.Gandhi

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Newspaper / Journal Founder / Editor

Harijan M.K.Gandhi

Prabudha Bharat Swami Vivekananda

Udbodhana Swami Vivekananda

Indian Socialist Shyamji Krishna Verma

Talwar (in Berlin) Birendra Nath Chattopadhyaya

Free Hindustan (in Vancouver) Tarak Nath Das

Hindustan Times K.M.Pannikar

Kranti Mirajkar, Joglekar, Ghate

Books and Authors

Books Authors

Causes of the Indian Mutiny Sir Syyed Ahmed Khan

Ghulam Giri Jyotiba Phule

To all fighters of freedom, Why Socialism? J.P. Narayan

Pakhtoon Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan

Problems of the East Lord Curzon

My Indian Years Lord Hardinge II

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Books Authors

Economic History of India R.C. Dutt

Pather Panchali Bibhuti Bhushan Banerji

The Spirit of Islam Syyed Ameer Ali

Precepts of Jesus Ram Mohan Roy

A Gift of Monotheists Ram Mohan Roy

Satyarth Prakash Swami Dayanand

Books Authors

Anand Math Bankim C. Chatterji

Devi Chaudharani Bankim C. Chatterji

Sitaram Bankim C. Chatterji

The Indian Struggle S.C. Bose

Poverty & Un - British Rule in India Dadabhai Naoroji

A Nation in the Making S.N. Banerji

Unhappy India Lala Lajpat Rai

The Indian War of Independence V.D. Savarkar

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Books Authors

India Divided Rajendra Prasad

The Discovery of India J.L. Nehru

Neel Darpan Dinbandhu Mitra

Hind Swaraj M.K. Gandhi

What Congress and Gandhi have done to the untouchables B.R. Ambedkar

Pre Congress Nationalist Organizations

Organisation Year Place Founder(s)

Landholder's Society Or Zamindary Association 1838 Calcutta Dwarkanath Tagore

British India Society 1839 London William Adams

Bengal British India Society 1843 Calcutta George Thomson

British India Association (Amalgamation of Landholder's Society and 1851 Calcutta Devendranoth Tagore & Rodhakant Deb
Bengal British India Society)

Madras Native Association 1852 Madras -

Bombay Association 1852 Bombay Dadabhai Naoroji & Dinshaw Wacha

East India Association 1866 London Dadabhai Naoroji

London Indian Society 1865 London Feroz Shah Mehta, Badruddin Tyyabji, W.C. Banerji and
Manmohan Ghosh

Indian National Association 1867 London Mary Carpentar

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Organisation Year Place Founder(s)

Poona Sarvajanik Sabha 1867 Poona M.G. Ranade, G.V Joshi and Chiplankar

Indian Society 1872 London Anand Mohan Bose

India League 1875 Calcutta Sisir Kumar Ghosh

Indian Association 1876 Calcutta Anand Mohan Bose and Surendra Nath Banerji

National Conference 1883 - Anand Mohan Bose and Surendra Nath Banerji

Madras Mahajan Sabha 1884 Madras M. Viraghavacharya, G. Subramaniya Aiyar and P. Anand Charlu

Indian National Union 1884 - A.O.Hume

(National Conference and Indian National Union merged to form the Indian National Congress in 1885).

Post Congress Nationalist Organizations :

Organisation Year Founder

Anti - Non Cooperation Association 1920 - 21 Purshottam Das and Thakurdas

Jorhat Sarvajanik Sabha 1893 Ras Behari Ghosh

Raja Mundari Social Reform Association 1878 Virsalingam

Anti - Circular Society - K.K. Mitra

Lok Sewa Mandal - Lala Lajpat Raj

Independent Congress Party 1926 Madan Mohan Malviya

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Organisation Year Founder

United India Patriotic Association - Sayyid Ahmed Khan

British Association of Awadh - Raja Shiv Prasad Sahu

Liberal Association - Sapru, Jayakar and Chintamani

Indian Liberal Federation 1919 S.N. Banerji

Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) 1927 G.D. Birla and Thakurdas

Hindustan Sewa Dal - N.G. Hardikar

Independence of India League 1928 J.L. Nehru and S.C. Bose

Praja Party - Akram Khan, Fazuil Haq and Abdur Rahman

Hindu Association - Annie Besant

South India Federation of Peasants and Agricultural Labour 1935 N.G. Ranga and Namboodiripad

Unionist Party - Fazl Hussain

Rashtriya Swayamsewak Sangh 1925 Hedgewar

All India Untouchability League 1932 M.K. Gandhi

Hindu Mahasabha 1917 Revived by M.M. Malviya

Jana Sangh - Shyama Prasad Mukherji

National Mohammadan Association 1878 Amir Ali

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Organisation Year Founder

Mohammadan Literacy Society 1863 Abdul Latif

Deccan Educational Society - Tilak & Agarkar

Labour and Trade Union Organization

Organization Year Founder

Bombay Mill and Millhands Association 1880 N.M. Lokhanda

Working Men's Club 1870 Sasipada Banerji

Printer's Union 1905 -

Railway Men's Union 1906 -

Kamgar Hitwardhak Sabha 1909 S.K. Bole

Social Service League 1911 -

Madras Labour Union 1918 G.R. Naidu and Chelvupathi

Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants of India 1897 -

Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association 1920 M.K. Gandhi

Organization Year Founder

All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) 1920 N.M. Joshi and Roy Chaudhary

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Organization Year Founder

Bombay Textile Labour Union - N.M. Joshi

All India Trade Union Federation 1929 N.M. Joshi

National Federation of Trade Union - N.M. Joshi

Hindustan Majdoor Sabha 1938 V.B. Patel, Rajendra Prasad and J.B. Kriplani

Indian Federation of Labour 1944 N.M. Roy

Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC) 1944 V.B. Patel

Leftist Organizations :

Organisation Year Place Founder

Communist Party of India 1920 Tashkent M.N. Roy

Labour Kisan Party 1923 Madras Singaravelu

Labour Swaraj Party (later renamed as Peasants & Worker's Party) - - Qazi Nazrul and Muzaffar Ahmed

Kirti Kisan Party - - Sohari Singh Josh

Workers and Peasants Party 1927 Bombay S.S. Mirajkar, K.N. Joglekar and S.V. Ghate

Bihar Socialist Party 1931 - J.P. Narayan, Phulan Prasad Verma

Congress Socialist Party 1934 - Nateridra Dev, J.P. Narayan and Minoo Masani

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Organisation Year Place Founder

Forward Block 1939 - S.C. Bose

Congress Labour Party 1926 Bombay -

The Bolshevik Party of India 1939 - N.D. Mazumdar

Radical Democratic Party 1940 - M.N. Roy

Independence Labour Party - - B.R. Ambedkar

Important National Leaders

M.K. Gandhi (1869 – 1948) :

• The ‘Father of the Nation’ was born at Porbandar (Kathiarwar) on October 2, 1869. he was the son of
Karamchand and Putlibai Gandhi. He married Kasturba in 1883.

• Proceeded to England in 1888 to study law and returned to India in 1891.

• He failed as a practicing lawyer both at Rajkot and in Bombay.

• In 1893, he proceeded to Natal, South Africa, as the lawyer of a firm of Porbandar Muslims.

• He was appalled at the racial discrimination by the whites in that country. There he founded a political
organization known as ‘National Indian Congress’ and also started a newspaper called ‘Indian Opinion’. He
formed Phoenix Farm near Durban in 1904.

• Returned to India on Jan 9, 1915.

• In 1916, he founded the Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad.

• Champaran Satyagraha (1917) : There the European planters forced the cultivators to cultivate indigo on 3 /
20th of their holdings (called Tinkathia System). But when indigo became unremunarative, the European planters
imposed higher taxes to compensate their losses in the International market.

• Gandhiji, with the help of Rajendra Prasad and others, encouraged the peasants to offer Satyagraha. Gandhiji
was arrested and then made a member of the Enquiry Committee of Jun 1917. The Champaran Agrarian Act
finally abolished the TinKathia system and compensated the peasants for the raised dues imposed on them.

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• Ahmedabad Mill Strike (Mar, 1918) : The dispute was between the mill – owners and the workers over the
‘Plague Bonus’ which the mill – owners wanted to withdraw once the epidemic was over. The workers troubled by
inflation wanted adequate compensation.

• Gandhiji initially persuaded the mill – owners and workers to agree to arbitration by a tribunal but the mill –
owners withdrew after commitment. Here Gandhiji first used the weapon of ‘Hunger Strike’. After this, the mill –
owners were pressurized into accepting the tribunal award of 55 percent increase.

• Kheda Satyagraha (1918) : The peasants were in extreme distress due to the failure of crops and the
government ignored their appeals for die remission of land revenue. The peasants of Kheda were already hard
pressed because of plague, high prices and drought.

• Appeals and petition having failed, Gandhiji advised the withholding of revenue and asked the peasants to fight
unto death. After the Government directed that the revenue should be recovered only from those peasants who
could pay, the movement was withdrawn.

Dadabhai Naoroji History (1825 – 1917) :

• First to demand ‘Swaraj’ from the INC Platform (Calcutta session, 1906).
• Wrote a bock ‘Poverty & Un – British Rule in India’ (in 1901) in which he brought out the connection between the
draining of wealth from India by the British and rampant poverty in India.
• Also known as ‘Indian Gladstone’ and ‘Grand Old Man of India’.
• Selected to ‘House of Commons’ on Liberal Party ticket (First Indian to do so).

Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1886 – 1915) :

• Gandhiji considered him as his political guru.

• He served as the President of the INC at its Banaras session in 1905.
• Laid the foundation of Servants of Indian Society in 1905. (Objective was to train people who would work as
national missionaries).

History of Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1857 – 1920) :

• Collaborated with Agarkar, and set up institutions to give cheap education to people.
• First nationalist leader who tried to establish a close contact with the masses.
• Started Akharas, Lathi clubs and anti – cow killing societies to built his rapport.
• Founded two newspapers – The Maharatta (in English) and Kesari (in Marathi).
• First congress leader who went to prison several times. He joined the INC in 1891.
• Formed the Bal, Pal, Lai group of extremists and caused a split in the Surat Congress in 1907.
• Founded the Home Rule League in 1916, and helped in ushering in the Lucknow Pact and the Reforms Act at the
Amritsar Congress in 1919.
• Valentine Shirol described him as the ‘Father of Indian Unrest’.
• In the Nagpur session of 1920, the INC demanded Swaraj (after Tilak’s slogan only).
• An erudite scholar. His books are ‘The Arctic Home of Vedas’ & ‘Gita Rahasya’.

B. R. Ambedkar History (1891 – 1956) :

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• He was a jurist, a statesman, a social reformer and a leader of the depressed classes.
• He was born in Mahar caste in Mahu (M.P) in 1891. He went for higher studies to England and America. He was
the first graduate of Mahar caste.
• He participated in all the three Round Table Conferences. He signed Poona Pact with Gandhiji in 1932.
• From 1942 to 1946, he was in the Executive Council of the Governor General. He organized the Indian Labour
Party, Scheduled Caste Federation and People’s Education Society.
• He was the chairman of the Drafting Committee of our Constitution.
• He also piloted the Hindu Code through the Indian Legislature.
• From 1947 to 1951, he was a law minister in Nehru’s cabinet.
• Towards the end of his life he embraced Buddhism.

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad History (1890 – 1958) :

• He was bora in Mecca in 1890. For higher education he went to the Al Azhar University at Cairo.
• He joined the INC during the Swadeshi movement.
• He began two weeklies, Al Hilaland Al – Balagh.
• He was made the President of the Khilafat Committee in 1920. He became the President of the Congress session
of 1923 at Delhi.
• He led the Congress delegation during the Shimla Conference in 1945. He also led the delegation during the
Cabinet Mission Plan.
• He was elected the member of the Constituent Assembly in 1946. He was the Education Minister in the Interim
Government and also Independent India’s first Education Minister.
• He was also instrumental in the foundation of U.G.C. and IIT – Kharagpur.
• His book India Wins Freedom evoked much controversy.

History of Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (1890 – 1988) :

• Popularly known as Frontier Gandhi, Badshah Khan or Sarhadi Gandhi.

• Founded an organization Khudai Khidmatgars. It was an organization of non – violent revolutionaries which was
also known as ‘Red Shirts’.
• He also published a newspaper, Pakhtoon.
• Ghaffar Khan vehemently opposed partition.
• He was awarded Bharat Ratna in 1987 by the Government of India.

Subhash Chandra Bose History (1897 – 1945) :

• Popularly known as Netaji, was born on Jan 23, 1897 at Cuttack.

• He passed the Indian Civil Services Examination in 1920, but left it on the Gandhiji’s call of Non – Cooperation
Movement.
• He founded the Independence for India League with Jawahar Lai Nehru.
• In 1938, he was elected the President of the INC ai its Ilaripura session and in 1939, he was elected President of
its Tripuri session. But he had to resign from Tripuri due to differences with Gandhiji.
• He founded the Forward Block in 1939.
• In 1941, he escaped to Berlin and met Hitler. In 1943, he took charge of Indian National Army in Singapore and
set up the Indian Provisional Government there. He gave the war cry of ‘Dilli Chalo’.
• He addressed Mahatma Gandhi as the Father of the Nation; He gave the slogan of ‘Jai Hind’. He wrote his
autobiography ‘The Indian Struggle’.
• He supposedly died in a plane crash on Aug 18, 1945.
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History of Jawaharlal Nehru (1889 – 1964) :

• He was the first Prime Minister of Independent India and is known as the architect of Modern India.
• He was born in Allahabad on Nov 14, 1889.
• In 1928, he became the General Secretary of the INC and in 1929 its President. At the Lahore session, under his
President ship was passed the Independence resolution.
• He was the Prime Minister of India from 1947 to 1964.
• He was the author of the Doctrine of Panchsheel, and believed in the policy of non – alignment.
• He was an author of international fame.
• His works include The Discovery of India, Glimpses of World Histoty, A Bunch of Old Letters, The Unity of India,
Independence and After, India and the World, etc. His autobiography, entitied Autobiography, is one of his most
famous works.

Indian Freedom Movement Struggle

Timeline of Indian Freedom Struggle

Year Indian Freedom Struggle Events

1905 Partition of Bengal announced to come in force fom Oct 16, 1906.

31 Dec, 1906 Muslim League founded at Decca.

30 Apr, 1908 Khudiram Bose executed.

22 Jul, 1908 Tilak sentenced to six years on charges of seditior.

21 May, 1909 Minto-Morley Reforms of Indian Councils Act, 1909.

1911 The coronation or Delhi durbar held at Delhi in which the Partition of Bengal is cancelled.

1912 Delhi becomes the new capital of India

23 Dec, 1912 Bomb thrown on Lord Hardinge on his state entry into Delhi.

1 Nov, 1914 Ghadar Party formed at San Francisco.

16 Jun, 1914 B.G. Tilak released from jail.

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1 Nov, 1914 Ghadar Party formed at San Francisco.

4 Aug, 1914 Outbreak of the 1st World War.

29 Sep, Komagatamaru ship reaches Budge Budge (Calcutta port).

1914

9 Jan, 1915 Gandhiji arrives in India.

19 Feb, 1915 Death of Gopal Krishna Gokhale.

28 Apr, 1916 B.G. Tilak founds Indian Home Rule League with its headquarters at Poona.

25 Sep, Another Home Rule League started by Annie Besant.

1916

Apr 1917 Mahatma Gandhi launches the Champaran campaign in Bihar to focus attention on the grievances of indigo planters.

20 Aug, The Secretary of State for India, Montague, declares that the goal of the British government in India is the introduction of Responsible
1917 Government.

1918 Beginning of trade union movement in India.

Apr, 1918 Rowlatt (Sedition) Committee submits its report. Rowlatt Bill introduced on Feb 16, 1919.

13 Apr, 1919 Jallianwala Bagh tragedy

5 Dec, 1919 The House of Commons passes the Montague Chelmsford Reforms or the Government of India Act, 1919. The new reforms under this
Act came into operation in 1921.

1920 First meeting of the All India Trade Union Congress, (under Narain Malhar Joshi).

Dec, 1920 The Indian National Congress (INC) adopts the Non-Co-operation Resolution

1920 - 22 Non-Co-operation Movement, suspended on Feb 12, 1922 after the violent incidents at Chauri Chaura on Feb 5, 1922.

Aug, 1922 Moplah rebellion on the Malabar coast.

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1 Nov, 1914 Ghadar Party formed at San Francisco.

1 Jan, 1923 Swarajist Party formed by Motilal Nehru and others.

1924 The Communist Party of India starts its activities at Kanpur.

Aug, 1925 Kakori Train Conspiracy case.

8 Nov, 1927 The British Prime Minister announces the appointment of the Simon Commission to suggest future constitutional reforms in India. Simon
Commission arrives in Bombay on Feb 3, 1928 and all-India 3 hartal. Lala Lajpat Rai assaulted by police at Lahore.

1928 Nehru Report recommends principles for the new Constitution of India. All parties conference considers the Nehru Report, Aug 28-31,
1928.

17 Nov, Death of Lala Lajpat Rai.

1928

1929 Sarda Act passed prohibiting marriage of girls below 14 and boys below 18 years of age with effect from 1930.

9 Mar, 1929 All Parties Muslim Conference formulates the 'Fourteen Points' under the leadership of Jinnah.

8 Apr, 1929 Bhagot Singh and Batukeshwai Dutt throw bomb in the Central Legislative Assen.

31 Oct, 1929 Lord Irwin's announcement that the goal of British policy in India was the grant of the Dominion status.

31 Dec, The Lahore session of the INC adopts the goal of complete independence poorna swarajya for India; Jawaharlal Nehru hoists the
1929 tricolour of Indian Independence on the banks of the Ravi at Lahore.

26 Jan, 1930 First Independence Day observed.

14 Feb, 1930 The Working Committee of the INC meets at Sabarmati and passes the Civil Disobedience resolution.

12 Mar, 1930 Mahatma Gandhi launches the Civil Disobedience movement with his epic Dandi Mar (Mar 12 to Apr 6). First phase of the Civil
Disobedience movement: Mar 12, 1930 to Mar 5, 1931.

30 Nov, First Round Table Conference begins in London to consider the report of the Simon Commission.
1930

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1 Nov, 1914 Ghadar Party formed at San Francisco.

5 Mar, 1931 Gandhi lrwin pact signed. Civil Disobedience movement suspended.

23 Mar, 1931 Bhagat Singh, Sukh Dev and Rajguru executed.

7 Sep, 1931 Second Round Table Conference.

28 Dec, Gandhiji returns from London after the deadlock in llnd RTC. Launches Civil Disobedience Movement. The INC declared illegal.
1931

4 Jan, 1932 Gandhiji arrested and imprisoned without trial.

16 Aug, British Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald announces the infamous "Communal Award".
1932

20 Sep, Gandhiji in jail, begins his epic "fast unto death" against the Communal Award and ends the fast on Sep 26 after the Poona Pact.
1932

17 Nov, The Third Round Table Conference begins in London (Nov 17 to Dec 24)
1932

9 May, 1933 Gandhiji released from prison as he begins fast for self-purification. INC suspends Civil Disobedience movement but authorizes
Satyagraha by individuals.

1934 Gandhiji withdraws from active politics and devotes himself to constructive programmes (1934-39).

4 Aug, 1935 The Government of India Act 1935 passed.

1937 Elections held in India under the Act of 1935 (Feb 1937). The INC contests election and forms ministries in several provinces (Jul 1937).

19 - 20 Feb, Haripura session of INC. Subhash Chandra Boss elected Congress president.
1938

10 - 12 Mar, Tripuri session of the INC.

1939

Apr, 1939 Subhash Chandra Bose resigns as the president of the INC.

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1 Nov, 1914 Ghadar Party formed at San Francisco.

3 Sep, 1939 Second World War (Sep 1). Great Britain declares war on Germany; the Viceroy declares that India too is at war.

27 Oct - 5 The Congress ministries in the provinces resign in protest against the war policy of the British government.
Nov, 1939

22 Dec, The Muslim League observes the resignation of the Congress ministries as ‘Deliverance Day’
1939

Mar, 1940 Lahore session of ihe Muslim League passes the Pakistan Resolution.

10 Aug, Viceroy Linlithgow announces-August Offer.

1940

18 - 22 Aug, Congress Working Committee rejects the 'August Offer'.

1940

17 Oct, 1940 Congress launches Individual Satyagraha movement.

17 Jan, 1941 Subhash Chandra Bose escapes from India; arrives in Berlin (Mar 28).

11 Mar, 1942 Churchill announces the Cripps Mission.

7 - 8 Aug, The INC meets in Bombay; adopts 'Quit India' resolution

1942

9 Aug, 1942 Gandhiji and other Congress leaders arrested.

11 Aug, Quit India movement begins; the Great Aug Uprising.

1942

1 Sep, 1942 Subhash Chandra Bose establish the Indian National Army 'Azad Hind Fauj

21 Oct, 1943 Subhash Chandra Bose proclaims the formation of the Provisonal Government of Free India.

Dec, 1943 Karachi session of the Muslim League adopts the slogan Divide arc

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1 Nov, 1914 Ghadar Party formed at San Francisco.

25 Jan, 1944 Wavell calls Simla Conference in a bid to form the Executive Council at Indian political leaders.

18 Feb, 1946 Mutiny of the Indian naval ratings in Bombay.

15 Mar, 1946 British Prime Minister Attlee announces Cabinet Mission ro propose new solution to the Indian deadlock; Cabinet Mission arrives in New
Delhi (Mar 14); issues proposal (May 16).

6 Jul, 1946 Jawaharlal Nehru takes over as Congress president.

6 Aug, 1946 Wavell invites Nehru to form an interim government; Interim Government takes office (Sep 2).

9 Dec, 1946 First session of the Constituent Assembly of India starts. Muslim League boycotts it.

20 Feb, 1947 British Prime Minister Attlee declares that the British government would leave India not later than Jun 1948.

24 Mar, 1947 Lord Mountbatten, the last British Viceroy and Governor General of India, sworn in (Mar 24, 1947 to Jun 21, 1948)

3 Jun, 1947 Mountbatten Plan for the partion of India and the announcement (Jun 4 that transfer to power will take place on Aug 15.

15 Aug, India wins freedom

1947

Where They Rest:

Famous Personality of India Place

Mahatma Gandhi Raj Ghat

J.L.Nehru Shantivan

B.R. Ambedkar Chaithrabhoomi

Indira Gandhi Shaktisthal

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Famous Personality of India Place

Charan Singh Kisan Ghat

Zail Singh Ektasthal

Rajiv Gandhi Virbhoomi

Morarji Desai Abhay Ghat

Gulzari Lai Nanda Narayan Ghat

Jagjivan Ram Samatasthal

L.B. Shastri Vijay Ghat

Important Dates of Indian History

Timeline of Historical Events in India :

Year Historical Events

B.C.

2500-1800 Indus valley civilization

599 Birth of Mahavir; Nirvana in 523 B.C

563 Birth of Gautam Buddha; Nirvana in 483 B.C

327-26 Alexander's invasion of India and the opening of land route between India and Europe.

269-232 Ashoka's reign

261 Battle of Kalinga

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Year Historical Events

57 Beginning of Vikrama era

30 Satvahana dynasty in Deccon. Pandyan Empire in for south

A.D.

78 Beginning of Saka era

320 Beginning of Gupta era

360 Samudragupta conquers the whole of N.India and much of the Deccan.

380- Rule of Chandragupta Vikramaditya, age of Kalidasa, renewal of Hinduism

413

606- Rule of Harshavardhana

647

645 Hieun Tsang's visit in India

622 Beginning of Hijra era

712 Arab invasion of Sind by Mohd. bin Qasim

1001- Repeated attacks of Mehmud Ghazni

27

1025 Sacking of Somnath temple by Mehmud

1191 First battle of Tarain in which Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Mohammed Ghori.

1192 Second battle of Tarain in which Mohd. Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan.

1206 Qutubuddin Aibak founded the llbari/Slave dynasty.

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78 Beginning of Saka era

1290 Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji established Khilji dynasty.

1290 Marco Polo visited India.

1320 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq founded the Tughlaq dynasty.

1333 Ibn Batuta arrived in India.

1336 Harihara and Bukka founded the Vijaynagar empire

1347 Bahmani kingdom founded.

1398 Timur invades India.

1451 Lodi dynasty comes in power in Delhi Sultanate.

1469 Birth of Guru Nanak Dev

1498 Vasco da Gama lands at Calicut.

1510 Portuguese capture Goa-Albuquerque Governor.

1526 First Battle of Panipat in which Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodhi and established the Mughal dynasty.

1556 Second battle of Panipat in which Akbar defeated Hemu.

1565 Battle of Talikota in which Vijaynagar Empire is defeated.

1571 Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri by Akbar.

1576 Battle of Haldighati in which Akbar defeated Maharana Pratap.

1582 Akbar started Din-i-llahi.

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78 Beginning of Saka era

1600 English East India Company established.

1604 Compilation of Adi Granth.

1605 Death of Akbar.

1611 The English built a factory at Masulipatnam.

1627 Birth of Shivaji

1631 Death of Shah Jahan's wife Mumtaz Mahal. The building of Taj Mahal.

1658 Aurangzeb became Emperor of Delhi.

1666 Birth of Guru Gobind Singh.

1699 Guru Gobind Singh creates 'Khalsa'.

1707 Death of Aurangzeb, fall of Mughal empire begins.

1739 Nadir Shah invaded India; the peacock throne and the Kohinoor Diamond taken away from India.

1757 Battle of Plassey in which the English defeated Siraj-ud- daula, Nawab of Bengal.

1760 Battle of Wandiwash, end of French power in India.

1761 Third Battle of Panipat in which Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas.

1764 Battle of Buxar in which the English defeated the triple alliance of Nawab Mir Qasim of Bengal, Nawab Shuja-ud-daula of Awadh and Mughal
emperor Shah Alam.

1793 Permanent settlement in Bengal.

1799 Fourth Anglo Mysore War, death of Tipu Sultan, Ranjit Singh occupied Lahore and made it his capital.

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78 Beginning of Saka era

1817- Marathas finally crushed.

19

1828 Lord William Bentick becomes Governor General; Era of social reforms; Prohibition of Sati (1829), Suppression of thugs (1830)

1835 Introduction of English as medium of instruction.

1853 First Indian railway from Bombay to Thane.

1857- First war of Indian Independence.

58

1858 British crown takes over the Indian Government; End of East India Company's rule.

1861 Birth of Rabindra Nath Tagore.

1869 Birth of M.K.Gandhi.

1885 Formation of Indian National Congress.

1905 Partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon.

1906 Formation of All India Muslim League.

1909 Minto-Morley Reforms.

1911 Delhi durbar held, partition of Bengal cancelled, capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.

1914 World War I started.

1918 End of World War I.

1919 Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh massacre, Montague-Chelmsford reforms.

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78 Beginning of Saka era

1920 Non-cooperation Movement launched.

1921 Moplah rebellion in Malabar; visit of Prince of Wales.

1922 Chauri-Chaura incidence

1923 Swaraj party formed.

1927 Simon Commission appointed.

1928 Visit of Simon Commission to India, death of Lala Lajpat Rai.

1929 Congress demanded 'Poorna Swaraj' in Lahore session.

1930 January 26 celebrated as Independence Day throughout India, Dandi Salt Satyagraha, First Round Table conference.

1931 Gandhi-lrvin Pact, Second Round Table Conference.

1932 Suppression of Congress Movement, Third Round Table Conference, Communal Award, Poona Pact.

1935 Government of India Act.

1937 Inauguration of Provincial Autonomy. Congress ministries formed in 8 out of 11 provinces.

1939 Resignation of Congress ministries, beginning of World War II.

1942 Cripps Mission Plan, Quit India Movement, Formation of Indian National Army by S.C. Bose.

1945 Simla conference held and the failure of Wavell Plan, INA trials at Red Fort, Delhi.

1946 Cabinet Mission Plan, Formation of Interim Government, Direct Action Resolution by Muslim League.

1947 Mountbatten Plan of June 3 in which partition of India resolution is proposed, India divided, Pakistan created, both achieve independence,
Jawarhar Lai Nehru becomes the I Prime Minister of India.

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Important Battles in Indian History

Famous Battles in Indian History :

B.C.

326 Alexander defeated Porus in the Battle of Hydaspas

261 Ashoka defeated Kalinga in the Kalinga War

A.D.

712 Invasion of Sind by Mohammed-bin-Qasim

1191 First Battle of Tarain in which Prithviraj Chauhon defeated Mohammed Ghori

1192 Second Battle of Tarain in which Mohd. Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan.

1194 Battle of Chhandwar in which Mohd. Ghori defeated Jaichandra of Kannauj.

1526 First Battle of Panipat in which Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodhi.

1527 Battle of Khanua in which Babar defeated Rana Sanga.

1529 Battle of Ghaghara in which Babar defeated the Afghans.

1539 Battle of Chausa in which Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun.

1540 Battle of Kannauj (or Bilgram) in which Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun and forced him to flee.

1556 Second Battle of Panipat in which Bairam Khan (representing Akbar) defeated Hemu.

1565 Battle of Talikota (or Banihatti) in which an alliance of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golkonda and Bidar defeated the Vijaynagar empire (represented
by Sadasiva).

1576 Battle of Haldighati in which Akbar defeated Maharana Pratap.

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1556 Second Battle of Panipat in which Bairam Khan (representing Akbar) defeated Hemu.

1615 Mewar submitted to the Mughals. A treaty of peace was signed between Jahangiri and Rana Amar Singh of Mewar.

1649 Kandahar was lost to Persia forever by the Mughals.

1658 Battle of Dharmatt and Samugarh in which Aurangzeb defeated Dara Shikoh.

1665 Raja Jai Singh defeated Shivaji and the Treaty of Purandar signed.

1708 Battle of Khed in which Shahu defeated Tara Bai.

1737 Battle of Bhopal in which Baji Rao defeated Mohammed Shah.

1739 Battle of Karnal in which Nadir Shah defeated Mohammed Shah.

1757 Battle of Plassey in which the English forces (under Robert Cive) defeated Siraj-ud-daula, the Nawab of Bengal.

1760 Battle of Wandiwash in which the English forces defeated the French forces.

1761 Third Battle of Panipat in which Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas.

1764 Battle of Buxar in which the English under Munro defeated the alliance of Nawab Mir Qasim of Bengal, Nawab Shuja-ud-daula of Awadh and
Mughal emperor Shah Alam.

1767- First Anglo Mysore War in which Hyder Ali defeated the English forces.
69

1766- First Anglo Maratha War in which the British were defeated.
69

1770 Battle of Udgir in which the Marathas defeated the Nizam.

1780- Second Anglo Mysore War. Hyder Ali died during the battle (1782) and the field was taken by his son Tipu Sultan. The war concluded with the
84 Treaty of Mangalore (1784).

1789- Third Anglo Mysore War in which Tipu Sultan was defeated. The Treaty of Serirangapatnam followed.
92

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1556 Second Battle of Panipat in which Bairam Khan (representing Akbar) defeated Hemu.

1799 Fourth Anglo Mysore War in which Tipu was defeated and killed.

1803- Second Anglo Maratha War in which the British defeated the Marathas.
06

1817- Third Anglo Maratha War in which the British defeated the Marathas badly.
19

1824- First Anglo Burmese War in which the British defeated the Burmese.
26

1839- First Anglo Afghan War in which the British defeated the Afghan ruler Dost Mohammad.
42

1845- First Anglo Sikh War in which the Sikhs were defeated.
46

1848- Second Anglo Sikh War in which the Sikhs were defeated and Punjab was annexed by the British.
49

1852 Second Anglo Burmese War in which the British won.

1865 Third Angio Burmese War in which the British won & annexed Burma.

1868- Second Anglo Afghan War in which the English suffered losses.
80

1919- Third Anglo Afghan War in which the English, though victorious, did not benefit from the war.
21

Important Battles in Indian History

B.C.

326 Alexander defeated Porus in the Battle of Hydaspas

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261 Ashoka defeated Kalinga in the Kalinga War

A.D.

712 Invasion of Sind by Mohammed-bin-Qasim

1191 First Battle of Tarain in which Prithviraj Chauhon defeated Mohammed Ghori

1192 Second Battle of Tarain in which Mohd. Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan.

1194 Battle of Chhandwar in which Mohd. Ghori defeated Jaichandra of Kannauj.

1526 First Battle of Panipat in which Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodhi.

1527 Battle of Khanua in which Babar defeated Rana Sanga.

1529 Battle of Ghaghara in which Babar defeated the Afghans.

1539 Battle of Chausa in which Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun.

1540 Battle of Kannauj (or Bilgram) in which Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun and forced him to flee.

1556 Second Battle of Panipat in which Bairam Khan (representing Akbar) defeated Hemu.

1565 Battle of Talikota (or Banihatti) in which an alliance of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golkonda and Bidar defeated the Vijaynagar empire (represented
by Sadasiva).

1576 Battle of Haldighati in which Akbar defeated Maharana Pratap.

1615 Mewar submitted to the Mughals. A treaty of peace was signed between Jahangiri and Rana Amar Singh of Mewar.

1649 Kandahar was lost to Persia forever by the Mughals.

1658 Battle of Dharmatt and Samugarh in which Aurangzeb defeated Dara Shikoh.

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1556 Second Battle of Panipat in which Bairam Khan (representing Akbar) defeated Hemu.

1665 Raja Jai Singh defeated Shivaji and the Treaty of Purandar signed.

1708 Battle of Khed in which Shahu defeated Tara Bai.

1737 Battle of Bhopal in which Baji Rao defeated Mohammed Shah.

1739 Battle of Karnal in which Nadir Shah defeated Mohammed Shah.

1757 Battle of Plassey in which the English forces (under Robert Cive) defeated Siraj-ud-daula, the Nawab of Bengal.

1760 Battle of Wandiwash in which the English forces defeated the French forces.

1761 Third Battle of Panipat in which Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas.

1764 Battle of Buxar in which the English under Munro defeated the alliance of Nawab Mir Qasim of Bengal, Nawab Shuja-ud-daula of Awadh and
Mughal emperor Shah Alam.

1767- First Anglo Mysore War in which Hyder Ali defeated the English forces.
69

1766- First Anglo Maratha War in which the British were defeated.
69

1770 Battle of Udgir in which the Marathas defeated the Nizam.

1780- Second Anglo Mysore War. Hyder Ali died during the battle (1782) and the field was taken by his son Tipu Sultan. The war concluded with the
84 Treaty of Mangalore (1784).

1789- Third Anglo Mysore War in which Tipu Sultan was defeated. The Treaty of Serirangapatnam followed.
92

1799 Fourth Anglo Mysore War in which Tipu was defeated and killed.

1803- Second Anglo Maratha War in which the British defeated the Marathas.
06

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1556 Second Battle of Panipat in which Bairam Khan (representing Akbar) defeated Hemu.

1817- Third Anglo Maratha War in which the British defeated the Marathas badly.
19

1824- First Anglo Burmese War in which the British defeated the Burmese.
26

1839- First Anglo Afghan War in which the British defeated the Afghan ruler Dost Mohammad.
42

1845- First Anglo Sikh War in which the Sikhs were defeated.
46

1848- Second Anglo Sikh War in which the Sikhs were defeated and Punjab was annexed by the British.
49

1852 Second Anglo Burmese War in which the British won.

1865 Third Angio Burmese War in which the British won & annexed Burma.

1868- Second Anglo Afghan War in which the English suffered losses.
80

1919- Third Anglo Afghan War in which the English, though victorious, did not benefit from the war.
21

Important Wars in 20th Century

20th Century Wars :

Russo – Japanese War Summary (1904 – 05) :

The conflict arising from the rivalry of Russia and Japan for control of Manchuria and Korea. Russia was forced to
surrender Korea, the Liaotung Peninsula and Sakhalin to Japan.

History of First World War (1914 – 18) :

• International conflict began between Austria and Serbia. The chief contestants were the Central Powers
(Germany and Austria) and the Triple Entente (Britain, France and Russia). Many other countries joined as the
war began.

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• The naval blockade of Germany caused severe food shortages and helped to end the war. An armistice was
agreed in November 1918 and peace treaties were signed at Versailles (1919).

Sino – Japanese War Summary (1931 – 1933) :

Two wars between China and Japan, marking the beginning and the end of Japanese imperial expansion on the Asian
mainland. The first war in 1894-95 arose from rivalry for control of Korea. The second war in 1937-45 developed from
Japan’s seizure of Manchuria and the conflict merged into World War II, ending with the final defeat of Japan in 1945.

History of Second World War (1939 – 45) :

• International conflict arising from disputes provoked by the expansionist policies of Germany in Europe and Japan
in the Far East. The axis powers – Germany, Italy and (after September 1940) Japan – controlled most of Europe
and much of northern Africa, China and Asia.
• The United States stayed out of the war until December 7, 1941, when Japan attached Pearl Harbor, and the
United States joined the Allies in fighting not only Japan but the other Axis powers as well. The war ended when
the U. S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan.

Arab – Israeli War Timeline (1948 – 49, 1956, 1967, 1973 – 74) :

• Conflict between Israel and the Arab states. After the creation of the state of Israel (May 14, 1948), troops from
Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria and Trans Jordan (Modern Jordan) invaded the new nation.
• Simmering Arab – Israeli hostilities exploded into war in 1967, when Israel, assailed by Palestinian guerillas,
launched a massive primitive strike against Egypt, the Arab world’s leading state. In the six day war, Israel
captured the Sinai Peninsula, the old city of Jerusalem, the West Bank, and the Golan Heights.

History of Korean War (1950 – 53) :

Conflict between North Korea, supported by China and South Korea supported by UN forces dominated by the USA.
Negotiations continued for two years before a truce was agreed in Jul 1953.

History of Vietnam War (1954 – 75) :

Conflict between US backed South Vietnam and the Viet Cong, who had the support of communist North Vietnam. It
followed to the partition of Vietnam. In 1975 South Vietnam was overrun by North Vietnamese forces, and the country was
united under Communist rule.

Falkland War Timeline (Apr – Jun, 1982) :

Military conflict between Great Britain and Argentina on the question of sovereignty over the Falkland Islands. Britain won
the war.

Iran-Iraq War Summary (1980 – 90) :

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War began shortly after the Iranian Revolution of 1979. Iraq wanted control over oil – rich Iranian border territory. Iraq
expressed readiness to negotiate peace, after it lost ground. In 1988, Iran agreed to a ceasefire. Iraq invaded Kuwait in
1990.

History of Gulf War (16 Jan, 1991 – 28 Feb, 1991) :

Military action by a US led coalition to expel Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Kuwait was liberated (Feb 26, 1991), and a
ceasefire was declared on Feb 28.

History of Bosnian War (1992 – 1998) :

Ethnically rooted war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, a republic of Yugoslavia with a multiethnic population – Muslims, Serbs
and Croats. The Dayton peace agreement was signed in 1995. Bosnia Herzegovina became a single state.

US – Afghan War (2001) :

Military action by US against the Taliban government of Afghanistan in protest against the Sept 11 attack on WTC
Towers. US claimed that Afghanistan was the breeding ground of terrorists and had given refuge to Osama bin Laden.

Gulf War II Timeline (2003) :

Military action by a US led coalition to oust Saddam Hussain from power in Iraq. It was conducted on the pretext of Iraq
possessing Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD).

GEOGRAPHY
Indian Geography
Geographical Location of India

Indian Geographical Location

• Lying between latitude 4′ N to 37°6′ N and from longitude 68°7′ E to 97°25′ E, the country is divided into almost
equal parts by the Tropic of Cancer (passes from Jabalpur in MP).
• The southernmost point in Indian Territory, (in Great Nicobar Island) is the Indira Point (6°45′), while
Kanyakumari, also known as Cape Comorin, is the southernmost point of Indian mainland. The country thus lies
wholly in the northern and eastern hemispheres.
• The 82°30′ E longitude is taken as the Standard Time Meridian of India, as it passes through the middle of India
(from Naini, near Allahabad).

Area Geography & Boundaries Geography

1. India stretches 3,214 km from North to South & 2,933 km from East to West.

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2. Geography Area of India : 32,87,263 sq. km. Accounts for 2.4% of the total world area and
roughly 16% of the world population.
3. Mainland India has a coastline of 6,100 km. Including the Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the
coastline measures about 7516.6 km.
4. In India, of the total land mass:
• Plains Geography: 43.3%
• Plateaus: 27.7%
• Hills: 18.6%
• Mountains Geography: 10.7%
5. In the South, on the eastern side, the Gulf of Mannar & the Palk Strait separate India from Sri Lanka.
6. Total land neighbours: 7 (Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar).
7. India’s Islands include the Andaman & Nicobar Islands in Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep, Minicoy & Amindive
Islands in the Arabian Sea.

Physiography of India

Indian Physiography

Physiographically, India can be divided into 3 units:

1. Mountains in the North

2. Plains in the Northern India & the Coast
3. Plateau region of the South

To these can be added the fourth, namely, the coasts and islands

Mountains in North India

The Himalayas in India

Means ‘Abode of Snow’. They are one of the youngest fold mountain ranges in the world and comprise mainly
sedimentary rocks.

They stretch from the Indus River in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east. Total length is about 5000 km. The
width of the Himalayas varies from 500 km in Kashmir to 200 km in Arunachal Pradesh. Their average height is 2000m.

The Eastern Himalayas-made up of Patkai Hills, Naga Hills, Mizo Hills and the Garo, Khasi and Jaintia Hills-are also
known as Purvanchal.

The Pamir, popularly known as the Roof of the World, is the connecting link between the Himalayas and the high ranges
of Central Asia.

Can be divided into 3 parallel or longitudinal zones, each with separate features.

The Great Himalayas or The Himadri

• Average elevation extends upto 6000m & some of the world’s highest peaks are here :

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Mt Everest (or Sagarmatha or Chomo Langma) 8850 m (in Nepal)

Mt Kanchenjunqa 8598 m (in India)

Mt Makalu 8481 m (in Nepal)

Mt Dhaulaqiri 81 72 m (in Nepal)

Mt Cho Oyu 8153m (in Nepal)

Mt Nanga Parbat 8126m (in India)

Mt Annapurna 8078 m (in Nepal)

Mt Nando Devi 7817 m (in India)

• There are few passes and almost all of them have a height above 4,500 m. they include Shipki La and Bara
Lapcha La in Himachal Pradesh, Burzil and Zozi La in Kashmir, Niti, Lipulekh and Thag La in Uttarankhand, and
Jelep La and Nathu La in Sikkim.

Lesser Himalayas or The Himachal

• Average height of mountains is 3700 – 4500 m.

• Mountains and valleys are disposed in all direction (mountains rising to 5000 m and the valleys touching 1000 m).

• Its important ranges are : Dhauladhar, Pir Panjal, Nag Tibba, Mussoorie.

• Important hill resorts are : Shimla, Chhail, Ranikhet, Chakrata, Mussoorie, Nainital, Almora, Darjeeling.

Outer Himalayas or The Shiwaliks

• Lowest range (average elevation is 900-1200 m).

• Forms the foothills and lies between the Lesser Himalayas and the plains. It is the newest range.

Trans – Himalayan Zone

• This range lies to the north of the Great Himalayas. It has some important ranges like Karakoram, Laddakh,
Zanskar, etc. the highest peak in this region is K2 or Godwin Austin (8611m, in Pak occupied Kashmir). Other
high peaks are Hidden Peak (8068 m), Broad Peak (8047 m) and Gasherbrum II (8035 m).

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• The longest glacier is Siachin in the Nubra valley, which is more than 72 km long (biggest glacier in the world).
Biafo, Baltaro, Batura, Hispar are the other important glaciers in this region.

• This area is the largest snow-field outside the Polar Regions.

Peninsular Mountains

• While the Himalayas are Fold Mountains, they are not.

• The Aravalli Mountains (Rajasthan) : World’s oldest. Guru Shikhar is the highest peak on which Mount Abu
(1,722 m) is situated.

• The Vindhya Mountains

• The Satpura Mountains (highest point at Dhupgarh [1,350 m] near Pachmarhi)

• The Western Ghats or Sahyadris : Average height 1200mtrs, 1600km long. Its southern part is separated from
the main Sahyadri range by Palghat Gap (link between Tamil Nadu & Kerala). Other passes are Thalghat
(connects Nasik to Mumbai) and Bhorghat (connects Pune to Mumbai).

• The Eastern Ghats (Highest peak : Mahendra Giri (1501 m)).

• The Nilgiris or The Blue Mountains : Meeting place of the Western and the Eastern Ghats. Two highest peaks
are Dodda Betta and Makurti.

• The highest peak of Peninsular India is Anaimudi (2695 m) in Anaimalai Hills.

• Cardamom hills or Ealaimalai is the southernmost mountain range of India.

Facts about position of states

• UP borders the maximum number of States-8 (Uttarakhand, HP, Haryana, Rajasthan, MP,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bihar). After UP is Assam, which touches the border of 7 States.

• Tropic of Cancer passes through 8 States : Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, WB, Tripuro,
Mizoram.

• Indian Standard Meridian passes through 5 States : UP, MP, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, AP.

• 9 States form the coast of India. They are : Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu. Andhra
Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal.

• 2 Union Territories, viz. Daman & Diu and Pondicherry are also on the coast.

• The Union Territories of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep are made up of islands only.

The Plains of India

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• To the south of the Himalayas and to the north of the Peninsula lies the great plains of North India. They are
formed by the depositional works of three major river systems, Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra. The vast plains of
north India are alluvial in nature and the westernmost portion is occupied by the Thar Desert.

• The thickness of the alluvium is maximum in the Ganga plains and minimum in the Western Plains.

• In the Kerala plains are the backwaters or ‘Kayak’, which are the shallow lagoons or inlets of the sea, lying
parallel to the coastline. The largest among these is the Vembanad Lake.

• The plains consist of four divisions:

• Bhabar : Along the foothills of Shiwaliks. Highly porous

• Tarai : Re-emergence of streams. Zone of excessive dampness
• Bhangar : Older alluvium of the plains. Studded with calcareous formations called ‘kankar’
• Khadar : New alluvium and forms the flood plains along the river banks.

Peninsular Plateau of India

• Spreads south of the Indo-Gangetic plains flanked by sea on three sides. This plateau is shaped like a triangle
with its base in the north. The Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats constitute its eastern and western
boundaries, respectively.

• Narmada, which flows through a rift valley, divides the region into two parts: The Malwa Plateau in the north & the
Deccan Plateau in the south.

• Most of the rocks are of the igneous type.

• Vindhya Plateau is situated south of Malwa plateau.

• Chhota Nagpur Plateau lies to the west of Bengal basin, the largest and most typical part of which is the Ranchi
plateau.

• The Deccan Plateau is the largest plateau in India. It is made up of lava flows in the Cretaceous-Eocene era
through the fissure eruptions.

Islands of India

• Total coastline of India : 7516 km. Longest coastline: Gujarat (Second longest is of Andhra Pradesh).

• Indian territorial limits include 248 islands:

The Andaman and Nicobar Group

• Andamans is a group of 204 islands of which the largest is Middle Andaman.

• The Andamans are believed to be extensions of mountains system in the N.E. part of the country.

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• Saddle Peak (737 m) in N.Andaman is the highest peak.

• The Nicobars is a group of 19 islands of which the largest is Great Nicobar. Most of them are volcanic in nature.

• Great Nicobar is the southernmost island and is only 147 km away from Sumatra island of Indonesia.

• Volcanic Islands: Barren and Narcondam Islands. Barren is in the process of eruption these days after lying
dormant for 200 years.

The Arabian Sea Group

• All the islands in the Arabian Sea (Total 25) are coral islands and are surrounded by Fringing Reefs (North :
Lakshadweep, South: Minicoy).

Note :

• Ten Degree Channel separates Andamans from Nicobars (Little Andaman from Car Nicobar)

• Duncan Passage lies between South Andaman and Little Andaman.

• Nine Degree Channel separates Kavaratti from Minicoy Island.

• Eight Degree Channel separates Minicoy Island (India) from Maldives.

Rivers of India

In India, the rivers can be divided into two main groups:

1. Himalayan Rivers
2. Peninsular Rivers

Himalayan Rivers of India

In this three major river systems are there:

The Indus System

• It has a total length of 2880 km (709 km in India). Rises in Tibet (China) near Mansarovar Lake.
• In Jammu and Kashmir, its Himalayan tributaries are: Zanskar, Dras, Gartang, Shyok, Shigar, Nubra, Gilgit, etc.
• Its most important tributaries, which join Indus at various places, are: Jhelum (725 km), Chenab (1800 km), Ravi
(720 km), Beas (470 km) & Sutlej (1050 km).
• Sources: Jhelum from Verinag (SE Kashmir), Chenab from Bara Lacha Pass (Lahaul-Spiti, H.R), Ravi from Kullu
Hills near Rohtang Pass in H. R, Beas from a place near Rohtang Pass in H.E and Satluj from Mansarovar –
Rakas lakes in W. Tibet.

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• In Nari Khorsan province of Tibet, Satluj has created an extraordinary canyon, comparable to the Grand Canyon
of Colorado (US).
• According to the Indus Water Treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960, India can utilize only 20% of the
total discharge of Indus, Jhelum and Chenab.

The Ganga System

• It is 2525 km long of which 1450 km is in Uttarakhand and UP, 445 km in Bihar and 520 km in West Bengal.
• The Ganga, the head stream is constituted of two main rivers – Bhagirthi and Alaknanda, which combine at
Devprayag to form Ganga.
• Before Alaknanda meets Bhagirthi at Devprayag, Mandakini meets Alaknanda at Rudraprayag.
• Sources: Bhagirthi from Gaumukh, Alaknanda from Badrinath, Mandakini from Kedarnath (all from Uttarakhand).
• Yamuna (1375 km) is its most important tributary (on right bank). It rises at the Yamunotri glacier in Uttarakhand.
It runs parallel to Ganga for 800km and joins it at Allahabad. Important tributaries of Yamuna are Chambal (1050
km), Sind, Betwa (480 km) and Ken (all from south).
• Apart from Yamuna, other tributaries of Ganga are Ghaghra (1080 km), Son (780 km), Gandak (425 km), Kosi
(730 km), Gomti (805 km), Damodar (541 km). Kosi is infamous as ‘Sorrow of Bihar’, while Damodar gets the
name ‘Sorrow of Bengal’ as these cause floods in these regions.
• Hooghli is a distributory of Ganga flowing through Kolkata.

The Brahmaputra system

• It has a total length of 2900 km. It rises in Tibet (from Chemayungdung glacier), where it is called Tsangpo, and
enters the Indian territory (in Arunachal Pradesh) under the name Dihang.
• Important Tributaries: Subansiri, Kameng, Dhansiri, Manas, Teesta.
• In Bangladesh, Brahmaputra is known by the name of Jamuna while Ganga gets the name Padma. Their
combined stream is known as Padma only. Meghna is the most important distributory before it enters the Bay of
Bengal.
• The combined stream of Ganga and Brahmaputra forms the biggest delta in the world, the Sundarbans, covering
an area of 58,752 sq. km. Its major part is in Bangladesh.
• On Brahmaputra is the river island, Majuli in Assam, the biggest river island in the world.
• Brahmaputra, or the Red River, is navigable for a distance of 1384 km up to Dibrugarh and serves as an excellent
inland water transport route.

Rivers of the Peninsula in India

• Different from the Himalayan rivers because they are seasonable in their flow (while Himalayan rivers are
perennial).

• They can be divided into two groups:

A. East Flowing Rivers of India (or Delta forming rivers)

• Mahanadi River (858 km) : Rises in Raipur distt. in Chhatisgarh. Main tributaries: lb, Seonath, Hasdo, Mand,
Jonk, Tel, etc.

• Godavari River (1465 km) : Also called Vriddha Ganga or Dakshina Ganga. It is the longest peninsular river.
Rises in Nasik. Main tributaries: Manjra, Penganga, Wardha, Indravati, Wainganga, Sabari, etc.
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• Krishna River (1327 km) : Rises in Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar. Main tributaries: Koyna, Dudhganga,
Panchganga, Malprabha, Ghatprabha, Bhima, Tungabhadra, Musi, etc.

• Cauvery River (805 km) : It is the largest peninsular river (maximum amount of water). Infact, it is the only
peninsular river which flows almost throughout the year. Known as the ‘Ganga of the South’. It rises from the
Brahmagir range of Western Ghats. Main tributaries: Hemavati, Lokpawni, Shimsa. It is less seasonal than others
as its upper catchment area receives rainfall during summer by the S.W monsoon and the lower catchment area
during winter season by the retreating N.E. monsoon. Its 90% – 95% irrigation and power production potential is
already being harnessed.

• Swarnarekha River (395 km) and Brahmani (705 km) : Rises from Ranchi Plateau.

B. West Flowing Rivers in India

• Narmada River (1057 km) : Has only l/10th part in Gujarat. Rises in Amarkantak Plateau and flows into Gulf of
Khambat. It forms the famous Dhuan Dhar Falls near Jabalpur. Main tributaries: Hiran, Burhner, Banjar, Shar,
Shakkar, Tawa, etc.

• Tapti River (724 km) : Rises from Betul distt in MR Also known as twin or handmaid of Narmada. Main
tributaries: Purna, Betul, Arunavati, Ganjal, etc.

• Sabarmati River (416 km) : Rises from Aravallis in Rajasthan.

• Mahi River (560 km) : Rises from Vindhyas in MR

• Luni River (450 km) : Rises from Aravallis. Also called Salt River. It is finally lost in the marshy grounds at the
head of the Rann of Kuchchh.

• Sharavati is a west flowing river of the Sahyadris. It forms the famous Jog or Gersoppa or Mahatma Gandhi Falls
(289 m), which is the highest waterfall in India.

Inland Drainage

• Some rivers of India are not able to reach the sea and constitute inland drainage. Ghaggar (494 km) is the most
important of such drainage.
• It is a seasonal stream which rises on the lower slopes of the Himalayas and gets lost in the dry sands of
Rajasthan near Hanumangarh. It is considered the old Saraswati of the Vedic times.

Note:

• The largest man-made lake in India is Indira Sagar Lake, which is the reservoir of Sardar Sarovar Project,
Onkareshwar Project and Maheshwar Project in Gujarat-MP.

• Chilka Lake (Orissa) is the largest brackish water lake of India. Otherwise also, it is the largest lake of India.

• Wular Lake (J & K) is the largest fresh water lake of India. Dul Lake is also there in J & K.

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• From Sambhar and Didwana Lake (Rajasthan), salt is produced.

• Other important lakes are Vembanad in Kerala and Kolleru & Pulicat in AP.

• The three important Gulfs in the Indian Territory are:

• Gulf of Kuchch (west of Gujarat) : Region with highest potential of tidal energy generation

• Gulf of Cambay or Gulf of Khambat (Gujarat) : Narmada, Tapti, Mahi and Sabarmati drain into it.

• Gulf of Mannar (south east of Tamil Nadu) : Asia’s first marine biosphere reserve.

Important River Valley Projects of India

Bhukra Nangal Project On Satluj in Punjab. Highest in India. Ht 226 m. Reservoir is called Gobind Sagar Lake

Mandi Project On Beas in H.P

Chambal Valley Project On Chambal in M.P & Rajasthan. 3 dams are there: Gandhi Sagar Dam, Rana Pratap sagar Dam and Jawahar Sagar dam

Damodar Valley Project On Damodar in Bihar. Based on Tennessee Valley Project, USA

Hirakud On Mahanadi in Orissa. World's longest dam: 4801 m

Rihand On Son in Mirzapur. Reservoir is called Govind Vallabh Pant reservoir

Kosi Project On Kosi in N. Bihar

Mayurkashi Project On Mayurkashi in W.B

Kakrapara Project On Tapi in Gujarat

Nizamsagar Project On Manjra in A.P

Nagarjuna Sagar Project On Krishna in A.P

Tungabhadra On Tungabhadra in A.P & Karnataka

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Shivasamudram Project On Cauvery in Karnataka

Tata Hydel Scheme On Bhima in Maharashtra

Sharavathi Hydel Project On Jog Falls in Karnataka

Kundah & Periyar Project In TN

Farakka Project On Ganga in W.B. Apart from power and irrigation it helps to remove silt for easy navigation

Ukai Project On Tapti in Gujarat

Mahi Project On Mahi in Gujarat

Salal Project On Chenab in J & K

Mata Tila Multipurpose Project On Betwa in U.P & M.P

Thein Project On Ravi, Punjab

Pong Dam On Beos, Punjab

The Climate of India

India has tropical monsoon type of climate. It is greatly influenced by the presence of the Himalayas in the north as
they block the cold the cold air masses from Central Asia. It is because of them only that the monsoons have a
watershed in India.

• The Tropic of Cancer divides India into two almost equal climatic zones, namely, the northern zone and the
southern zone. The warm temperate or the subtropical climate of the northern zone gives it cold winter seasons
and the hot summer seasons.
• The southern tropical climatic zone is warmer than the north and does not have a clear-cut winter season.
• The northern zone does not have the midday sun vertically overhead during any part of the year; the southern
zone has the midday sun almost vertically overhead at least twice every year.

Climate Seasons in India

• In India, the year can be divided into four seasons, resulting from the monsoons which occur mainly due to the
differential heating of land and movement of the sun’s vertical rays.

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• The vertical rays of the sun advance towards Tropic of Cancer from mid-March, due to which hot and dry weather
arrives. As temperatures rise over most of northern and Central India, a vast trough of low pressure is created.
The highest temperature experienced in South is in April while in North it is in May and June.

• This part of the year is marked by a dry spell and the north-western parts of the country experience hot, dry
winds, called loo. In this period, the country also experience storms / dust storms at various places.

1. Tornado like dust storms in Punjab and Haryana, called ‘Andhis’ in UP and ‘Kalbaisakhis’ in West Bengal.
They involve strong convectional movements causing some precipitation.
2. The ‘Norwesters’ originate over the Chhotanagpur Plateau and blow in the north-east direction which brings
about 50 cm of rainfall in Assam and about 10 cm rainfall in West Bengal and Orissa. This rainfall is very
useful for Assam tea and spring rice crops of West Bengal.
3. Similarly, ‘Cherry Blossoms’ are there in Karnataka, beneficial to coffee plantation and
‘Mango showers’ in elsewhere South India, which are beneficial to mango crops.

• This weather is followed by hot, wet weather from June to September. In May, the south – west monsoon sets in.
The normal dates of onset of the monsoon are May 20 in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, June 3 in the
Konkan, June 15 in Kolkata and June 29 in Delhi.

• The south – west monsoon enters the country in two currents, one blowing over the Bay of Bengal and the other
over the Arabian Sea. This monsoon causes rainfall over most of the country (except Tamil Nadu and Thar Desert
area). The S.W monsoon entering from Western Ghats causes heavy rainfall over Kerala coast, but Tamil Nadu
falls on the leeward side. In the Thar area, the winds blow parallel to the Aravallis and do not cause rain. The Bay
of Bengal current causes heavy rainfall in the north east parts of the country and a part of it turns west along the
Himalayas over the Indo-Gangetic plains causing rainfall in this region. But the Bay of Bengal current, by the time
it reaches W Rajasthan, runs out of moisture.

• The Bay of Bengal branch after crossing the deltaic region enters the Khasi valley in Meghalaya and gets
entrapped in it due to funnel shape of the region. It strikes Cherrapunji in a perpendicular direction causing
heavies rainfall in Mawsinram (Approx. 1400 cm).

• From mid-Sept to mid-Dec, the monsoon retreats. As the sun’s vertical rays start shifting towards the Tropic of
Capricorn, the low pressure area starts moving south and winds finally start blowing from land to sea. This is
called north-east monsoon. The withdrawal of monsoon is a much more gradual process than its onset. It causes
rainfall in Tamil Nadu as the winds pick some moisture from Bay of Bengal. This explains the phenomenon why
Tamil Nadu remains dry when the entire country receives rain and why it gets rain when practically the entire
country is dry.

• The cold and dry weather starts in early December. In this, the average temperature in south is 24-25c, and while
in the north is 10-15c. In the latter part of December and in January, the dry spell is broken by the westerly
depressions (temperate cyclones) from Mediterranean Sea, which causes some rain in north-west India.

• Almost all the precipitation in India is caused by the monsoons and it is primarily orographic in nature. Cyclonic
storms provide only a little rain, mainly in the north.

Climatic Regions of India

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India can be divided into a number of climatic regions.

• Tropical Rain Forests in India : Found in the west coastal plains, the Western Ghats and parts of Assam.
Characterized by high temperatures throughout the year. Rainfall, though seasonal, is heavy- about 200 cm
annually during May-November.

• Tropical Savanna Climate : In most of the peninsula region except the semi-arid zone in the leeward side of the
Western Ghats. It is characterized by long dry weather throughout winter and early summer and high temperature
(above 18.2c); annual rainfall varies from 76 cm in the west to 150 cm in the east.

• Tropical Semi-Arid Steppe Climate : It prevails in the rain-shadow belt running southward from
Central Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu in the leeward side of the Western Ghats and the Cardamom Hills. It is
characterized by low rainfall which varies from 38 cm to 80 cm, high temperature between 20 and 30.

• Tropical and Subtropical Steppes : Large areas in Punjab, Haryana and Kutch region. Temperature varies from
12-35c. The maximum temperature reaches up to 49c. The annual rainfall, varying from 30.5-63.5 cm, is also
highly erratic.

• Tropical desert : This climate extends over the western parts of Banner, Jaisalmer and Bikaner districts of
Rajasthan and parts of Kutch. It is characterized by scanty rainfall (30.5 cm), which is highly erratic. Rains are
mostly in the form of cloud-burst. Mean monthly temperature is uniformly high (about 35c).

• Humid Subtropical Climate with Dry Winters : This area includes south of the Himalayas, east of the tropical
and subtropical steppes and north of tropical savannah. Winters are mild to severe while summers are extremely
hot. The annual rainfall varies from 63.5 cm to more than 254 cm, most of it received during the south west
monsoon season.
• Mountain Climate : Such type of climate is seen in mountainous regions which rise above 6,000 m or more such
as the Himalayas and the Karakoram Range.

Soils in India

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has divided Indian soils into eight major groups:

Alluvial Soil in India

• They are by far the largest and the most important soil group of India. They are composed of sediments deposited
by rivers and the waves. Their chemical composition makes them one of the most fertile in the world. Usually
deficient in nitrogen and humus (thus fertilizers are needed).
• Occupy the plains (from Punjab to Assam) and also occur in the valleys of Narmada and Tapti in M.P. & Gujarat,
Mahanadi in the MP and Orissa, Godawari in A.R and Cauvery in T.N.
• Can be divided into Khadar (new) and Bhangar (older, more clayey and kankary) alluvium.

Black Soil in India

• Also called Regur and is ideal for cotton crop. These soils have been formed due to the solidification of lava
spread over large areas during volcanic activity in the Deccan Plateau, thousands of years ago.

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• They are black due to compounds of iron and aluminium (also because of titaniferous magnetite).

• Mainly found in Deccan Plateau – Maharashtra, Gujarat, M.P, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.

• Apart from cotton cultivation, these fertile soils are suitable for growing cereals, oilseeds, citrus fruits and
vegetables, tobacco and sugarcane.

• They have high moisture retention level.

• Lack in phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter.

Red Soil in India

• They are mainly formed due to the decomposition of ancient crystalline rocks like granites and gneisses and from
rock types rich in minerals such as iron and magnesium. The term ‘red soil’ is due to the wide diffusion of iron
oxides through the materials of the soil.

• Covers almost the whole of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, S.E. Maharashtra, Chhatisgarh, parts of
Orissa, Jharkhand and Bundelkhand.

• Generally deficient in nitrogen, humus and phosphorus, but rich in potash.

• Suitable for rice, millets, tobacco and vegetables (also groundnuts and potatoes at higher
elevations).

Laterite Soil in India

• Found in typical monsoon conditions – under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet
and dry periods. The alterations of wet and dry season leads to the leaching away of siliceous matter and lime of
the rocks and a soil rich in oxides of iron and aluminium compounds is left behind.

• Found in parts of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Rajmahal hills, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, West
Bengal, Assam, Tamil Nadu, etc.

• Poor in nitrogen and minerals.

• Best for tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut and suitable for rice and millet cultivation if manured.

Forest and Mountain Soils

• Such soils are mainly found on the hill slopes covered by forests. The formation of these soils is mainly governed
by the characteristic deposition of organic matter derived from forest growth.

• In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly found in valley basins, depressions and less steeply inclined
slopes. Apart from the Himalayan region, the forest soils occur in higher hills in south and the peninsular region.

• Very rich in humus but are deficient in Potash, phosphorous and lime and needs fertilizers.

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• Plantation of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits.

Arid and Desert Soils

• A large part of the arid and semi-arid region in Rajasthan and adjoining areas of Punjab and Haryana lying
between the Indus and the Aravallis receiving less than 50 cm of annual rainfall is affected by desert conditions.

• This area is covered by a mantle of sand which inhibits soil growth.

• The phosphate content of these soils is as high as in normal alluvial soils. Nitrogen is originally low but its
deficiency is made up to some extent by the availability of nitrogen in the form of nitrates. Thus the presence of
phosphates and nitrates make them fertile soils wherever moisture is available.

• The changes in the cropping pattern in the Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area are a living example of the utility
of the desert soils.

Saline and Alkaline Soils

• In the drier parts of Bihar, Up Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Maharashtra, are the salt-impregnated or alkaline
soils. Known by different names: Reh, kallar, USAR, etc.

• Some of the salts are transported in solution by the rivers and canals, which percolates in the sub-soils of the
plains.

• The accumulation of salts makes the soil infertile and renders it unfit for agriculture.

Peaty and Marshy Soils

• Originate in the humid regions as a result of accumulation of large amounts of organic matter in the soil. They
contain considerable amounts of soluble salts and 10 – 40% of organic matter.

• Peaty soils are found in Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala, where it is called Kari.

• Marshy soils, high in vegetable matter, are found in northern Bihar, coastal parts of Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West
Bengal and parts of UP

Soil Erosion in India

• Acute in hilly and dry regions

• Causes – depletion of forests, wrong use of lands such as cultivation on very steep slopes, cattle rearing. It
ultimately leads to Badland Topography.

• Remedy – Afforestation, contour cultivation etc.

Natural Vegetation in India

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Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests

In areas over 250cm rainfall. In Western Ghats, hilly areas in N.E. India and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Trees are rosewood, shisham, ebony, ironwood, etc.

Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests

• In areas having rainfall between 100 – 200 cm. In peninsular region and along the foothills of Himalayas in
Shivaliks, Bhabhar and Tarai.
• The trees of these forests drop their leaves for about 6-8 weeks during the spring and early summer when
sufficient moisture isn’t available.
• Trees are teak, sal, bamboo, sandalwood, rosewood, etc.

Thorn Forests

• In areas having rainfall between 25 and 80cm. In arid regions of Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Gujarat.

• Trees are palm, acacia, etc.

Hill Forests

• In hills of S.India and the Himalayas.

• The type of trees depends upon the height of the mountain : Sal and bamboo below 1000 m; oaks, chestnuts
and other fruit trees, and chir forests between 1000 and 2000 m; pine, deodar, silver fern and spruce between
1600 and 3300 m; above 3600 m alpine forests with trees like silver firs, pines, birches, etc. Alpine forests give
way to Alpine grasslands and scrubs as we move up further.

Tidal or Mangrove Forests

• Also known as Littoral or Swamp Forests.

• Occur along the sea coast and in the estuaries of rivers, especially in Sunderbans and the Andamans.

• Most important tree is Sundari. It provides hard and durable timber which is used for construction and building
purposes as well as for making boats.

Note :

• According to the National Forest Policy, the minimum desired area which is considered safe for a tropical country
like India is about 33%.

• Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under forests followed by Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and
Arunachal Pradesh.

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• As per percentage of forest area to total area, first is Andaman and Nicobar Islands, followed by Mizoram,
Manipur, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura and Nagaland. They are in a very comfortable position
as more than half of their area is under forests.

• Arunachal Pradesh has the highest per capita forest area.

• In Mangrove forests, West Bengal holds the first position, followed by Gujarat and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

• The lowest forest percentage is in Haryana and Punjab, because of the extensive agriculture.

Biosphere Reserves in India

• The biosphere reserve program was launched by the UNESCO in 1971 under the aegis of its Man and Biosphere
(MAB) Program, to provide a global network of protected areas for conserving natural communities.

• In India, the first biosphere reserve – Nilgiri biosphere reserve – came into being in 1986. So far, 14 biosphere
reserves have been set up in the country.

Nilgiri (Western Ghats) Similipal (Orissa)

Nanda Devi (Uttarakhand) Dibru-Daikhowa (Asom)

Nokrek (Meghalaya) Dehong Dabang (Arunachal Pradesh)

Manas (Asom) Panchmarhi (MP)

Sunderbans (West Bengal) Kanchanjunga (Sikkim)

Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu) Agastyamalai (Kerala)

Great Nicobar (Andaman and Nicobar Islands) Achaanak maar-Amarkantak (Madhya Pradesh)

Note :

• Out of these 14, Nilgiri, Sunderbans, Manas and Gulf of Mannar have been recognized on World Network of
Biosphere Reserves by UNESCO.

Project Tiger

• It was launched on April 1, 1973 to ensure maintenance of viable population of the tigers in India.

• There are 29 tiger reserves in the country:

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Name of Tiger Reserve State

Bandipur Karnataka

Corbett Uttarakhand

Kanha Madhya Pradesh

Manas Asom

Melghat Maharashtra

Palamau Jharkhand

Ranthambhore Rajasthan

Similipal Orissa

Sunderbans West Bengal

Periyar Kerala

Sariska Rajasthan

Buxa West Bengal

Indravati Chattisgarh

Nagariunsagar Andhra Pradesh

Namdapha Arunachal Pradesh

Dudhwa Uttar Pradesh

Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tamil Nadu

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Valmiki Bihar

Pencil Madhya Pradesh

Tadoba-Andhari Maharashtra

Bandhavgarh Madhya Pradesh

Panna Madhya Pradesh

Dampha Mizoram

Bhadra Karnataka

Pench Maharashtra

Pakhui-Nameri Arunachal Pradesh-Asom

Bori, Satpura, Pachmari Madhya Pradesh

Nagarhole Karnataka

Katarniaghat Uttar Pradesh

Nameri Asom

Kaziranga Asom

Note :

• Nagarjunasagar Tiger Reserve in AP is the largest, while Pench in Maharashtra is the smallest. Bandipur
in Karnataka was the first (1973-74), while Kaziranga is the latest (2006).

Project Elephant

• It was launched in February 1992, to assist States having wild elephants to ensure long term survival of identified
viable populations of elephants in their natural habitat.

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• There are 14 Elephant Reserves in India.

Agriculture in India

Cropping Seasons in India

Kharif Crops of India

• Sown in summers between May and July, and harvested after the rains, in September and October.

• Eg: Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Tobacco, Groundnut, Pulses, etc.

Rabi Crops of India

• Sown at the beginning of winter and harvested before the onset of the summer season, between Feb and April.

• Eg: Wheat, barley, oilseeds, gram, potatoes, etc.

Zayad Crops

• They are raised between April and June.

• E.g. : Melon, watermelon, cucumber, toris, leafy and other vegetables.

Cash Crops of India (Commercial Crops)

• Grown mainly for the market, only a small portion of the product is consumed by the farmers themselves (cotton,
sugarcane etc.)

Mineral Resources of India

Coal Resources in India

West Bengal (Raniganj, Burdwan, Bankura, Purulio, Birbhum, Jalpaigudi, Darjeeling), Jharkhand (Jharia, Giridih,
Kharhawadi, Bokaro, Hazaribagh, Kamapura, Rampur, Palamau), Orissa (Rampur, Hindgir, Talcher, Sambal), Madbyo
Pradesh and Chhatisgarh (Rewa, Pench valley, Umaria, Korba, Sohagpur, Mand river area, Kanha valley, Betul), etc.
Power sector is the largest consumer of coal in India followed by steel industry, cement industry, etc.

Manganese

Orissa, Maharashtra (Nagpur, Bhandara, Ratnagiri), Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat, Chhindawara), Karnataka(Keonjhar,
Bonai, Kalahandi), Andhra Pradesh (Kadur, Garibadi).

Copper Minerals

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Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat), Rajasthan (Khetri), Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Masobani, Surda), Karnataka (Chitradurg,
Hassan).

Mica Minerals

Jharkhand (Hazaribagh, Giridih, Kodarma), Bihar (Goya, Bhagalpur), Andhra Pradesh (Guntur, Vizag, Kurnool),
Rajasthan (Bhilwara, Udaipur, Jaipur).

Petroleum Resources in India

Assam (Digboi, Naharkatiya, Badarpur, Masinpur and Pallharia), Gujarat, (Ankleshwar, Khambat, Kalol), Mumbai High,
Bassein (south of Mumbai High), etc. Recently oil has been discovered in Cauvery basin, Krishna and Godavary basin,
Khambat basin, etc.

Iron Resources

• India possesses Haematite, a very high-grade iron ore. In Madhya Pradesh (Bailadila, Jabalpur), Goa (North
Goa), Karnataka (Bababudan hills, Chikmagalur, Hospet), Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Naomundi), Andhra Pradesh,
Orissa.
• India is the fifth largest exporter of iron ore in the world. Japan is the biggest buyer accounting for about 3/4th of
India’s total exports. Major ports handling iron ore export are Vishakhapatnam, Paradip, Marmagao and
Mangalore.

Bauxite Resources

Chief ore for producing aluminium. In Orissa (Kalahandi, Koraput, Sundargarh, Bolangir, Sambalpur), Jharkhand
(Lohardaga, Gumla), Madhya Pradesh (Jabalpur, Mandla, Shahdol, Kami, Balaghat), Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu.

Gold Resources in India

Karnataka (Kolar, Hutti, Raichur), Andhra Pradesh (Ramgiri and Yeppamanna goldfields in Chittor and Anantapur
districts).

Silver, Zinc & Lead

Rajasthan (Zawar mines near Udaipur), Andhra Pradesh (Mysore, Chitradurg), Karnataka (Kolar mines).

Uranium Resources in India

Jharkhand (Jaduguda), Rajasthan (Ajmer), Andhra Pradesh (Nellore, Nalgonda), Karnataka (Gulbarga).

Thorium Resources in India

Kerala coast (From Monazite sand), rocks of Aravallis in Rajasthan.

Oil Refineries

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There are 19 refineries in India, 16 in public sector, one in joint sector and two in private sector. Public sector refineries
are located at Digboi, Guwahati, Bongaigaon, Barauni, Haldia, Koyali, Mathura, Kochi, Chennai, Vishakhapatnam,
Mumbai (2), Panipat, Narimanam, Numanigarh and Tatipaka. Joint sector refinery is at Mangalore. The private sector
refinery of Reliance Limited is at Jamnagar, Gujarat and Essar Refinery at Vadinar, Gujarat.

1. Haldia Refinery (IOC)

2. Mumbai Refinery (HPCL)
3. Panipat Refinery (IOC)
4. Vishakhapatnam Refinery (HPCL)
5. Digboi Refinery (IOC)
6. Mumbai Refinery Mahaul (BPCL)
7. Gujarat Refinery (IOC)
8. Nagapattnam Refinery (CPCL)
9. Barauni Refinery (IOC)
10. Kochi Refinery (Kochi Refineries Ltd)
11. Guwahati Refinery (IOC)
12. Numaligarh Refinery (NRL)
13. Mathura Refinery (IOC)
14. Mangalore Refinery (MRPL)
15. Bongaigaon Refinery (IOC)
16. Tatipaka Refinery (ONGC)
17. Manali Refinery (IOC)
18. Essar Refinery (Essar)
19. Jamnagar Refinery (Reliance Petroleum)

Industries in India

Cotton Textile Industry in India

Most important industry in terms of employment and production of export goods. In Maharashtra (Mumbai, Sholapur,
Pune, Kolhapur, Satara, Wardha, Hajipur), Gujarat (Ahmedabad, Vododara, Rajkot, Surat, Bhavnagar),Tamil
Nadu (Coimbatore-Manchester of South India). Tamil Nadu has the largest number of cotton textile mills in India.

Silk Textile Industry in India

The location of silk industry is governed by two factors- prevalence of sericulture practices and availability of skilled
labour. Karnataka is the leading producer, followed by West Bengal, Bihar, etc.

Woolen Textile Industries

In Punjab (Dhariwai, Amritsar, Ludhiana, Ferozpur), Maharashtra (Mumbai), UP (Kanpur, Mirzapur, Agra, Tanakpur), etc.

Jute Industries India

India manufactures the largest quantity of jute goods in the world. Mainly located in West Bengal, followed by Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, UP, MP.

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Iron and Steel Industries

Located near the sources of raw materials and fuel (coal). In Jamshedpur (Jharkhand), Durgapur, Burnpur (W.B.),
Bhadrawati (Karnataka), Bokaro (Jharkhand), Rourkela (Orissa), Bhilai (Chhatisgarh), Salem (T.N.), Vishakhapatnam
(A.P.).

Aluminium Smelting in India

Located mainly near the sources of raw materials, means of transport and cheap electricity. In Hirakud, Koraput (Orissa),
Renukoot (UP), Korba (MP), Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Mettur (TN), Alwaye

Copper Smelting Industry

In Khetri, Alwar, Jhunjhunu (Rajasthan), Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Agnigundala (A.P.).

Heavy Machinery Industry

In Ranchi, Vishakapatnam, Durgapur, Tiruchirapalli, Mumbai, Kami.

Machine Tools Industry

It forms the basis for the manufacturing of industrial, defence equipments, automobiles, railway engines and electrical
machinery.

In Bangalore, Pinjore (Haryana), Kalamassery (Kerala), Hyderabad, Secunderabad, Srinagar, Ajmer.

Heavy Electrical Equipments

Power generation equipments. In Bhopal, Tiruchirapalli, Jammu, Ramchandrapuram (Hyderabad), Hardwar, Bangalore
and Jogdishpur (UP).

Railway Equipments

Locomotives in Indian Railways: In Chittaranjan (WB), Varanasi, Jamshedpur, Bhopal. Coaches: Perambur (TN),
Kapurthala (Punjab), also at Bangalore and Kolkata.

Ship Building India

Hindustan Shipyard at Vishakhapatnam, Cochin Shipyard, Mumuai (Mazgaon Dock) and Kolkata (Garden Reach
Workshop). For Indian Navy, only at Mazgaon.

Cycles India

In Mumbai, Asansol, Sonepat, Delhi, Chennai, Jalandhar and Ludhiana.

Tractors in India

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At Faridabad, Pinjore, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai.

Fertilizers in India

• The location of fertilizer industry is closely related to petro-chemicals. About 70% of the plants producing
nitrogenous fertilizers use naphtha as raw material.
• Naphtha is a by-product of oil refineries. Phosphate plants are dependent on mineral phosphate found in UP and
MP. Now natural gas based fertilizer plants are also being set up.
• The Fertilizer Corporation of India (FCL) was set up in 1961. National Fertilizer Limited (NFL) was set up in 1974.
• In Sindri (Bihar), Nangal, Trombay, Gorakhpur, Durgapur, Namrup, Cochin, Rourkela, Neyveli, Varanasi,
Vadodara, Vishakhapatinam, Kota and Kanpur.

Pharmaceuticals and Drugs

Antibiotics are prepared at Pimpri and Rishikesh. The Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Limited has 5 plants at
Hyderabad, Rishikesh, Chennai, Gurgaon and Muzaffarpur. A number of other units are concentrated in Mumbai, Baroda,
Delhi, Kolkata and Kanpur.

Pesticides in India

Delhi and Alwaye

Sugar Industry

JP, Maharashtra, AP, TN, Karnataka and Bihar.

Aircraft Industry in India

Hindustan Aeronautics India Ltd. was formed by merging two aircraft factories at Bangalore and Kanpur. Four other
factories are at Nasik, Hyderabad, Koraput (Orissa), Lucknow.

Rubber Industry in India

Bareilly (UP), Baroda (Gujarat Synthetic Rubber Units, Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Amritsar-Reclaimed Rubber Units.

Nuclear Power Stations in India

Tarapur Maharastra

Kalpakkam Tamil Nadu, called Indra Gandhi Nuclear Power Station

Narora UP

Rawatbhata Kota, Rajasthan

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Kaiga Karnataka

Kakrapara Gujarat

Kundnkulam (TN) Under construction with the assistance of Russia.

Major Thermal Power Plants

Neyveli Tamil Nadu

Korba Chhatisgarh

Obra UP

Harduaganj UP

Rihand UP

Singrauli UP

Parichha UP

Talcher Orissa

Farakka West Bengal

Satpura MP

Ramagundam AP

Vindhyanchal MP

Railways in India

Indian railway system is the largest in Asia and the fourth largest in the world. It is the biggest departmental public
undertaking in the country.

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• The first train ran in India between Bombay and Thane, a stretch of 34 km. on April 16 1853.
• The Indian Railways celebrated its 150th anniversary on April 16, 2003. To commemorate the occasion, 16
January – Shatabadi inter – city express trains were announced to be inducted.
• The second train ran between Howrah and Hooghly in 1854.
• The headquarters of Indian Railway is in New Delhi.
• The first electric train in India was ‘Deccan Queen’. It was introduced in 1929 between Bombay and Poona.
• Indian Railways has the second biggest electrified system in the world after Russia.
• The fastest train in India is the Shatabadi Express whose maximum speed is 140 km/hr.
• The total route covered is approx 63,000 km.
• The total number of railway stations in India is 7,100.
• The longest railway platform in India is at Kharagpur (W.B.).
• Mumbai is the destination where maximum number of trains in India head for.
• The longest train route is of ‘Himsagar Express’ from Jammu Tavi to Kanyakumari. It covers a distance of 3,726
km and passes through ten states.
• The first Metro Rail was introduced in Kolkata (W.Bengal) on October 24, 1984. The two stations connected were
Dumdum and Belgachhia.
• The Indian Railways operate in three different gauges :

1. Broad Gauge Railway (Distance between rails is 1.67 m).

2. Metre Gauge Railways (Distance between rails is 1.00 m).
3. Narrow Gauge Railways India (Distance between rails is 0.762 or 0.610 m).

The broad gauge accounts for nearly 50% route followed by metre gauge (43%) and the remaining by narrow gauge.

Indian railways are divided into 16 zones, headed by a General Manager who is responsible to the Railway Board, for all
matters.

Railway Zones Head Quarters

Central Mumbai VT

Eastern Kolkata

Northern New Delhi

North Eastern Gorakhpur

North-East Frontier Maligaon-Guwahati

Southern Chennai

South Central Secunderabad

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South Eastern Kolkata

Western Mumbai Churchgate

East Coast Bhubaneshwar

East Central Hajipur

North Central Allahabad

North Western Jaipur

South Western Bangalore (Hubli)

West Central Jabalpur

South-East Central Bilaspur

• Northern Railway (NR) is the largest railway zone having length of 10,995 km.

• North – East Frontier (NEF) is the smallest railway zone having just 3,860 km route length.

• Konkan Railways India : It is a project to shorten the distance between Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka. The
total route length is 786 km between Apta (Maharashtra) and Mangalore (Karnataka).

Railway Manufacturing Units :

• Chittaranjan Locomotive Works : Located in Chittaranjan (W.B) and manufactures electric engines.

• Diesel Locomotive Works : Located in Varanasi (U.P) and manufactures diesel engines.

• Integral Coach Factory in India : Located in Perambur (TN) and manufactures rail coaches.

• Wheel and Axle Plant : Locatedat Yalahaka (Bangalore, Karnataka) and manufactures wheels and axles.

• Diesel Component Works : Locatedat Patiala (Punjab) and manufactures components of diesel engines.

• Rail Coach Factory in India : Located at Kapurthala (Punjab) and manufactures rail coaches.

Road Transport in India

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India’s road network is one of the largest in the world. The total length of roads is more than 33 lakh km.

• For the purpose of maintenance and construction, roads are classified into National Highways, State Highways,
District Highways, Village Roads, Border Roads, etc.
• National highways are maintained by the Central Government, State highways by the respective state
government while District highways by the respective District Board. Border roads and International highways are
also die responsibility of Central Government.
• The present length of the National Highways in India is approx. 45,000 km. They constitute only 2% of the total
road length and carries nearly 40% of the road traffic.

Some of the Important National Highways are:

• NH 1: New Delhi – Ambala – Jalandhar – Amritsar.

• NH 2: Delhi – Mathura – Agara – Kanpur – Allahabad – Varanasi – Kolkata.
• NH 3: Agra – Gwalior – Nasik – Mumbai
• NH 4: Thane and Chennai via Pune and Belgaun.
• NH 5: Kolkata – Chennai
• NH 6: Kolkata – Dhule
• NH 7: Varanasi – Kanyakumari
• NH 8: Delhi – Mumbai (via Jaipur, Baroda and Ahmedabad)
• NH 9: Mumbai – Vijaywada
• NH 10: Delhi – Fazilka
• NH 11: Agra – Bikaner
• NH 12: Jabalpur – Jaipur
• NH 24: Delhi – Lucknow
• NH 27: Allahabad – Varanasi
• NH 28: Barauni – Lucknow
• NH 29: Gorakhpur – Varanasi
• NH 56: Lucknow – Varanasi
• NH – 7 is the longest highway of India.

Note:

The Golden Quadrilateral Project connecting the four Metropolitan cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata
covering a total distance of 5846 km is currently being processed. It is the first phase of the National Highways
Development Project (NHDP). Total cost of the project is Rs 300 billion, funded largely by the government’s
special petroleum product tax revenues and government borrowing. As of June ’08, 5669 km of the intended road
has been 4-laned.

• The North South – East West Corridor (NS-EW) is the largest ongoing expressway project in India. It is the
second phase of the National Highways Development Project (NHDP), and consists of building 7300 kilometers of
four/six lane expressways connecting Srinagar, Kanyakumari, Porbandar and Silchar. The final completion date of
the project has been set as December 2009.

• Maharashtra has the maximum length of surfaced roads in India.

Air Transport in India

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J.R.D. Tata was the first person to make a solo flight from Mumbai to Karachi in 1931.

1. In 1935, the ‘Tata Air Lines’ started its operation between Mumbai and Thiruvananthapuram and in 1937 between
Mumbai and Delhi.
2. In 1953, all the private Airline companies were nationalised and Indian Airlines and Air India came into existence.
3. Air India administers international flights while Indian Airlines caters to the domestic circuit.
4. Indian Airlines is now known by the name of ‘Indian’.
5. Vayudoot Limited started in 1981 as a private air carrier and later on it merged with Indian Airlines.
6. Pawan Hans Limited operates helicopter support services to oil sector, hill stations and remote areas.
7. A number of private airlines also operates is India. They are Jet Airways, Sahara, etc.
8. The Civil Aviation Centre in Fursatgarh near Allahabad provided, among other things, ground
training to the pilots.

Airports in India :

There are 12 International Airports in India :

• Begumpet Airport, Hyderabad

• Calicut International Airport, Calicut
• Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport, Mumbai
• Chennai International Airport, Chennai
• HAL Airport, Bangalore
• Goa Airport in Vasco da Gama city, Goa
• Lokpriya Gopinath Bordolio International Airport, Guwahati
• Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi
• Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport, Kolkata
• Rja Sansi International Airport, Amritsar
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport, Ahmedabad
• Thiruvananathapuram International Airport, Thiruvananathapuram

The Indira Gandhi International Airport and the Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport handle more than half of the air
traffic in South Asia. Besides these airports several other domestic airports are located in India.

In total, there are more than 334 civilian airports in India – 238 with paved runways and 108 with unpaved runways.

Water Transport in India

Most efficient, least costly and environment friendly means of transportation. The total length of navigable waterways in
Indian comprising rivers, canals, backwaters, etc, is 14,500 km out of which 3700 km is navigable by mechanised boats.

The government has recognised the following National Waterways of India:

• NW 1: Allahabad to Haldia – 1,629 km

• NW 2: Sadia to Dhubari (on Brahmaputra river) – 819 km
• NW 3: Kollam to Kottapuram – 186 km
• NW 4: Kakinada to Marakkanam (Along Godawari and Krishna river) – 1,100 km

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Ports in India

• The Waterways Authority in India divides Indian ports into three categories, major, minor and intermediate.
• India has about 190 ports in all, with 12 major and the rest intermediate and minor.
• The 12 Major Ports are:

Port State

Kolkata (including Haldia) West Bengal

Paradip Orissa

Vishakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh

Chennai Tamil Nadu

Ennore Tamil Nadu

Tuticorin Tamil Nadu

Cochin Kerala

New Mangalore Karnataka

Mormugao Goa

Jawaharlal Nehru Maharashtra

Mumbai Maharashtra

Kandla Gujarat

All these ports are administered by the respective Port Trusts, except the newly constructed Ennore port which is under
the Ennore Port Ltd. Company.

Salient Features :

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• Kolkata Port (including Haldia) : Kolkata is a riverine port, located about 128 km from the Bay of Bengal on the
banks of river Hooghly. Haldia was developed because excessive silting prevented the entry of large marine
vessels in Kolkata.

• Paradip Port : Located on the Orissa coast along the Bay of Bengal. India exports raw iron to Japan from here.

• Vishakhapatnam Port : The deepest port, located in Andhra Pradesh. It serves the Bhilai and Rourkela steel
plants.

• Chennai Port : Oldest artificial harbour. This port ranks only second after Mumbai in terms of the traffic handling
capacity.

• Ennore Port : Declared a major port in 2001. It is the first port with corporate participation. Provided with all the
modern facilities for handling the thermal coal required for Tamil Nadu Electricity Board Power Station.

• Tuticorin Port : It came into existence during the reign of Pandya kings. It has an artificial deep sea harbour.

• Cochin Port : A fine natural harbour located on Kerala coast. Handles the export of tea, cofee and spices and
import of petroleum and fertilisers.

• New Mangalore Port : The ‘Gateway of Karnataka’. Handles the export of iron-ore of Kudremukh.

• Marmugao Port : It has a naval base. India’s leading iron-ore port.

• Mumbai Port : A natural port, India’s busiest. A new port, Nhava Sheva, is being developed near Mumbai port.

• Jawaharlal Nehru Port : Occupies the 5th position in the world’s faster growing ports.

• Kandla Port : Called the ‘offspring of partition’ as it was developed after the partition as a substitute of Karachi
port. It is a tidal port and a free trade zone located in the Rann of Kachchh.

Nick Names of Important Indian Places

Nick Name Place

Golden City Amritsar

Manchester of India Ahmedabad

City of Seven Islands Mumbai

Queen of Arabian Sea Cochin

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Nick Name Place

Space City Bangalore

Garden City of India Bangalore

Silicon Valley of India Bangalore

Electronic City of India Bangalore

Pink City Jaipur

Gateway of India Mumbai

Twin City Hyderabad - Sikandarabad

City of Festivals Madurai

Deccan Queen Pune

Nick Name Place

City of Buildings Kolkata

Dakshin Ganga Godavari

Old Ganga Godavari

Egg Bowls of Asia Andhra Pradesh

Soya Region Madhya Pradesh

Manchester of the South Coimbatore

City of Nawabs Lucknow

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Nick Name Place

Venice of the East Cochin

Sorrow of Bengal Damodar river

Sorrow of Bihar Kosi river

Blue Mountains Nilgiri

Queen of the Mountains Mussoorie (Uttarakhand)

Sacred river Ganga

Hollywood of India Mumbai

City of Castles Kolkata

State of Five Rivers Punjab

City of Weavers Panipat

City of Lakes Srinagar

Steel City of India Jamshedpur (Called Tatanagar)

City of Temples Varanasi

Manchester of the North Kanpur

City of Rallies New Delhi

Heaven of India Jammu & Kashmir

Boston of India Ahmedabad

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Nick Name Place

Garden of spices of India Kerala

Switzerland of India Kashmir

Abode of the God Prayag (Allahabad)

Pittsburg of India Jamshedpur

Important Indian Towns on Rivers

Town River

Allahabad At the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna

Patna Ganga

Varanasi Ganga

Kanpur Ganga

Hardwar Ganga

Badrinath Alaknanda

Agra Yamuna

Delhi Yamuna

Mathura Yamuna

Ferozpur Satluj

Ludhiana Satluj

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Town River

Srinagar Jhelum

Lucknow Gomti

Town River

Jaunpur Gomti

Ayodhya Saryu

Bareilly Ram Ganga

Ahmedabad Sabarmati

Kota Chambal

Jabalpur Narmada

Panji Mandavi

Ujjain Kshipra

Surat Tapti

Jamshedpur Swarnarekha

Dibrugarh Brahmaputra

Guwahati Brahmaputra

Kolkata Hooghly

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Town River

Sambalpur Mahanadi

Cuttack Mahanadi

Seriranganatnam Cauvery

Hyderabad Musi

Nasik Godavari

Vijayvada Krishna

Curnool Tungabhadra

Tiruchirapalli Cauvery

Famous Hill Stations in India

Hill Stations Height From Sea Level (m) States

Gulberga 2550 J&K

Ooty (Ootacamund) 2290 Tamil Nadu

Shimla 2210 H.P

Pahalgam 2200 J&K

Darjeeling 2135 West Bengal

Kodaikanal 2120 Tamil Nadu

Lansdowne 2120 Uttarkhand

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Hill Stations Height From Sea Level (m) States

Dalhousie 2035 H.P

Mussoorie 2006 Uttarkhand

Mukteshwar 1975 Uttarkhand

Nainital 1940 Uttarkhand

Kasauli 1985 H.P

Hill Stations Height From Sea Level (m) States

Coonoor 1860 Tamil Nadu

Gangtok 1850 Sikkim

Manali 1830 H.P

Ranikhet 1830 Uttarkhand

Ranchi 1800 Jharkhand

Srinagar 1770 J&K

Almora 1650 Uttarakhand

Shillang 1500 Maghalaya

Mahabaleshwar 1370 Maharashtra

Kalimpong 1250 West Bengal

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Hill Stations Height From Sea Level (m) States

Mt. Abu 1220 Rajastan

Kullu Valley 1200 H.P

Panchgani 1200 Maharastra

Mannar 1160 Kerala

Panchmarhi 1065 M.P

Periyar 915 Kerala

Mandi 709 H.P

Lonawala 620 Maharastra

Khandala 620 Maharastra

Tribal Groups of India

Tribal Groups Found in

Abhors North-East

Adivasis MP (Bastar distt.)

Angami Manipur

Apatamis Arunachal Pradesh

Badagas Tamil Nadu

Baigas M.P

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Tribal Groups Found in

Bakkarwals J&K

Bhils M.P & Rajastan

Bhotias Uttarakhand

Bhuia M.P

Birhors M.P and Bihar

Chang North - East

Chenchus A.P and Orissa

Tribal Groups Found in

Chutia Assam

Gaddis Himachal Pradesh

Gallong North-East

Garos Assam and Meghalaya

Gonds M.P and Bihar

Gujlars J & K and H.P

Irula Tamil Nadu

Jaintias Meghalaya

Jarawas Little Andamans

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Tribal Groups Found in

Kanikar Tamil Nadu

Katkari M.P

Kharia M.P

Khond M.P

Khas U.P

Khasis Assam and Meghalaya

Khonds Orissa

Kol M.P

Kolam A.P

Kotas Tamil Nadu

Kuki Manipur

Lahaulas Himachal Pradesh

Lepchas Sikkim

Lushai Tripura

Murias M.P

Minas Rajastan

Moplahs Kerala

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Tribal Groups Found in

Mundas Bihar

Murias M.P

Nishi North - East

Nagas Nagaland

Oarons Bihar and Orissa

Onges Andaman & Nicobar

Pho North - East

Santhals WB, Orissa and Bihar

Sangtam North-East

Sema Nagaland

Sentinelese Andaman & Nicobar

Shompens Andaman & Nicobar

Todas Tamil Nadu

Uralis Kerala

Wancho North - East

Warlis Maharashtra

Indian Towns Associated with Industries

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Town State Industries

Ahmedabad Gujarat Cotton Textiles

Agra U.P Leather, Marble, Carpet

Aligarh U.P Locks, Cutlery

Ankleshwar Gujarat Oil Fields

Ambernath Maharashtra Machine Tools

Amritsar Punjab Woolen Clothes

Anand Gujarat Milk and its Products

Alwaye Kerala Fertilizer, Monazite Factory

Ambala Haryana Scientific Instruments

Bokaro Jharkhand Steel Plant

Bangalore Karnataka Telephones, Aircrafts, Motors, Cotton Textiles, Toys

Batanagar West Bengal Shoes

Bareilly U.P Resin Industries, Match Factory

Town State Industries

Bhilai Chhattisgarh Steel Plant

Barauni Bihar Chemical Fertilizer

Burnpur West Bengal Steel Plant

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Town State Industries

Bhurkunda Jharkhand Glass Industries

Bhagalpur Bihar Silk industries

Bhandara Maharashtra Explosives

Bhadravati Karnataka Iron & Steel

Bongaigaon Assam Petroleum

Bhadoi U.P Carpets

Churk MP Cement

Cyberabad Andhra Pradesh Electronics, Computers, Information technology

Chitranjan West Bengal Locomotive

Kolkata West Bengal Jute, Leather, Electric goods

Cochin Kerala Ship building, coconut oil, rubber

Calicut Kerala Coffee, coconut

Coimbatore Tamil Nadu Cotton industries

Dhariwal Punjab Woolen clothes

Durgapur West Bengal Steel

Digboi Assam Petroleum

Delhi Delhi Textiles, Electronics, D.D.T

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Town State Industries

Dalmianagar Bihar Cement

Darjeeling W. Bengal Tea

Dindigul Tamil Nadu Cigar, Tobacco

Frozabad M.P Bangle works

Guntur Andhra Pradesh Cotton industries

Gwalior Madhya Pradesh Pottery, Tobacco

Gomia Jharkhand Explosives

Hardwar Uttarakhand Heavy electricals

Hatia Jharkhand Heavy Engineering Corporation

Haldia W. Bengal Chemical fertilizer

Hazira Gujarat Artificial Rayon

Jamshedpur Jharkhand Iron & Steel, Locomotives, Railway coaches

Jallundhur Punjab Surgical goods and sports articles

Jaipur Rajasthan Cloth Printing, Brass

Jharia Jharkhand Coal mines

Jabalpur Madhya Pradesh Bidi industry

Jainakot Jammu & Kashmir H.M.T watch

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Town State Industries

Japla Jharkhand Cement

Kanpur U.P Cotton and Woollen mills, Leather, Sugar

Katni M.P Cement

Korba Chattisgarh Aluminium factory, Thermal plant

Koyna Maharashtra Aluminium factory

Koyali Gujarat Petrochemical industries

Kolar Karnataka Gold mining centre

Kota Rajasthan Atomic power plant

Kanchipuram Tamil Nadu Silk clothes

Karnal Haryana Dairy product

Kandla Gujarat Chemical fertiliser, famous port

Khetri Rajasthan Copper industries

Ludhiana Punjab Hosiery

Lucknow U.P Embroidery work, Chicken work

Chennai Tamil Nadu Leather, cigarette, Integral coach factory

Madurai Tamil Nadu Cotton and Silk Weaving

Mirzapur U.P Carpet, Pottery, Brass industries

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Town State Industries

Muradabad UP Brassware, cutlery

Mathura U.P Oil refinery

Mysore Karnataka Sandalwood oil, Silk goods

Meerut U.P Publication work, Sports goods, Scissors making

Mumbai Maharashtra Cinema industries, Cotton textiles

Modinagar U.P Nylon thread

Moorie Jharkhand Aluminium

Majhagaon Maharashtra Ship building

Nagpur Maharashtra Cotton mills, Oranges

Nepanagar Madhya Pradesh Newsprint

Nasik Maharashtra Security Printing Press

Neyveli Tamil Nadu Lignite industries

Nunamati Assam Oil refineries

Narora U.P Atomic Power Plant

Nangal Punjab Fertilisers

Panna M.P Diamond mining

Pinjore Haryana Hindustan Machines Tools

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Town State Industries

Perambur Tamil Nadu Integral coach factory

Pimpri Maharashtra Penicillin factory

Raniganj W. Bengal Coal mining

Rourkela Orissa Steel plant, Chemical fertiliser

Rana Pratap Sagar Rajasthan Hydro Power Plant

Renukoote U.P Aluminium Plant

Roopnarayanpur W. Bengal Cables

Rishikesh Uttarakhand Antibiotic Plant

Saharanpur U.P Cigarette factory, News print

Sindri Jharkhand Chemical fertilizers

Srinagar Jammu & Kashmir Woolen shawls, Silk, Woodwork

Surat Gujarat Cotton textiles, Diamond Cutting

Surajpur Haryana Cement factory

Suratgarh Rajasthan Agriculture implements

Singhbhum Jharkhand Copper, Iron

Singreni Andhra Pradesh Cool mining

Salem Tamil Nadu Iron and Steel

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Town State Industries

Samastipur Bihar Jute, Paper, Tobacco, Sugar

Tarapur Maharashtra Atomic Power Plant

Titagarh W. Bengal Paper & Jute

Thiruvananthapuram Kerala Coir matting

Trombay Maharashtra Oil refinery

Tiruchirapalli Tamil Nadu Cigar

Tirupati Andhra Pradesh Scooter

Tanjore Tamil Nadu Silk clothes

Thumba Kerala Rocket launching Station

Vijaypur M.P Fertilizers

Viiaynagar Karnataka Steel Plant

Vishakhapatnam A.P Ship building, Iron and Steel, Oil refinery

Varanasi U.P Rail Engines and Saari industries

Worli Maharashtra Baby food

Zainkot J&K HMT Watches

Largest Longest Highest and Smallest in India

Longest River Ganges

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Longest River Ganges

The Longest Tributary River of India Yamuna

The Longest River of the South Godavari

Highest Mountain Peak Godwin Austin (K2)

Largest Lake (Fresh Water) Wular Lake (Kashmir)

Highest Dam Bhakra Dam (Punjab)

Largest Mosque Jama Masjid, Delhi

Longest Road Grand Trunk Road

State with Longest Coastline Gujarat

Longest Railway Route From Jammu to Kanyakumari

Longest Tunnel Jawahar tunnel (Jammu & Kashmir)

Longest National Highway NH - 7 which runs from Varanasi to Kanyakumari

Longest Dam Hirakud Dam (Orissa)

Longest River Bridge Mahatma Gandhi Setu, Patna

Longest River Ganges

Largest Populated City Mumbai (1.60 crore)

Largest Museum National Museum, Kolkata

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Longest River Ganges

Largest Delta Sunderban Delta, W. Bengal

Largest Dome Gol Gumbaz, Bijapur (Karnataka)

Largest Zoo Zoological Gardens, Alipur, Kolkata

Largest Man - made Lake Govind Vallabh Pant Sagar (Rihand Dam)

Largest Desert Thar (Rajasthan)

Highest Tower Pitampura Tower, Delhi

Smallest State (Area) Goa

Smallest State (Population) Sikim

Highest Waterfall Gersoppa waterfall (Karnataka)

Longest Electric Railway Line From Delhi to Kolkata via Patna

Densest Populated State West Bengal

Largest Cave Temple Kailash temple, Ellora (Maharashtra)

Largest Animal Fair Sonepur (Bihar)

Highest Gateway Buland Darwuza, Fatehpur Sikri (Agra)

Biggest Hotel Oberai-Sheraton (Mumbai)

Largest State (Area) Rajasthan

Largest State (Population) Uttar Pradesh

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Longest River Ganges

Place of Heaviest Rainfall Mausinram (Meghalaya)

Largest Corridor Rameshwaram temple corridor (Tamil Nadu)

Largest Cantilever Span Bridge Howrah Bridge (Kolkata)

Largest Forest State Madhya Pradesh

Highest Straight Gravity Dam Bhakra Dam

Longest Railway Platform Kharagpur (W. Bengal)

Largest Stadium Salt Lake (Yuva Bharti), Kolkata

Largest Port Mumbai

Highest Lake Devatal (Garhwal)

Largest Lake (Saline Water) Chilka Lake, Orissa

Highest Award Bharat Ratna

Highest Gallantry Award Paramveer Chakra

Largest Gurudwara Golden Temple, Amritsar

Deepest River Valley Bhagirathi & Alaknanda

State with Longest Coastline of South India Andhra Pradesh

Longest River which forms estuary Narmada

Largest Church Saint Cathedral (Goa)

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Longest River Ganges

Longest Beach Marina Beach, Chennai

Highest Battle Field Siachin Glacier

Highest Airport Leh (Laddakh)

Largest River Island Majuli (Brahmaputra River, Assam)

Largest Planetarium Birla Planetarium (Kolkata)

Important Monuments in India

Name Place Built by

Ajanta - Ellora Caves Aurangabad (Mah.) Gupta rulers

Aram Bagh Agra (UP) Babur

Agra Fort Agra (UP) Akbar

Akbar's Mausoleum Sikandra (UP) Akbar

Itmod - ud - daula Fort Agra (UP) Noorjahan

Anand Bhawan Allahabad (UP) Motilal Nehru

Bada Imambara Lucknow (UP) Asaf-ud-daula

Bharatpur Fort Bharatpur (Raj.) Raja Surajmal Singh

Bibi Ka Maqbara Aurangabad (Mah.) Aurongzeb

Char - Minor Hyderabad (AP) Quli Qutub Shah

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Name Place Built by

Charar - e - Sharif Jammu & Kashmir Zainul Abedin

Chhota Imambara Lucknow (UP) Muhammad Ali Shah

Name Place Built by

Dargah Ajmer Sharif Ajmer (Raj.) Sultan Shyasuddin

Dilwara's Jain Temple Mount Abu (Raj.) Siddharaja

Deewan - e - Khas Agra Fort (UP) Shahjahan

Adhai Din Ka Jhopra Ajmer (Raj.) Qutubuddin Aibak

Elephanfa's cave Mumbai (Mah.) Rashtrakuta rulers

Fatehpur Sikri Agra (UP) Akbar

Ferozshah Kotla Delhi Ferozshah Tughlaq

Golghar Patna (Bih.) British Government

Gateway of India Mumbai (Mah.) British Government

Hauz Khas Delhi Alauddin Khilji

Hawa Mahal Jaipur (Raj.) Maharaja Pratap Singh

Humayun's Tomb Delhi Hymayun's wife

Jama Masjid Agra (UP) Shahjahan

Jama Masjid Delhi Shahjahan

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Name Place Built by

Jagannath Temple Puri (Ori.) Anantvarmun Ganga

Jantar - Mantar Delhi Sawai Jai Singh

Jaigarh Fort Jaipur (Raj.) Sawai Jai Singh

Jim Corbett Park Nainital (Uttar.) Sir Malcom Hqilley

Jodhpur Fort Jodhpur (Raj.) Rao Jodhoji

Kanheri's Fort Mumbai (Mah.) Buddhists

Khirki Masjid Delhi Ghyasuddin Tughlaq

Lai Bagh Bangalore (Kar.) Hyder Ali

Lakshmi Narayan Temple Delhi Birla Family

Makka Masjid Hyderabad (AP) Quli Qutub Shah

Moti Masjid Agra Fort (UP) Shahjahan

Moti Masjid Delhi Fort Aurangzeb

Nahargarh Fort Jaipur (Raj.) Sawai Jai Singh

Nishat Garden Srinagar (J & K) Asaf Ali

Parana Qila Delhi Shershah Suri

Pathar Ki Masjid Patna (Bih.) Pervez Shah

President House Delhi British Government

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Name Place Built by

Qutub Minor Delhi Qutubuddin Aibak

Red Fort Delhi Shahjahan

Safdar Jung Tomb Delhi Shuja-ud-daula

Sabarmati Ashram Ahmadabad (Guj.) Mahatma Gandhi

Shantiniketan West Bengal Rabindra Nath Tagore

Shish Mahal Agra (UP) Shahjahan

Shalimar Garden Srinagar (J & K) Jahangir

Shershah's Tomb Sasaram (Bih.) Shershah's son

Saint George Fort Chennai (TN) East India Company

Sati Burj Mathura (UP) Raja Bhagwan Das

Sun Temple Konark (Ori.) Narsimhadeva

Swarna Mandir (Golden Temple) Amritsar (Pun.) Guru Ramdas

Taj Mahal Agra (UP) Shahjahan

Vellure Math Kolkata (WB) Swami Vivekanand

Victoria Memorial Kolkata (WB) British Government

Vishnupad Temple Gaya (Bih.) Rani Ahiliabai

Viiaya Stambha Chittorgarh (Raj.) Maharana Kumbha

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States in India

India, a union of states, is a Sovereign, Secular, Democratic Republic with a Parliamentary system of Government.

• The President is the constitutional head of Executive of the Union. In the states, the Governor, as the
representative of the President, is the head of Executive.
• The system of government in states closely resembles that of the Union. There are 28 states and 7 Union
territories in the country. Union Territories are administered by the President through an Administrator appointed
by him.
• From the largest to the smallest, each State / UT of India has a unique demography, history and culture, dress,
festivals, language etc.

List of States in India

Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Asom or Assam

Bihar Chattisgarh Goa

Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh

Jammu & Kashmir Jharkhand Karnatatka

Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra

Manipur Megalaya Mizoram

Nagaland Orissa Punjab

Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu

Tripura Uttarkhand Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

Union Territories of India

Andaman & Nicobar Islands India

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Capital Port Blair

Area 8.249 sq km

Population 356,152

Sex Ratio 846

Growth Rate 26.94%

Literacy 81.30%

Districts 2

Languages Hindi, Nicobarese, Bengali, Malayalam, Tamil, Telegu

• Andamans is a group of 204 islands, while Nicobars is a group of 19 islands. Out of these only 36 islands in
Andamans and 12 islands in Nicobars are inhabited.
• India’s southern-most location, Indira Point, is located in Nicobars only.
• These islands are mostly inhabited by tribals. Important tribes are the Great Andamanese, Onge, Jarawas and
Sentinalese in Andamans and Nicobarese and Shompens in Nicobars.
• Tourism and agriculture is the mainstay of economy.
• Mangrove forests are found in abundance in these islands.

Chandigarh in India

Capital Chandigarh

Area 114 sq. km

Population 900,914

Sex Ratio 773

Growth Rate 40.33%

Literacy 81.94%

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Capital Chandigarh

Languages Hindi, Punjabi, English

• It is one of the most beautiful and well-planned places in India. It was designed by a French architect, Le
Corbusier.
• Chandigarh serves as a joint capital of Punjab and Haryana.
• Many large and small scale industries are here which give Chandigarh its revenue.

Dadra & Nagar Haveli

Capital Silvassa

Area 491 sq. km

Population 220,490

Sex Ratio 811

Growth Rate 59.20%

Literacy 57.63%

Languages Gujarati, Hindi

• It is predominantly a rural area having about 79% population of tribals.

• Forests cover about 40% of the total area.

Daman & Diu India

Capital Daman

Area 112 sq. km

Population 158,204

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Capital Daman

Sex Ratio 989

Growth Rate 55.59%

Literacy 78.18%

Districts 2

Languages Gujarati

• Agriculture and small-scale industries are the back-bone of economy.

Delhi Union Territory

Capital Delhi

Area 1,483 sq. km

Population 1,37,82,976

Sex Ratio 821

Growth Rate 46.31%

Literacy 81.67%

Districts 9

Languages Hindi, Punjabi, Urdu and English

• Delhi is the eighth largest metropolis in the world by population.

• Delhi is the largest commercial centre of northern India and is the largest centre of small industries.
• Delhi has greater number of vehicles than the total vehicles of Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai put together.

Lakshadweep in India
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Capital Kavaratti

Area 32 sq. km

Population 60,595

Sex Ratio 947

Growth Rate 17.19%

Literacy 86.66%

Languages Jeseri (Dweep Bhasha) and Mahal

• Lakshadweep is group of 25 coral islands. It is the smallest Union Territory.

• Coconut is the only major crop.
• Fishing is another major activity.

Puducherry Union Territory

Capital Puducherry

Area 492 sq. km

Population 973,829

Sex Ratio 1001

Growth Rate 20.56%

Literacy 81.24%

Districts 4

Languages Tamil, Telegu, Malayalam, English, French

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• It is a former French colony, consisting of four districts, and named after the largest. In Sept 2006, the territory
changed its name from Pondicherrry to the vernacular original, Puducherry, which means, “New Village”.
• It is basically an agriculture based economy.

Sanctuaries and Parks in India

Name Location Reserves for

Achanakmar Sanctuary Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh Tiger, bear, chital, sambar, bison

Bandhavgarh National Park Shahdol, Madhya Pradesh Tiger, panther, chital, nilgai, wild bear

Bandipur Sanctuary Border of Karnataka and Tamil Elephant, tigers, panther, sambar, deer, birds
Nadu

Banarghatta Bangalore Elephant, chital, deer, gray

National Park Karnataka Partridges, green pigeon

Bhadra Sancturary Chikmagalur, Karnataka Elephant, chital, panther, sambar, wild bear

Bhimabandh Sanctuary Monghyr, Bihar Tiger, leopard, sambar, wild bear, chital, water
birds

Bori Sanctuary Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh Tiger, panther, sambar, chital, wild boar,
barking deer

Borivli National Park Mumbai Panther, sambar, langur, wild boar, chinkara

Chandraprabha Sanctuary Near Varanasi Uttar Pradesh Famous for Gir lions, chital and sambar

Corbett National Park named in memory of Jim Corbett, famous Nainital, Uttaranchal Tiger, leopards, elephants, sambar
sportsman

Name Location Reserves for

Dachigam Sanctuary Dachigam, Kashmir Kashmiri stag

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Name Location Reserves for

Datma Sanctuary Singbhum, Uttaranchal Elephants, leopard, wild bear, barking deer

Dandeli Sanctuary Dharwar, Karnataka Tiger, panther, elephant, chital, sambar, wild bear

Dudhwa National Park Lakhimpurkheri U.P. Tiger, panther, sambar, chital, nilgai, barking deer

Gandhi Sagar Sanctuary Mandsaur, M.P. Chital, sambar, chinkara, barking deer, wild birds

Garampani Sanctuary Diphu, Assam Elephant, leopard, wild buffalo, langur

Ghana Bird Sanctuary Bharatpur, Rajasthan Water birds, black-buck, chital, sambar

Gir Forest Junagarh, Gujarat India's biggest wild life sanctuary famous for Gir lions

Gautam Buddha Sanctuary Gaya, Bihar Tiger, leopard, sambar, chital, barking deer

Hazaribagh Sanctuary Hazaribagh, Jharkhand Tiger, leopard, chital, nilgai, sambar, wild cat

Intangki Sanctuary Kohima, Nagaland Elephant, gaur, tiger, panther, barking deer, wild boar

Jaldapara Sanctuary West Bengal Rhinoceros

Kawal Sanctuary Adilabad, A.P. Tiger, panther, gaur, chital, wild bear

Kaziranga National Park Jorhat, Assam Horned rhinoceros, gaur, elephant, leopard, wild buffalo

Khangchandzendra National Park Gangtok, Sikkim Snow leopard, musk deer, Himalayan bear

Kinnersani Sanctuary Khamrsan, A.P. Tiger, panther, gaur, chital, sambar, nilgai

Kolleru Pelicanary Elluru A.P. Pelicans, painted stork

Nagerhole National Park Coorg, Karnataka Elephant, tiger, panther, sambar, chital

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Name Location Reserves for

Namdafa Sanctuary Tirap, Arunachal Pradesh Elephant, panther, sambar, tiger, chital, king cobra

Nawegaon National Park Bhandara, Maharashtra Tiger, panther, sambar, chital, nilgai

Pachmarhi Sanctuary Hoshangabad, M.P. Tiger, panther, bear, sambar, nilgai, barking deer

Pakhal Sanctuary Warangal A.P. Tiger, panther, sambar, chital, nilgai

Parambikulam Sanctuary Palghat, Kerala Tiger, leopard, gaur, elephant, nilgai, chital

Pench National Park Nagpur, Maharashtra Tiger, panther, gaur, sambar, chital, nilgai

Periyar Sanctuary Idukki, Kerala Elephant, tiger, panther, gaur, nilgai, sambar, wild bear

Ranganthittoo Bird Sanctuary Islands in Cauvery river in Karnataka Important bird sanctuary

Rohla National Park Kulu, H.P. Snow leopard, brown bear, musk deer, snow cock, snow pigeon

Sariska Sanctuary Alwar, Rajasthan Tiger, panther, sambar, nilgai, chital, chinkara

Sharaswathy Valley Sanctuary Shimoga, Karnataka Elephant, tiger, panther, sambar, gaur chital, wild bear

Shikari Devi Sanctuary Mandi, H.P. Black bear, musk deer, panther, leopard, partridge

Shivpuri National Park Shivpuri, M.P. Tiger, panther, sambar, hyena, hyena, sloth bear, nilgai

Similipal Sanctuary Mayurbhanj, Orissa Elephant, tiger, leopard, gaur, chital

Someshwara Sanctuary Canara, Karnataka Tiger, panther, wild boar, leopard

Sunderban Tiger Reserve South 24 parganas, West Bengal Tiger, deer, wild boar, crocodile, Gangetic dolphin

Important Indian Towns on Rivers

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Town River

Allahabad At the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna

Patna Ganga

Varanasi Ganga

Kanpur Ganga

Hardwar Ganga

Badrinath Alaknanda

Agra Yamuna

Delhi Yamuna

Mathura Yamuna

Ferozpur Satluj

Ludhiana Satluj

Srinagar Jhelum

Town River

Lucknow Gomti

Jaunpur Gomti

Ayodhya Saryu

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Town River

Bareilly Ram Ganga

Ahmedabad Sabarmati

Kota Chambal

Jabalpur Narmada

Panji Mandavi

Ujjain Kshipra

Surat Tapti

Jamshedpur Swarnarekha

Dibrugarh Brahmaputra

Guwahati Brahmaputra

Kolkata Hooghly

Sambalpur Mahanadi

Cuttack Mahanadi

Seriranganatnam Cauvery

Hyderabad Musi

Nasik Godavari

Vijayvada Krishna

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Town River

Curnool Tungabhadra

Tiruchirapalli Cauvery

Heights of Some Important Indian Peaks

S No Peak Height in metres above mean Sea Level

1 K2 8,611

2 Kanchen Junga 8,598

3 Nanga Parvat 8,126

4 Gasher Brum 8,068

5 Broad Peak 8,047

6 Disteghil Sar 7,885

7 Masher Brum E 7,821

8 Nanda Devi 7,817

9 Masher Brum W 7,806

10 Rakaposhi 7,788

11 Kamet 7,756

12 Saser Kangri 7,672

13 Skyang Kangri 7,544

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S No Peak Height in metres above mean Sea Level

14 Sia Kangri 7,422

15 Chaukhamba (Badrinath Peak) 7,138

16 Trisul West 7,138

17 Nunkun 7,135

18 Pauhunri 7,128

19 Kangto 7,090

20 Dunagiri 7,066

Lengths of Some Important Indian Rivers

S No River Length (km)

1 Indus 3,000

2 Brahmaputra 2,900

3 Ganga 2,510

4 Godavari 1,450

5 Narmada 1,290

6 Krishna 1,290

7 Mahanadi 890

8 Cauvery 760

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Major Ports in India

SI. No. Western Coast Eastern Coast

1 Kandla (Child of Partition) Kolkata - Haldia (Riverine Port)

2 Mumbai (busiest and Biggest) Paradip (Exports Raw Iron into Japan)

3 Jawahar Lal Nehru (Fastest Growing) Vishakhapatnam (Deepest Port)

4 Marmugao (Naval base also) Chennai (Oldest and Artificial)

5 Mangalore (Exports Kudremukh Iron - ore) Ennore (Most Modern in Private Hands)

6 Cochin (Natural Harbour) Tuticorin (Southernmost)

World Geography
Cosmology Important Facts

The Universe or the Cosmos, as perceived today, consists of millions of Galaxies. A galaxy is a huge congregation of
stars held together by the forces of gravity.

• Edwin Hubble in 1924 first demonstrated existence of galaxies beyond Milky Way. He proved that these galaxies
are flying away from each other and that the farther they are, the faster they fly. This means that the universe is
expanding like a balloon that is being blown up.
• In the ancient times, the knowledge about the universe was vague and confined to mystery and religious
perceptions.
• In 140 AD, Ptolemy propounded the theory that the earth was the centre of the universe and the sun and other
heavenly bodies revolved around it. In 1543, Copernicus argued that the sun and not the earth was the centre of
the universe.
• However, he still equated the universe with the solar system. Kepler supported Copernicus but said that the sun
was the centre of the solar system and not the universe. In 1805, Hershel made it clear that the solar system was
a part of the much larger system of stars called galaxy.

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• Our galaxy is Milky Way Galaxy (or the Akash Ganga). It is spiral in shape. It consists of over a 100 billion stars
rotating and revolving about its centre. Nearest galaxy to ours is Andromeda.
• The Big Bang Theory evaluates that 15 billion years ago, cosmic matter (universe) was in an extremely
compressed state, from which expansion started by a primordial explosion. This explosion broke up the super-
dense ball and cast its fragments far out into space, where they are still traveling at thousands of miles per
second.
• It is from these speeding fragments of matter that our galaxies have been formed. The formation of galaxies and
stars has not halted the speed of expansion. And, as it happens in all explosions, the farthest pieces are flying the
fastest.
• Later, Pulsating (Oscillating) Universe Theory was given which says that universe periodically expands from the
explosion of the primordial body, then contracts back and explodes again, over immensely long cycles, ad
infinitum.
• Measurement Units of Space are :
• Light Year : It is the distance covered by light in one year in vacuum at a speed of 3 105 km/s.
• Astronomical Unit (A.U) : It is the mean distance between the earth and the sun. One light year is equal to
60,000 A.U.
• Parsec : It represents the distance at which the mean radius of earth’s orbit subtends an angle of one second of
an arc. It is equal to 3.26 light years.
• Stars are self – luminous bodies that account for 98 per cent of the material in the galaxy. The rest 2 per cent
consists of interstellar or galactic gas and dust in an attenuated form.
• Stars are formed by gravitational contractions from these vast clouds of galactic gas and dust. Star forming clouds
are thousands of times denser than the normal interstellar gas. Star forming matter is richer in hydrogen and
helium.
• A star’s colour indicates the temperature of its surface. Blue colour denotes maximum temperature. Then comes
yellow, then red, etc.
• The life of a star is spread over billions of years. It begins to form by compression of galactic gas and dust.
Compression generates heat which in turn causes hydrogen to be converted into helium in nuclear fusion, thereby
emitting large amount of heat and light.
• Continued nuclear fusion over a period of time starts depletion of hydrogen and the helium core becomes
increasingly heavy, resulting into swelling and reddening of outer regions. Such stars of gigantic dimensions are
termed as Red Giants.
• If the star is of sun’s size, it becomes a White Dwarf. Their central density can reach up to 10″ grams per cubic
cm.
• If die star is bigger than the sun but not more than twice as big, it will turn into a Neutron Star or Pulsar. Their
central density is 1014 grams per cubic cm. They are formed due to Novae or Super novae explosion.
• Stars having mass greater than three times that of the sun, because of their great gravitational power, have
contracted so much that they have developed super density of 1016 grams per cubic cm. It is so dense that
nothing, not even light, can escape from its gravity and hence called ‘Black Hole’.
• Brightest star outside our Solar System is Sirius, also called Dog Star.
• Closest star of Solar System is Proxima Centauri (4.2 light years away). Then come Alpha Centauri (4.3 light
years away) and Barnard’s Star (5.9 light years away).

Earth Solar System

Earth solar system consists of :

• The Sun
• The Planets
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• Dwarf Planets

and countless fragments of left – overs called asteroids, meteors, comets and satellites of the planets (Called small solar
system Bodies).

Origin of Solar System

Various theories have been given by different persons to explain the origin of Solar System.

Gaseous Hypothesis Kant

Nebular Hypothesis Laplace

Planetesimal Hypothesis Chamberlin and Moulton

Tidal Hypothesis James Jeans & Harold Jeffrey

Binary Star Hypothesis H. N. Russel

Fission Hypothesis Ross Gun

Cepheid Hypothesis A.C. Banerji

Nova Hypothesis Hoyle & Lyttleton

Electromagnetic Hypothesis H. Alfven

Interstellar Dust Hypothesis Schmidt

Nebular Cloud Hypothesis Dr. Von Weizsacker

Protoplanet Hypothesis G. Kuiper

Solar System Some Facts

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Solar System Some Facts

Biggest Planet Jupiter

Smallest Planet Mercury

Nearest Planet to Sun Mercury

Farthest Planet from Sun Neptune

Nearest Planet to Earth Venus

Brightest Planet Venus

Brightest star after Sun Sirius

Planet with maximum satellites Jupiter

Coldest Planet Neptune

Hottest Planet Venus

Heaviest Planet Jupiter

Red Planet Mars

Biggest Satellite Gannymede

Smallest Satellite Deimos

Blue Planet Earth

Morning/Evening Star Venus

Earth's Twin Venus

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Solar System Some Facts

Green Planet Neptune

Planet with a big red spot Jupiter

Lord of the Heavens Jupiter

Greatest Diurnal Temperature Mercury

Earth Movements

The Earth also called Blue Planet. It is the densest of all planets.

Earth Circumference : 40,232 Kilometers.

Earth Area : 510 million Square Kilometers Average distance from sun: 149 million-Kilometers.

Earth Perihelion : Nearest position of earth to sun. The earth reaches its perihelion on January 3 every year at a distance
of about 147 million-Kilometers.

Aphelion : Farthest position of earth from sun. The earth reaches its aphelion on July 4, when the earth is at a distance of
152 million Kilometers.

The shape of the earth is oblate spheroid or oblate ellipsoid (i.e. almost spherical, flattened a little at the poles with a slight
bulge at the centre).

2 Types of Earth Movements:

1. Rotation or daily movement.

2. Revolution or annual movement.

Earth Rotation

• Spins on its imaginary axis from west to east in 23 hrs, 56 min and 40.91 sec.
• Rotational velocity at equator is 1667 Kilometers/h and it decreases towards the poles, where it is zero.
• Earth’s rotation results in

i . Causation of days and nights;

ii . A difference of one hour between two meridians which are 15° apart;

iii. Change in the direction of wind and ocean currents;

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• Rise and fall of tides everyday.

The longest day in North Hemisphere is June 21, while shortest day is on 22 Dec (Vice-versa in S. Hemisphere).
• Days and nights are almost equal at the equator.

Earth Revolution

• It is earth’s motion in elliptical orbit around the sun. Earth’s average orbital velocity is 29.79 Kilometers/s.
• Takes 365 days, 5 hrs, 48 min and 45.51 sec. It results in one extra day every fourth year.
• Revolution of the earth results in

i . Change of seasons

ii . Variation in the lengths of days and nights at different times of the year

iii . Shifting of wind belts

iv . Determination of latitudes.

• Inclined Axis: The axis is an imaginary line running from north to south and passing through the centre of the
earth. It always remains inclined at an angle of 66½° to the plane of the earth’s orbit, and is tilted 23½° from a line
perpendicular to this plane. The two facts, i.e., a fixed angle of the earth’s axis to the plane of the orbit and the
axis always pointing in the same direction, when combined with the earth’s movements, results in varying lengths
of days and nights, seasonality and changes in the altitude of sun at different times of the year.

• Earth Seasons are periods into which the year can be divided as a result of the climatic conditions, largely due to
the changes in the duration and intensity of solar radiation.

The 4 Earth Seasons are:

• Spring: On March 21, the sun is directly overhead the equator. This is the season of spring in the northern
hemisphere.
• Summer: On June 21, the sun is directly overhead the Tropic of Cancer. Thus, the northern hemisphere
experiences summer.
• Autumn: On September 23, the sun returns to the equator, and the northern hemisphere experiences autumn.
• Winter: On December 22, the sun is at the Tropic of Capricorn, and the northern hemisphere experiences winter.

Earth Movements

The Earth also called Blue Planet. It is the densest of all planets.

Earth Circumference : 40,232 Kilometers.

Earth Area : 510 million Square Kilometers Average distance from sun: 149 million-Kilometers.

Earth Perihelion : Nearest position of earth to sun. The earth reaches its perihelion on January 3 every year at a distance
of about 147 million-Kilometers.

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Aphelion : Farthest position of earth from sun. The earth reaches its aphelion on July 4, when the earth is at a distance of
152 million Kilometers.

The shape of the earth is oblate spheroid or oblate ellipsoid (i.e. almost spherical, flattened a little at the poles with a slight
bulge at the centre).

2 Types of Earth Movements:

1. Rotation or daily movement.

2. Revolution or annual movement.

Earth Rotation

• Spins on its imaginary axis from west to east in 23 hrs, 56 min and 40.91 sec.
• Rotational velocity at equator is 1667 Kilometers/h and it decreases towards the poles, where it is zero.
• Earth’s rotation results in

i . Causation of days and nights;

ii . A difference of one hour between two meridians which are 15° apart;

iii. Change in the direction of wind and ocean currents;

• Rise and fall of tides everyday.

The longest day in North Hemisphere is June 21, while shortest day is on 22 Dec (Vice-versa in S. Hemisphere).
• Days and nights are almost equal at the equator.

Earth Revolution

• It is earth’s motion in elliptical orbit around the sun. Earth’s average orbital velocity is 29.79 Kilometers/s.
• Takes 365 days, 5 hrs, 48 min and 45.51 sec. It results in one extra day every fourth year.
• Revolution of the earth results in

i . Change of seasons

ii . Variation in the lengths of days and nights at different times of the year

iii . Shifting of wind belts

iv . Determination of latitudes.

• Inclined Axis: The axis is an imaginary line running from north to south and passing through the centre of the
earth. It always remains inclined at an angle of 66½° to the plane of the earth’s orbit, and is tilted 23½° from a line
perpendicular to this plane. The two facts, i.e., a fixed angle of the earth’s axis to the plane of the orbit and the
axis always pointing in the same direction, when combined with the earth’s movements, results in varying lengths
of days and nights, seasonality and changes in the altitude of sun at different times of the year.

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• Earth Seasons are periods into which the year can be divided as a result of the climatic conditions, largely due to
the changes in the duration and intensity of solar radiation.

The 4 Earth Seasons are:

• Spring: On March 21, the sun is directly overhead the equator. This is the season of spring in the northern
hemisphere.
• Summer: On June 21, the sun is directly overhead the Tropic of Cancer. Thus, the northern hemisphere
experiences summer.
• Autumn: On September 23, the sun returns to the equator, and the northern hemisphere experiences autumn.
• Winter: On December 22, the sun is at the Tropic of Capricorn, and the northern hemisphere experiences winter.

Earth Some Important Facts

Age 4,60,00,00,000 years

Total surface area 51,01,00,500 Square Kilometers

Land area (29.08%) 14,89,50,800 Square Kilometers

Water area (70.92%) 36,11,49,700 Square Kilometers

Mean density 5.52 gm. per cc

Equatorial diameter 12,755 Kilometers

Polar diameter 12,712 Kilometers

Escape velocity 11.2 Kilometers/sec

Mass 5.880 1024 kg

Volume 10,83,20,88,40,000 kg3

Distance from Moon 3,82,200 Kilometers

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Volume 10,83,20,88,40,000 kg3

Highest place on Earth Mount Everest (8,850 m)

Deepest point in Ocean Challenger Deep in Mariana Trench in Pacific Ocean near Philippines (11,033 m deep)

Deepest point on Land Dead Sea (396 m deep)

Rotation time 23 hrs, 56 min, 40.91 sec

Revolution time 365 days, 5 hrs, 48 min, 45.51 sec

Satellite 1 (Moon)

Tilt of axis from Orbital Plane 23° 27

Distance from Sun 14,94,07,000 Kilometers

Equatorical circumference 40,075 Kilometers

Polar circumference 40,024 Kilometers

Average Ocean depth 3,554 m

Date of perihelion (minimum distance from Sun) Jan 3

Date of aphelion (maximum distance from Sun) July 4

Orbital circumference 924,375,700 Kilometers

Average Orbital speed 29.783 Kilometers/sec. (107,218 Kilometers/h)

Minimum surface temperature 88° C

Mean surface temperature 14° C

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Volume 10,83,20,88,40,000 kg3

Maximum surface temperature 58° C

Earth Latitude and Longitude

Earth Latitude

• Imaginary lines drawn parallel to the equator. Measured as an angle whose apex is at the centre of the earth
• The equator represents 0° latitude, while the North Pole is 90° N and the South Pole 90° S
• 23½° N represents Tropic of Cancer while 23½° S represents Tropic of Capricorn.
• 66½° N represents Arctic Circle while 66½° S represents Antarctic Circle.
• There are total 181 latitudes including the equator. Each parallel of latitude is a circle, but they are not equal.
• The circle becomes smaller towards the poles. Equator is the ‘Greatest Circle’ that can be drawn on the earth’s
surface.
• The distance between any two parallels of latitude is always equal.

Earth Longitude

• It is the angular distance measured from die centre of the earth. On the globe the lines of longitude are drawn as
a series of semicircles that extend from the North Pole to the South Pole through the equator. They are also
called meridians.
• The distance between any two meridians is not equal. At the equator, 1 degree = 111 km. At 30°N or S, it is 96.5
km. It goes on decreasing this way until it is zero at the poles.
• There are 360 meridians of longitude. The prime meridian is a longitude of 00, passing through the Royal
Observatory at Greenwich near London.
• This meridian is taken by geographers to divide the earth into the eastern and the western hemispheres.
• Each meridian of longitude is a semi-circle. 180° meridian (International Date Line) lies exactly opposite to °
meridian. Such points are called Antipodl Points.
• The earth is divided into 24 longitudinal zones, each being 15° or 1 hour apart in time (4 minutes / degree).

Longitude and Time

• Places that are on the same meridian have the same local (sun) time. Since the earth makes one complete
revolution of 360° in 24 hours, it passes through 15° in one hour or 1° in 4 minutes.
• The earth rotates from west to east, hence places east of Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain time whereas
places west of Greenwich see the sun later and lose time.
• A suitable memory acronym can be: East-Gain-Add (E.G.A.) and West-Lose-Subtract (W.L.S.). So, if it is noon in
London (near 0°), 15° east will be one hour ahead of London or 1 p.m. and Chennai of 80°E will be 5 hours 20
minutes ahead. To avoid confusion about having many local times within one country, a particular Meridian is
chosen for the whole country whose time is known as ‘standard time’.
• Generally, the standard meridians are chosen to differ from the Greenwich meridian by the multiples of fifteen
degree or seven and a half degree, i.e., by exact number of hours or half hours. The world is thus divided into a
number of time zones. Larger countries like Russia, Canada, USA etc., have greater east-west extension, so they
adopt several time zones. Russia has 11 time zones while USA and Canada have 5 time zones.

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• India, whose longitudinal extent is approx. 30°, has adopted only one time zone, selecting the 82.5°E for the
standard time which is 5 hours and 30 minutes ahead of GMT (Greenwich Mean Time).

International Date Line

• It is the 180° meridian running over the Pacific Ocean, deviating at Aleutian Islands, Fiji, Samoa and Gilbert
Islands.
• Travelers crossing the Date Line from west to east (i.e., from Japan to USA) repeat a day and travelers crossing it
from east to west (i.e., from USA to Japan) lose a day.

Earth Eclipses

Earth Lunar Eclipse

• When earth comes between sun and moon.

• Occurs only on a full moon day. However, it does not occur on every full moon day because the moon is so small
and the plane of its orbit is tilted about 5° with respect to the plane of the earth’s orbit. It is for this reason that
eclipses do not occur every month.
• Can last up to one hour 40 minutes. The moon does not become completely dark during most lunar eclipses. In
many cases, it becomes reddish.The earth’s atmosphere bends part of the sun’s light around the earth and
towards the moon.
• This light is red because the atmosphere scatters the other colors present in sunlight in greater amounts than it
does red.

Earth Solar Eclipse

When moon comes between sun and earth.

• Can be partial or total.

• Occurs only on a new moon day when the moon is in line with the sun. However, due to the inclination of the
moon’s orbit, a solar eclipse doesn’t occur on every new moon day.

Earth Climate

Earth Climate

The average weather conditions over a large area is called the climate of a place. Weather conditions over a specific
length of time, usually a period of 31 years, are taken into consideration.

On a large scale, the climate of a particular region is determined by:

i. Latitude and tilt of the earth’s axis, which determines the amount of solar radiation received by the area

ii. The distribution of land and sea and proximity of ocean currents

iii. The altitude and topography of the area

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iv. The location of the area in relation to the main circulation belts of the earth.

Climate can be classified on the basis of temperature, rainfall, evaporation, evapotranspiration and water balance. One of
the universally accepted climate classifications is by Koeppen which is being described here.

Types of Climates

1. Tropical Rain Forest Climate

• Also called equatorial type of climate or Selvas.

• 5° – 10° of equator, nights and days equal.
• Average monthly temperature is 24° – 27°c, annual range least. Diurnal range of temperature far greater than the
annual range. Here night is the winter.
• Called ‘Belt of Calm’ or Doldrums.
• Convectional rainfall. Annual rainfall is 250 cm.
• Broad-leaved evergreen dense forests. Trees are gregarious and there is competition for sunlight. Have more
species of plants and animals than in all others combined.
• In Amazon basin, Congo basin, Indonesia.

2. Tropical Monsoon Climate

• Complete seasonal reversal of winds.

• Rainfall seasonal (generally in summers). Due to this vegetation is deciduous.
• Approx. 200 cm of rainfall.
• Occurs in Western Guinea coast of Africa, South-Eastern Asia, Northern Australia, some parts of Amazon valley
and West Indies.

3. Tropical Grasslands/Savanna Climate

• Average annual temperature is 23°c. Annual rainfall is about 150 cm. Area- Africa, East and Central South
America.
• Bounded by tropical rain forest climate towards the equator and dry climate towards the poles, the Savannah type
is characteristic of grasslands in tropical and subtropical latitudes. Grasslands are dotted with scattered trees and
bushes that can survive the drought season.
• Rainfall in summer owing to convectional ascent of air. Distinct dry season in winter. Trees with longer roots, fire-
resistant.

4. Tropical-Subtropical hot Desert

• Situated in the trade wind belt. Occupy the western margins of continents. The area includes North America –
Colorado Desert, Mexican Desert; Africa-Sahara, Kalahari, Namib Desert; S W.Asia-Arabian, Iranian, Thar
Desert; S.America-Atacama; Australia-Great Australian Desert.
• Average annual temperature is 38° c; annual summer temperature is 40° c, annual winter temperature is 15° c.
average annual rainfall is about 25-40 cm. Greatest diurnal temperature.
• Highest insolation, as there is no clouds cover to scatter the insolation.
• Vegetation is xerophytic.

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5. Middle Latitude Desert Climate

• Found between 35°-50° N and S.

• Area: Tarim, Gobi, Russian Turkistan and C. Iran. In Southern Hemisphere, only in Patagonia.
• Unlike the hot deserts, they have very cold winters because of their interior location.

6. Tropical and Subtropical Steppes

• Transition belt between hot deserts and humid climates. Occupy pole-ward margins of the tropical and subtropical
deserts.
• Average annual temperature is 21° c.
• Semi-arid climate characterized by abundance of shrubs and grasses.
• Known by different names:

• Prairies – North America

• Pampas – South America
• Veldt – South Africa
• Downs – Australia
• Steppes – Eurasia
• Canterbury – New Zealand
• Postaz – Hungary
• Manchurian – Russia

7. Mediterranean Climate

• In the western coast of continents between 30°-45° N & S; Around the Mediterranean Sea, in South Europe,
North Africa, California coast, Central Chile, Cape of Good Hope and South East Australia.
• Characterized by dry summer and humid winter. Off-shore trade winds blow in summer; they are dry and give no
rainfall. Cyclonic rainfall in winter.
• Average annual temperature is 16° c. average winter temperature, 10° c, summer 25°c annual rainfall is 40-60
cm.
• Olives, grapevine and citrus family fruits are the chief products of these regions which are also known for grain
farming.

8. China Type Climate

• Average annual temperature is 19° c, annual rainfall 120 cm.

• In the eastern coasts of continents between 25°- 45° N & S. Areas- China, South East USA, South Brazil, Eastern
Argentina, South East Africa, South East Australia, South Japan. It is the eastern counterpart of the
Mediterranean type.
• Characteristics-Hot summers and mild winters. Rainfall throughout the year.

9. West European Type Climate

• On the western side of continents between 40°-65° N & S. Areas- North West Europe including British Isles, West
coat of Canada, South Chile, Southern New Zealand.
• Summers are moderate to cool (15°-18°); winters mild (2°-10°). Average annual temperature is 10° c.

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• Annual Rainfall: 75-100 cm. No dry season as the westerly winds blow from the ocean throughout the year.
Rainfall is mostly of cyclonic origin.

10. Cool East Coast Climate

• The Corn Belt of US has this type of climate; that is why it is known as ‘Corn-Belt’ climate.
• Average summer temp is 21°-24°c; it is long, warm and humid.
• Winter temp average-4° to 1.7° for a period of 3-5 months.

11. Continental Type Climate

• Coldest winter month average -12° to -6.7°c.

• Hottest summer months average 18°c to 21°c.
• In the interior parts of big continents.

12. Taiga Climate

• Taiga means snow forests or coniferous forests; needle shaped leaves, composed of evergreen spruce, fir and
pine. Extends in two large belts in east-west direction from Alaska to Newfoundland in North America and
from Norway to Kamchatka Peninsula in Eurasia.
• Cool and short summers (around 10°c) and very cold and long winters (below 0°c).
• Annual range of temperature highest. (In Verkhoyansk, Jan temp is -50°, annual range being 64°c)
• Total annual precipitation below 50 cm.
• These forests are the most important source of softwood and fur bearing animals.

13. Tundra Climate

• Summers are warm enough to melt the thin snow cover or small water bodies, with the result that land is water
soaked and marshes, swamps are common.
• Precipitation less than 30 cm.
• Blizzards blow.
• Lichens and mosses common.

14. Highland Climate

• Experienced in the mountainous regions.

• Determined by elevation, shape of the highland, exposure to winds and location.
• Here winds are much stronger than at low levels.
• Vegetation varies as we move up.

Important Deserts of the World:

• Sahara – N. Africa (Includes the Libyan and the Nubian Desert)

• Australian – Australia (Includes Gibson, Simpson, Victorian, Great Sandy)
• Arabian – Arab Countries (Includes Rub’al Khali & An-Nafad of S. Arabia and Dast-e-Lut & Dast-e-Kavir of Iran)
• Kalahari – Africa (mainly in Botswana)
• Gobi – Mongolia

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• Atacama – Central Chile

• Patagonian – Argentina
• Nabib – Namibia
• TaklaMakan – Sinkiang, China
• Karakum – Turkmenistan
• Sonoran – Arizona and California (USA)
• Thar – India

Isopleth

• Lines drawn on map along which the value of a particular phenomenon is uniform.

Some Important Isopleths are:

Isopleth Reactions

Isobars Equal pressure

Isobaths Equal depth in sea

Isobronts Thunder-storm at the same time

Isohaline Salinity

Isohels Sunshine

Isohyets Rainfall

Isohypse (or Contour Lines) elevation above sea-level

Isonif Snow

Isotherms Temperature

Isoneph Cloudiness

Isodapan Equal transportation cost distance

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Isopleth Reactions

Isocline Slope

The Earth Hydrosphere

The Earth Hydrosphere

• Earth Hydrosphere is the name given to the mass of water that covers about 71% of the earth’s surface.
• The average depth of oceans is about 4 km.

Earth Ocean Floor

• It is very irregular as the surface of the continents.

• Four major units of Earth ocean floor are:

Continental Shelf of India

• It is the coastal part of the ocean which is not very deep and the slope of the bottom is very gentle.
• Extends to a depth of 100 fathoms (1 fathom = 1.8 m).
• In regions where the mountains extend along the coast, the shelf is narrower.

About 20% petrol and gas found here. They also provide the richest fishing ground in the world. Marine life exists entirely
here.

They occupy about 7% of the total ocean area.

Continental Slopes

• Extends seawards from the Continental Shelf. The continent blocks are supposed to end at the site of continental
slope.
• The boundary between shelf and slope is known as Andesite Line, named after the andesite rock.
• Depth is up to 2000 fathoms.
• They cover about 8.5% of the total ocean area.

Continental Rises

• At the foot of slope is found an area slightly rising due to the accumulation of debris transported over the slope.
• Oil deposits occur here.

Abyssal or the Deep Sea Plains

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• It is the deepest and the most extensive part of the ocean floor and accounts for about 40% of the total ocean
floor.
• Parts of the abyssal plains are occupied by raised ridges or submarine mountains and by very deep trenches or
canyons.
• Ridges are the raised areas in sea. E.g., Mid-Adantic ridge (S-shaped), Indian Ocean ridge (inverted Y-shaped).
• A ridge rising more than 1000m above the ocean floor is called Seamount. Flat topped seamounts are called
Guyots (maximum in Pacific Ocean)
• Some parts of the ridge or volcanic peaks reach the surface of the oceans and form islands (E.g. Hawaii Islands).
• Trenches are narrow and steep sided depressions. They occur where two plates of the earth’s crust are moving
together and one is being pushed down below the other. Deepest is. Challenger Deep, a part of Mariana Trench
in Pacific Ocean, near Philippines, is more than 11 km deep.
• Submarine canyons are the deep gorges on the ocean floor and are restricted to the continental shelves, slopes
and rises.

Salinity of Water

The proportion of dissolved salts to pure waster is called salinity. The average salinity in the oceans and seas is 350/00,
i.e., 35 grams of salt in one litre of water.

Salinity in decreasing order is: NaCl, MgCl, MgSO4, CaSO4, KSO4, etc. Chlorine is the most abundant element.

Max salinity: Lake Van (Turkey) – 3330/00. Then Dead Sea – 2400/00. Most saline sea is Red Sea.

• The main source of salinity is dissolution of the rocks of oceanic crust, which contains salts.
• It is maximum at the tropics, because here temperature is high. Equatorial regions come second because
although they have high temperatures, they have high rainfall also. Poles have minimum salinity because of
addition of fresh water in the form of icebergs and excessive snowfall.
• It causes vertical circulation of water.

Earth Waves

• They are caused due to the friction with the winds.

• There is no forward movement of water in a wave. When a wave enters shallow water, it breaks. The top of it is
thrown forward and this is when water moves forward. Water from the breaking wave runs up the shore as swash
and back down the shore as backwash
• The maximum height of waves in most oceans is about 12 m but they may be as high as 15 m. Seismic waves or
tsunamis are the waves caused by earthquakes in volcanic eruptions in the sea bottom. The tsunamis which hit
the coasts in the SE Asia on Dec 26, 2004, caused havoc in that region.

Coral Reefs in India

• Corals are a kind of calcareous rocks chiefly made of the skeletons of minute sea organisms called ‘polyps’. They
are formed due to accumulation and compaction of skeletons of these lime secreting organisms.
• Corals are found mainly in the tropical oceans and seas because they require high mean annual temperature
ranging around 20° c. They cannot survive at a greater depth than 60-77m below sea level. Muddy or very saline
water is injurious for their growth.
• The coral reefs are classified on the basis of nature, shape and mode of occurrence into the following three:

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1. Fringing Reef: Coral reefs that develop along the continental margins or along the islands are called fringing
reefs. The seaward slope is steep and vertical while the landward slope is gentle. Sometimes there is a
lagoon or shallow channel between the fringing reef and the land. Such reefs are found near Rameshwaram
in the Gulf of Mannar.
2. Barrier Reef: They are the largest, most extensive, highest and widest reefs of all. They are formed off the
coastal platforms and parallel to them. There is an extensive but shallow lagoon between the coastal land and
the barrier reef. The Great Barrier Reef of Australia is the largest barrier reef in the world.
3. Atoll: A reef of narrow growing corals of horse shoe shape and crowned with palm trees is called an atoll. It is
generally formed around an island or in an elliptical form on a submarine platform. There is a lagoon in the
middle of the coral ring. E.g. Fiji Atoll.

Earth Tides

Earth Tides

• Refer to the phenomenon of regular rise and fall of the sea water. Though both sun and moon exert gravitational
force on earth, resulting in the production of tides, the moon, by nature of its closeness to the earth, has greater
control over the timings of the tidal rises and falls.
• The interval between two tides is 12 hrs and 26 minutes.

Spring Tide

• When the sun, moon and the earth are in a straight line, the gravitational force is at its greatest because tide
producing forces of both sun and moon complement each other and they pull together. This produces tides of
unusually great range, called the spring tide.
• These occur about twice a month: at new moon when the sun and the moon are in conjugation and at full moon
when they are in opposition.

Neap Tide

• Lowest magnitude as the tide producing forces of sun and moon act opposite to each other, as they form a
triangle.
• This happens during phases of first and third quarter, i.e., at half moon, the sun’s tide producing force tends to
balance the tide producing force of the moon., resulting in tides of unusually small range known as neap tides.

Internal Structure of Earth

The Crust of Earth

• It is the outermost and the thinnest layer of the earth’s surface, about 8 to 40 km thick. The crust varies greatly in
thickness and composition – as small as 5 km thick in some places beneath the oceans, while under some
mountain ranges it extends up to 70 km in depth.
• The crust is made up of two layers- an upper lighter layer called the Sial (Silicate + Aluminium) and a lower
density layer called Sima (Silicate + Magnesium).
• The average density of this layer is 3 gm/cc.

The Mantle of Earth

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• This layer extends up to a depth of 2900 km.

• Mantle is made up of 2 parts: Upper Mantle or Asthenosphere (up to about 500 km) and Lower Mantle.
Asthenosphere is in a semi-molten plastic state, and it is thought that this enables the lithosphere to move about
it. Within the asthenosphere, the velocity of seismic waves is considerably reduced (Called ‘Low Velocity Zone’).
• The line of separation between the mantle and the crust is known as Mohoviricic Discontinuity.

The Core of Earth

• Beyond a depth of 2900 km lies the core of the earth.

• The outer core is 2100 km thick and is in molten form due to excessive heat out there. Inner core is 1370 km thick
and is in plastic form due to the combined factors of excessive heat and pressure. It is made up of iron and nickel
(Nife) and is responsible for earth’s magnetism. This layer has the maximum specific gravity.
• The temperatures in the earth’s core lie between 2200°c and 2750°c.
• The line of separation between the mantle and the core is called Gutenberg-Wiechert Discontinuity.

Note:

Temperature Inside the Earth: In the first 100 km, 12° increase per km. In the next 300 km, 2° increase per km. After
that it is 1° increase per km.

Composition of Earth

• Made up of over 100 elements.

• The following 8 are important:

Oxygen 46.5%

Silicon 27.72%

Aluminium 8.13%

Iron 5 01%

Calcium 3.63%

Sodium 2.85%

Potassium 2.62%

Magnesium 2.09%

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Magnesium 2.09%

Earth Rocks

Rocks of Earth

Any aggregate of material particles that forms part of the earth’s crust is called a rock.

There are 3 major types of rock types :

Igneous Rocks

• Formed by the solidification of molten magma from the interior of the earth.
• Most abundant of the three types of rocks (95%).
• They do not occur in layers. Most of them are crystalline and do not contain fossils.
• All other types of rocks originate from these rocks, thus called Primary rocks.

They are classified on several grounds as mentioned below:

1. On the basis of mode of occurrence

• Intrusive Igneous Rocks: They are formed by the solidification of magma beneath the earth’s surface. They are
further divided into plutonic and hypabyssal igneous rocks. Plutonic rocks cool deep beneath the earth. E.g.,
Granite. Hypabyssal rocks cool just beneath the earth’s surface. E.g., Batholith, laccolith, phacolith, sills, dykes,
etc.
• Extrusive Igneous Rocks: They are formed due to cooling and solidification of hot and molten lava at the earth’s
surface. E.g., Basalt, gabbro, etc.

2. On the basis of Silica Content

• Acidic igneous rocks having more silica. E.g. Granite.

• Basic igneous rocks having less silica. E.g. Gabbro.

Sedimentary Rocks

• Made up of weathered remains of igneous rocks. Also contains fossils of plants and animals.
• Comprise only about 5% of the earth’s crust but cover about 75% of the total land surface.
• The layers of sedimentary rocks hold all reserve of coal, oil and natural gas.
• Also known as Stratified Rocks because of the layers.
• Sedimentary rocks fall into three main groups:

1. Mechanically Formed: These are called clastic sedimentary rocks; the sediments are largely derived from
pre-existing rocks that have been broken down and then transported by water, wind or ice to form rocks.
2. Organically Formed Rocks: These rocks are derived from remains of plants (e.g. peat, lignite, bituminous
coal), or animals (e.g., chalk and coral).
3. Chemically Formed: E.g., Gypsum, salt rock, etc.

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Metamorphic Rocks

• Sometimes igneous or sedimentary rocks metamorphize or change due to great ‘pressure, intense temperature or
the action of water and chemical activity.
• Examples of metamorphic rocks formed from different rocks are:

Metamorphic Rock Made From

Slate Shale and mudstone

Quartzite Sandstone

Gneiss Aranite

Marble Limestone, dolomite or chalk

Schist Shale

Anthracite Coal

Earthquakes

Earthquakes

• Tremors or vibrations of earth’s surface produced by internal forces.

• The point of origin of earthquake is called Seismic focus. Most of the earthquakes originate at the depth of 50-100
km inside the earth.
• The point on the earth’s surface vertically above the earth’s surface is called Epicentre.
• The passage of earthquake waves is recorded by Seismograph.
• The magnitude of waves is measured on Richter’s scale. For measurement of the intensity of the earthquake
(damage caused), the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale is used.

Types of Waves Earthquakes

1. Primary Waves (P-Waves): Travel from the point of happening by the displacement of surrounding particles.
They are transmitted through solids, liquids and gases. Travels fastest.
2. Secondary Waves (S-Waves): Travels through solids only. Thus they cannot pass through core.
3. Surface Waves or Long Waves (L-Waves): Travels on earth’s surface and causes maximum destruction. They
are recorded after the P and S waves.

Distribution of Earthquakes

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• Around the Pacific Ocean along a belt of volcanoes known as the Ring of Fire. 68 per cent of the volcanoes are
experienced in this region.
• From the middle of Asia (Himalayas, Caspian Sea) through the Mediterranean Sea to West Indies. 21 per cent
earthquakes are experienced in the region.
• Mid-Atlantic ridge belt which accounts for 11 per cent of the earthquakes.

Earth Volcanoes

A volcano is a vent or opening usually circular in form through which heated materials consisting of gases, water, liquid
lava and fragments of rocks are ejected from the highly heated interiors to he surface of the earth.

Volcanic eruptions are closely associated with several interconnected processes such as

• The gradual increase in temperature with increasing depth at a rate of 1°c per 32 m due to heat generated by
degeneration of radioactive elements inside the earth
• Origin of magma because of lowering of melting point caused by reduction in pressure of overlying rocks due to
fractures caused by splitting of plates
• Origin of gases and water-vapour due to heating of water
• Ascent of magma due to pressure from gases and vapour
• Occurrence of volcanic eruptions. These eruptions are closely associated with plate boundaries.

Classification of Volcanoes

1. Classification on the basis of Periodicity of Eruptions:

• Active Volcano: Volcano which erupt periodically. E.g. Maona Loa in Hawaii, Etna in Sicily, Vesuvius in Italy,
Stromboli in Mediterranean Sea, etc.
• Dormant Volcano: Volcano which has been quiescent for a long time but in which there is a possibility of
eruption. E.g. Fujiyama in Japan, Krakatoa in Indonesia, Barren island Volcano in Andamans, etc.

2. Classification on the basis of Mode of Eruption

• Central Eruption Type or Explosive Type: E.g. Hawaiian type, Strombolian type, Volcanian type, Pelean type,
Vesuvius type, etc.
• Fissure Eruption or Quiet Eruption Type: Large quantities of lava quietly flow up from fissures and spread out
over the surrounding areas. Successive lava flow results in the growth of a lava plateau. E.g. Deccan Plateau,
etc.

Distribution of Volcanoes in the World

• About 15% of world’s active volcanoes are found along the ‘constructive or divergent’ plate margins, whereas
80% volcanoes are associated with the ‘destructive or convergent’ plate boundaries.

1. The Circum-Pacific belt or the ‘Ring of Fire’. It extends across the Kamchatka Peninsula, Kurile Islands, the
Islands of Japan, Philippines, New Guinea, New Zealand and the Soloman Islands. It also passes through the
Antarctica and the western coast of America.

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2. The Mid-Continent belt includes volcanoes of Alpine mountain chain, the Mediterranean Sea and the fault zone of
eastern Africa. E.g. Stromboli, Vesuvius, Etna, Kilimanjaro, etc.
3. The Mid-Atlantic belt in which the volcanoes are fissure eruption type. E.g. Iceland, Canary Islands, Cape Verde,
Azores, etc.

Earth Mountains

Types of Mountains

Fold Mountains of the World

They are formed when the rocks of the crust of the earth folded under stress, mainly by forces of compression (as a result
of series of earthquakes).

E.g. – All big mountain systems: Himalayas, Alps, Andes, Rockies, Atlas, etc.

On the basis of age, fold mountains are grouped into: Young / New Fold Mountains

Came into existence after the continental drift. E.g. Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alps. Himalayas are regarded the
youngest mountains in the world.

Old Mountains

They belong to pre-drift era, then subjected to denudation and uplift; many faults were formed; occur as relict mountains
today. E.g. Pennines (Europe), Appalachians (US), Aravallis (India).

Block Mountains of the World

These are formed when great blocks of earth’s crust may be raised or lowered. During the uplift of structural mountains,
sometimes magma flows upwards into the crust.

On its cooling and hardening beneath the surface, it contracts and the overlying rock may crack into large blocks moving
up or down. An intense folding of rocks is generally followed by faulting of strata due to horizontal forces of tension.

The land between the two parallel faults either raises forming Block Mountains or Horsts, or subsides into a depression
termed as Rift Valley or Graben.

Eg: Narmada, Tapti and Damodar valley in India, the Vosges in France and Black forest in Germany (through which
Rhine River flows).

Volcanic Mountains of the World

Formed as a result of volcanic eruption & the outflow of lava (through crater, the opening). Also called Mountains of
Accumulation. Have a gentle slope.

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E.g: Cotopaxi in Andes, Vesuvius and Etna in Italy, Fujiyama in Japan, Mauna Loa and Kilauea (Most active volcano) in
Hawaii, Ojos del Salado in Argentina / Chile (Highest active volcano), Popocatepeti in Mexico, Raineer of Washington,
Stromboli in Mediterranean (called Lighthouse of the Mediterranean), Mirapi and Krakatao in Indonesia, etc.

Relict Mountains

Sometimes, the mountains are carved out as a result of erosion of plateaus & high planes by various agents of erosion.
E.g., Highlands of Scotland, Sierras of Spain, Catskill mountains of New York and Nilgiri, Parasnath, Girnar, Rajmahal of
India.

Major Mountain Ranges of the World

Andes South America 6,960

Himalayas-Karakoram-Hindukush South Central Asia 8,850

Rockies North America 4,401

Great Dividing Range East Australia 2,228

Western Ghats Western India 2,637

Caucasus Europe, Asia 5,642

Alaska USA 6,194

Alps Europe 4,808

Apennines Europe 2,912

Ural Asia 1,895

Pennines Europe 893

Pyrenees Europe 3,404

Appalachian North America 2,040

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Earth Pressure and Winds

Air moving in a particular direction is called wind. The principal cause of winds is difference in pressure. Air always moves
from areas of high pressure to those with low pressure. The slope of the pressure from high to low is known as Pressure
Gradient and the direction of this direction decides the direction of winds.

• Wind velocity is directly related to the steepness of the pressure gradient.

• In addition, the direction of winds is affected by the Coriolis Force, which is caused by the rotation of the earth.
Under the influence of this effect, winds are deflected to their right in the Northern Hemisphere and to their left in
the Southern Hemisphere.
• This is referred to as Parrel’s Law. Coriolis force is absent at the equator and increases towards the poles. Due to
this, the winds, which would blow at right angles to the isobars under the pressure gradient, blow obliquely to
them.

Global Pressure Belts

Equatorial Low Pressure Belt (or Doldrums)

• From 5°N to 5°S.

• Tremendous heat, thus warm air rises creating low pressure. Also, the centrifugal force is very high at the
equator, where the velocity of rotation is high. Hence, the air masses tend to be thrown out, resulting in low
pressure.
• Wind speed low, that’s why called Doldrums (Belt of Calm).

Tropical High Pressure Belt (or Horse Latitudes)

• From 30° to 35° N and S.

• Apart from 2 months, usually high temperature.
• Here the pressure is high, although high temperature, because here pressure depends on the rotation and
movement of air (as winds from Doldrums belt rises up and accumulate here. Also winds from Sub-Polar Low
Pressure Belt accumulate here).

Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt

• From 60° to 65°N and S

• Here the low pressure is created because of intense high pressure at the poles.

Winds and Their Types

• 3 broad categories are:

1. Regular Winds/Prevailing Winds/Planetary Winds: (E.g.: Trade winds, Westerlies and Polar Easterlies).
2. Periodical Winds (which blow seasonally): Monsoons
3. Variable Winds: Cyclones and other local winds

Trade Winds

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• Trade in German means Track. To blow trade means to blow steadily in the same direction and in a constant
course’.
• These are steady currents of air blowing from the sub-tropical high pressure belts towards the equatorial low
pressure areas (doldrums). Under the influence of the Coriolis force they blow from the north-east in the northern
hemisphere and from the south-east in the southern hemisphere.

Westerlies

• Blows from subtropical high pressure to sub-polar low pressure belt.

• In the northern hemisphere, land masses cause considerable disruption in the westerly wind belt. But between
40° and 60° S lies the almost unbroken ocean belt. Westerlies are strong and persistent here, giving rise to
mariner’s expressions- ‘Roaring Forties’, Furious Fifties’ and ‘Shrieking Sixties’.

Polar Easterlies

• Move from high pressure poles to sub-polar low pressure areas.

• These are deflected by the Earth’s rotation to become east winds, or the polar easterlies.

Local Winds

Land and Sea They are experienced in coastal areas. Due to differential heating, the atmospheric pressure over the land mass is lower than over the
Breeze neighboring sea during the day. Therefore, winds blow from sea to land (sea breeze). At night the air pressure over land is higher due to
a lower temperature than over the adjacent ocean and the wind starts blowing from land to sea (land breeze). Land breeze is not as
strong as sea breeze.

Chinook Hot, dry wind in Rockies, also called 'snow eater'.

Foehn Hot, dry wind in the Alps.

Khamsin Hot, dry wind in Egypt.

Sirocco Hot, moist wind from Sahara to Mediterranean Sea.

Solano Hot, moist wind for Sahara towards Iberian Peninsula.

Harmattan Hot, dry wind blowing outwards from the interior of West Africa, also called 'Guinea Doctor'.

Bora Cold, dry wind blowing outwards from Hungary to the north of Italy (near AdriaticSea).

Mistral Very cold wind, which blows down from the Alps over France.

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Punas Cold, dry wind blowing down towards the western side of Andes.

Blizzard Very cold winds in Tundra region.

Brickfielder Hot wind in Australia.

Purga Cold wind in Russian tundra.

Levanter Cold wind in Spain.

Norwester Hot wind in New Zealand.

Santa Ana Hot wind in Southern California in USA.

Cyclones & Anticyclones

Cyclones in World

• It is a system of very low pressure in the center surrounded by increasingly high pressure outwards.
• In this, the winds blows in a circular manner in Anticlockwise direction in Northern Hemisphere. Clockwise
direction in Southern Hemisphere.
• In the temperate region, they occur due to the coming close and imperfect mixing of two masses of air of
contrasting temperature and humidity conditions. Cycles of this type are also known as Wave Cyclones or
Temperate Cyclones.
• On the other hand, in the tropical regions, they occur due to intense heating up of air in some regions causing
very low pressure in these locations. Tropical seas and oceans are most conducive to the development of tropical
cyclones.

These are known as :

• Cyclones – in the Indian Ocean

• Hurricanes – in the Caribbean Islands
• Typhoons – in the China Sea
• Willy-Willies – in the North West Australia
• Tornadoes – in coastal US.
• Twisters – in Mississippi Valley, USA

Tornadoes are very strong tropical cyclones of a smaller size. They are especially feared in the Mississippi Valley in US
and here they are called Twisters. They differ from cyclones in that they generally develop over land. They are more
destructive than cyclones as the speed of winds is very high, exceeding 320 km per hour.

Anticyclones

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• They are opposite to cyclones in all respects. They are the centers of high pressure with gentle outward flow of
air.
• The air circulation is clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere.
• Weather associated with an anticyclone is fair weather.

Earth Humidity

Earth Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour present in the air.

• The ratio between the amount of water vapour actually present in the air mass and the maximum amount that the
air mass can hold at that temperature is called relative humidity. It is expressed as a percentage. It varies
inversely with temperature, given a fixed amount of water vapour.
• Absolute humidity denotes the actual quantity of water vapour present in the air and it is defined as the weight of
water vapour (grams) in a given volume of air (cubic meter).
• The term specific humidity is applied to express the ratio of weight of water vapour to the weight of moist air
(including water vapour). It is stated as grams of water vapour per kilogram of moist air.
• Earth Humidity is measured by an instrument called hygrometer. Another instrument used for the same purpose is
sling psychrometer.

Condensation, Dew Point and Related Aspects

• The physical process of transformation from the vapour to the liquid state is condensation. This is the basis of all
types of precipitation- the fall of water from the atmosphere to the ground in any form.
• Dew point is the temperature at which the air is fully saturated and below which condensation normally occurs.
• Dew is the deposition of water droplets on the ground. It occurs when the temperature of the ground surface falls
and the air in contact with it is cooled below its dew point. Dew is likely to occur on clear and calm nights.
• Frost is a weather condition that occurs when the air temperature is at or below 0°c moisture on the ground
surface and objects freezes to form an icy deposit.
• Fog is made of the droplets of water suspended in the lower layers of the atmosphere, resulting from the
condensation of water vapour around nuclei of floating dust or smoke particles. A visibility of less than 1 km is the
internationally recognized definition of fog. Fog is not considered as a form of precipitation.
• Smog (Smoke + Fog) is a form of fog that occurs in areas where the air contains a large amount of smoke.
• Mist is the term for reduction of visibility between 1-2 km, caused by condensation producing water droplets within
the lower layers of atmosphere.
• Haze is formed by water particles that have condensed in the atmosphere and the visibility in this case is more
than 1 km but less than 2 km. Haze may also be produced by presence of dust and smoke, which reduce
visibility.

Earth Clouds

Earth Clouds are masses of minute water droplets and / or ice crystals formed by the condensation of water vapour and
held in suspension in the atmosphere. Condensation, which results from cooling, usually takes place around nuclei such
as dust, smoke particles and salt. Such particles are called condensation nuclei.

Earth Clouds are of different types and they can be classified on the basis of their form and altitude.

On the basis of form, there are two major groups:

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1. Stratiform or layered types, and

2. Cumuliform or massive types.

Stratiform Clouds

• These clouds, which are fairly thin and blanket like, are sub-divided into three main categories on the basis of
altitude.
• High Clouds (mean ht 5-13 km)
o Cirrus Clouds: Indicates fair weather.
o Cirrocumulus Clouds: Forms the mackerel sky.
o Cirrostratus Clouds: Produces a halo around sun and moon.

• Middle Clouds (mean ht 2-7 km)

• Altocumulus Clouds: Indicate fine weather.

• Alto-stratus Clouds: Associated with development of bad weather.

• Low (mean ht up to 2 km)

o Stratus Clouds: Brigs dull weather, usually accompanied with a drizzle.

o Nimbostratus Clouds: If rain or snow is falling from a stratus cloud, it is called nimbostratus.
o Stratocumulus Clouds: Indicators of fair or clearing weather.

Cumulus Clouds

• They are massive clouds having a vertical extent from 1,500 to 9,000 m. They resemble the head of a cauliflower.
When these clouds are sunlit, they are brilliantly white and are called ‘wool-clouds’. They occur mainly in summer
and are produced by convection.

• Cumulonimbus Clouds: Under different weather conditions, a cumulus cloud may develop into cumulonimbus,
the thunderstorm cloud mass of enormous size which brings heavy rainfall, thunder and lightning and gusty
winds.

Precipitation Clouds

• It refers to falling of water, snow or hail from the clouds and results when condensation is occurring rapidly within
a cloud.
• The most common form of precipitation is rain and it is formed when many cloud droplets coalesce into drops too
large to remain suspended in the air. Rainfall occurs when the dew point of air is above the freezing point.
• Sometimes the raindrops freeze before reaching the ground and precipitation occurs in the form of ice pellets,
called sleet.
• Snow is produced when condensation takes place at a temperature below freezing point, so that the minute
crystals (spicules) of ice form directly from the water vapour.
• Hail consists of masses of ice with a layered structure. It occurs when there are very strong updrafts in the clouds
carrying raindrops up to a high altitude, causing them to freeze. Hail stone is a rounded lump of ice having
concentric layers.

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Conditions for Precipitation

• There are three possible ways by which precipitation is produced.

Convectional Precipitation

• It is caused by heating of moist air in the lower layers of atmosphere which rises, expands, and is cooled
adiabatically to its dew point. Convection rain is often accompanied by lightening and thunder. It occurs in regions
near the equator in the afternoon as a result of the constant high temperature and high humidity.

Orographic Precipitation

• In this, precipitation is caused by moisture-laden air being forced to rise over a relief barrier (mountain ranges). As
the air rises in the windward side, it is cooled at the adiabatic rate. If sufficiently cooled, precipitation results; when
the air descends on the leeward side, it gets warmed and dry, having no source from which to draw up moisture.
A belt of dry climate, often called a rain shadow, may exist on the leeward side.

Cyclonic frontal Precipitation

• When the air is caused to rise upwards due to cyclonic circulation, the resulting precipitation id said to be of the
cyclonic type.

Earth Ocean Currents

Actual transportation of water from one part of ocean to another. Because of differences in density, salinity, temperature
of ocean waters, rotation of earth, shape of coastline and the prevailing winds.Currents circulate in clockwise direction in
Northern Hemisphere and in anti-clockwise direction in Southern Hemisphere.

Currents in Pacific Ocean

a. North-Equatorial Current (Warm): Flows across from east to west, i.e., from North America it reaches the Philippines.

b. Kuroshio Current (Warm): N. Eq. current along the Philippines, Taiwan & Japan coast form this current. From the
S.E. Japan the current, under the influence of prevailing westerlies, flows right across the ocean.

c. After reaching the west coast of N. America, it bifurcates into 2 branches :

i. Alasca Current (Warm): Along the coast of British Columbia & Alasca.

ii. California Current (Cold): It moves southward along the coast of California

d. Oyashio Current (Cold): Flows along the east coast of Kamchatka peninsula.

e. Okhotsk Current (Cold): Comes from the N. Pole & merges with the Oyashio current.

f. East Australian Current (Warm): Flows from east to west in S. Pacific Ocean.

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g. Peru Current (Cold): Cold current near the west coast of S. America.

Currents of Atlantic Ocean

a. Guinea Current (Warm): Flows off the W. African coast (hot).

b. Florida Current (Warm): Along the coast of US up to the cape Hatterus.

c. Gulf Stream (Warm): Beyond the Cape Hatterus up to the Grand Banks of New Found Land, florida current is known
as Gulf Stream. From the Grand Banks the Gulf Stream moves eastward across the Atlantic as the Atlantic Drift.

d. Atlantic Drift divides into 2 branches:

i . Norwagian Current: The main current passes along the Norway coast & enters the Arctic Ocean.

ii . Canary Current: The south branch of N. Atlantic drift flows near Spain by this name.

e. 2 Cold Currents: The East Greenland Current & the Labrador Current flows from the Arctic Ocean into the Atlantic
Ocean.The Labrader Current meets the Gulf Stream. The influence of these 2 currents produces the famous fogs around
New Found Land. [Most busy fishing ground of the world].

f. Brazil Current (Warm): Flows along the S. American coast from North to South

g. Benguela Current (Cold): Cold current from S. to N near the ‘Cape of Good Hope’,

h. Falkland Current (Cold): Cold flowing along the S.E. coast of S. America from S. to N. (meets the Brazil current)

Currents of the Indian Ocean

• The currents in the N. Indian Ocean differ entirely from the general pattern of circulation. They change their
direction from season to season in response to the seasonal rhythm of the monsoons.
• In winters the N. Equatorial current & the S. Equatorial current flows from East to West.
• Mozambique Current: Warm current flowing through the Mozambique Channel.
• Agulhas Current: Warm current at the South-East coast of Africa.

Continents of the World

World Continents

Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe, Australia and Antarctica are the seven continents of the world.

These seven continents were believed to be part of Pangaea which was a single landmass around 250 million years ago.

Due to the tectonic movement, the landmass broke up and the component continents separated and moved away to its
present position. All these took around 1 million years to complete.

Pangaea was surrounded by a sea, the Panthalassa.

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The continents of the world map will give you information about the geographical positions of the continents as well as
their political divisions.

The Continents of the World,

• Asia Continents Countries

• Africa Continents Countries
• North America Continents Countries
• South America Continents Countries
• Europe Continents Countries
• Australia Continents Countries
• Antarctica Continents Countries

World Continents: Some Facts

Continents Biggest Country Highest Peak Longest River

Asia China Mt. Everest (8850 m) Yangtze Kiang

Africa Sudan Mt. Kilimanjaro (5895 m) Nile

North America Canada Mt. Mckinley (6194 m) Mississippi Missouri

South America Brazil Mt. Aconcagua (6960 m) Amazon

Europe Russia Mt. Elbrus (5642 m) Ob

Australia Australia Mt. Coscuisco (2228 m) Darling

Antarctica - Vinson Massif (5140 m) -

Moon Important Facts

Earth Moon

• Moon Circumference: 11,000 km. Diameter: 3475 km. Gravitational pull: 1/6th of Earth.
• Its orbit around earth is elliptical. The maximum distance (Apogee) of the moon from the earth is 406,000 km and
the minimum distance (Perigee) is 364,000 km. the average distance is 3,82,200 km.

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• All other satellites (except Charon) have sizes below 1/8th the size of mother planets. But moon is about 1/4th the
size of earth.
• Takes 27 days, 7 hrs, 43 min and 11.47 sec to complete one revolution around earth.
• Rotates on its axis in exactly the same time as it takes to complete one revolution. That is why we see only one
side of the moon (only 59% of its surface).
• To our unaided vision, moon seems to be made-up of bright and dark patches. The bright parts are the mountains
and highlands, while the darker patches are low – lying planes.
• The highest mountains on moon are Liebnitz Mountains, which are 10,660 m high. They are situated at moon’s
South Pole.
• Moon has no atmosphere, no twilight and no sound.
• Moonlight takes 1.3 sec to reach earth.
• It has a low albedo (amount of sunlight reflected). It reflects only 7% and the rest is absorbed (Earth : 30%,
Venus: 70%)
• Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin reached moon on July 20, 1969 on Apollo XI and set the foot on. July 21, 1969
(landing spot is called Sea of tranquility).

Moon Some Important Facts

• Moon Distance from Earth – 3,82,200 km

• Moon Diameter – 3,475 km
• Moon Mass (with respect to Earth) – 1 : 8.1
• Ratio of Gravitational Pull of Moon and Earth – 1 : 6
• Part of Moon not visible from Earth – 41%
• Maximum distance from Earth (Apogee) – 4,06,000 km
• Minimum distance from Earth (Periqee) – 3,64,000 km
• Revolution period around Earth – 27 days, 7 hrs, 43 min and 11.47 sec
• Rotation period – 27 days, 7 hrs, 43 min and 11.47 sec
• Atmosphere – Absent
• Highest mountain – 35,000 ft (Leibnitz Mts)
• Time taken by moonlight to reach Earth – 1.3 sec
• Rotation speed – 3,680 kmph
• Speed of revolution around Earth – 3,680 kmph

Principal Rivers of the World

Origin Falls in Length

River

Nile Victoria lake Mediterranean Sea 6,650

Amazon Andes (Peru) Atlantic Ocean 6,428

Yangtze Tibetan Kiang Plateau China Sea 6,300

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Origin Falls in Length

River

Mississippi Missouri Itaska lake (USA) Gulf of Mexico (USA) 6,275

Yenisei Tannu-Ola Mts Arctic Ocean 5,539

Huang Ho Kunlun Mts Gulf of Chibli 5,464

Ob Altai Mts., Russia Gulf of Ob 5,410

Congo Lualaba & Luapula rivers Atlantic Ocean 4,700

Amur Northeast China Sea of Okhotsk 4,444

Lena Baikal Mts Laptev Sea 4,400

Mekong Tibetan.Highlands South China Sea 4,350

Mackenzie Great Slave Lake Beaufort Sea 4,241

Niger Guinea Gulf of Guinea 4,200

Major Lakes of the World

Largest Lake Caspian Sea

Highest lake Lake Titicaca in Bolivia

Largest saline water lake Caspian Sea

Deepest lake Lake Baikal in Siberia

Largest fresh water lake Lake Superior

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India's largest lake Chilka lake in Orissa

Oceans of the World

Names Area (Sq.Km) Greatest Depth

Pacific 166,240000 Mariana Trench

Atlantic 86,560000 Puerto Rico Trench

Indian 73430000 Java Trench

Arctic 13230000 -

Principal Plateaus of the World

Plateau Situation

Tibetan Plateau Between Himalayas and Quinloo Mountains

Deccan Plateau Southern India

Arabian Plateau South - West Asia

Plateau of Brazil Central - Eastern South America

Plateau of Mexico Mexico

Plateau of Colombia USA

Plateau of Madagascar Madagascar

Plateau of Alaska North - West North America

Plateau of Bolivia Andes Mountain

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Plateau Situation

Great Basin Plateau South of Colombia Plateau, USA

Colorado Plateau South of Great Basin Plateau, USA

Major Gulfs of the World

Names Area (Sq. Km)

Gulf of Mexico 15,44,000

Gulf of St. Lawrence 2,37,000

Gulf of Hudson 12,33,000

Gulf of California 1,62,000

Arabian Gulf 2,38,000

English Channel 89,900

Major Peninsulas of the World

Peninsulas Areas (Sq. Km)

Arabia 32,50,000

Labrador 13,00,000

Southern India 20,72,000

Scandinavia 8,00,000

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Peninsulas Areas (Sq. Km)

Alaska 15,00,000

Iberian 584,000

Important Straits of the World

Straits Water Bodies joined Area

Bab-al-Mandeb Red Sea & Arabian Sea Arabia & Africa

Bering Arctic Ocean & Bering Sea Alaska & Asia

Bosphorus Black Sea & Marmara Sea Turkey

Dover North Sea & Atlantic Ocean England & Europe

Florida Gulf of Mexico & Atlantic Ocean Florida & Bahamas Islands

Gibralter Mediterranean Sea & Atlantic Ocean Spain & Africa

Malacca Java Sea & Bay of Bengal India & Indonesia

Palk Bay of Bengal & Indian Ocean India & Sri Lanka

Magellan South Pacific & South Atlantic Ocean Chile

Sunda Java Sea & Indian Ocean Indonesia

Smallest and Biggest Countries

Biggest Nations (Area - Wise) Biggest Nations (Population - Wise)

Russia China

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Biggest Nations (Area - Wise) Biggest Nations (Population - Wise)

Canada India

China USA

USA Indonesia

Brazil Brazil

Australia Pakistan

India Bangladesh

Argentina Nigeria

Kazakhstan Russia

Sudan Japan

Smallest Nations (Area - Wise) Smallest Nations (Population - Wise)

Vatican City Vatican City

Monaco Tuvalu

Nauru Nauru

Tuvalu Palau

San Marino San Marino

Liechtenstein Monaco

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Smallest Nations (Area - Wise) Smallest Nations (Population - Wise)

Marshall Islands Liechtenstein

Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Kitts and Nevis

Maldives Antigua and Barbados

Malta Dominica

Important Cities on River Banks (World)

Adelaide Australia Torrens

Amsterdam Netherlands Amsel

Alexandria Egypt Nile

Ankara Turkey Kazil

Bangkok Thailand Chao Praya

Basra Iraq Eupharates and Tigris

Baghdad Iraq Tigris

Berlin Germany Spree

Bonn Germany Rhine

Budapest Hungary Danube

Bristol UK Avon

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Buenos Aires Argentina Laplata

Chittagong Bangladesh Majyani

Canton China Si-Kiang

Cairo Egypt Nile

Chung King China Yang-tse-king

Cologne Germany Rhine

Dandzing Germany Vistula

Dresden Germany Elbe

Dublin Ireland Liffy

Hamburg Germany Elbe

Kabul Afghanistan Kabul

Karachi Pakistan Indus

Khartoum Sudan Confluence of Blue & White Nile

Lahore Pakistan Ravi

Leningrad Russia Neva

Lisbon Portugal Tagus

Liverpool England Messey

London England Thames

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Buenos Aires Argentina Laplata

Moscow Russia Moskva

Montreal Canada St. Lawrence

Nanking France Yang-tse-kiang

New Orleans USA Mississipi

New York USA Hudson

Ottawa Canada Ottawa

Paris France Seine

Philadelphia USA Delaware

Perth Australia Swan

Prague Czech Republic Vitava

Quebec Canada St. Lawrence

Rome Italy Tiber

Rotterdam The Netherlands New Mass

Stalingrad Russia Volga

Shanghai China Yang-tse-kiang

Sidney Australia Darling

Saint Louis USA Mississipi

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Buenos Aires Argentina Laplata

Tokyo Japan Arakava

Vienna Austria Danube

Warsaw Poland Vistula

Washington D.C USA Potomac

Yangoon Myanmar Irrawaddy

World Islands

• In decreasing order of size: Greenland, New Guinea, Borneo, Madagascar, Baffin, etc.
• Largest River Island is Majuli (Asom).
• Most populated island is Java (Indonesia).
• Largest island of India is Middle Andaman.

Famous Industrialised Countries of the World

Country Associated Industry

Afghanistan Carpets, wool and dry fruits

Australia Wheat, wool, meat

Austria Machinery, Textiles

Belgium Glass, Textiles

Brazil Coffee

Canada Wheat, Newsprint

Chile Copper

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China Rice, Wheat, Silk

Cuba Sugar, Tobacco

Denmark Dairy Products

England Textiles, Machinery

Finland Textiles

France Textiles, Wine

Germany Machinery

India Mica, Tea, Jute, Textiles

Indonesia Rubber, Cinchona

Iran Petroleum, Carpets

Iraq Petroleum, Dates

Japan Electronics, Automobiles

Italy Mercury, Textile

Kuwait Petroleum

Malaysia Tin, Rubber

Mexico Silver

Netherlands Electrical goods

Russia Heavy Machinery, Petroleum

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England Textiles, Machinery

Saudi Arabia Oil and Dates

Spain Lead

Sweden Matches

Switzerland Watches

Taiwan Camphor

South Africa Gold and Diamond Mining

U.S.A Automobiles, Machinery

Foreign Towns Associated with Industries

Town (Country) Associated Industry

Baku (Azerbaijan) Petroleum

Bangkok (Thailand) Ship building

Belfast (Ireland) Ship building

Buenos Aires (Argentina) Meat

Cadiz (Portugal) Cork

Chicago (U.S.A) Agricultural implements, Meat

Cologne (Germany) Cotton and woollen Industries

Dhaka (Bangladesh) Jute

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Detroit (U.S.A) Motor cars

Dresden (Germany) Optical and photographic apparatus

Glasgow (Great Britain) Machinery

Havana (Cuba) Tobacco, Cigars

Hollywood (U.S.A) Film Industry

Johannesburg (S. Africa) Gold mines

Kimberlay (S. Africa) Diamond mining

Leeds (England) Woollen Goods

Lyons (France) Silk Industries

Manchester (England) Cotton Industry

Mauritius (Indian Ocean) Fishing, Shipping, Sugar

Milan (Italy) Silk

Morocco (North Africa) Leather

Munich (Germany) Lenses

New Orleans (U.S.A.) Cotton industry

Osaka (Japan) Cotton fabrics

Pittsburg (U.S.A.) Iron and Steel

Plymouth (England) Ship-building

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Glasgow (Great Britain) Machinery

Sheffield (England) Cutlery

Venice (Italy) Glass manufacturing

Vienna (Austria) Glass manufacturing

Wellington (New Zealand) Dairy Product

World’s Geographical Surnames

Surname Name

Bengal's Sorrow Damodar River

Blue Mountains Nilgiri Hills

City of Sky-scrapers New York

City of Seven Hills Rome

City of Dreaming Spires Oxford

City of Palaces Kolkata

City of Golden Gate San Francisco

Gity of Magnificent Buildings Washington D.C

City of Eternal Springs Quito (S. America)

China's Sorrow Hwang Ho

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Belgium

Africa

Emerald Isle Ireland

Eternal City Rome

Empire City New York

Forbidden City Lhasa (Tibet)

Garden City Chicago

Gate of Tears Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb

Gateway of India Mumbai

Gift of the Nile Egypt

Granite City Aberdeen (Scotland)

Hermit Kingdom Korea

Herring Pond Atlantic Ocean

Holy Land Jerusalem

Island Continent Australia

Island of Cloves Zanzibar

Isle of Pearls Bahrein (Persian Gulf)

Key to the Mediterranean Gibralter

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Belgium

Land of Cakes Scotland

Land of Golden Fleece Australia

Land of Maple Leaf Canada

Land of Morning Calm Korea

Land of Midnight Sun Norway

Land of the Thousand Lakes Finland

Land of the Thunderbolt Bhutan

Land of White Elephant Thailand

Land of Five Rivers Punjab

Land of Thousand Elephants Laos

Land of Rising Sun Japan

Loneliest Island Tristan De Gunha (Mid-Atlantic)

Manchester of Japan Osaka

Pillars of Hercules Strait of Gibraltar

Pearl of the Antilles Cuba

Playground of Europe Switzerland

Quaker City Philadelphia

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Belgium

Queen of the Adriatic Venice

Roof of the World The Pamirs, Central Asia

Rose Pink City Jaipur

Sugar bowl of the world Cuba

Venice of the North Stockholm

Windty City Chicago

Whiteman's grave Guinea Coast of Africa

Yellow River Huang Ho (China)

Famous Tribes of the World

Abhors People of Mongolian blood living between Assam and Eastern tribes

Afridis Tribes residing in the North-west Frontier (Pakistan)

Bantus Negroes living in the Central and South Africa

Boers The Dutch settlers of South Africa

Cossacks People living in the southern and eastern frontiers of Russia

Eskimos Inhabitants of Greenland and of Arctic regions

Flemings A term used for the people of Belgium

Hamites Inhabitants of North-West Africa

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Khirgiz People Living in Central Asia

Kurds Tribes living in Kurdistan (Iraq)

Magyars Inhabitants of Hungary

Maoris Inhabitants of New Zealand

Negroes Mostly found in Africa

Pygmies Short sized people found in Congo basin in Africa

Red Indians Original inhabitants of North America

Semites Caucasian people of ancient times

Zulus People of South Africa living in certain part of Nata

World Famous Sites

Site Location

Bastille Prison Paris

Brandenburg Gate Berlin

Big Ben London

Broadway New York

Buckingham Palace London

Colosseum Rome

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Site Location

Downing Street London

Eiffel Tower Paris

Empire State Building New York

Fleet Street London

Grand Canyon Arizona (U.S.A)

Harley Street London

Hyde Park London

India House London

Jodrell Bank Manchester (U.K)

Kaaba Mecca (Saudi Arabia)

Kremlin Moscow (Russia)

Leaning Tower Pisa (Italy)

Louvre Paris

Merdeca Palace Djakarta

Oval London

Pentagon Washington D.C

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Harley Street London

Porcelain Tower Nanking

Potala Lhasa

Red Square Moscow

Pyramids Egypt

Scotland Yard London

Shiwe Dragon Pagoda Yangoon

Sphinx Egypt

Statue of Liberty New York

Vatican City Rome

Wall Street New York

Wailing Wall Jerusalem

Wambley London

White Hall London

White House Washington D.C

Biggest, Highest, Largest, Longest in the World

Tallest Animal in the World Giraffe

Largest Archipelago in the World Indonesia

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Fastest Bird in the World Swift

Largest Bird in the World Ostrich

Smallest Bird in the World Humming Bird

Longest Railway Bridge in the World Huey P. Long Bridge, Louisiana (U.S.A)

Tallest Building in the world Burj Dubai, UAE

Canal, Longest Irrigational The Kalakumsky Canal

Longest Canal in the World Suez Canal

Highest Capital in the World La Paz (Bolivia)

Biggest City in Area in the World Mount Isa (Australia)

Largest City in Population in the World Tokyo

Costliest City in the World Tokyo

Highest City in the World Van Chuan (China)

Largest Continent in the World Asia

Smallest Continent in the World Australia

Biggest Country in the World by Area Russia

Largest Country in the World by Population China

Largest Country in the World by Electorate India

Largest Creature in the World Blue whale

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Costliest City in the World Tokyo

Largest Delta in the World Sunderban (Bangladesh & India)

Largest Desert in the World Sahara (Africa)

Largest Desert in Asia Gobi

Largest Dam in the World Grand Coulee Dam (U.S.A)

Dam Highest in the World Hoover Dam (U.S.A)

Diamond Largest in the World The Cullinan

Largest Dome in the World Astrodome, in Housten (U.S.A)

Largest Epic in the World Mahabharat

Largest Irrigation Scheme in the World Lloyd Barrage, Sukkhur (Pakistan)

Largest Island in the World Greenland

Largest Sea in the World Mediterranean Sea

Deepest Lake in the World Baikal (Siberia)

Largest Lake (Artificial) in the World Lake Mead (Boulder Dam)

Highest Lake in the World Titicaca (Bolivia)

Largest Lake (Fresh water) in the World Superior

Largest Lake (Salt water) in the World Caspian

Largest Library in the World United States Library of Congress, Washington D.C

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Costliest City in the World Tokyo

Highest Mountain Peak in the World Everest (Nepal)

Longest Mountain Range in the World Andes (S. America)

Largest Museum in the World British Museum, London

Largest Ocean in the World Pacific

Biggest Palace in the World Vatican (Italy)

Largest Park in the World Yellow Stone National Park (U.S.A)

Largest Peninsula in the World Arabia

Coldest Place (Habitated) in the World Verkhoyansk (Siberia)

Dryest Place in the World Iqique (in Atacama Desert, Chile)

Hottest Place in the World Azizia (Libya, Africa)

Rainiest Place in the World Mausinram (Meghalaya, India)

Biggest Planet in the World Jupiter

Brightest Planet in the World Venus

Smallest Planet in the World Mercury

Highest Plateau in the World Pamir (Tibet)

Longest Platform in the World Kharagpur (India)

Longest Railway in the World Trans-Siberian railway

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Costliest City in the World Tokyo

Largest Railway Station in the World Grand Central Terminal, Chicago (U.S.A)

Longest River in the World Nile (Africa)

Largest River in the World Amazon (S. America)

Largest Sea-bird in the World Albatross

Brightest Star in the World Sirius

Tallest Statue in the World Statue of Motherland, Volgograd (Russia)

Largest Telescope Radio in the World New Mexico (U.S.A)

World's Tramway first in the World New York

Longest Tunnel (Railway) in the World Tanna (Japan)

Longest Tunnel (road) in the World Mont Blanc Tunnel between France and Italy

Highest Volcano Ojos del Salado (Andes, Ecuador)

Most Volcano Active in the World Maunaloa (Hawaii - U.S.A)

Longest Wall in the World Great Wall of China

Highest Waterfall in the World Angel (Venezuela)

Lowest Water body in the World Dead Sea

Largest Zoo in the World Kruger National Park, South Africa

Agriculture : Top 5 Producers

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Rice China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam

Wheat China, India, USA, Russia, France

Maize USA, China, Brazil, Mexico, Argentina

Groundnut China, India, Nigeria, USA, Indonesia

Tea India, China, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Turkey

Cotton China, USA, India, Pakistan, Brazil

Rubber Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, India, China

Coffee Brazil, Vietnam, Indonesia, Colombia, Mexico

Pulses Total Brazil, India, China, Myanmar, Mexico

Mineral : Top 3 Producers

Iron Ore China, Brazil, Australia

Copper Ore Chili, Peru, USA

Tin China, Indonesia, Peru

Lead China, Australia, USA

Zinc China, Australia, Peru

Manganese South Africa, USA, Brazil

Aluminium China, Russia, Canada

Cement China, India, USA

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Petroleum Saudi Arabia, Russia, USA

Natural Gas Russia, USA, Canada

Silver Peru, Mexico, China

Coal China, USA, India

Important Boundaries

Durand Line Pakistan & Afghanistan

MacMohan Line India & China

Radcliffe Line India & Pakistan

Maginot Line France & Germany

Oder Niesse Line Germany & Poland

Hindenberg Line Poland & Germany (at the time of First World War)

38th Parallel North & South Korea

49th Parallel USA & Canada

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INDIAN ECONOMY
Indian Economy Overview

Indian Economy has been witnessing a phenomenal growth since the last decade. After seeing a growth rate in excess of
9 per cent for the last 3 Years, it is still holding its ground in the midst of the current global financial crisis.

Pegging India’s growth rate in the current Year at between 7 and 8 per cent economists have reiterated that India would
continue being the second fastest growing economy in the world despite the ongoing global economic slowdown.

Though the global financial crisis have affected the Indian equity and foreign exchange markets, the macroeconomic brunt
of the meltdown is not much due to the overall strength of the domestic demand and the largely domestic nature of its
investment financing.

Further, according to the International Monetary Fund’s (IMF) prediction in October 2008, India is likely to grow at 7.8 per
cent in 2008, and 6.3 per cent in 2009.

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In spite of the global financial crisis, companies from developed economies such as Germany have shown confidence in
India’s economic future and are interested in growing their business in the country.

Showing faith in India’s robust future, around 94 per cent German companies plan to increase their businesses with the
subcontinent.

After the signing of the US-India civil nuclear deal, India will now be partnering several countries for nuclear fuel
technology projects, and this will further boost the Indian Economy.

India and Russia signed 10 agreements in Dec 2008, including a pact on civil nuclear cooperation.

Annual Report 2010-2011

The mandate of the Department of Commerce is development, promotion and regulation of India’s international trade and
commerce through formulation of appropriate policies and implementation of the various provisions thereof. The role is to
facilitate creation of an enabling environment and infrastructure for accelerated growth of exports and trade. The
Department formulates, implements and monitors the quinquennial Foreign Trade Policy (FTP) which provides the basic
framework of policy and strategy for promoting exports and trade. FTP is periodically reviewed to incorporate changes
necessary to take care of emerging economic scenarios both in the domestic and international economy.

The long-term vision of the Department is to make India a major player in world trade by 2020, and assume a role of
leadership in the international trade organizations commensurate with India’s growing economic and demographic profile.
FTP (2009-14) envisages doubling India’s exports of goods and services by 2014, and sets a long term goal of doubling
India’s share in global trade by the end of 2020 through appropriate policy support.

India has been exploring both the multilateral and regional trade routes to expanding trade with the external world.
Conclusion of the Doha round of multilateral trade negotiations remains elusive in spite of positive and proactive efforts by
India, including the convening of a mini-Ministerial meeting in Delhi during 3-4 September, 2009. On the other hand, on
the regional trade front important strides have been made during 2010-11, with comprehensive agreements being signed
with Japan and Malaysia. Product and market diversification have been the major strategies for expansion of trade in the
recent past. The ‘Focus Product’ and ‘Focus Market’ initiatives have been strengthened and reinforced.

I. Foreign Trade Policy and Trends in India’s Foreign Trade

With the shadow of the recession still over the advanced countries, the global output is projected to expand by 4.5 per
cent in 2011, with economic activity in the advanced economies likely to go up by 2.5 per cent and with growth in
emerging and developing economies expected to remain buoyant at 6.5 per cent. The slow and weak recovery in the
advanced country markets and the resilience in most emerging/developing country markets has prompted the Department
to reinforce efforts towards diversification of exports.

The timely and adequate policy support has helped India’s exports from not being affected to the same extent as the
global trend during the phase of global slowdown. After declining consistently for the first seven months of the year 2009-
10, India’s exports reversed the trend in October, 2009 by registering a positive growth of 3.4%. Exports during the first
nine months of the current fiscal i.e. April – December, 2010-11 are estimated at US$164.7 billion recording a growth rate
of 29.5% over the same period last year. We are on track to exceed the target of US$ 200 billion export and touch US$
225 billion during the current financial year.

Despite robust growth of exports, India’s trade deficit has continued to rise, with the growth in imports consistently
outpacing the growth of exports, largely to meet the needs of the growing economy. Trade deficit has increased from just
US$ 8.6 billion at the beginning of the Eleventh Plan in 2002-03 to US$ 118.3 billion in 2008-09. After a marginal decline
to US$ 108 billion in 2009-10, trade deficit has already touched US$ 82.02 billion during the first 9 months of 2010-11.
While increasing foreign investment flows and remittances may help manage the balance of payment front in the short

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run, long term answer to a sustainable balance on the external front lies only with sturdy growth in exports. The
Department, therefore, recognises the urgent need to direct substantial resources towards export efforts by the country in
the coming years.

II. Policy support to exports

Taking stock of the emerging economic scenario both at home and in the overseas markets trade policy measures in
place have been reviewed by the Government, inter alia, through the Annual Supplement to FTP (2009-14), released on
23rd August, 2010. The highlights of these measures included the following:

1. Measures undertaken for market and product diversification and expansion of markets:

i. Additional benefit of 2% bonus, over and above the existing benefits of 5% / 2% under the Focus Product
Scheme, allowed for about 135 existing products, which have suffered due to recession in exports. Major sectors include
all handicrafts items, silk carpets, toys and sports goods (all of which were earlier eligible for 5% benefits); leather
products and leather footwear, handloom products and engineering items including bicycle parts and grinding media balls
(all of which were earlier eligible for 2% benefit).
ii. 256 new products added under FPS (at 8 digit level), which shall be entitled for benefits @ 2% of FOB value of
exports to all markets. Major sectors / product groups are engineering, electronics, rubber & rubber products,
other oil meals, finished leather, packaged coconut water and coconut shell worked items.
iii. Instant tea and CSNL cardinol included for benefits under VKGUY @ 5% of FOB value of exports.
iv. Nearly 300 products (at 8 digit level) from the readymade garment sector incentivised under MLFPS for further 6
months from October, 2010 to March, 2011 for exports to 27 EU countries.

2. Support for Technological up-gradation

a. Zero duty Export Promotion Capital Goods (EPCG) scheme and Status Holder Incentive Scrip (SHIS) scheme
introduced in 2009 for a limited number of sectors and valid for only 2 years initially, extended by one more year till
31.3.2012 and the benefit of the scheme expanded to additional sectors. It will add to expansion and modernization of
production base at a time when investment is drying up in the export industry.
b. 3 additional Towns of Export Excellence (TEEs) announced, bringing the list
upto 24.

3. Exporter friendly and simplified Duty Entitlement Passbook (DEPB) scheme has been extended beyond 31.12.2010 till
30.06.2011.

4. Availability of concessional export credit:

a. Interest subvention of 2 per cent has been extended upto March 2011 for certain labour-intensive sectors of
exports namely, handloom, handicrafts, carpet, SMEs and a few products from the sectors namely engineering, textiles,
leather and jute.
b. Interest rates on export credit in foreign currency has been reduced to LIBOR + 200 basis points in February 2010
from the earlier LIBOR+350 basis points.

5. Time period of export realization for non-status holder exporters increased to 12 months, at par with the Status holders.
This facility has been extended upto 31st March, 2011.

6. Advance Authorization for Annual Requirement now exempted from payment of anti-dumping & Safeguard duty;

7. Value limit on duty free import of commercial samples enhanced from 1 lakh to 3 lakh per annum

8. Some of the procedural simplification and trade facilitation measures:

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a. DEPB and Freely Transferable Incentive Schemes provisionally allowed without awaiting receipt of Bank
Realisation Certificate (BRC);
b. Export Obligation Period under Advance authorization Scheme enhanced from 24 months to 36 months without
payment of composition fee;
c. Facility of non recovery of incentives granted to exporters, subject to RBI specifically writing off the export
proceed realization alongwith a certificate from Indian Missions abroad;
d. A committee constituted on reduction of transaction cost, shall be submitting its recommendation shortly.
e. Certain EDI Initiatives taken on online message exchange facility.

9. Fringe Benefit Tax (FBT) abolished;

10. Section 10A and 10B (Sunset clauses for STPI and EOUs schemes respectively), extended for the financial year
2010-2011. Anomaly removed in Section 10AA relating to taxation benefit of ‘unit vis-à-vis assessee’;

11. A number of sector specific measures related to duty free access to certain specified items undertaken for labour
oriented sectors namely for sectors, like gems and jewellery, leather, textiles, marine, agriculture, sports goods & toys and
handloom sector will enhance competitiveness of these products which are worst hit due to global slowdown.

12. FTP also provided fillip to services sector (Hotels) by doubling duty free entitlement under Served from India Scheme
(SFIS) from 5% to 10% of foreign exchange earnings.

Additional measures were taken on 11th February 2011, to help the export sector in general and the employment
intensive sectors affected by the world recession, in particular. Export incentives were announced for more than 600
products (in respect of their exports with effect from 1st January , 2011) in labour intensive and/or technology intensive
sectors like agriculture, chemicals, carpets, engineering, electronics and plastics to enhance their competitiveness.
(Details are in Chapter 3). The report of the Task Force on transaction costs has been released by the Hon’ble Finance
Minister on 8th February, 2011. Action on 23 issues by different line ministries is likely to reduce transaction cost to the
tune of Rs.2100 crores in perpetuity. Each recommendation is specific and in respect of many recommendations,
necessary Government orders have already been issued on the day of release of the Report.

III. Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and Export Oriented Units (EOUs)

Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

The Special Economic Zones (SEZs) notified under the SEZ Act, 2005 have emerged as the major source of exports from
the country. As on 31st December, 2010, there are 130 SEZs which have commenced exports. During the first nine
months of the current year (April-December, 2010) exports from the SEZs have been to the tune of Rs. 2.23 lakh crore
against exports of Rs. 2.21 lakh crore during the complete year of 2009-10. Since the coming into force of the SEZ Act in
February, 2006 the Zones have realized a total investment of Rs. 1.95 lakh crore. The incremental private investment
after the SEZ Act came into force is estimated Rs.1.91 lakh crore. SEZs in India provide direct employment to over 6.44
lakh persons. The incremental employment generated by the SEZs in the short span of time since the Act came into force
is of the order of 5.09 lakh persons. A number of new generation SEZs have made significant progress in terms of
exports, employment and investment

Export Oriented Units (EOUs)

The Export Oriented Units (EOUs) scheme introduced in early 1981 is complementary to the SEZ scheme. They adopt
the same production regime but offer a wide option in locations with reference to factors like source of raw materials, ports
of export, hinterland facilities, availability of technological skills, existence of an industrial base and the need for a larger
area of land for the project. EOUs are mainly concentrated in textiles and yarn, food processing, electronics, chemicals,
plastics, granites and minerals/ores.

As on 31st December, 2010, 2,485 units are in operation under the EOU scheme. Exports from EOUs during 2009-10
were of the order of Rs.84,135.66 crores.
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IV. Export Promotion Measures

The export promotion measures undertaken by the Department include schemes like the Assistance to States for
Development of Export Infrastructure and Allied Activities (ASIDE) Scheme, the Market Access Initiative (MAI) scheme
and the Marketing Development Assistance (MDA) Scheme. The Export Credit Guarantee Corporation of India Limited
(ECGC), the National Export Insurance Account (NEIA), the India Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF) and the activities of
various export promotional councils are also important in this regard.

(a) ASIDE Scheme

The basic objectives of the scheme are to involve the states in the growth of export by providing incentive-linked
assistance to the state governments and to create appropriate infrastructure for the development and growth of exports.

ASIDE is a centrally sponsored plan scheme. It provides outlay for development of export infrastructure, which is
distributed among the states, inter alia, on the basis of their export performance in the previous year. The outlay of the
scheme has two components: (a) 80% of the funds (state component) are earmarked for allocation to the states on the
basis of the approved criteria; and (b) the balance 20% which is the central component. An amount equivalent to the un-
utilized portion of the funds allocated to the states in the past year(s), if any, is retained at the central level for meeting the
requirements of inter-state projects, capital outlays of SEZs, activities relating to promotion of exports from the north
eastern region (NER) as per the existing guidelines of the Export Development Fund and for any other activity considered
important by the central government from the regional or national perspective.

The allocation for financial year 2010-11 for ASIDE scheme is Rs.662.98 crores. Under the state component a total
number of 1,266 projects worth Rs.20,096.92 crores have been approved by the State Level Export Promotion
Committees (SLEPCs) since 2002-03 upto end of January, 2011.

(b) Market Access Initiative (MAI) Scheme

The Market Access Initiative (MAI) scheme is a plan scheme formulated to act as a catalyst for promoting India’s exports
on a sustained basis, based upon the ‘focus product’ and the ‘focus market’ concepts. During the year 2010-11, 213
projects/studies including eleven ‘India Shows’ were approved for receiving assistance under the scheme. Upto
December, 2010 an expenditure of Rs.91.57 cores has been incurred against the outlay of Rs. 110 crores for the financial
year.

To enable the Indian Missions abroad to better coordinate, synergise and facilitate our export promotion activities, a
‘Challenge Fund’ was set up under the MAI scheme. Under the scheme the Indian Missions would ‘bid’ for support from
the Fund by submitting innovative export promotion project proposals, with priority for specific projects with
quantifiable/tangible results.

(c) Marketing Development Assistance (MDA) Scheme

The MDA scheme is aimed at facilitating various measures being undertaken to stimulate and diversify India’s export
trade. During the year 2010-11 (upto end December, 2010), 411 projects/export promotion events were approved for
assistance with funds sanctioned under the MDA scheme by the Export Promotion Councils (EPCs) and other approved
organisations/trade bodies. During the current financial year upto end December, 2010 the total expenditure incurred
under MDA is to the tune of Rs. 26.23 crores.

(d) Export Credit Guarantee Corporation of India Limited (ECGC)

ECGC Ltd. was set up in 1957 under the Companies Act, 1956. It has the primary objective of supporting the country’s
exports by extending insurance and guarantee facilities to Indian exporters and commercial banks. The total claims paid
by ECGC during the year 2009-10 amounted to Rs.641.73 crores as compared to Rs.451.41 crores during the previous
year. During the first nine months of the current year (April-December, 2010) the total claims paid amounted to Rs.382.33

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crores compared to Rs.325.09 crores in the corresponding period last year. During this period, a total sum of Rs.96.10
crores was recovered as compared to Rs.85.14 crores in the corresponding period the previous y ear.

(e) National Export Insurance Account (NEIA)

The objective of NEIA is to promote project export from India, which may not take place but for the support of a credit risk
insurance cover which the ECGC is not in a position to provide because of its own underwriting capacity. The NEIA is
maintained and operated by a Public Trust set up jointly by the Department of Commerce and ECGC. During the year,
NEIA guidelines were revised to provide risk cover for buyer credits which may be extended by EXIM Bank to overseas
agencies. Under the revised guidelines projects which are backed by sovereign guarantees will be covered upto 100% of
value. Provisions have also been made to cover the risks arising due to exchange and interest fluctuations. During the
year 2009-10, Rs.150 crore allocated for NEIA has been released.

(f) eTRADE Project

The project entitled ‘Electronic Trade (eTRADE)’ is pursued by the Department of Commerce in various trade regulatory
and facilitating agencies like the DGFT, customs, seaports, airports, the Container Corporation of India (CONCOR),
banks, carriers, export promotion organisations importers, exporters and agents to facilitate efficient and effective mode of
transacting business in the area of foreign trade. Major developments during the year under this project are: (a) the
electronic clearance between DGFT and Customs for DEPB, DES and EPCG schemes for all EDI ports, (b) the
Centralized Port Community System (PCS) which is operational for major seaports to provide single window interface is
now being extended to other non-major seaports, (c) the electronic Express Courier Clearance System has been started
at the airports of New Delhi and Mumbai, and (c) eight banks have already started collection of customs duties through e-
payment.

(g) Infrastructure Support

A Core Group of Secretaries (CGS) under the Chairmanship of Cabinet Secretary was constituted on 21.4.2008 to deal
with the issues relating to infrastructure required for export and import. The Core Group recommends measure to remove
the bottlenecks in infrastructure, especially critical infrastructure at ports, airports, railways and roads. CGS also reviews
functioning of service providers at ports / airports / LCSs, etc. with a view to identifying procedures / systems that inhibit
trade. So far three meetings of CGS have been held. Last meeting of CGS was held under the Chairmanship of the
Cabinet Secretary on 1st November, 2010. A number of decisions were taken in the meeting to improve infrastructure
required for exports and imports.

(h) Export Promotion Councils

The fourteen Export Promotion Councils under the administrative control of the Department of Commerce perform both
advisory and executive functions. The role and functions of these Councils are guided by the Foreign Trade Policy in
force. These Councils are also the registering authorities for exporters under the Foreign Trade Policy 2009-14.

(i) India Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF)

India Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF) is a public-private partnership between the Ministry of Commerce and Industry,
Government of India, and the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) which came into being on 3rd March, 2004. IBEF aims
to promote India as a business opportunity by creating positive economic perceptions of India globally, and effectively
presents the Indian business perspective and leverage business partnerships in a globalised market-place.

V. Institutional Trade Facilitation

(a) Indian Institute of Foreign Trade (IIFT)

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The Indian Institute of Foreign Trade was registered in May, 1963 under the Societies Registration Act, 1860. The
Institute, with its head office at New Delhi and one regional branch at Kolkata, is headed by a Director. The Institute has
been conferred “deemed university” status and is engaged in the following activities: conducting academic courses
leading to issue of degrees in International Business and Export Management; training of personnel in international trade;
organizing research on issues in foreign trade, marketing research, area surveys, commodity surveys, market surveys;
and dissemination of information arising from its activities relating to research and market studies.

(b) Footwear Design and Development Institute (FDDI)

Footwear Design and Development Institute was established in the year 1986 as a Society under the Societies
Registration Act, 1860 with an objective to train the professional manpower for footwear industry. The Institute is an
ISO:9001 and ISO:14001 certified Institute, which conducts wide range of long term and short term programmes in the
area of retail management, fashion, footwear merchandising, marketing, creative design, and leather goods & accessories
design, etc. The Institute provides one stop solution to the footwear industry and is internationally acclaimed as one of the
premier Institutes in the area of footwear design, technology and management.

New initiatives by FDDI included: formal inauguration of FDDI Fursatganj campus in November, 2010; commencement of
new campuses of FDDI at Chennai, Kolkata, Chhindwara and Rohtak; a new Campus of FDDI to come up at Jodhpur
(Rajasthan); and training and employment of 8,000 fresh and unemployed youths.

VI. Trade Negotiations and Agreements

The Department of Commerce engages in trade negotiations and trade agreements at multilateral, regional and bilateral
levels with a view to facilitating India’s trade with the external world. It interacts with international agencies such as the
World Trade Organization (WTO), the United National Conference on Trade & Development (UNCTAD), the Economic
and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) as well as individual countries or group of countries on a wide
range of issues including tariff and non-tariff barriers, international commodity agreements, preferential/ free trade
arrangements, investment matters, etc.

(a) Doha Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations

The Doha Round of trade negotiations at the World Trade Organisation (WTO) has been underway since 2001. The
negotiations cover several areas such as agriculture, market access for non-agricultural products, services, trade-related
aspects of intellectual property rights (TRIPS), rules (covering anti-dumping and subsidies), trade facilitation etc. The
conduct, conclusion and entry into force of the outcome of the negotiations are parts of a single undertaking, i.e. “nothing
is agreed until everything is agreed”.

Discussions were slow to resume after they paused in December 2008. Going by the political commitments expressed by
world leaders in international fora, India hosted a Ministerial Conference on ‘Re-energising Doha : A Commitment to
Development’ in New Delhi during 3-4 September, 2009. Following this, talks began in Geneva, but all through the last
quarter of 2009 and 2010 there was no perceptible progress. A stock taking exercise at the level of senior officials took
place in the WTO during the week of 22-26 March, 2010, where Members agreed to take the discussions ahead based on
the work already done while maintaining the focus on the development dimension of the Round.

The positive signals given by world leaders at the G-20 leaders’ Summit held in Seoul in November 2010, has provided an
impetus and a sense of urgency amongst Members regarding the Geneva process that has resumed in January, 2011.

India has been has been working closely with like minded countries in various coalition groups in the WTO towards a
balanced and development oriented outcome of the Doha Round.

(b) Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP)

India is one of the founding Members of ESCAP, the regional development arm of the United Nations, which serves as the
main economic and social development center for the United Nations in Asia and the Pacific. ESCAP provides the
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strategic link between global and country-level programmes and issues. The 66th Annual Session of ESCAP was held in
Incheon, Republic of Korea during 13 – 19 May, 2010. The theme topic for the Session was ‘Addressing challenges in the
achievement of the Millennium Development Goals: Promoting a stable and supportive financial system; and green
growth or environmentally sustainable economic growth, including through technology and financing’.

ESCAP has decided to establish a Sub-Regional Office (SRO) for South & South-West Asia in New Delhi. India has
accepted the same and approved financial support for the office. The office is expected to become functional in 2011.

(c) Global System of Trade Preferences (GSTP)

The Agreement establishing the Global System of Trade Preferences (GSTP) among Developing countries was signed on
April 13, 1988 at Belgrade following the conclusion of the First Round of Negotiations. The current round of GSTP
negotiations, also known as “São Paulo Round” was launched in 2004 with 22 participating countries, on the occasion of
the UNCTAD XI Quadrennial Conference in Sao Paulo in Brazil. At the end of the negotiations, Ministerial Modalities
were adopted on 2nd December, 2009 wherein Ministers agreed to modalities based on a tariff reduction of at least 20
percent on at least 70 percent of all dutiable tariff-lines. Based on these modalities, intensive negotiations were held in
2010 for finalisation of the schedules of Members. During this period, Cuba, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia,
Mercosur and Morocco submitted their schedules and bilateral negotiations were held to finalise the schedule. India
unilaterally offered a tariff reduction of 25 percent on 77 percent of its tariff lines for Least Developed Countries (LDCs).

A Ministerial Meeting of the GSTP Negotiating Committee was held on 15th December, 2010 in Foz do Iguacu, Brazil for
signing of the “Final Act Embodying the Results of the Sao Paulo Round” and the “Sao Paulo Round Protocol on the
Agreement on GSTP”.

Major development in bilateral and regional trade engagement

While the multilateral trade negotiations progressed slowly, India pursued with vigour regional and bilateral trade
negotiations. In pursuance of the ‘Look East Policy’, a continuous dialogue is maintained with the ASEAN and the
countries of South-East Asia. Summit level engagements, Ministerial meetings and official level discussions are held
under this agenda. India and the ASEAN have signed the Trade in Goods Agreement under the broader framework of
Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement on 13th August 2009. The Agreement is expected to further boost
bilateral trade and investment between India and the ASEAN. India and the ASEAN are currently negotiating Agreements
on Trade in Services and Investment which are targeted to be concluded by 2011.

CECA with Malaysia

A Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) was signed with Malaysia on 18th February, 2011 after
detailed negotiations. The Agreement is envisaged to come into effect from 1st July 2011.

India–Thailand Free Trade Agreement

Negotiations for the India-Thailand Free Trade Agreement are underway and both sides have agreed to conclude a
comprehensive Free Trade Agreement including Trade in Goods, Services, Investment and Economic Cooperation as a
‘single undertaking’ in 2011.

India–Australia Trade Relations

India and Australia set up a joint feasibility study of a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) between the two countries in 2008.
The Joint Study Group submitted its Report in May, 2010.

CEPA with Korea

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A comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) between India and the Republic of Korea was signed on 7th
August, 2009. The CEPA came into force from 1st January, 2010. The first meeting of the Joint Committee at the
Ministerial level to review the implementation of CEPA was held on 20th January, 2011 in New Delhi.

CEPA with Japan Concluded

The conclusion of negotiations for a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) with Japan was declared
during the Prime Minister’s visit to Japan in October, 2010. The CEPA was signed by Shri. Anand Sharma, Hon. Minister
of Commerce and Industry, India and Mr. Seiji Maehara, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Japan on 16th February, 2011. India
and Japan have set a target of US$ 25 billion in bilateral trade by 2014.

Satis

The SAARC Agreement on Trade in Services (SATIS) was signed in the sixteenth SAARC meeting held in April 2010 at
Thimpu in Bhutan. This marks the first step in expanding the scope of the SAFTA agreement which is essentially an
agreement on trade in goods at present.

India-Bangladesh Trade Relations

The 7th meeting of the Joint Working Group (JWG) on trade between India and Bangladesh was held on May 6-7, 2010 at
Dhaka in Bangladesh where the two sides had detailed discussion on various bilateral trade issues. In the JWG meeting
India expressed readiness to assist Bangladesh in strengthening the Bangladesh Standards and Testing Institute (BSTI).
The Indian side informed that it is upgrading the 14 Land Customs Stations/Integrated Check Posts on India- Bangladesh
Border at an estimated cost of US$ 125 million. The second meeting of sub-group on improving of infrastructure was held
in October 2010. The subgroup made recommendations for improving the infrastructure at Land Customs Stations on
India-Bangladesh Border. A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on establishment of Border-Haats at Baliamari-
Kalaichari (Pillar No. 1072) and Lauwaghar-Balat (Pillar No. 1213) at Meghalaya, India–Bangladesh border was signed on
23rd Octuber, 2010 during the visit of the Commerce Minister of Bangladesh.

Negotiations on CEPA with Sri Lanka

The India-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement (ISLFTA) which was signed on 28th December, 1998, has been in operation
since 1st March, 2000. Under this Agreement, both the countries agreed to phase out trade tariffs from each other within a
fixed time frame except for those items in the Negative List of each other. A Joint Study Group (JSG) was set up in April,
2003 to widen the ambit of ISLFTA to go beyond trade in goods to include services and to facilitate greater investment
flows between the two countries. Report of JSG was submitted in October, 2003. Based on the recommendation and
conclusion of the JSG, negotiations for a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) started in February,
2005 and concluded in July 2008, after 13 rounds of negotiations. On account of some reservations expressed by the
Government of Sri Lanka, the Agreement could not be signed then. After a gap of 2 years, both sides resumed
discussions on implementation of provisions of ISLFTA and agreed to take forward the process of signing a
comprehensive agreement for economic cooperation. Sri Lankan side has since agreed to provide a revised draft
framework for economic cooperation agreement after consultations with stakeholders. It has also been agreed that
different sub-groups would work simultaneously on pruning of negative lists, scheduling of investment and scheduling of
services and come out with the offers of the respective countries.

India – US Trade Relations

During the visit of the US President to India, a document “India-US Relations: A Vision for the 21st Century” was released
by the Prime Minister of India and the President of United States of America on 21st March, 2000 in New Delhi. To
implement the Indo-US Commercial Dialogue envisaged in that document, the Minister of Commerce & Industry, Govt. of
India and the Secretary, US Department of Commerce signed the document on the India-United States Commercial
Dialogue on 23rd March, 2000 in New Delhi. The Dialogue aims at facilitating trade and maximizing investment
opportunities across a broad range of economic sectors, including IT, infrastructure, biotechnology and services. Issues
taken up for discussion under the Commercial Dialogue are in the following four broad categories: exchange of

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information on standards, exchange of information on antidumping/trade defence mechanisms, exchange of information

on IPR and focus on small and medium enterprises (SMEs). The ‘Commercial Dialogue’ arrangement is reviewed every
two years and has now been extended for a two year period from March, 2010.

The seventh Ministerial meeting of the Trade Policy Forum (TPF) was held in Washington DC on 21st September 2010.
During the meeting, all the focus groups under the TPF, held comprehensive discussions on a wide range of issues and,
identified areas for future constructive engagement between the two trading partners.

India – Canada CEPA

The Commerce and Industry Minister of India and the Minister for International Trade of Canada held the first Annual
Ministerial Dialogue on trade and investment in Ottawa, Canada, on 24th September 2010. The meeting reviewed the
India-Canada trade and investment relationship. The seventh India-Canada Trade Policy Consultations was held on 18th
October, 2010 in New Delhi. Both countries have agreed to initiate negotiations towards a CEPA covering trade in goods,
services and other areas of economic cooperation. The inaugural session of the negotiations was held in New Delhi on
16th November, 2010.

India Mexico Bilateral High Level Group (BHLG)

A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) was signed between India and Mexico on 21 May, 2007 at New Delhi by the
Minister of Commerce and Industry, Govt. of India and the Minister of Economy, Mexico for the establishment of a
Bilateral High Level Group (BHLG) on Trade, Investment and Economic Cooperation. Under BHLG six Working Groups
have been created: (i) Trade promotion, (ii) Investment promotion (including infrastructure), (iii) Customs cooperation, (iv)
Services promotion, (v) Tourism promotion and (vi) Industrial dialogue with private sector participation. The second
meeting of the BHLG was held in Mexico City on April 22–23, 2010. The meeting was co-chaired by the Commerce
Secretary on the Indian side and the Vice Minister for Foreign Trade, Ministry of Economy on the Mexican side.

India-EFTA Broadbased Trade and Investment Agreement (BTIA) Negotiations

In order to strengthen the trade and investment relations with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) countries
comprising Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Iceland (non-EU member countries in Europe), an India-EFTA Joint
Study Group (JSG) was established in December, 2006 to take a comprehensive view of bilateral economic linkages,
covering among others, trade in goods and services, investment flows, and other areas of economic cooperation and to
examine the feasibility of a bilateral broad based trade and investment agreement. The JSG recommended
commencement of negotiations for a Broad based Trade and Investment Agreement (BTIA). Based on this, the sixth and
seventh rounds of negotiations were held during 11-12 November, 2010 and 15-18 February 2011, respectively.

India-Finland Joint Study Group (JSG)

Under the Agreement on Economic Cooperation between India and Finland signed on 26th March 2010 within the
Framework of the Joint Commission, the setting up of the following three Joint Working Groups is in progress: (i) Joint
Working Group on Innovation; (ii) Joint Working Group on Skill Development & Training and (iii) Joint Working Group on
Clean Technology and Waste Management.

India-Bulgaria Trade Relations

The 16th Session of India-Bulgaria Inter governmental Joint Commission for Economic Scientific and Technical
Cooperation was held on 8-9 April, 2010.

India-Swiss Joint Commission

The 12th Session of the Joint Commission on Economic Cooperation between India and Switzerland was held in Zurich
on October 1, 2010. The Swiss side proposed to set up a Joint Working Group on environment in the form of a dialogue

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on mutual cooperation. The Vocational Education and Training (VET) Project which started in 2009 in Bengaluru and
Pune with four Swiss companies and 25 students, was scaled up to 200 students in 2010.

India-Czech Republic Joint Commission

An umbrella agreement for Economic Cooperation was signed between India and the Czech Republic during June 6-8,
2010 in Prague. The Joint Commission held in New Delhi on November 29-30, 2010 agreed to work on Memorandum of
Undertaking (MoU) on cooperation in the pharmaceutical sector and set up a Joint Working Group on Power, which would
include conventional and non-conventional energy.

India-Turkey Joint Study Group (JSG)

An India-Turkey Joint Study Group (JSG) has been set up to explore the possibility of a Free Trade Agreement (FTA)
between India and Turkey. The 4th Meeting of the JSG was held on 13-14 January, 2011.

Trade Relations with the Russian Federation

The Russian Federation continues to be India’s most important trading partner in the CIS region accounting for about 58%
of India’s total trade with the region in 2009-10. During 2010-11, the following meetings were held to discuss various
issues concerning bilateral cooperation:

• The 4th Session of India-Russia Forum on Trade & Investment was held on 20th December, 2010 at New Delhi.
• The 16th Session of the Indo-Russian Inter-Governmental Commission on Trade, Economic, Scientific,
Technological and Cultural Cooperation was held on 18th November, 2010 in New Delhi.
• The 16th Session of the India-Russia Working Group on Trade & Economic Cooperation of the Indo-Russian
Inter-Governmental Commission on Trade, Economic, Scientific, Technological and Cultural Cooperation was
held on 5-6 October, 2010 in New Delhi.
• The 4th meeting of India-Russia Joint Task Force (JTF) was held on 18th May, 2010 in Moscow.

Trade Relation with the Central Asian Republics

Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan are the five Central Asian Republics in the CIS region.
Department of Commerce is the nodal Department for the Inter-Governmental Commission (IGC) with Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. An Agreement between India and Turkmenistan on Trade and Economic Cooperation was
signed by Shri Anand Sharma, Hon’ble Minister of Commerce and Industry from the Indian side and Mr. Hozamuhamet
Muhammedov, Deputy Prime Minister from Turkmenistan side on 25th May, 2010 in New Delhi during the state visit of
H.E. Mr. Gurbanbuly Berdimuhamedov, President of Turkmenistan.

Focus LAC Programme

An integrated programme ‘Focus LAC’ was launched in November, 1997 which has been extended upto March, 2014 in
order to consolidate the gains of the previous years and to significantly enhance India’s trade with the Latin American and
Caribbean (LAC) region. In the Foreign Trade Policy FTP (2009-14) announced in 2009, Latin America has been given
special focus to diversify our trade basket and to offset the inherent disadvantages for our exporters such as credit risk,
higher freight cost etc. Under FTP 2009-14, Double Weight Scheme for exports to all countries of LAC would continue.
Sixteen new markets of the LAC region have been included under Focus Market Scheme (FMS). Thus, the total countries
of LAC region now covered by the FMS are thirty one. Under the Market Linked Focus Product Scheme (MLFPS), thirteen
markets have been identified, which include Brazil.

As per the ECGC country risk and cover policy on LAC region (reviewed as on 30th June, 2010), sixteen Latin American
countries have been placed in low risk categories of ‘A1’ and ‘A2’. No country has been placed in very high-risk category
of ‘D’

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Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) with Southern African Customs Union (SACU)

India and SACU commenced negotiations for Preferential Trade Agreement PTA in October, 2007 and five meetings of
the negotiating teams have taken place so far. The fifth round of negotiations on India-SACU PTA was held in New Delhi
on 7-8, October, 2010.

CECPA with Mauritius

A Comprehensive Economic Cooperation and Partnership Agreement (CECPA) aimed at boosting bilateral trade,
investment and general economic cooperation between India and Mauritius is under negotiation.

‘Focus Africa’ Programme

The ‘Focus Africa’ Programme was initially launched with focus on seven countries of the Sub-Saharan African (SSA)
Region, viz., South Africa, Nigeria, Mauritius, Tanzania, Kenya, Ghana and Ethiopia. Under this programme, a mega
event, ‘The India Show’ was held in South Africa from 29th August, 2010 to 1st September, 2010. The event was jointly
inaugurated by the President of South Africa and the Commerce and Industry Minister of India.

Trade Relation with South Africa and Ghana

A high level delegation led by the Commerce and Industry Minister visited South Africa and Ghana during 29th August to
3rd September, 2010 for bilateral meeting with their counterparts.

India-Kenya Joint Trade Committee

The 6th meeting of the India-Kenya Joint Trade Committee (JTC) was held in Nairobi on 12-13 October, 2010, which was
co-chaired by Shri Anand Sharma, Hon’ble Minister of Commerce and Industry from the Indian side. During the meeting
both sides agreed to make all possible efforts to achieve a target of bilateral trade of US$ 2.5 billion in the next 3 years.

Negotiations on FTA with Israel

The first round of negotiations was held in New Delhi during May, 2010 where the broad parameters for negotiations were
finalized. The second round of negotiations was held on 27-28 February, 2011 in Jerusalem. Both sides agreed on the
broad outline of the FTA and formation of Working Groups on Trade in Goods, Trade in Services and negotiating customs
co-operation.

India-Syria Joint Commission

The 2nd Session of India-Syria Joint Commission Meeting (JCM) was held at Damascus on 19th June, 2010. The
Commerce and Industry Minister co-chaired the JCM. The 6th Session of India-Oman JCM was held during 5-6
September, 2010 in Muscat. Department of Commerce organised a mega event named “India Show” in Dubai during 8-10
June, 2010.

India Morocco and India-Egypt Trade Relations

The Minister of State (Commerce & Industry) visited Morocco during 26-27 October, 2010 to address the World Economic
Forum meeting and also held bilateral meetings with Trade Ministers of Morocco and Egypt to explore the ways and
means to enhance bilateral trade.

VII. Initiatives in the Plantation Sector

The Indian plantation sector is faced with problems of declining productivity, high cost of production and deterioration in
quality on account of ageing bush/ plant profile. Recognizing this replantation and rejuvenation of old plantation tracts
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have been identified as important ‘thrust areas’ by the government. A massive programme has been initiated during the
11th Plan period to replant old and unproductive tracts with high yielding varieties of plantation species to increase the
productivity levels.

During the period April-December, 2010-11 export of tea has been estimated at 139.30 million kgs valued at Rs.1858.38
crores (provisional) with unit price of Rs.133.41 per kg, against 159.44 million kgs valued at Rs.2301.86 crore with unit
price of Rs.140.37 per kg during the corresponding period last year. This shows a decline of 20.14 million kgs in quantum
and Rs.443.48 crore in value.

A total quantity of 1,94,677 tonnes of coffee was exported from India valued at Rs.2,057.87 crore during the year 2009-10.
The provisional export figures for 2010-11 (April-December, 2010) is 2,21,409 tonnes valued at Rs.2,269.80 crores, as
against the export target of 2,25,000 tonnes for the whole of 2010-11.

Major initiatives in the plantation sector are the following:

• Development of geographic information system through remote sensing is a project of three year term launched
during 2008-09. Considerable progress has been made towards mapping of tea growing areas located within the
pilot area of study. A web portal for ISRO-Project has been linked to the official website of the Tea Board for
facilitating the tea gardens, to have direct access to the project details and submission of garden particulars.
• Energy conservation in small tea processing units in south India was launched during 2008-09 and continued
during the year under report. It aims at removal of barriers to energy conservation and energy efficiency that
inhibit the realization of large energy saving potential in the tea sector. Data collected so far shows that project
interventions have resulted in 70 factories adopting at least one energy efficient recommendation.
• Out of 35 tea gardens that remained closed as on 1st April, 2007, 27 have been reopened by the close of the year
2010; only 8 (5 in Kerala and 3 in West Bengal) still remain closed.
• In order to provide thrust to the research on ‘coffee white stem borer’, a high level Expert Committee was
constituted by the Department in July, 2010.
• Under XIth Plan, the Coffee Board is extending financial support for coffee expansion, consolidation and quality
up-gradation activities in the North-Eastern Region (NER) for upliftment of tribal growers. Up to the end of
December, 2010, an area of 72.35 ha under expansion and 77.60 ha under consolidation have been achieved. A
reach out programme for coffee growers has been conducted during the month of November, 2010 at Kolasib
(Mizoram) for the benefit of 21 coffee growers of NER.
• The Government of India has communicated the sanction for the implementation of the Coffee Debt Relief
Package – 2010 for the debt ridden small coffee growers with a total implication of Rs.241.33 crores. This
package more importantly addresses the most vulnerable group of coffee growers whose cases were referred to
the Debt Recovery Tribunal by the Banks in the past and where some farms were brought to auction for the
recovery of the loans of such small coffee growers.
• The Rubber production department of the Rubber Board has established a well-developed Extension Network,
which renders advisory and extension services to growers in all aspects of rubber cultivation, crop harvesting and
processing and also facilitates the small growers to form voluntary organisations like Rubber Producers’ Societies
(RPS) and Self Help Groups (SHG). During 2010-11 (up to October 2010), eight RPS and nineteen SHGs have
been organized. Under development schemes, the Rubber Production department provided assistance to farmers
to the tune of Rs.14.22 crore (out of this, Rs.3.65 crore for SC/ST) during April–October 2010, benefiting 68,000
rubber growers. Under the ‘productivity enhancement’ scheme, input items worth Rs.7.06 crore has been
distributed among growers through RPS and achieved a physical target of 21,500 ha. Under the ‘boundary
protection subsidy scheme’, an amount of Rs.72.80 lakh has been paid to 2,217 beneficiaries during the period
April-October, 2010. India hosted the annual meetings of the Association of Natural Rubber Producing Countries
(ANRPC) held in October 2010 at Kochi.
• Activities directed towards replantation and rejuvenation of pepper in Wynad and Idukki districts of Kerala and in
the North East States have been carried out during this year.
• The Spices Board is in the process of establishing more Spices Parks in different spice producing states with the
objective to empower the farmers with better price realization and wider markets for their produce. The first ever
Spices Park was established in Chhindwara, Madhya Pradesh which is functional. The Spices Park at Puttadi,
Idukki district of Kerala has been opened in February 2011. Work is in progress for establishing Spices Parks at
Guntur in Andhra Pradesh, Sivagangai in Tamil Nadu, Kota and Jodhpur in Rajasthan, Mehsana in Gujarat. The
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Spices Board has initiated steps for establishing Spices Parks at Guna, Madhya Pradesh and Hamirpur in
Himachal Pradesh.

Welfare support for Plantation workers

An amount of Rs.99 lakh has been spent during the period April-November, 2010 for family welfare and education
programme undertaken in tea garden areas. An amount of Rs.150 lakh has been earmarked for 2010-11 to operate
various welfare measures aimed to reach coffee growers. Under various labour welfare schemes, the Rubber Board
disbursed Rs.116.13 lakh benefiting 2045 rubber tappers and their families during April–October 2010 against the target
of Rs.300 lakh for 2010-11.

The Rural India Growth Story

The Indian growth story is spreading to the rural and semi – urban areas as well. In 2008 the rural market has grown at an
impressive rate of 25 per cent compared to the 7 – 10 per cent growth rate of the urban consumer retail market.

Further, the rural market will grow to a potential of US$ 1.9 billion by 2015 from the current US$ 487 million.

The rural India success story is being replicated across a range of sectors in the rural markets. After several global
corporations like Microsoft, Intel, and Shell, many other major multinational companies (MNCs) and domestic players are
keen to foray into the rural Indian market to capitalize on its growing opportunities.

Advantage India

• According to the World Fact Book, India is among the world’s youngest nations with a median age of 25 Years as
compared to 43 in Japan and 36 in USA of the BRIC – Brazil, Russia, India and China – countries, India is
projected to stay the youngest with its working – age population estimated to rise to 70 per cent of the total
demographic by 2030 – the largest in the world. India will see 70 million new entrants to its workforce over the
next 5 Years.
• India has the second largest area of arable land in the world, making it one of the world’s largest food producers –
over 200 million tonnes of food grains are produced annually.
• India is the world’s largest producer of milk (100 million tonnes per annum), sugarcane (315 million tonnes per
annum) and tea (930 million kg per annum) and the second largest producer of rice, fruit and vegetables.
• With the largest number of listed companies – 10,000 across 23 stock exchanges, India has the third largest
investor base in the world.
• India’s healthy banking system with a network of 70,000 branches is among the largest in the world. In June
2007, the aggregate deposits of commercial banks were about US$ 445 billion (50 per cent of GDP) and the total
bank credit stood at US$ 320 billion (36 per cent of GDP).
• NPA (non – performing assets) levels of banks in India are under 3 per cent, one of the lowest among emerging
nations.
• According to a study, India’s consumer market will be the worlds fifth largest (from twelfth) in the world by 2025
and India’s middle class will swell by over ten times from its current size of 50 million to 583 million people by
2025.

Growth Potential of India

• Special Economic Zones (SEZs) are set to see major investments after the straightening out of certain regulatory
tangles. India has approved 513 SEZs till August 2008, of which 250 have been notified.

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• Investments are expected to cross US$ 45.73 billion by December 2009, providing incremental employment to
800,000 people.
• India’s telecom services industry revenues are projected to reach US$ 54 billion in 2012, up from US$ 31 billion in
2008.
• India saw a 23 per cent increase in IP (Internet Protocol) addresses with 2.6 million connections in the third –
quarter ended September 2008.
• The government is planning to set up a special corpus of around US$ 10.48 billion for infrastructure projects.
• The retail business in India is expected to grow at 13 per cent annually from US$ 322 billion in 2006 – 2007 to
US$ 590 billion in 2011 – 2012.
• The unorganized Indian retail sector is expected to grow at about 10 percent per annum to reach US$ 496 billion
in 2011 – 2012.
• India is likely to emerge as the next global hub for innovation and join the club of developed nations, with the
country aiming to increase its research and development (R&D) expenditure in the coming Years.
• India is targeting to increase its R&D spend to two per cent of the GDP by 2012 under the 11th Five Year Plan,
from less than one per cent earlier.
• Corporate India registered US$ 3.4 billion as mergers and acquisitions (M&As) during November 2008, as against
US$ 850 million in November 2007. The figure stood at US$ 2.13 billion in October 2008.

Future Perfect

The Planning Commission has ruled out any changes in the average 9 per cent gross domestic product growth target of
the 11th Five Year Plan, although there might be ‘some significant reduction in growth’ in 2009 as a result of the global
financial crisis.

India offers huge investment opportunities in various sectors and investments are likely to pour into these sunshine
sectors:

• The realty sector is likely to increase at the rate of 30 per cent annually during the next 10 Years, drawing US$ 30
billion as foreign investment.
• The Indian IT market is projected to see 18 per cent growth in 2008, touching US$ 38 billion.
• According to a McKinsey study, “The market size for the food consumption category in India is expected to grow
from US$ 155 billion in 2005 to US$ 344 billion in 2025 at a compound annual growth rate of 4.1 percent”.
• According to the India Retail Report 2009, the Indian retail industry is likely to touch US$ 390.68 billion by 2010.
• The Indian pharmaceutical industry is projected to grow to US$ 25 billion by 2010 whereas the domestic market is
likely to more than triple to US$ 20 billion by 2015 from the current US$ 6 billion to become one of the leading
pharmaceutical markets in the next decade.
• Agricultural production is likely to increase significantly during fiscal Year 2009. Centre for Monitoring Indian
Economy (CMIE) has projected a growth of 3.2 per cent during fiscal Year 2009, for the GDP of agriculture and
allied sectors.
• This would be the fourth straight Year of positive growth in agricultural production, with the first 3 Years clocking
an average growth of 5.5 per cent. The allied sectors comprising livestock, forestry and logging, and fishing are
likely to see a growth of 4.8 per cent during fiscal Year 2009.

Trade Relations of India

India’s trade relations with several countries have received an impetus with the numerous bilateral pacts and trade
agreements signed recently.

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• The government is likely to sign a free trade agreement (FTA) with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN).
• With lower tariff barriers, trade between India and ASEAN is expected to increase significantly from the present
US$ 28 billion annually.
• India – African bilateral trade is projected to grow by over nine times from US$ 26 billion now to US$ 150 billion by
2012, according to an estimate by a leading business chamber.
• Spain, which has a strong industrial base in the automotive and infrastructure sectors, has witnessed a five – fold
increase in its investments in India in 2008.
• Spanish investment in India in the first three quarters of 2008 calendar Year was US$ 158 million (or 114 million
euros) – an increase of 500 per cent from the previous Year.
• India has emerged as Dubai’s second biggest trading partner during the first nine months of 2008 with imports
from India worth US$ 10 billion and re – exports to India worth US$ 8 billion.
• India and Turkey aim to double bilateral trade to US$ 6 billion by 2010.
• India and Singapore will be signing an agreement on IP rights’ cooperation. Singapore ranks fourth in terms of
FDI in India during the period 1991 – 2008.
• India and Syria have signed a revised double taxation avoidance agreement for the avoidance of double taxation
and for the prevention of fiscal evasion with respect to taxes on income.
• The bilateral trade between UK and India has touched US$ 17.44 billion in 2007 – 2008. India’s economic ties
with the UK are also through the 52 listed companies with a combined market capitalization of US$ 15.71 billion
on the London Stock Exchange. In 2007 – 2008, Indian firms invested in 1,573 projects in the UK.
• India and Canada have set off ten joint initiatives worth US$ 17 million in the field of science and technology, and
next – generation research.
• India has become the 10th largest trading partner of Australia, with bilateral investment touching US$ 2 billion.
• Non – Oil Bilateral trade between India and Oman in the first quarter of 2008 registered an impressive growth of
35 – 40 per cent.
• Italy is looking forward to widening business opportunities in India, especially in West Bengal. Bilateral trade
between the two countries added up US$ 100 million in 2007.

Economic Planning in India

History of Planning in India

• First attempt to initiate economic planning in India was made by Sir M. Visvesvarayya, a noted engineer and
politician, in 1934 through his book, ‘Planned Economy for India’.
• In 1938, ‘National Planning Commission’ was set – up under the chairmanship of JL Nehru by the Indian National
Congress. Its recommendations could not be implemented because of the beginning of the Second World War
and changes in the Indian political situation.
• In 1944, ‘Bombay Plan’ was presented by 8 leading industrialists of Bombay.
• In 1944, ‘Gandhian Plan’ was given by S N Agarwal.
• In 1945, ‘People’s Plan’ was given by M N Roy.
• In 1950, ‘Sarvodaya Plan’ was given by J P Narayan. A few points of this plan were accepted by the Government.

The Planning Commission of India

• The Planning Commission was set – up on March 15, 1950 under the chairmanship of JL Nehru, by a resolution
of Union Cabinet.
• It is an extra – constitutional, non – statutory body.

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• It consists of Prime Minister as the ex – officio Chairman, one Deputy – Chairman appointed by the PM and some
full time members.
• The tenure of its members and deputy chairman is not fixed. There is no definite definition of its members also.
They are appointed by the Government on its own discretion. The number of members can also change
according to the wishes of the Government.

Functions Economic System

• Assessment of material, capital and human resources of the country.

• Formulation of plans for the most effective and balanced utilization of country’s resources.
• To determine the various stages of planning and to propose the allocation of resources on the priority basis.
• To act as an advisory body to the Union Government.
• To evaluate from time to time the progress achieved in every stage of the plan and also to suggest remedial
measures.
• To advise the Centre and the State Governments from time to time on special matters referred to the
Commission.

National Development Council India

• All the plans made by the Planning Commission have to be approved by National Development Council first. It
was constituted to build co – operation between the States and the Planning Commission for economic planning.
• It is an extra – constitutional and extra – legal body.
• It was set – up on August 6, 1952, by a proposal of the Government. The PM is the ex – officio chairman of NDC.
Other members are Union Cabinet Ministers, Chief Ministers and Finance Ministers of all States, Lt. Governors of
Union Territories and Governors of Centrally – ruled States.

State Planning Board India

• Apex planning body at State level is generally a State Planning Body comprising the Chief Minister as Chairman,
Finance and Planning Ministers of that State and some technical experts.
• District Planning Committee is also there comprising both official and non – official members.

Five Year Plans in India

5 Year Plan in India (1951 – 56)

• It was based on Harrod – Domar Model.

• Community Development Program was launched in 1952.
• Two – fold objectives were there :

• To correct the disequilibrium in the economy caused by 3 main problems – influx of refugees, severe food shortage
and mounting inflation.
• To initiate a process of all – round balanced development to ensure a rising national income and a steady
improvement in living standards.

• Emphasized on Agriculture, Price Stability, Power and Transport.

• It was more than a success, because of good harvests in the last two Years.

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Second Five Year Plan of India (1956 – 61)

• Also called ‘Mahalanobis Plan’ after its chief architect PC Mahalanobis. It was based on 1928 Soviet Model of
Feldman.
• Its emphasis was on economic stability. Agriculture target fixed in the first plan was almost achieved.
Consequently, the agriculture sector got low priority in the second five Year plan.
• Its objective was Rapid Industrialization, particularly basic and heavy industries such as iron and steel, heavy
chemicals like nitrogenous fertilizers, heavyengineering and machine building industry.
• Besides, the Industrial Policy of 1956 emphasized the role of Public Sector and accepted the establishment of a
socialistic pattern of the society as the goal of economic policy.
• Advocated huge imports which led to emptying of funds leading to foreign loans. It shifted basic emphasis from
agriculture to industry far too soon. During this plan, price level increased by 30%, against a decline of 13%
during the First Plan.

Third Five Year Plan in India (1961 – 66)

• At its conception time, it was felt that Indian economy has entered a take – off stage. Therefore, its aim was to
make India a ‘Self – Reliant’ and ‘Self – Generating’ Economy.
• Also, it was realized from the experience of first two plans that agriculture should be given the top priority to
suffice the requirements of export and industry.
• The other objectives of the plan included the expansion of basic industries, optimum utilization of country’s labor
power and reducing the inequalities of income and wealth.
• Relied heavily on foreign aid (IMF).
• Complete failure due to unforeseen misfortunes, vizard Chinese aggression (1962), Indo – Pak war (1965),
severest drought in 100 Years (1965 – 66).
• Prices increased by 36% in 5 – Years.
• Hence, third plan failed in every respect.

Three Annual Plans (1966 – 69)

• Plan holiday for 3 Years.

• The prevailing crisis in agriculture and serious food shortage necessitated the emphasis on agriculture during the
Annual Plans.
• During these plans a whole new agricultural strategy involving wide – spread distribution of High – Yielding
Varieties (HYVs) of seeds, the extensive use of fertilizers, exploitation of irrigation potential and soil conservation
was put into action to tide – over the crisis in agricultural production.
• During the Annual Plans, the economy basically absorbed the shocks given during the Third Plan, making way for
a planned growth.

Fourth Five Year Plan India (1969 – 74)

• The Fourth Plan set before itself the two principal objectives – growth with stability and progress towards self –
reliance.
• Main emphasis on agriculture’s growth rate so that a chain reaction can start.
• Fared well in the first 2 Years with record production, last 3 Years failure because of poor monsoon.
• Had to tackle the influx of Bangladeshi refugees before and after 1971 Indo – Pak war.
• During the planning period, prices increased by about 61%.

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Fifth Five Year Plan of India (1974 – 79)

• The Fifth Plan prepared and launched by DD Dhar proposed to achieve two main objectives vizard, ‘Removal of
Poverty’ (Garibi Hatao) and ‘Attainment of Self Reliance’, through promotion of high rate of growth, better
distribution of income and a very significant growth in the domestic rate of savings.
• National Program of Minimum needs was initiated in which Primary Education, Drinking Water; Medical facilities in
rural areas, Nourishing Food, Land for the Houses of Landless Laborers, Rural Roads, Electrification of the
Villages and Cleanliness of the dirty suburbs were included.
• The plan was terminated in 1978 (instead of 1979) when Janta Government, came to power.

Rolling Plan in India (1978 – 80)

• There were 2 Sixth Plans – One by Janta Government (for 78 – 83) which was in operation for 2 Years only and
the other by the Congress Government when it returned to power in 1980. The Janta Government Plan is also
called ‘Rolling Plan’.
• The focus of the plan was enlargement of the employment potential in agriculture and allied activities,
encouragement to household and small industries producing consumer goods for consumption and to raise the
incomes of the lowest income classes through minimum needs program.

Indian Sixth Five Year Plan (1980 – 85)

Objectives :

Increase in National Income, Modernization of Technology, Ensuring continuous decrease in Poverty and Unemployment,
Population Control through Family Planning, etc.

Seventh Five Year Plan (1985 – 90)

• The Seventh Plan emphasized policies and programs which aimed at rapid growth in food – grains production,
increased employment opportunities and productivity within the framework of basic tenants of planning.
• It was a great success, the economy recorded 6% growth rate against the targeted 5%.

Eighth Five Year Plan of India (1992 – 97)

• The Eighth Plan was postponed by 2 Years because of political upheavals at the Centre and it was launched after
a worsening Balance of Payment (BoP) position inflation during 1990 – 91.
• The plan undertook various drastic policy measures to combat the bad economic situation and to undertake an
annual average growth of 5.6%.
• Some of the main economic performances during Eighth Plan period were rapid economic growth, high growth of
agriculture and allied sector, and manufacturing sector, growth in exports and imports, improvement in trade and
current account deficit.
• The most notable feature of the Eighth Plan period was that the GDP grew at an average rate of 6.8% exceeding
the target growth rate of 5.6%.

Rural Development

India is a country of villages and about 50% of the villages have very poor socio-economic conditions. Since the dawn of independence,
concerted efforts have been made to ameliorate the living standard of rural masses. So, rural development is an integrated concept of growth
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and poverty elimination has been of paramount concern in all the consequent five year plans. Rural Development (RD) programmes comprise
of following:

• Provision of basic infrastructure facilities in the rural areas e.g. schools, health facilities, roads, drinking water, electrification etc.
• Improving agricultural productivity in the rural areas.
• Provision of social services like health and education for socio-economic development.
• Implementing schemes for the promotion of rural industry increasing agriculture productivity, providing rural employment etc.
• Assistance to individual families and Self Help Groups (SHG) living below poverty line by providing productive resources through
credit and subsidy.

Integrated development of rural areas is one of the abiding tasks before the Government of India. The National Common Minimum Programme
(NCMP)(External website that opens in a new window) of the Central government reiterates the cardinal importance of villages to the overall
development of the country and commits to work towards development of rural areas, which for various reasons could not keep pace with urban
areas in the past.

In conformity with this commitment of the Government, the Ministry of Rural Development(External website that opens in a new
window) accords foremost priority to development in rural areas and eradication of poverty and hunger from the face of rural India. A number of
initiatives have been taken in the recent years for creation of social and economic infrastructure in rural areas to bridge the rural-urban divide as
well as to provide food security and fulfill other basic needs of the rural populace.

The renewed emphasis on rural development is also visible in the commensurate progressive increase in the allocation of resources for
implementation of poverty alleviation programmes. For the Tenth Five Year Plan, the allocation of funds for rural development programmes has
been enhanced to Rs. 76,774 crore as against Rs. 42,874 crore in Ninth Plan.

Addressing the challenge of unemployment in the rural areas of the country is central to the development of rural sector for ameliorating the
economic condition of the people. Wage employment is provided in rural areas under National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(NREGA)(External website that opens in a new window) and Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY)(External website that opens in a
new window) whereas self-employment is provided under Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY). Besides generating employment
these wage employment schemes also ensure creation of durable assets in rural areas. Initiatives are also taken by the Ministry to build and
upgrade the basic rural infrastructure through various schemes.

Under Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)(External website that opens in a new window) construction and repairing of rural roads
are taken up to ensure rural connectivity. It is expected under the scheme that an expanded and renovated rural road network will lead to an
increase in rural employment opportunities, better access to regulated and fair market, better access to health, education and other public
services so as to accelerate the pace of economic growth in rural areas. Similarly basic amenities for housing, drinking water and toilets, etc.
are provided under Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY), Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP)(External website that opens in a new
window) and Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC)(External website that opens in a new window) to enhance the welfare and well-being of the
vulnerable sections of rural population. Area Development is encouraged through Watershed Programmes to check the diminishing productivity
of waste land and loss of natural resources.

The Rural India Growth Story

The Indian growth story is spreading to the rural and semi – urban areas as well. In 2008 the rural market has grown at an
impressive rate of 25 per cent compared to the 7 – 10 per cent growth rate of the urban consumer retail market.

Further, the rural market will grow to a potential of US$ 1.9 billion by 2015 from the current US$ 487 million.

The rural India success story is being replicated across a range of sectors in the rural markets. After several global
corporations like Microsoft, Intel, and Shell, many other major multinational companies (MNCs) and domestic players are
keen to foray into the rural Indian market to capitalize on its growing opportunities.

Rural Infrastructure Development

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• Bharat Nirman
• Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna
• Rural Housing
• Rural Water Supply Programme
• Central Rural Sanitation Programme
• National Institute of Rural Development(External website that opens in a new window)
• Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY)

Bharat Nirman

Bharat Nirman is a time-bound business plan for action in rural infrastructure. Under Bharat Nirman, action is proposed in
the areas of irrigation, rural housing, rural water supply, rural electrification and rural telecommunication connectivity.

Rural Roads

To upgrade rural infrastructure, the Government has formulated a proposal for providing the road connections to more
than 38,484 villages above 1000 population and all 20,867 habitations above 500 populations in hilly and tribal areas.

To achieve the targets of Bharat Nirman, 1,46,185 kms. of road length is proposed to be constructed by 2009. This will
benefit 66,802 unconnected eligible habitations in the country. To ensure full farm to market connectivity, it is also
proposed to upgrade 1,94,132 kms. of the existing Associated Through Routes. A sum of approximately Rs.48,000 crore
is proposed to be invested to achieve this.

The main thrust of research and development (R&D) in the roads sector is to build a sustainable road infrastructure
comparable to the best roads in the world. The various components of this strategy are improvement in design,
modernization of construction techniques, introduction of improved material conforming to latest trends, evolving better
and appropriate specifications, encouraging development and use of new technologies etc. The dissemination of these
matters is done through the publication of new guidelines, code of practices, instructions/circulars, compilation of state-of-
the-art reports and seminars/presentations etc. The research schemes sponsored by the Department are generally
'applied' in nature, which, once completed, would enable them to be adopted by user agencies/departments in their work
in the field. The areas covered are roads, road transport, bridges, traffic and transportation techniques etc. The
Department takes the help of various research institutions, academic institutions and universities to implement the
schemes. An outlay of Rs.600.00 lakhs has been provided for R&D in 2007-08. Some of the ongoing major schemes are
as follows:

• Roads:
o Development of GIS based National Highways information system;
o Guidelines for soil nailing techniques in highway engineering;
o Pilot study on effect of overloading on road infrastructure;
o Investigation on field performance of bituminous mixes with modified binders;
o R&D Studies on performance evaluation of rigid pavements on high density traffic corridors using
instrumentation supported by laboratory tests.

In addition to the above, the proposal of IIT, Roorkee for establishment of the Ministry's Chair in it in the area of
development of Highway System has also been sanctioned.

• Bridges:

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o Creation of complete range of independent testing facility at Central Road Research Institute (CRRI ),
New Delhi.

Rural Housing

Housing is one of basic requirements for human survival. For a shelterless person, possession of a house brings about a
profound social change in his existence, endowing him with an identity, thus integrating him with his immediate social
milieu.

The Ministry of Rural Development is implementing Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) with a view to providing financial
assistance to the rural poor living below poverty line for construction of pucca house. The details of the scheme along with
its performance are given below:

Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY)

The Government of India is implementing Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) since the year 1985-86 to provide financial
assistance for construction / upgradation of dwelling units to the below poverty line (BPL) rural households belonging to
the scheduled castes, scheduled Tribes and freed bonded labourers categories. From the year 1993-94, the scope of the
scheme was extended to cover non-Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes rural BPL poor, subject to the condition that
the benefits to non-SC/ST would not be more than 40% of the total IAY allocation. The benefits of the Scheme have also
been extended to the families of ex-servicemen of the armed and paramilitary forces killed in action, 3% of the Houses are
reserved for the rural Below Poverty Line physically and mentally challenged persons, from 2006-07 onward, funds and
physical targets under IAY are also being earmarked for BPL minorities in each state.

Under the scheme, financial resources are shared between the centre and the states on a 75:25 basis. Since, reduction of
shelterlessness is the primary objective, 75% weightage is given to housing shortage and 25% to the poverty ratios
prescribed by Planning Commission for state level allocation. For district level allocation, 75% weightage is given again to
housing shortage and 25% to SC/ST population of the concerned districts.

On the basis of allocations made and targets fixed, district Rural development Agency (DRDAs)/Zilla Parishada (ZPs)
decide Panchayat-wise number of houses to be constructed under IAY and intimate the same to the concerned Gram
Panchayat. Thereafter, the Gram Sabha selects the beneficiaries, restricting its number to the target allotted, from the list
of eligible households from the Permanent IAY Waitlists. No further approval of the higher authority is required.

The ceiling on construction assistance under the IAY has been enhanced w.e.f. 1.4.2008, Rs.25, 000/- to Rs.35,000/- per
unit in the plain areas and from Rs.27,500/- to Rs.38,500/- in hilly/difficult areas. For upgradation of kutcha house, the
financial assistance has also been enhanced from Rs.12,500/- to Rs.15,000/- per unit. In addition, The Reserve Bank of
India has been requested by the Ministry of Finance to include IAY houses under the Differential Rate of Interest (DRI)
scheme for lending upto Rs.20,000 per unit at an interest rate of 4%.

Further, the dwelling units should invariably be allotted in the name of a female member of the beneficiary household.
Alternatively, it can be allotted in the name of both husband and wife. Only in case there is no eligible female member in
the family, the house can be allotted in the name of an eligible male member.

The Sanitary latrine and smokeless chullah and proper drainage are required for each IAY house. Latrine could be
constructed separate for the IAY house on the site of beneficiary.

The construction of the houses is the sole responsibility of the beneficiary. Engagement of contractors is strictly
prohibited.

No specific type design has been stipulated for an IAY house. Choice of design, technology and materials for construction
of an IAY house is the sole discretion of the beneficiaries.

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About 181.51 lakh houses have been constructed under IAY since inception of the Scheme with an expenditure
of Rs.36900.41 crores (upto 31/5/2008).

Performance during the year 2007-08

During 2007-08, the Central allocation for Rural Houseing was Rs.40,322.70 crore. The target for
construction/upgradation of IAY houses was 21.27 lakh. Against this target, 19.88 lakh houses were
constructed/upgraded by incurring an amount of Rs.5,458.01 crores (including State share).

Performance during the year 2008-09

The Central allocation for 2008-09 under the IAY is Rs.5,645.77 crore for the target of constructing/upgrading 21.27 lakh
IAY houses. Out of this, an amount of Rs.1,694.48 crore has been released as part of first instalment and 85,879 houses
have been constructed so far, (upto 31/5/2008).

Irrigation

Under the Irrigation Component of Bharat Nirman, the target of creation of additional irrigation potential of 1 crore hectare
in 4 years (2005-06 to 2008-09) is planned to be met largely through expeditious completion of identified ongoing major
and medium irrigation projects. Irrigation potential of 42 lakh hectare is planned to be created by expeditiously completing
such ongoing major and medium projects.

There is a definite gap between irrigation potential created and the potential utilized. Under Bharat Nirman it is planned to
restore and utilize irrigation potential of 10 lakh hectare through implementation of extension, renovation and
modernization of schemes alongwith command area development and water management practices.

There are considerable areas in the country with unutilised ground water resources. Irrigation potential of 28 lakh hectare
is planned to be created through ground water development.

The remaining target for creation of irrigation potential of 10 lakh hectare is planned to be created by way of minor
irrigation schemes using surface flow.

10 lakh hectare of irrigation potential is also planned by way of repair, renovation and restoration of water bodies and
extension, renovation and modernization of minor irrigation schemes.

Telephone Connections

Telecom connectivity constitutes an important part of the effort to upgrade the rural infrastructure. Under the Bharat
Nirman Programme, it will be ensured that 66,822 revenue villages in the country, which have not yet been provided with
a Village Public Telephone (VPT), shall be covered. Out of the above villages, connectivity in 14,183 remote and far flung
villages will be provided through digital satellite phone terminals. Assistance for both capital as well as operational
expenditure for these VPTs will be met out of the Universal Services Obligation Fund (USOF).

Rural Water Supply

To build rural infrastructure, Bharat Nirman has been launched by the Government of India in 2005 to be implemented in a
period of four years from 2005-06 to 2008-09. Rural drinking water is one of the six components of Bharat Nirman. During
Bharat Nirman period, 55,067 un-covered and about 3.31 lakh slipped-back habitations are to be covered with provisions
of drinking water facilities and 2.17 lakh quality-affected habitations are to be addressed for water quality problem.

While prioritising the addressal of the water quality problem, Arsenic and Fluoride affected habitations have been
accorded priority followed by Iron, Salinity, Nitrate and other contaminants. To ensure that habitations once provided with
drinking water supply infrastructure do not slip back and face drinking water problem, sustainability of drinking water

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sources and systems has been accorded high priority. To achieve drinking water security at village/ habitation level,
conjunctive use of water i.e. judicious use of rainwater, surface water and ground water is promoted.

To enable the rural community shoulder the responsibility in management, operation and maintenance of water supply
systems at village level, decentralized, demand-driven, community-managed approach in the form of Swajaldhara have
been adopted. To further strengthen community participation in the drinking water sector for sustainability, National Rural
Drinking Water Quality Monitoring & Surveillance programme has been launched in February, 2006 under which 5
persons in each Gram Panchayat are to be trained to carry out regular surveillance of drinking water sources for which
100% financial assistance including water testing kits, are provided.

Rural Electrification

Ministry of Power has introduced the scheme Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidhyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY) in April 2005, which
aims at providing electricity in all villages and habitations in four years and provides access to electricity to all rural
households. This programme has been brought under the ambit of Bharat Nirman.

Under RGGVY, electricity distribution infrastructure is envisaged to establish Rural Electricity Distribution Backbone
(REDB) with at least a 33/11KV sub-station, Village Electrification Infrastructure (VEI) with at least a Distribution
Transformer in a village or hamlet, and standalone grids with generation where grid supply is not feasible.

This infrastructure would cater to the requirements of agriculture and other activities in rural areas including irrigation
pump sets, small and medium industries, khadi and village industries, cold chains, healthcare and education and IT. This
would facilitate overall rural development, employment generation and poverty alleviation.

Subsidy towards capital expenditure to the tune of 90% will be provided, through Rural Electrification Corporation Limited
(REC), which is a nodal agency for implementation of the scheme. Electrification of un-electrified Below Poverty Line
(BPL) households will be financed with 100% capital subsidy @ Rs.1500/- per connection in all rural habitations.

The Management of Rural Distribution is mandated through franchisees. The services of Central Public Sector
Undertakings (CPSU) are available to the States for assisting them in the execution of Rural Electrification projects.

Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna

The Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna (PMGSY)- External website that opens in a new window was launched on 25
December 2000 as a fully funded Centrally Sponsored Scheme. The primary objective of the PMGSY is to provide
connectivity to all the eligible unconnected habitations of more than 500 persons in the rural areas (250 persons in the
hilly and desert areas) by good quality all-weather roads.

Under Bharat Nirman, goal has been set to provide connectivity to all the habitations with population of more than 1000 in
the plain areas and habitations with a population of 500 or more in hilly and tribal areas in a time-bound manner by 2009.
The systematic upgradation of the existing rural road networks is also an integral component of the scheme. Accordingly,
an Action Plan has been prepared for connecting 66,802 habitations with 1,46,185 km of all-weather roads. This Action
Plan also envisages upgradation/renewal of 1,94,130 km of the existing rural road network. Subsequently, based on
ground verification by States, 62,985 habitations were found eligible to be connected under the programme, out of which
3421 habitations have been connected under other schemes. Thus, the revised target is to connect 59,564 habitations. It
is estimated that an investment of about Rs.48,000 crore would be required for achieving the targets under Bharat
Nirman. The implementation strategy focuses on quality, cost management and 'on time' delivery.

Up to July, 2008, project proposals amounting to Rs.81,717 crore have been approved against which a sum of Rs.38,499
crore has been released for 86,146 roads covering a length of 3,31,736 km. Against these, 52,218 road works having
road length of 1,75629 km have been completed with a cumulative expenditure of Rs.35,295 crore.

Rural Housing
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Housing is one of basic requirements for human survival. For a shelterless person, possession of a house brings about a
profound social change in his existence, endowing him with an identity, thus integrating him with his immediate social
milieu.

The Ministry of Rural Development is implementing Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) with a view to providing financial
assistance to the rural poor living below poverty line for construction of pucca house. The details of the scheme along with
its performance are given below:

Indira Awaas Yojna (IAY)

The Government of India is implementing Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) since the year 1985-86 to provide financial
assistance for construction / upgradation of dwelling units to the below poverty line (BPL) rural households belonging to
the scheduled castes, scheduled Tribes and freed bonded labourers categories. From the year 1993-94, the scope of the
scheme was extended to cover non-Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes rural BPL poor, subject to the condition that
the benefits to non-SC/ST would not be more than 40% of the total IAY allocation. The benefits of the Scheme have also
been extended to the families of ex-servicemen of the armed and paramilitary forces killed in action, 3% of the Houses are
reserved for the rural Below Poverty Line physically and mentally challenged persons, From 2006-07 onward, funds and
physical targets under IAY are also being earmarked for BPL minorities in each state.

Under the scheme, financial resources are shared between the centre and the states on a 75 : 25 basis. Since, reduction
of shelterlessness is the primary objective, 75% weightage is given to housing shortage and 25% to the poverty ratios
prescribed by Planning Commission for state level allocation. For district level allocation, 75% weightage is given again to
housing shortage and 25% to SC/ST population of the concerned districts.

On the basis of allocations made and targets fixed, district Rural development Agency (DRDAs)/Zilla Parishada (ZPs)
decide Panchayat-wise number of houses to be constructed under IAY and intimate the same to the concerned Gram
Panchayat. Thereafter, the Gram Sabha selects the beneficiaries, restricting its number to the target allotted, from the list
of eligible households from the Permanent IAY Waitlists. No further approval of the higher authority is required.

The ceiling on construction assistance under the IAY has been enhanced w.e.f. 1.4.2008, Rs.25, 000/- to Rs.35,000/- per
unit in the plain areas and from Rs.27,500/ - to Rs.38,500/- in hilly/difficult areas. For upgradation of kutcha house, the
financial assistance has also been enhanced from Rs.12,500/- to Rs.15,000/- per unit. In addition, The Reserve Bank of
India has been requested by the Ministry of Finance to include IAY houses under the Differential Rate of Interest (DRI)
scheme for lending upto Rs.20,000 per unit at an interest rate of 4%.

Further, the dwelling units should invariably be allotted in the name of a female member of the beneficiary household.
Alternatively, it can be allotted in the name of both husband and wife. Only in case there is no eligible female member in
the family, the house can be allotted in the name of an eligible male member.

The Sanitary latrine and smokeless chullah and proper drainage are required for each IAY house. Latrine could be
constructed separate for the IAY house on the site of beneficiary.

The construction of the houses is the sole responsibility of the beneficiary. Engagement of contractors is strictly
prohibited.

No specific type design has been stipulated for an IAY house. Choice of design, technology and materials for construction
of an IAY house is the sole discretion of the beneficiaries.

About 181.51 lakh houses have been constructed under IAY since inception of the Scheme with an expenditure
of Rs.36900.41 crores (upto 31/5/2008)

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Performance during the year 2007-08

During 2007-08, the Central allocation for Rural Housing was Rs.40322.70 crore. The target for construction/upgradation
of IAY houses was 21.27 lakh. Against this target, 19.88 lakh houses were constructed/upgraded by incurring an amount
of Rs.5458.01 crores (including State share).

Performance during the year 2008-09

The Central allocation for 2008-09 under the IAY is Rs.56.45.77 crore for the target of constructing/upgrading 21.27 lakh
IAY houses. Out of this, an amount of Rs.1694.48 crore has been released as part of first installment and 85879 houses
have been constructed so far, (upto 31/5/2008).

Rural Water Supply Programme

Clean drinking water is a basic necessity of life. Supply of clean drinking water in the rural areas has always been one of
the highest priorities of the government. A Technology Mission on drinking water named "National Drinking Water
Mission" (NDWM) was launched in 1986, which subsequently was rechristened as "Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water
Mission (RGNDWM)- File referring to external site opens in a new window" in 1991 with three key objectives:

i. Providing safe drinking water to all villages,

ii. Assisting local communities to maintain sources of safe drinking water in good condition, and
iii. Giving special attention for water supply to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

To achieve the objectives, Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) is being implemented to resolve the
drinking water problem in rural habitations. The Central Government supplements the efforts of the states by providing
financial and technical support. The Tenth Plan emphasizes participatory approach where PRIs should be the key
institutions for convergence of drinking water supply programmes at the ground level. The strategy to achieve the Tenth
Plan objectives can be briefly summarised as:

a. Accelerating coverage of the remaining Not Covered and Partially Covered habitations including those slipped
back from fully covered to partially and not covered categories, with safe drinking water systems.
b. To tackle problems of water quality in affected habitations and to institutionalize water quality monitoring and
surveillance systems.
c. To promote sustainability, both of systems and sources, to ensure continued supply of safe drinking water in
covered habitations

Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) aims at achieving this objective. Considerable success has been
achieved in meeting the drinking water needs of the rural population through the said scheme. There are more than 4
million hand pumps and 2 lakh piped water schemes in the rural areas.

The ARWSP was launched during 1972-73. It is currently being implemented through the Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking
Water Mission. The scheme aims at coverage of all rural habitations with population of 100 and above, specially the un-
reached ones, ensure sustainability of the systems and sources, tackle the problem of water quality and institutionalise
water quality monitoring and surveillance through a Catchment Area Approach.

As on 1 April 2005, 96.13 per cent of rural habitations have been Fully Covered (FC) with drinking water facilities and 3.55
per cent are Partially Covered (PC) and 0.32 per cent is Not Covered (NC) with drinking water facilities. There are
slippages of FC into NC or PC due to various factors such as lowering of ground water table, systems outliving their lives,
increase in population, etc.

Drinking water supply is one of the six components of Bharat Nirman, which has been envisaged to build strong rural
infrastructure in four years (2005-06 to 2008-09). The task ahead is to cover all the remaining uncovered habitations and

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also to cover the slipped back as well as the water quality affected ones. Action Plans from State/UT Governments for
achieving the goals of Bharat Nirman in a time bound manner have been obtained.

For ensuring sustainability of the systems, steps were initiated in 1999 to institutionalise community participation in the
implementation of rural drinking water supply schemes by incorporating the following three basic principles:

i. Adoption of a demand-driven responsive and adaptable approach based on empowerment of villagers to ensure
their full participation in the project through a decision making role in the choice of scheme design, control of
finances and management arrangements.
ii. Increasing role of government for empowering user groups/gram panchayats for sustainable management of
drinking water assets and integrated water management and conservation.
iii. Partial capital cost sharing either in cash or kind or both and 100 per cent responsibility of Operation and
Maintenance by end-users.

Sector Reforms Projects, based on the above principles were sanctioned in 67 districts on pilot basis. With the experience
gained from these pilot projects, reform process has been scaled up in the entire country through Swajaldhara launched
on 25 December 2002. A notable feature of Swajaldhara is involvement of Village Water and Sanitation Committee
(VWSC)/Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in planning, implementation, operation and maintenance. This would in turn
ensure sustainability of the system. 10 per cent contribution is made by the community and 90 per cent funds are provided
by the Central government. In case of SC and ST habitations, community contribution can be in the form of cash, kind,
labour or land or a combination of these.

Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission (RGNDWM) adopts an integrated approach so that conservation and
augmentation of water sources is interrelated with rural water supply schemes to provide sustainable supply of safe
drinking water to the rural population. The Mission seeks to provide supply of 40 liters of safe drinking water in rural areas.

An initiative has been taken by Government of India in February 2006 by launching the National Rural Drinking Water
Quality Monitoring and Surveillance Programme which envisages institutionalisation of community participation for
monitoring and surveillance of drinking water sources at the grass-root level by Gram Panchayats and Village Water and
Sanitation Committees, followed by checking the positively tested samples at the district and State level laboratories.

Another initiative taken by the Government is that from 2006-07 onwards focused funding to tackle drinking water has
been started. Up to 20 per cent of ARWSP funds are to be earmarked separately for tackling water quality problems. For
2006-07, 20 per cent of ARWSP funds have been allocated for funding under water quality.

Central Rural Sanitation Programme

Rural Sanitation is a State subject. The efforts of the states are supplemented by the Central Government through
technical and financial assistance under the Central Rural Sanitation Programme (CRSP)- File referring to external site
opens in a new window.

The Programme was launched in 1986 with the objectives of improving the quality of life of rural people and providing
privacy and dignity to women. The concept of sanitation was expanded in 1993 to include personal hygiene, home
sanitation, sage water and disposal of garbage, human excreta and wastewater. The components of the programme
included construction of individual sanitary toilets for household below poverty-line (BPL), conversion of dry latrines to
water-pour flush toilets, construction of village sanitary complexes for women, setting up of sanitary marts and production
centres, intensive campaign for creating awareness and health education, etc.

Keeping in view the experiences of the Central and state governments, NGOs and other implementing agencies and the
recommendations of the Second National Seminar on Rural Sanitation, the strategy for the Ninth Five Year Plan was
revised and the programme was restructured form 1 April 1999. The restructured programme moves away form the
principle of state-wise allocation of funds, primarily based on poverty criteria, to a demand driven approach in a phased
manner. Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) was introduced and the Allocation Based Programme was phased out by 31

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March 2002. TSC is community-led and people-centred. There was a shift from a high subsidy to a low subsidy regime.
The TSC approach emphasized awareness-building component and meets the demand through alternate delivery
mechanism. School Sanitation has been introduced as a major component to encourage wider acceptance of sanitation
among rural masses. The States/UTs are required to formulate project proposals under the TSC in order to claim Central
government assistance.

Under the TSC, so far 559 projects in 30 States/UTs have been sanctioned with the total project outlay of
about Rs.6240.27 crore. The Central, State and Beneficiary/Panchayat contributions are about Rs.3675.38
crore, Rs.1424.09 crore and Rs.1140.80 crore respectively. The components sanctioned in the 559 projects are

a. Construction of 499 lakh individual household latrines

b. 656690 toilets for Schools
c. 36098 Community Sanitary Complexes
d. 199033 toilets for Balwadis/Anganwadis and
e. 4030 Rural Sanitary Marts/Production Centres.

Besides, funds have been earmarked for start-up activities, Information, Education and Communication (IEC) and
Administrative charges. The total numbers of household toilets constructed up to 2005-06 are 14,48,1807.

To add vigour to the implementation of TSC Government of India has separately launched an award scheme 'Nirmal
Gram Puraskar'(NGP) for fully sanitised and open defecation free Gram Panchayats, block and districts. In the first year of
its institution only 40 PRIs were awarded NGP on 24 February 2005. In the second year the number of awarded
PRIs/Blocks and organisation have increased to 772. His Excellency, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, President of India,
distributed the Awards on 23 March 2006.

Monitoring and Evaluation

The Ministry of Rural Development lays great emphasis on monitoring and evaluation of all rural development
programmes in general and poverty alleviation and employment generation schemes in particular, being implemented in
various States/UTs.It is well recognised that the success of the programmes largely depends on the effective delivery
system and efficient implementation at the grass-roots level so that the programme benefits reach the rural poor in full
measures. In order to ensure this, the Ministry has evolved a comprehensive multi-level and multi tool system of
Monitoring and Evaluation for the implementation of its programmes. The Monitoring mechanism includes, inter-alia, the
Performance Review Committee, Review meetings by the Minister of Rural Development and Ministers of State with the
Chief Ministers/ Ministers of Rural development and Officers of the States, the Area Officer Scheme, periodic progress
reports, audit and utilisation certificates, video conferencing and field visits. The Ministry conducts quick
evaluation/concurrent evaluation of all major programmes. Impact assessment studies to asses the overall impact of
programmes of village-level is also conducted in selected district. The Vigilance and Monitoring Committees at State and
District Levels in all States/UTs monitor the implementation of Programmes and introduce greater transparency in the
process. These Committees inter-alia include MPs/ MLAs representatives of Panchayti Raj Institutions and NGOs. The
Members of Parliament both Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha have been assigned a Central role in the reconstituted V&M
Committees and they have been nominated Chairman/Co-Chairman of the district level V&M Committees.

The Ministry has also taken initiatives to strengthen the monitoring mechanism and quality of implementation of
programmes by introducing District Level Monitoring (DLM) System in 130 district of 27 States through external agencies
which include monthly reporting of physical and financial performance, qualitative reporting about policy and
implementation environments in the district and physical verification of the assets crated under various programmes of the
Ministry. Similarly DLM of Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) and Swajaldhara is implemented in 398 districts of the
country w.e.f. 1 July 2005 This system aims at providing continuous, transparent and accountable monitoring inputs in
reporting format with the objectives of reporting of the process and progress of the programmes covering different
components of the programmes. It also aims at identification of gaps in the implementation at the village, block, district
and state level. The monitoring system also elicits the stakeholders' views; assesses the institutional issues and document
case studies and success stories on best practices, innovations and lesson learned.

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In order to strengthen the monitoring mechanism, the Ministry has a panel of about 300 National Level Monitors
comprising retired servicemen and Retired Civil Servants to monitor and furnish periodic reports to the Ministry on the
implementation of programmes in selected districts including verifying facts of the cases and complaints if any, which may
be referred to them.

The Union Government in recent years has given emphasis to e-governance in all possible areas. Accordingly, the
Ministry of Rural Development has also initiated action with the state Governments and UTs to ensure that information
and progress reports completed by Districts Rural Development Agencies (DRDAs) are sent through the electronic
medium. About 400 (DRDAs) have started sending their reports through online. Efforts are being made in this direction to
obtain online progress reports from all the remaining DRDAs.

National Institute of Rural Development Mission

To examine and analyse the factors contributing to the improvement of economic and social well-being of people in rural
areas on a sustainable basis with focus on the rural poor and the other disadvantaged groups through research, action
research and consultancy efforts.

To facilitate the rural development efforts with particular emphasis and focus on the rural poor by improving the
knowledge,skills and attitudes of rural development officials and non-officials through organising training, workshops and
seminars

Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY)

Housing is one of the basic requirement for human survival. For a shelterless person, possession of a house brings about
a profound change in his existence, endowing him with an identity, thus integrating him with his immediate social milieu.
With a view to meeting the housing needs of the rural poor, Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) was launched in May 1985 as a
sub-scheme of Jawahar Rozgar Yojana. It is being implemented as an independent scheme since 1 January 1996. The
Indira Awaas Yojana aims at helping rural people below the poverty-line (BPL) belonging to SCs/STs, freed bonded
labourers and non-SC/ST categories in construction of dwelling units and upgradation of existing unserviceable kutcha
houses by providing assistance in the form of full grant. From 1995-96, the IAY benefits have been extended to widows or
next-of-kin of defence personnel killed in action. Benefits have also been extended to ex-servicemen and retired members
of the paramilitary forces as long as they fulfil the normal eligibility conditions of Indira Awaas Yojana. Three per cent of
funds are reserved for the disabled persons living below the poverty-line in rural areas. Since 2006-07, IAY funds are also
being earmarked for minorities.

Other Programmes

CAPART

The voluntary sector in India has played a major role in rural development,through mobilising communities and catalysing
people's initiatives for change,as well as through direct implementation of interventions around specific issues.

Formal recognition of the role of voluntary organisations in the Seventh Plan documentled to the formation of the Council
for Advancement of People's Action and Rural Technology (CAPART) in 1986, as a nodal agency for catalysing and
coordinating the emerging partnership between voluntary organisations and the Government for sustainable development
of rural areas.

CAPART was formed by amalgamating two agencies the 'Council for Advancementof Rural Technology' (CART) and
People's Action for Development India (PADI). CAPART is an autonomous body registered under the Societies
Registration Act 1860,and is functioning under the aegis of the Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India.
Today, this agency is a major promoter of rural development in India, assisting over 12,000 voluntary organizations across
the country in implementing a wide range of development initiatives.
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CAPART supports project proposals from voluntary organisations working in rural areas. The Brochures and guidelines
for different schemes are available from headquarters and Regional Comned Regional Committee. Proposals for projects
above this amount should be submitted directly to CAPART headquarters.

PROJECT APPRAISAL AND EVALUATION

Each project submitted to CAPART goes through a process of on-site pre-funding appraisal, to assess its feasibility in
relation to the local situation, and the capacities and competence of the organisation proposing to implement it. In
addition, each funded proposal is evaluated at the mid-term stage to allow for mid-course corrections. End-term
evaluations and impact assessments complete the project cycle, and feed into the ongoing process of planning and
strategising in each project division.

Project appraisals and evaluations are carried out by external experts drawn from the CAPART panel of project
evaluators, which includes subject specialists from various disciplines. Empanelment is through a rigorous screening
process, the main criteria being professional qualifications, an understanding of rural development and commitment to
voluntary action for development.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

• Registration under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 (or a State amendment of this Act), the Indian Trusts Act,
1862, or the Charitable and Religious Trusts Act, 1920.
• At least three years of experience of working in the field after registration.
• A strong field presence and experience of mobilising communities to act for development.

GUIDELINES

• CAPART gives priority to voluntary organisations with a good track record and proven competence in community
mobilisation and empowerment of disadvantaged groups.
• Organisations accessing CAPART support for the first time are required to submit their proposals only directly to
concerned Regional Committees.
• Project proposals must be submitted in the proper format (included in each of the scheme guidelines) and must
be accompanied by a complete organisation profile in the appropriate format (also included in the scheme
guidelines).

Diksha

Diksha is rural development scheme for rural Indians. For details this scheme visit at http://ruraldiksha.nic.in/

PURA

Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD), Government of India has re-launched the scheme Provision of Urban Amenities in
Rural Areas(PURA) as a Central Sector scheme during remaining period of the XI Plan.MoRD with support from
Department of Economic Affairs and the technical assistance of Asian Development Bank intends to implement the PURA
scheme under a Public Private Partnership (PPP) framework between Gram Panchayat(s) and private sector partners.
The scheme envisages twinning of rural infrastructure development with economic re-generation activities and is the first
attempt at delivering a basket of infrastructure and amenities through PPP in the rural areas. It is an effort to provide a
different framework for the implementation of rural infrastructure development schemes and harness private sector
efficiencies in the management of assets and delivery of services.

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The scope of the scheme is select private partners to develop livelihood opportunities, urban amenities and infrastructure
facilities to prescribed service levels and to be responsible for maintenance of the same for a period of ten years in select
Panchayats/cluster of Panchayats. Private sector entities having experience in development and management of
community-oriented infrastructure projects shall be selected through an open competitive bidding process based on
rigorous qualifications and evaluation criteria. The selected private partners would be required to provide amenities like
water supply and sewerage, roads, drainage, solid waste management, street lighting and power distribution and
undertake some economic and skill development activity as part of the PURA project. The private partners may also
provide add-on revenue-earning facilities such as village linked tourism, integrated rural hub, rural market, agri-common
services centre and warehousing etc. in addition to the above mentioned amenities. Where the PURA project spans
several Panchayats in a cluster, the private partner would propose sub-projects with the PURA elements for each of the
Panchayats.

The leveraging of public funds with private capital and management expertise for creation and maintenance of rural
infrastructure is the essence of the PURA scheme, which is envisioned to act as the catalyst not only for convergence
between different infrastructure development schemes but also for the new model for the management of urbanisation of
rural areas.

Unemployment in India

Unemployment simply means a situation when able and willing people are not getting jobs as per their own capabilities.

Types of Unemployment

Structural Unemployment

• This type of unemployment is associated with economic structure of the country, i.e., productive capacity is
inadequate to create a sufficient number of jobs. Rapidly growing population causes this.
• This type of unemployment is of long run nature. Indian unemployment is basically related to this category of
unemployment.

Under Employment India

• Those laborers are under-employed who obtain work but their efficiency and capability are not utilized at their
optimum and as a result they contribute in the production up to a limited level.
• A country having this type of unemployment fails to exploit the efficiencies of its laborers.

Open Unemployment in India

• When the laborers live without any work and they don’t find any work to do, they come under the category of open
unemployment. Educated unemployed and unskilled labor unemployment is included in open unemployment.
• The migration from rural to urban areas in search of work is very often found in India which is an example of open
unemployment.

India Disguised Unemployment

• If a person does not contribute anything in the production process or in other words, if he can be removed from
the work without affecting the productivity adversely, he will be treated as disguisedly unemployed. The marginal
productivity of such unemployed person is zero.
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• Agriculture sector of underdeveloped/developing economies possesses this type of unemployment at a large

scale.

Frictional Unemployment India

• The unemployment generated due to change in market conditions (change in demand and supply conditions) is
called frictional unemployment.
• Agriculture is the main occupation in India. The supply conditions still depend upon weather’s mood and similarly
demand conditions depend upon availability of resources. Any change arising either of any or both creates a
diversion from the equilibrium which results in frictional unemployment.

Seasonal Unemployment of India

• It appears due to a change in demand based on seasonal variations. Laborers do not get work round the year.
They get employed in the peak season of agricultural activities and become unemployed when these activities are
over.
• Indian agriculture ensures employment for only 7-8 months and laborers remain unemployed in the remaining
period. This temporary type of employment gives birth to seasonal unemployment.

Note:

• The share of agriculture in total employment has come down from 61.67 per cent in 1993-94 to 58.54 per cent in
1999-2000, and further to 54.19 percent in 2004-05. With the declining share of agriculture in GDP, the scope for
absorbing substantial additional labour force in agriculture appears limited. While construction and services
particularly transport, storage and communication, contributed in maintaining employment growth in the economy,
employment growth in manufacturing fell short of its potential.
• As per the survey carried out by the National Sample Survey Organization in the year 1999-2000, the total
employment in both organized and unorganized sectors in the country was of the order of 39.7 crore, i.e., around
2.8 crore in the organized sector and the balance 36.9 crore in the unorganized sector.
• Out of 36.9 crore workers in the unorganized sector, there are 23.7 crore workers employed in agricultural sector,
about 1.7 crore in construction work, 4.1 crore in manufacturing, 3.7 crore in trade and 3.7 crore in transport,
communication and services. The Census 2001 has estimated the number of workers in the country as 40.2
crore, out of which 31.3 crore are main workers and 8.9 crore are marginal workers.

Employment Generation: 11th Plan Viewpoint

• The Approach paper to the Eleventh Plan targets generation of additional employment opportunities in services
and manufacturing, in particular, labor intensive manufacturing sectors such as food processing, leather products,
footwear and textiles, and in service sectors such as tourism and construction.

It calls for elimination of distorting fiscal incentives which foster capital intensity; infrastructure investment; removal of
distortions that hinder competition, prevent entry and discourage graduation from unorganized to organized status; and
greater emphasis on vocational training and skill development to improve employability of youth.

As Village and Small Scale Enterprises (VSE) will have to provide most of the new employment during the Eleventh Plan,
the Approach Paper also calls for redressing the problems faced by VSE units and home based workers, particularly
women, such as non-availability of timely and adequate credit, unreliable or absence of power supply, requirement of
permission from a number of government agencies and burden of multiple inspections.
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India Women Labour

• Women constitute a significant part of the workforce of India but they lag behind men in terms of level and quality
of employment. The Census of India (2001) has registered 25.60 percent of female population as workers
numbering 127.22 million in absolute terms out of a total female population of 496 million. The majority of women
workers are employed in the rural areas.
• Amongst rural women workers, 87 percent are employed in agriculture as laborers and cultivators. Amongst the
women workers in the urban areas, 80 percent are employed in unorganized sectors like household industries,
petty trades and services building and construction, etc. The employment of women in the organized sector (both
public and private sectors) as on Mar 31, 2002, was about 4.935 million.
• This constitutes of 17.8 percent of the total organized sector employment in the country. The distribution of
women employees in major industries reveals that community, social and personal services sectors continued to
absorb the majority of women employees.

Child Labour in India

• The problem of child labor is a major social concern. The number of working children in the country declined from
2 percent of the total population and 6 percent of the total workforce in 1981 to 1.34 percent of the population and
3.59 total workforces in 1991.
• According to the census 2001 figures, there are 1.25 crore working children in the age group of 5-14 as compared
to the total child population of 25.2 crore, of which 1.07 crore working children are in the age group of 10-14.
• Children continue to be employed in the unorganized and home-based industries and domestic services. The
state with the highest child labor population in the country is Andhra Pradesh. Other states having a child labor
population of more than a million are Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh.
• Government has adopted two schemes namely National Child labor Project Scheme (NCLP) arid Grant-in-aid to
voluntary organizations for taking up action oriented programs in the field of rehabilitation of child labor.

Poverty in India

Poverty is a social phenomenon in which a section of society is unable to fulfill even its basic necessities of life. The
countries of the third world exhibit invariably the existence of mass poverty, although poverty also exists even in the
developed countries of Europe and America.

• Several economists and organizations have given different estimates of poverty. Most of them estimated the
number of persons below the poverty line on the basis of an average calorie intake of ,50 per capita per day.
• According to the report of Task Force on Minimum Needs and Effective Consumption Demand – an expert group
of Planning Commission, defined poverty one on a nutritional norm of per capita daily intake of ,400 calories in
rural areas and ,00 calories for urban areas.
• A person who fails to obtain this minimum level of calories is treated as being below the poverty line.
• The identification process of persons below die poverty line has been put to a controversy for the last few years.
Planning Commission adopted the survey of NSSO as a basis for defining poverty line and determining the
number of persons below it.
• On the basis of these criteria, Planning Commission estimated 8.96% of total population below poverty line for the
year 993 – 994. The expert group under the chairmanship of Professor.
• DT Lakadawala (appointed by Planning Commission which submitted the report in July, 993) found earlier
estimates of poverty unreliable and suggested an alternate approach for identifying poor in which different poverty
line was determined for different states on the basis of price level of that particular state.

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• Lakadawala expert group suggested that it will be most suitable to rely on the disaggregated commodity indices
for Consumer Price Index for Agricultural laborers (CPIAL) to update the rural poverty line and a simple average
of suitably weighted commodity indices of Consumer Price Index for Industrial Worker (CPIIW) for I updating
urban poverty line. Adopting this approach the expert group suggested 3 different poverty lines for all different
states.

Latest Poverty Trends in India

• Presently, .8% Indians are living Below Poverty Line (BPL). The survey to measure this is conducted by National
Sample Survey (NSS) Organization.
• NSS determines poverty line using the mixed recall period method in which consumer spending for five items
such as clothing, footwear, durable goods, education and institutional medical expenses are collected from a 365
day period.
• Orissa is the poorest state with 39.9% people living below poverty line. It is followed by Jharkhand, Bihar and MR
Poverty is lowest in Chandigarh (3.8%), Jammu and Kashmir (4.%) and Punjab (5.%).

State - Specific Poverty Lines in 2004 - 2005 (Rs. per capita

per month)

State / UT Rural Urban

Andhra Pradesh 292.95 542.89

Assam 387.64 378.84

Bihar 354.36 435.00

Chhattisgarh 322.41 560.00

Delhi 410.38 612.91

Goa 362.25 665.90

Gujarat 353.93 541.16

Haryana 414.76 504.49

Himachal Pradesh 394.28 504.49

Jammu & Kashmir 391.26 553.77

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Jharkhand 366.56 451.24

Karnataka 324.17 599.66

Kerala 430.12 559.39

Madhya Pradesh 327.78 570.15

Maharashtra 362.25 665.90

Orissa 325.79 528.49

Puniab 410.38 466.16

Rajasthan 374.57 559.63

Tamil Nadu 351.86 547.42

Uttar Pradesh 365.84 483.26

Uttarakhand 478.02 637.67

West Bengal 382.82 449.32

D and N Haveli 362.25 665.90

All India 356.30 538.60

Poverty : Rural and Urban

I. Rural Poverty in India

• Main Reasons
• Rapid Population Growth
• Lack of Capital
• Lack of Alternate Employment Opportunities Other than Agriculture
• Excessive Population Pressure on Agriculture
• Illiteracy

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• Regional Disparities
• Joint Family System
• Child Marriage Tradition
• Indifferent attitude towards Investment
• Lack of proper implementation of Public Distribution System

Government Efforts

• Legal Elimination of Bonded Laborers

• Preventing the Centralization of Wealth by modifying the Law
• Antyodaya Plan
• Small Farmer Development Program (SFDP)
• Drought Area Development Program (DFDP)
• Twenty Point Program
• Food for Work Program
• Minimum needs Program (MNP)
• Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP)
• National Rural Employment Program (NREP)
• Rural Labor Employment Guarantee Program (RLEGP)
• Jawahar Gram Samriddhi Yojana (JGSY) (Formerly known as Jawahar Rozgar Yojana)
• TRYSEM Scheme
• Family Planning / Welfare Program for Population Control
• Employment Assurance Scheme
• Scheme for Rural Artisans / Craftsmen
• DWCRA Program
• Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
• Mahila Samriddhi Yojana
• National Social Assistance Program (NSAP)
• Group Life Insurance Scheme for Rural Areas
• Rural Housing Program
• Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY)
• Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
• Sampurna Gramin Rozgar Yojana
• Indira Awaas Yojana
• Samagra Awaas Yojana
• Pradhan Mantri Rozgar Yojana
• Agriculture Income Insurance Scheme
• National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme

II. Urban Poverty India

• Migration of Rural Youth towards Cities

• Lack of Vocational Education / Training
• Limited Job Opportunities of Employment in the Cities
• Rapid increase in Population
• Lack of Housing Facilities
• No proper Implementation of Public Distribution System

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Government Efforts

• Emphasis on Vocational Education

• Nehru Rozgar Yojana (NRY)
• Self – Employment Program for the Urban Poor (SEPUP)
• Financial assistance for Constructing Houses
• Self – Employment to the Educated Urban Youth (SEEUY) Program
• Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (Also implemented in rural areas)
• National Social Assistance Program
• Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP) Program
• Prime Minister’s Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication Program (PMIUPEP)
• Swarna Jayanti Shahri Rozgar Yojana

National Income of India

According to the National Income Committee (1949), “A national income estimate measures the volume of commodities
and services turned out during a given period counted without duplication”.

Thus, national income measures the net value of goods and services produced in a country during a year and it also
includes net earned foreign income.

• In other words, a total of national income measures the flow of goods and services in an economy. National
income is a flow not a stock.

As contrasted with national wealth, which measures the stock of commodities held by the nationals of a country at a point
of time, national income measures the productive power of an economy in a given period to turn out goods and services
for final consumption.

• In India, National income estimates are related with the financial year (April 1 to March 31).
• Concepts of National Income India

The various concepts of national income are as follows :

1. Gross National Product Formula (GNP): Gross National Product refers to the money value of total output or
production of final goods and services produced by the nationals of a country during a given period of time, generally a
year.

As we include all final goods and services produced by nationals of a country during a year in the calculation of GNP, we
include the money value of goods and services produced by nationals outside the country.

Hence, income produced and received by nationals of a country within the boundaries of foreign countries should be
added in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country. Similarly, income received by foreign nationals within the
boundary of the country should be excluded from GDE.
In Gross National Product Equation Form :

GNP = GDP + X – M,

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where,
X = Income earned and received by nationals within the boundaries of foreign countries
M = Income received by foreign nationals from within the country.

If X = M, then GNP = GDP.

Similarly, in a closed economy X = M = 0, then also GNP = GDP.

• Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the total money value of all final goods and services produced within the
geographical boundaries of the country during a given period of time.

As a conclusion, it must be understood while domestic product emphasizes the total output which is raised within the
geographical boundaries of the country; national product focuses attention not only on the domestic product, but also on
goods and services produced outside the boundaries of a nation. Besides, any part of GDP which is produced by
nationals of a country, should be included in GNP.

2. Net National Product Formula (NNP): NNP is obtained by subtracting depreciation value (i.e., capital stock
consumption) from GNP.

In Net National Product Equation Form :

NNP = GNP – Depreciation

3. National Income: GNP, explained above, is based on market prices of produced goods which includes indirect taxes
and subsidies.

NNP can be calculated in two ways:

1. at market prices of goods and services.

2. at factor cost.

• When NNP is obtained at factor cost, it is known as National Income. National Income is calculated by subtracting
net indirect taxes (i.e., total indirect tax-subsidy) from NNP at market prices. The obtained value is known as NNP
at factor cost or National income.
• In NNP Equation Form :

NNP at factor cost or National Income = NNP at Market price – (Indirect Taxes – Subsidy) = NNPMP – Indirect Tax +
Subsidy.

• Personal Income: Personal income is that income which is actually obtained by nationals. Personal income is
obtained by subtracting corporate taxes and payments made for social securities provisions from national income
and adding to it government transfer payments, business transfer payments and net interest paid by the
government

In Personal Income Equation Form :

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Personal Income = National income – undistributed profits of Corporations – payments for social security provisions –
corporate taxes + government transfer payments + Business transfer payments + Net interest paid by government.

• It should always be kept in mind that personal income is a flow concept.

• Disposable Personal Income : When personal direct taxes are subtracted from personal income the obtained
value is called disposable personal income (DPI).

In Disposable Personal Income Equation Form :

[Disposal Personal Income] = [Personal Income] – [Direct Texes].

Methods of Measuring National Income

• According to Simon Kuznets, national income of a country is calculated by following mentioned three methods:

1. Product Method: S. Kuznets gave a new name to this method, i.e., product service method. In this method, net value
of final goods and services produced in a country during a year is obtained, which is called total final product. This
represents Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Net income earned in foreign boundaries by nationals is added and
depreciation is subtracted from GDP.

2. Income Method: In this method, a total of net incomes earned by working people in different sectors and commercial
enterprises are obtained. Incomes of both categories of people – paying taxes and not paying taxes are added to obtain
national income.

For adopting this method, sometimes a group of people from various income groups is selected and on the basis of their
income national income of the country is estimated. In a broad sense, by income method national income is obtained by
adding receipts as total rent, total wages, total interest and total profit.

Symbolically:

National Income = Total Rent + Total Wages + Total Interest + Total Profit.

3.Consumption Method: It is also called expenditure method. Income is either spent on consumption or saved. Hence,
national income is the addition of total consumption and total savings. For using this method, we need data related to
income and savings of the consumers.

• Generally reliable data of saving and consumption are not easily available. Therefore, expenditure method is
generally not used for estimating national income.
• In India, a combination of production method and income method is used for estimating national income.

Estimates of National Income in India

• No specific attempts were made for estimating national income in India during pre-independence era. In 1868, the
first attempt was made by Dadabhai Naoroji.

He, in his book ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India’, estimated Indian per capita annual income at a level of Rs.20. Some
other economists followed it and gave various estimates of Indian national income. Some of these estimates are as
follows:

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Rs. per capita

Findlay Shirr as (1911) 49

Wadia and Joshi (1913-14) 44-30

Dr. V.K.R.V. Rao (1925-29) 76

• Soon after independence, the Government of India appointed the National Income Committee in Aug 1949 under
the chairmanship of Prof. PC Mahalanobis, to compile authoritative estimates of national income. The committee
submitted its first report in 1951 and the final report 1954.

According to this report, the total national income of the country was estimated at a level of Rs.8,650 crore and per capita
income at a level of Rs.246.90. The final report appeared in 1954 gave estimates of national income during the period
1950-1954. For further estimation of national income, the government established Central Statistical Organization (CSO)
which now regularly publishes income national data.

• Recently CSO has introduced a new series on National Income with 1999-2000 as base year. National income
includes the contribution of three sectors of the economy primary Sector (Agriculture, Forest, Fisheries, Mining),
Secondary Sector (Industries – Manufacturing and Construction) and Tertiary Sector (Trade, Transport,
Communications, Banking, Insurance, Real Estate, Community and Personal Services).

CSO and NSSO to be Merged

• The government is planning to merge Central Statistical Organization (CSO) and National Sample Survey
Organization (NSSO) for promoting statistical network in the country. The newly merged unit will be named as
National Statistical Organization (NSO). The head of the organization will be designated as ‘Chief of Statistician of
India’ and will be having the rank of Chief.

Importance of Agriculture in India

Importance of Agriculture in Indian Economy

The following points emphasize the importance of agriculture in Indian Economy.

(i) Share of Agriculture in National Income

Agriculture has got a prime role in Indian economy. Though the share of agriculture in national income has come down,
still it has a substantial share in GDP The contributory share of agriculture in Gross Domestic Product was 55.4% in 1950-
51, 52% in 1960-61 and is reduced to 18.5% only at present. The share of the agricultural sector’s capital formation in
GDP declined from 2.2% in the late 1999s to 1.9% at present.

(ii) Important Contribution to Employment

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Agriculture sector, at present, provides livelihood to 65 to 70% of the total population. The sector provides employment to
58.4% of country’s work force and is the single largest private sector occupation.

(iii) Important Source of Industrial Development

Various important industries in India find their raw material from agriculture sector -cotton and jute textile industries, sugar,
vanaspati etc are directly dependent on agriculture. Handloom, spinning oil milling, rice thrashing etc are various small
scale and cottage industries which are dependent on agriculture sector for their raw material. This highlights the
importance of agriculture in industrial development of the nation.

(iv) Importance in International Trade

India’s foreign trade is deeply associated with agriculture sector. Agriculture accounts for about 14.7% of the total export
earnings. Besides, goods made with the raw material of agriculture sector also contribute about 20% in Indian exports. In
other words, agriculture and its related goods contribute about 38% in total exports of die country.

Minimum Support Price of Agriculture Products

Keeping in view the interests of the farmers as also the need of self reliance, Government has been announcing Minimum
Support Price (MSP) for 24 major crops. The main objectives of announcing MSP are :

• To prevent fall in prices in the situation of over production.

• To protect the interest of farmers by ensuring them a minimum price for their crops in Minimum support price
announced by the government is that price at which government is ready to purchase the crop from the farmers
directly if crop price becomes lower to MSP.

As a result, market price of the crop never comes down from the level of MSP This minimum price security gives
incentives to farmers to increase their production.

These minimum support prices of various crops are announced on the basis of recommendations made by Agriculture
Cost and Price Commission (ACPC) which takes into consideration the inputs costs and favourable returns to the farmers
while recommending MSP.

Foodgrains Procurement and Stocks in India

• Food grains procurement by the Government serves the dual purpose of providing support prices to the farmers
and of building up public stocks of food grains. Procurement operations are carried out by the Food Corporation of
India (FCI) and the state agencies designated by State Government Procurement prices are based on support
prices recommended by CACP (Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices).
• Food stocks are maintained by the Central Government for 3 purposes:

• Meeting the prescribed minimum buffer stock norms for food security.
• For monthly release of food grains for supply through PDS (Public Distribution System).
• For market intervention to augment supply so as to help moderate the open market prices.

Buffer Stock in India

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• The years 2001-02 and 2002-03 witnessed high levels of stock buildup in the central pool. Food grains stocks
reached a peak of 64.7 million tonnes, an all time record in June 2002.

The year 2003-04 witnessed a general easing in the food grains stocks with relatively lower procurement of rice and
wheat following a bad agricultural year in 2002-03 and relatively high off-take of food grains especially for drought-related
relief operations and under the welfare schemes.

• The steady reduction, in stocks prompted the Government to stop fresh allocation of rice and wheat for export
with effect from August 2003, which has continued till date.

The year 2004-05 started with a much lower stock of 20 million tonnes on April 1, 2004, down from 32.8 million tonnes on
April 1, 2003. Stocks however, remained consistently higher than the buffer requirement during 2004-05 with sufficient
procurement of rice and wheat and relatively lower off-take than in the previous year. On April 1, 2005, the stock at 17.40
million tonnes was above the buffer norm of 16.2 million tonnes.

Green Revolution in India

• Indian Green Revolution is associated with the use of HYVS (High Yielding Variety Seeds), chemical fertilizers
and new technology which led to a sharp rise in agricultural production during the middle of 1960.
• The term Green Revolution was given by American scientist, Dr. William Gande.
• During the middle of sixties, Indian agriculture scientists developed a number of new high yielding varieties of
wheat by processing wheat seeds imported from Mexico. A similar improvement in variety of rice was also
observed.
• The credit of this goes not only to Nobel Laureate Dr. Norman Borlaug, but also to India’s Dr. MS Swaminathan.

Second Green Revolution in India

(Strategy Adopted In 11th Plan)

• The urgent need for taking agriculture to a higher trajectory of 4 per cent annual growth can be met only with
improvement in the scale as well as quality of agricultural reforms undertaken by the various states and agencies
at the various levels.

These reforms must aim at efficient use of resources and conservation of soil, water and ecology on a sustainable basis,
and in a holistic framework. Such a holistic framework must incorporate financing of rural infrastructure such as water,
roads and power.

• The Approach Paper to the Eleventh Five Year Plan has aptly highlighted such a holistic framework and
suggested the following strategy to raise agricultural output.

• Doubling the rate of growth of irrigated area

• Improving water management, rain water harvesting and watershed development
• Reclaiming degraded land and focusing on soil quality
• Bridging the knowledge gap through effective extension
• Diversifying into high value outputs, fruits, vegetables, flowers, herbs and spices, medicinal plants, bamboo, bio-
diesel, but with adequate measures to ensure food security
• Promoting animal husbandry and fishery
• Providing easy access to credit at affordable rates
• Improving the incentive structure and functioning of markets; and
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• Refocusing on land reforms issues.

• National Commission on Farmers has already laid the foundation for such a framework.
• Program formulation as well as their implementation in the States must be based on unique regional contexts
incorporating agro-climatic conditions; and availability of appropriate research and development (R and D) backed
by timely and adequate extension of finance.

Agriculture Holdings in India

Type Holding (in hect.) (% of Total)

Marginal Holding Less than one 59%

Small Holding 1-4 32.2%

Medium Holding 4 - 10 7.2%

Large Holding More than 10 1.6%

Other Revolutions

Revolution Area

Yellow Revolution Oil seeds

White Revolution Milk

Blue Revolution Fish

Pink Revolution Shrimp

Gray Revolution Wool

Golden Revolution Horticulture

White Revolution and Operation Flood in India

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White revolution is associated with a sharp increase in milk production. During 1964-65, Intensive Cattle Development
Program (ICDP) was introduced in the country in which a package of improved animal husbandry was given to cattle
owners for promoting white revolution in the country.

Later on, to accelerate the pace of white revolution, a new program named ‘Operation Flood’ was introduced in the
country.

The Operation Flood Program, which is the world’s largest integrated dairy development program, has made considerable
progress in achieving its outlined objectives.

Buffaloes, Cows and Goats contribute 50%, 46% and 4% respectively in total milk production of the country. India stands
first in the world in milk production.

USA stands second in the world. Dr. Varghese Kurien is the pioneer of operation flood in India.

Industry
New Industrial Policy of India

• After independence, the first Industrial Policy was declared on April 6, 1948 by the Union Industry Minister Mr.
Shyama Prasad Mukherjee.

This policy established a base for Mixed and Controlled Economy in India and clearly divided the industrial
sectors in to private and public sectors.

Later on, 1948 Industrial Policy was replaced by a new Industrial Policy Resolution declared on April 30, 1956
with the basic objective of establishing ‘Socialistic Pattern of Society’ in the country.

• Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 categorized industries which would be the exclusive responsibility of the state
or would progressively come under state control. Earmarking the pre – eminent position of the public sector, it
envisaged private sector coexisting with the state and thus attempted to give flexibility to the policy framework.
• Though the Government had declared a number of new industrial policies after 1956, but every new policy
accepted the 1956 Industrial Policy Resolution as its base. In June 1991, Narsimha Rao Government took over
charge and a wave of reforms and liberalization was observed in the economy. In this new atmosphere of
economic reforms, the Government declared broad changes in Industrial Policy on July 24, 1991.
• The Industrial Policy initiatives undertaken by the Government since July 1991 have been designed to build on
the past industrial achievements and to accelerate the process of making Indian industry internationally
competitive. It recognizes the strength and maturity of the industry and attempts to provide the competitive
stimulus for higher growth.
• A significant number of industries had earlier been reserved for public sector. Recently, a decision has been taken
to open defence industry sector to private sector with foreign direct investment permissible up to 26 percent.
• Now, the areas reserved for the public sector are Atomic energy, the substances specified in the schedule to the
notification of the Government of India in the Department of Atomic Energy dated the 15 March, 1995 and railway
transport.

List of Industries Requiring Compulsory Licence :

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• With the introduction of New Industrial Policy in 1991, a substantial program of deregulation has been undertaken.
Industrial licensing has been abolished for all items except for a short list of five industries related to security,
strategic or environmental concerns. These are :

• Distillation and brewing of alcoholic drinks.

• Cigar Cigarettes and other substitutes of prepared tobacco.
• Electronic, Aerospace and all types of defence equipment.
• Industrial Explosive, including match boxes.
• Hazardous chemicals.

Distinction between Cottage, Small and Village Industries

• In a broad sense, cottage, small and village industries are treated similar but they fundamentally differ from each
other.
• Cottage industry is run by family members on full or part time basis. It possesses negligible capital investment.
There is hand made production and no wage earning person is employed in cottage industry.
• Small industrial units employ wage earning labor and production is done by the use of modern techniques. Capital
investment is also there. A few cottage industries which are export – oriented have been included in the category
of small sector so that facilities provided to small units may also be given to export – oriented cottage industries.
• The industries established in rural areas having population below 10,000 and having less than 15,000 as fixed
capital investment per worker will be termed as village industries. KVIC and state village Industries Board provide
economic and technical assistance in establishing and operating these industrial units.

India’s Share in Global Trade Up

India has been able to grab a significant portion of the world trade pie with its booming economy and a billion – plus
markets, says a report by the World Trade Organization (WTO).

According to the World Trade Statistics report, India’s share in the global trade, including trade in merchandise and
services sector has increased from 1.1 percent in 2004 to 1.5 percent in 2006.

Iron and Steel Industry

First Steel industry at Kulti, near Jharia, West Bengal 'Bengal Iron Works Company' in 1870.

First large scale steel plant TISCO at Jamshedpur in 1907 followed by IISCO at Burnpur in 1919. Both belonged to
private sector.

The first public sector unit was 'Vishveshvarayya Iron and Steel Works' at Bhadrawati.

Public Sector Steel Plants

Location Assistance

Rourkela (Orissa) Germany

Bhilai (M.P) Russian Government

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Durgapur (W.B) Britain Government

Bokaro (Jharkhand) Russian Government

Burnpur (W.B) Acquired by Private Sector in 1976

Vishakhapatnam (A.P) Russian Government

Salem (Tamil Nadu) -

Vijai Nagar (Karnataka) -

Bhadrawati (Karnataka)

• Nationalization of Vishveshvarayya Iron and Steel Limited. (Owned by Central and State Government)
• All these are managed by SAIL. (At present all important steel plants except TISCO, are under Public Sector).
• Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) was established in 1974 and was made responsible for the development of
the Steel Industry.
• Bhilai, Durgapur and Rourkela were established during the Second Five Year Plan. Bokaro was established
during the Third while the steel plants at Salem, Vijai Nagar and Vishakhapatnam were established in the Fourth
Five Year Plan.
• Presently India is the fifth largest steel producing country in the world.

Top - 10 Steel Producing Countries

Rank Country / Region Steel Production (Million Tonnes)

1 China 489.0

2 Japan 120.2

3 United States 97.2

4 Russia 72.2

5 India 53.1

6 South Korea 51.4

7 Germany 48.5

8 Ukraine 42.8

9 Brazil 33.8

10 Italy 32.0

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- World 1 ,343.5

Top - 10 Steel Producing Companies

Company Country / Region

Arcelor Mittal Global

Nippon Steel Japan

JFE Japan

POSCO South Korea

Shanghai Baosteel Group Corporation China

Tata Steel India / Global

Liaoning An-Ben Iron and Steel Group China

Shagang Group China

Hebei Tangshan Iron & Steel Group China

United States Steel Corporation United States

Cotton and Textile Industry in India

• Oldest Industry of India, and employs largest number of workers.

• It is the largest organized and broad - based industry which accounts for about 4 per cent of GDP 20 percent of
manufacturing value added and one - third of total export earnings.
• The first Indian modernized cotton cloth mill was established in 1818 at Fort Gloaster near Kolkata but this mill
was not successful. The second mill named Bombay Spinning and Weaving Co. was established in 1854 at
Bombay by KGN Daber.

Contribution of Manufacturing Sector in India

Though India banks heavily on its services sector for growth, the manufacturing sector too plays a significant role in the
Indian economy, contributing nearly 16 per cent to the GDP (in 2006-07).

Encouraged by an increasing presence of multinationals, scaling up of operations by domestic companies and an ever
expanding domestic market, the Indian manufacturing sector has been averaging a 9 per cent growth in the last four years
(2004-08), with a record 12.3 per cent in 2006-07.

India is fast emerging as a global manufacturing hub. Be it automobiles or computer hardware, consumer durables or
engineering products, all are being manufactured by multinationals in India.

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Moreover, according to a report by the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) and Yes Bank,
India is poised to become the global manufacturing hub for luxury brands over the next five years with manufacturing of
luxury items becoming a US$ 500 million industry during this period.

India has all the requisite skills in product, process and capital engineering, thanks to its long manufacturing history and
higher education system. India's cheap, skilled manpower is attracting a number of companies, spanning diverse
industries, making India a global manufacturing powerhouse.

According to a survey of the manufacturing industry, carried out by FICCI among 25 core sectors, 21 capital goods, 15
intermediate goods, 26 consumers durables, and 13 consumer non-durable sectors, the country's manufacturing sector is
expected to grow by 9.5 per cent in 2008-09, up from 8.8 per cent last fiscal.

• LG is looking at making India its global manufacturing hub for its mobile handsets. The company will soon be
exporting mobile phones to Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) from India.
• Luxury brands like Louis Vuitton and Frette are looking at India as a manufacturing base for their products.
• Skoda Auto, a part of the international Volkswagen Group based in the Czech Republic, plans to make India its
regional manufacturing hub. It will start producing cars in India by 2010 with a manufacturing target of 50,000
units. Besides the domestic market, these will also be exported to neighbouring countries like Nepal, Sri Lanka,
Burma and Bangladesh.
• Aircraft manufacturer Airbus is considering India as one of the key centers for design and development of its long
haul A 350 plane.
• Cummins is making India its manufacturing hub for newly developed line of generator sets.
• Samsung plans to invest US $ 100 million over a period of four years in its manufacturing plant near Chennai and
make it its global hub.
• Ford is making India its manufacturing hub for engine manufacturing.
• Hyundai has made India the manufacturing and export hub for its small Cars. The i10 is being manufactured only
in India and exported to the world. India is Hyundai's largest base outside Korea.
• Suzuki too is making India its manufacturing hub for small cars. The A-Star is being manufactured solely in India
and exported to Europe.
• Nokia is investing an additional US $ 75 million in its Sriperumbudur plant taking the total investment to US$ 285
million. Nearly 50 per cent of its production at Sriperumbudur is exported to countries across the Middle East and
Africa, Asia, Australia and New Zealand.

India Advantage

India's vast domestic market and availability of low-cost workers with advanced technical skills has been instrumental in
attracting an ever expanding number of multinationals who are setting up their manufacturing base in the country.

The sheer size of the Indian market has obvious appeal. The rapid growth of the Indian economy is likely to make India
the fifth largest consumer market in the world by 2025 from twelfth in 2005, according to a study by McKinsey Global
Institute.

Aggregate Indian consumer spending is likewise estimated to more than quadruple to approximately US $ 1.5 trillion by
2025, on the back of a ten-fold increase in middle class population and a three-fold jump in household income.

Along with this, India offers abundant engineering and technical manpower, producing annually about 400,000 graduate
engineers.

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Moreover, according to a study by ASSOCHAM, India will emerge as the fourth strongest economy among the G-20
countries after China, Russia and South Korea from the global crisis, given its robust forex reserves, high GDP growth
rate and various fiscal and monetary measures taken to tackle the downturn.

Petroleum and Natural Gas in India

• First successful oil well was dug in India in 1889 at Digboi, Assam.
• At present a number of regions having oil reserves have been identified and oil is being extracted in these
regions.
• For exploration purpose, Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) was established in 1956 at Dehradun,
Uttarakhand.
• The total oil reserves in India have been estimated to be about 13 crore tonnes. Domestic production of oil in
India is much less to meet the domestic demand.

India currently produces just over 32 million tonnes of crude oil against its annual demand of 105 million tonnes meeting
only 30.5 percent of demand from domestic resources.

Oil Refineries in India

• At present there are 19 refineries operating in the country (17 in Public Sector and 2 in Private Sector). Mangalore
Refinery and Petro chemicals Limited (MRPL), which was a joint sector company, became a PSU subsequent on
acquisition of its majority shares by ONGC.
• Out of 17 Public Sector Refineries 7 are owned by IOC Ltd., two each by Chennai Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (a
subsidiary of IOCL), Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd. and ONGC, one each by BPCL, Kochi Refineries Ltd. (a
subsidiary of BPCL), Numaligarh Refinery Ltd. (a subsidiary of BPCL) and Bongaigaon Refineries and Petrochemicals
(a subsidiary of IOCL). The private Sector Refineries belong to Reliance Industries Ltd. and Essar Industries.

Marketing and Distribution of Petroleum Products

• Indian Oil Corporation IOC : Established in 1964 by amalgamating Indian Refineries Ltd. and Indian Oil Company
Ltd.
• Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd BPCL : By acquisition of Burmah Shell in 1976.
• Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd (HPCL): Established in 1974 by acquiring the assets of US Company ESSO
Eastern. In 1976, Government acquired Caltex Oil Refining Ltd. and merged it with HPCL.
• Gas Authority of India Ltd GAIL : Established in 1984, for handling post-exploration activities relating to natural
gas. The company was assigned the priority task of setting up the cross country HBJ (Hazira, Bijapur and
Jagdishpur) pipeline. Presently GAIL is the largest company in India for marketing of natural gas.

Oil India Ltd

Oil India Limited (OIL), under the administrative set-up of the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, is a National Oil
Company engaged in the exploration, production and transportation of crude oil and natural gas in the country. OIL was
incorporated in 1959 as a company with two-third share of Burmah OIL Company and one-third share of Government of
India. In 1961, OIL became a joint venture company with equal share of Government of India and Burmah OIL Company.
On October 14, 1981, OIL became a Government of India Enterprise, a wholly-owned Public Sector Undertaking.

Industrial Policy

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Main features

Objectives of the Industrial Policy of the Government are –

• to maintain a sustained growth in productivity;

• to enhance gainful employment;
• to achieve optimal utilisation of human resources;
• to attain international competitiveness and
• to transform India into a major partner and player in the global arena.

Policy focus is on –

• Deregulating Indian industry;

• Allowing the industry freedom and flexibility in responding to market forces and
• Providing a policy regime that facilitates and fosters growth of Indian industry.

Policy measures

Some of the important policy measures announced and procedural simplifications undertaken to pursue the above
objectives are as under:

i) Liberalisation of Industrial Licensing Policy

The list of items requiring compulsory licensing is reviewed on an ongoing basis. At present, only six industries are under
compulsory licensing mainly on account of environmental, safety and strategic considerations. Similarly, there are only
three industries reserved for the public sector. The lists of industries reserved for the public sector and of items under
compulsory licensing are at Appendix III and IV respectively.

ii) Introduction of Industrial Entrepreneurs’ Memorandum (IEM)

Industries not requiring compulsory licensing are to file an Industrial Entrepreneurs’ Memorandum (IEM) to the Secretariat
for Industrial Assistance (SIA). No industrial approval is required for such exempted industries. Amendments are also
allowed to IEM proposals filed after 1.7.1998.

iii) Liberalisation of the Locational Policy

A significantly amended locational policy in tune with the liberlised licensing policy is in place. No industrial approval is
required from the Government for locations not falling within 25 kms of the periphery of cities having a population of more
than one million except for those industries where industrial licensing is compulsory. Non-polluting industries such as
electronics, computer software and printing can be located within 25 kms of the periphery of cities with more than one
million population. Permission to other industries is granted in such locations only if they are located in an industrial area
so designated prior to 25.7.91. Zoning and land use regulations as well as environmental legislations have to be followed.

iv) Policy for Small Scale Industries

Reservation of items of manufacture exclusively for the small scale sector forms an important focus of the industrial policy
as a measure of protecting this sector. Since 24th December 1999, industrial undertakings with an investment upto
rupees one crore are within the small scale and ancillary sector. A differential investment limit has been adopted since
9th October 2001 for 41 reserved items where the investment limit upto rupees five crore is prescribed for qualifying as a
small scale unit. The investment limit for tiny units is Rs. 25 lakhs.

749 items are reserved for manufacture in the small scale sector. All undertakings other than the small scale industrial
undertakings engaged in the manufacture of items reserved for manufacture in the small scale sector are required to
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obtain an industrial licence and undertake an export obligation of 50% of the annual production. This condition of licensing
is, however, not applicable to those undertakings operating under 100% Export Oriented Undertakings Scheme, the
Export Processing Zone (EPZ) or the Special Economic Zone Schemes (SEZs).

V) Non-Resident Indians Scheme

The general policy and facilities for Foreign Direct Investment as available to foreign investors/company are fully
applicable to NRIs as well. In addition, Government has extended some concessions specially for NRIs and overseas
corporate bodies having more than 60% stake by the NRIs. These inter-alia includes (i) NRI/OCB investment in the real
estate and housing sectors upto 100% and (ii) NRI/OCB investment in domestic airlines sector upto 100%.

NRI/OCBs are also allowed to invest upto 100% equity on non-repatriation basis in all activities except for a small
negative list. Apart from this, NRI/OCBs are also allowed to invest on repatriation/non-repatriation under the portfolio
investment scheme.

vi) Electronic Hardware Technology Park (EHTP)/Software Technology Park (STP) scheme

For building up strong electronics industry and with a view to enhancing export, two schemes viz. Electronic Hardware
Technology Park (EHTP) and Software Technology Park (STP) are in operation. Under EHTP/STP scheme, the inputs
are allowed to be procured free of duties.

The Directors of STPs have powers to approved fresh STP/EHTP proposals and also grand post-approval amendment in
repsect of EHTP/STP projects as have been given to the Development Commissioners of Export Processing Zones in the
case of Export Oriented Units. All other application for setting up projects under these schemes, are considered by the
Inter-Ministerial Standing Committee (IMSC) Chaired by Secretary (Information Technology). The IMSC is serviced by the
SIA.

vii) Policy for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

Promotion of foreign direct investment forms an integral part of India’s economic policies. The role of foreign direct
investment in accelerating economic growth is by way of infusion of capital, technology and modern management
practices. The Department has put in place a liberal and transparent foreign investment regime where most activities are
opened to foreign investment on automatic route without any limit on the extent of foreign ownership. Some of the recent
initiatives taken to further liberalise the FDI regime, inter alia, include opening up of sectors such as Insurance (upto 26%);
development of integrated townships (upto 100%); defence industry (upto 26%); tea plantation (utp 100% subject to
divestment of 26% within five years to FDI); Encenhancement of FDI limits in private sector banking, allowing FDI up to
100% under the automatic route for most manufacturing activities in SEZs; opening up B2B e-commerce; Internet Service
Providers (ISPs) without Gateways; electronic mail and voice mail to 100% foreign investment subject to 26% divestment
condition; etc.

The Department has also strengthened investment facilitation measures through Foreign Investment Implementation
Authority (FIIA).

Financial Sector

Banking System of India

Bank of Hindustan (1770) was the first bank to be established in India (Alexander and Co.) at Kolkata under European
management. Other banks set-up was Bank of Bengal (1806), Bank of Bombay (1840) and the Bank of Madras (1843) -
these were called Presidency Banks. First bank with limited liability managed by an Indian board was Oudh Commercial
Bank, founded in 1881. The first purely Indian bank was the Punjab National Bank (1894).

Reserve Bank of India

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• It is the Central Bank of the country.

• It was established on Apr 1, 1935 with a capital of Rs.5 crore. This capital of Rs.5 crore was divided into 5 lakh
equity shares of Rs.100 each. In the beginning, the ownership of almost all the share capital was with the non-
government share-holders.

• It was nationalized on Jan 1, 1949 as govt., acquired the private share holdings.

• Administration: 14 directors in Central Board of Directors besides the Governor, 4 Deputy Governors and one
Government official. The Governor is the Chairman of the board and Chief Executive of the Bank.

• Governors:

• 1st Governor-Sir Smith (1935-37)

• 1st Indian Governor : CD Deshmukh (1948-49)

Reserve Bank of India and its functions

1. Issue of Notes: Regulates issue of bank notes above 1 rupee. It acts as the only source of legal tender money
because the one rupee notes issued by Ministry of Finance are also circulated through it.

The Reserve Bank has adopted the Minimum Reserve System for the note issue. Since 1957, it maintains gold
and foreign exchange reserve of Rs.200 crore, of which at least 115 crore should be in gold.

2. Banker to the Government: Acts as the banker, agent and advisor the Govt., of India. It also manages the public
debt for the Government.

3. Banker's Bank: The Reserve Bank performs the same function for other banks as the other banks ordinarily
perform for their customers.

4. Controller of Credit: The Reserve Bank undertakes the responsibility of controlling credits created by the
commercial banks. To achieve this objective, it makes extensive use of quantitative and qualitative techniques to
control and regulate the credit effectively in the country.

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5. Custodian of Foreign Reserves: For the purpose of keeping the foreign exchange rates stable, the Reserve
Banks buys and sells the foreign currencies and also protects the country's foreign exchange funds.

6. It formulates and administers the monetary policy.

7. Acts as the agent of the Government of Indian in respect to India's membership of the IMF and the World Bank.

• No personal accounts are maintained and operated in RBI.

Reserve Bank of India Amendment Bill 2005 Approved

The Reserve Bank of India (Amendment) Bill 2005 has been approved. This bill amends the Reserve Bank Act for
providing flexibility to the Central Bank in fixing the cash reserve ratio (CRR) and statutory liquidity ratio (SLR). CRR is the
cash that banks deposit with RBI and is one of the key instruments used by the Central Bank to inject or suck out liquidity
from the market.

SLR specifies the minimum amount that banks must invest in government securities. This bill is to arm RBI with greater
autonomy and authority to deal with subjects (mainly CRR and SLR) under the Act. This bill also allows the Central Bank
to regulate derivatives, repo instruments (overnight rates used to regulate liquidity) and securities.

The amendments also seek to end the ambiguity about the legal validity of derivatives as it was seen to inhibit the growth
of the market.

Overview of Banking Sector in India

• Banking, financial services and insurance (BFSI), together account for 38 per cent of India's outsourcing industry
(worth US$ 47.8 billion in 2007).

• According to a report by McKinsey and NASSCOM, India has the potential to process 30-per cent of the banking
transactions in the US by the year 2010. Outsourcing by the BFSI to India is expected to grow at an annual rate of
30-35 per cent.

• Taking into account all banks in India, there are overall 56,640 branches or offices, 893,356 employees and
27,088 ATMs. Public sector banks made up a large chunk of the infrastructure, with 87.7 per cent of all offices, 82
per cent of staff and 60.3 per cent of all ATMs.

• The reserve money lying with the RBI as on November 21, 2008 as per the January 2009 bulletin, is a total
amount of US$ 179.28 billion and RBl's credit to the commercial sector stood at US$ 3.65 billion.

• Further, banks in India put up strong growth and profit numbers in the October-end-December 2008 period owing
to high credit growth and easing of yield on government bonds. Top Indian banks have increased their earnings
by almost 40 percent year onyear for the same period.

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• According to latest Reserve Bank of India (RBI) data, bank credit grew by 24.6 per cent year-on-year as of
December 19, 2008. The resulting credit growth was even better at 41 per cent during the April-end-December
2008 period. Deposits grew by 20.6 per cent as of December 19, 2008.

Growth of Banks in India

• HDFC Bank and Axis Bank continue to remain as leaders of the private sector banks. Both the banks have
maintained the advances growth and NIM. SBI, Punjab National Bank, Bank of India and Union Bank are
expected to lead among PSU Banks.

• The State Bank of India is planning to open 1,000 new branches across the country to cover 100,000 villages in
the coming FY 2009-10, according to the bank Chairman, Mr. O P Bhatt.

• The bank had decided to rope in 300 new customers every year for each branch using initiatives. According to Mr.
Bhatt, the bank could get a record US$ 5.54 billion during December 2008, the highest amount collected by any
bank in the country.

• According to the latest RBI data, growth in broad money (M3), year-on-year (y-o-y), was 19.6 per cent (US$
151.04 billion) on January 2, 2009 lower than 22.6 per cent (US$ 141.82 billion) a year ago. Aggregate deposits
of banks, year-on-year, expanded 20.2 per cent (US$ 133.08 billion) on January 2, 2009 as compared with 24.0
per cent (US$ 127.49 billion) a year ago.

• According to earlier RBI data, for the third quarter (September 26-December 27, 2008), total bank credit was up
US$ 21.91 billion compared with a growth of US$ 22.91 billion in the same period a year ago. In the preceding
quarter, credit had risen by US$ 26.50 billion.

• RBI data for deposits shows that for the Oct-end December 31, 2008 period, although deposit growth has slowed
to US$ 25.99 billion against US$ 33.18 billion in the April-end to September, 2008 period, it was still stronger in
the December 31 quarter period, 2008, as compared to the year-ago quarter when absolute growth was US$
16.37 billion.

• Net banking capital amounted to US$ 4.8 billion in April-September 2008 as compared with US$ 5.7 billion in
April-September 2007. Accounting for a part of banking capital, non-resident Indian (NRI) deposits showed a net
inflow of US $ 1.1 billion in April-September 2008, increasing from net outflow of US$ 78 million in April-
September 2007.

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• Lending by banks also rose more than 76 per cent to Rs.2,80,000 crore (US$ 57.26 billion) during April-November
2008-09 from the same period a year ago, according to data available with the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).

• The number of automated teller machines (ATMs) has risen and the usage of ATMs has gone up substantially
during the last few years. Use of other banks ATMs would also not attract any fee except when used for cash
withdrawal for which the maximum charge levied was drastically brought down by March 31, 2008. Further, all
cash withdrawals from all ATMs would be free with effect from April 1, 2009.

FDI Limit in Private Sector Bank Increased

• FDI limit in Private Sector Banks has been raised to 74 per cent under the automatic route including investment
by FIIs (Foreign Institutional Investors).

• The aggregate foreign investment in a private bank from all sources will be allowed up to a maximum of 74 per
cent of the paid up capital of the Bank. At all times, at least 26 per cent of the paid up capital will have to be held
by residents, except in regard to a wholly owned subsidiary of a foreign bank.

Entry of New Banks in the Private Sector

• As per the guidelines for licensing of new banks in the private sector issued in Jan 1993, revised guidelines were
issued in Jan 2001. The main provisions/requirements are:
a. Initial minimum paid-up capital shall be Rs.200 crore; this will be raised to Rs.300 crore within three years
of commencement of business.
b. Promoters' contribution shall be a minimum of 40 per cent of the paid-up capital of the bank at any point
of time; their contribution of 40 per cent shall be locked in for 5 yr from the date of licensing of the bank
and excess stake above 40 percent shall be diluted after one year of bank's operations.
c. Initial capital other than promoters contribution could be raised through public issue or private placement.
d. While augmenting capital to Rs.300 crore within 3 years, promoters need to bring in at least 40 percent of
the fresh capital, which will also be locked in for 5 years. The remaining portion of fresh capital could be
raised through public issue or private placement.
e. NRI participation in the primary equity of a new bank shall be to the maximum extent of 40 percent. In
case of a foreign banking company or finance company (including multilateral institutions) as a technical
collaborator or a co-promoter, equity participation shall be limited to 20 percent within the 40 per cent
ceiling.
f. No large industrial house can promote a new bank. Individual companies connected with large industrial
houses can, however, contribute up to 10 per cent of the equity of a new bank, which will maintain an
arms length relationship with companies in the promoter group and the individual company/ies investing
in equity. No credit facilities shall be extended to them.
g. NBFCs with good track record can become banks.
h. A minimum capital adequacy ratio of 10 per cent shall be maintained on a continuous basis from
commencement of operations.
i. Priority sector lending target is 40 per cent of net bank credit, as in the case of other domestic banks; it is
also necessary to open 25 per cent of the branches in rural/semi-urban areas.

Mutual Funds in India

Mutual Funds of India

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Mutual funds mobilize the savings of the general public and invest them in stock market securities. They are fast
becoming an important medium of mobilizing the savings of the middle class and small investors by minimizing risk and
raising the rate of returns.

Unit Trust of India :

• It was set – up in 1964. It is a 50 per cent subsidiary of IDBI and the rest 50 per cent is subscribed to LIC, SBI,
other scheduled banks, IFCI and ICICI.
• It was the only mutual fund in the country till 1987 – 88 when a public sector bank sponsored mutual fund was
established.
• The UTI collects its funds mostly through the sale of units under its various schemes.

Reliance Largest Fund House :

Anil Dhirubhai Ambani group company, the Reliance Mutual Fund, is the country’s largest fund house having assets of
over 80,000 crore. HDFC Mutual Fund has the second position, while ICICI Prudential Mutual Fund is at the third slot.
Public Sector Fund House UTI Mutual Fund and Birla Sun Life Mutual Fund, the other two funds are among the top five.

Stock Exchanges in India

Stock Exchanges of India

Stock Exchange or share market plays a dominant role in mobilizing resources for corporate sector. It is a market for
dealing in shares, debentures and financial securities. In the stock exchange, shares and debentures are bought and sold
for investment as well as for speculative purposes.

There are 24 stock exchanges in the country :

• UP Stock Exchange, Kanpur.

• Vadodara Stock Exchange, Vadodara.
• Koyambtour Stock Exchange, Coimbatore.
• Meerat Stock Exchange, Meerat.
• Bombay StockExchange, Mumbai.
• Over the Counter Exchange of India, Mumbai.
• National Stock Exchange, Mumbai.
• Ahmedabad Stock Exchange, Ahmedabad.
• Bangalore Stock Exchange, Bangalore.
• Bhubhaneshwar Stock Exchange, Bhubhaneshwar.
• Calcutta Stock Exchange, Kolkata.
• Cochin Stock Exchange, Cochin.
• Delhi Stock Exchange, Delhi.
• Guwahati Stock Exchange, Guwahati.
• Hyderabad Stock Exchange, Hyderabad.
• Jaipur Stock Exchange, Jaipur.
• Canara Stock Exchange, Mangalore.
• Ludhiana Stock Exchange, Ludhiana.
• Chennai Stock Exchange, Chennai.

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• MP Stock Exchange, Indore.

• Magadh Stock Exchange, Patna.
• Pune Stock Exchange, Pune.
• Saurashtra Stock Exchange, Rajkot.
• Capital Stock Exchange Kerala Ltd. Thiruvananthapuram.

Note :

• Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) is one of the oldest stock exchanges in the world (since 1875) and the oldest of
Asia. The share sensex of BSE includes 30 shares.
• National Stock Exchanges (NSE) share sensex includes 50 shares.

Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)

• SEBI (Securities and Exchange Board of India) was initially constituted on April 12, 1988 as a non statutory body
through a resolution of the Government for dealing with all matters relating to development and regulation of
securities market and investor protection and to advise the Government on all these matters. SEBI was given
statutory status and powers through an ordinance promulgated on January 30, 1992.
• The statutory powers and functions of SEBI were strengthened through the promulgation of the Securities Laws
(Amendment) ordinance on January 25, 1995 which was subsequently replaced by an act of Parliament.
• In terms of this act, SEBI has been vested with regulatory powers over corporates in the issuance of capital, the
transfer of securities and other related matters. Besides, SEBI has also been empowered to impose monetary
penalties on capital market intermediaries and other participants for a range of violations.
• SEBI is managed by six members – one chairman (nominated by Central Government), two members (officers of
central ministries), one member (from RBI) and remaining two members nominated by Central Government.
• The office of SEBI is situated at Mumbai with its regional offices at Calcutta, Delhi and Chennai. In 1988, the initial
capital of SEBI was 7.5 crore which was provided by its promoters (IDBI, ICICI, IFCI). This amount was
invested and with its interest amount day – to – day expenses of SEBI are met.
• All statutory powers for regulating Indian capital market are vested with SEBI itself.

Functions of SEBI in India :

• To safeguard the interests of investors and to regulate capital market with suitable measures.
• To regulate the business of stock exchanges and other securities market.
• To regulate the working of Stock Brokers, Sub – brokers, Share Transfer Agents, Trustees, Merchant Bankers,
Underwriters, Portfolio Managers etc. and also to make their registration.
• To register and regulate collective investment plans of mutual funds.
• To encourage self – regulatory organizations.
• To eliminate malpractices of security markets.
• To train the person associated with security markets and also to encourage investor’s education.
• To check insider trading of securities
• To supervise the working of various organizations trading in security market and also to ensure systematic
dealings.
• To promote research and investigations for ensuring the attainment of above objectives.

Disinvestment

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As on 31 October 2011, the 50 Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs) listed on the stock exchanges contributed
about 20% of the total market capitalization.

Market
Company Capitalisation
(Rs.crore)
OIL & NATURAL GAS CORP.LTD. 2,38,013.74
COAL INDIA LTD. 2,09,955.95
NTPC LTD. 1,47,882.40
NMDC LTD. 94,023.24
INDIAN OIL CORP.LTD. 70,665.56
MMTC LTD. 67,310.00
GAIL (INDIA) LTD. 53,574.14
POWER GRID CORP.OF INDIA LTD. 48,450.08
STEEL AUTHORITY OF INDIA LTD. 46,406.45
OIL INDIA LTD. 31,148.46

Disinvestment Policy

The present disinvestment policy has been articulated in the recent President’s addresses to Joint Sessions of Parliament
and the Finance Minister’s recent Parliament Budget Speeches.

The salient features of the Policy are:

• Citizens have every right to own part of the shares of Public Sector Undertakings
• Public Sector Undertakings are the wealth of the Nation and this wealth should rest in the hands of the people
• While pursuing disinvestment, Government has to retain majority shareholding, i.e. at least 51% and management
control of the Public Sector Undertakings

Approach for Disinvestment

On 5th November 2009, Government approved the following action plan for disinvestment in profit making
government companies:

• Already listed profitable CPSEs (not meeting mandatory shareholding of 10%) are to be made compliant by ‘Offer
for Sale’ by Government or by the CPSEs through issue of fresh shares or a combination of both
• Unlisted CPSEs with no accumulated losses and having earned net profit in three preceding consecutive years
are to be listed
• Follow-on public offers would be considered taking into consideration the needs for capital investment of CPSE,
on a case by case basis, and Government could simultaneously or independently offer a portion of its equity
shareholding
• In all cases of disinvestment, the Government would retain at least 51% equity and the management control
• All cases of disinvestment are to be decided on a case by case basis
• The Department of Disinvestment is to identify CPSEs in consultation with respective administrative Ministries
and submit proposal to Government in cases requiring Offer for Sale of Government equity

Progress of Disinvestment in India (1991- 2008)

The 1991 economic reforms introduced the privatization process when the sale of minority stake was there in some public
sector undertakings. However, now the focus has shifted to strategic sale of the identified public sector units. For the
period 1991-2008, the progress of disinvestment has been a normal one. Against the budgeted disinvestment of Rs.96,
800 crores, only an amount of Rs.51,609 crores approximately could be collected. The pressure of the left parties has
largely restricted the pace of disinvestment. Now, we don’t have the ministry of disinvestment also.
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The present UPA government led by Dr.Manmohan Singh, has taken a U-turn regarding the policy at privatization
pursued by the NDA regime, declared that no profit making PEs will be disinvested. The finance minister in his budget,
speech announced “As long as the government retains control over the PE, and its public sector character is not affected,
the government may dilute its equity and raise resources to meet the social needs at the people.” The finance minister
observed that there is another side to the public sector which is best with problems and these should be addressed,
‘Disinvestment and privatization are useful economic tools. We will selectively employ these tools, consistent with the
declared policy’. The finance minister announced that a Board for Reconstruction of PEs will be constituted, which will
advise the government regarding measures to be taken to restructure PEs, including where disinvestments or closure or
sale is justified. While the government has decided not to privatize profit making PEs it nevertheless wants to dilute
shareholding of some of these companies, while still retaining majority control. The government is going to divest 15%
shares in four profit making PEs-Hudco, National Mineral Development Corporation, Neyveli Lignite and power Finance
Corporation. The said minister that a part of the disinvestment would be done through the IPO route.

May 26, 2004 that the present government will not further disinvest the strategic, profit-making and navratan PSUs like Oil
and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), Indian Oil Corporation (IOC), Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (HPCL),
Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (BPCL), Oil India Limited (OIL), National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), Steel
Authority of India Ltd. (SAIL) etc. However, disinvestment of sick PSUs will be allowed.

Challenges Befores Disinvestment

Disinvestment was a very bold and important step initiated by the government as apart of its reform measures. But the
way it was handled has defeated its very purpose. The challenges before investment are as follows-

• Social Problem— Process of disinvestment is not favoured socially as it is against the interest of socially
disadvantageous people and society at large. This process will definitely affect the social objectives of the
government.
• Political Problem— The coalition government at the centre with a number of parties has posed a serious threat to
this programme. Conflicting interest has made it difficult to arrive at a national consensus.
• Economic Problem—Most of the units identified for disinvestment are in a very bad shape which does not offer
good returns. The Government due to paucity of funds, is also not in a position to revive it.
• The Government does not have a well defined disinvestment policy with a time bound programme. There was
no disinvestment in 2004-05 and the present budget (2005-06) does not mention anything about disinvestment.
• The progress of disinvestment programme is at a very slow pace. Only 10 percent of the total money invested in
public sector undertakings was realized till date by the government.
• The Government has failed to maintain transparency in the various stages of disinvestment process which
has decreased its reliability.
• Lack of co-operation and co-ordination between disinvestment ministry and other concerned ministries has also
greatly affected the disinvestment programme.
• Conclusion—The disinvestment process needs to be taken up more seriously by the government. The
Government should try to come out with a time bound programme to conduct the process with transparency in all
the activities need to reach. Some consensus is very essential. Only then the real benefits can be reaped.

Insurance in India

Insurance in India

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• Insurance has been an important part of the India financial system. Until recently, insurance services were
provided by the public sector, i.e., life insurance by the Life Insurance Corporation of India and general insurance
by the General Insurance Corporation and its four subsidiaries.

1. Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC)

• Established on Sept 1, 1956.

• Head office: Mumbai; Zonal offices : 7 (Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, Kanpur, Hyderabad and Bhopal)

2. General Insurance Corporation (GIC) of India

• Established: Jan 1, 1973; It has four subsidiary companies

• National Insurance Company Ltd, Kolkata.
• The New India Assurance Co. Ltd, Mumbai.
• The Oriental Fire and General Insurance Co. Ltd, New Delhi.
• United India Fire and General Insurance Co. Ltd, Chennai.

Reforms in Insurance Sector in India

• Insurance sector constitutes an important segment of financial market in India and plays a predominant role in the
formation of capital in the country. The reforms in the insurance sector started with the enactment of Insurance
Regulatory and Development Authority Act, 1999. The Act paved-the way for the entry of private insurance
companies into the insurance market and also constitution of Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority.

Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority (IRDA) India

• IRDA was constituted on 19 April, 2000 to protect the interest of the holders of insurance policies and to regulate,
promote and ensure orderly growth of the insurance industry. The authority consists of a Chairperson, three
whole-time Members and four part-time Members.
• For regulating the insurance sector, the Authority has been issuing regulations covering almost the entire
segment of insurance industry, namely, regulation on insurance agents, solvency margin, re-insurance,
registration of insurers, obligation of insurers to rural and social sector, accounting procedure, etc.

Agriculture Insurance Company of India Limited (AICIL)

• A separate organization for Agriculture Insurance called Agriculture Insurance Company of India Ltd.’ has been
incorporated under the Companies Act, 1956 on Dec 20, 2002 with the capital participation from General
Insurance Corporation of India (GIC), four public sector general insurance companies viz.,

• National Insurance Company Ltd.,

• New India Assurance Company Ltd.,
• Oriental Insurance Company Ltd., and
• United India Insurance Company Ltd. and NABARD.

The promoter’s subscription to the paid-up capital is 35 percent by GIC, 30 percent by NABARD and 8.75 percent each by
the four public sector general insurance companies. The authorized capital of the new organization is

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1,5000 crore, while the initial paid-up capital is

200 crore.

While the new company would underwrite crop insurance to begin with, it will, in due course, cover other allied
rural/agricultural risks also. National Agriculture Insurance Scheme (NAIS), which was being implemented by the General
Insurance Corporation of India (GIC), has since been transferred to the new company named Agricultural Insurance
Company of India Ltd. (AICIL).

India Insurance FDI Bill

• The government has decided to amend the Insurance Act to raise the ceiling on Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
in the insurance sector to 49% from 26%.
• Apart from the Insurance Act of 1938, the government also plans to amend the Life Insurance Corporation of India
Act of 1956, the General Insurance Business Nationalization Act of 1972 and the Insurance Regulatory and
Development Authority Act of 1999. Since FDI ceiling is part of the Insurance Act, the Act will have to be
amended to allow foreign insurers to hold higher stakes in ventures in India.
• The LIC Act would be amended to align the minimum paid-up capital required for LIC with that of private sector
companies, which NEED to have a minimum of

100 crore equity capital. LIC currently has a paid-up equity capital of just

5 crore.

Currency and Inflation

Currency in India :

• Rupee was first minted in India during the reign of Sher Shah Suri around 1542.
• India became a member of International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1947, and exchange value of rupee came to be
fixed by IMF standards.
• All coins and one rupee note are issued by Government of India. That’s why one rupee note doesn’t bear the
signature of Governor of RBI. It bears the signature of Finance Secretary, Government of India.

Demonetization of Currency in India :

• It refers to the withdrawal of currency from circulation which is done to Ambush Black Market.

Indian Devaluation of Currency :

• Refers to reducing value of the Indian rupee in comparison to the leading currencies in the World Market.

First Devaluation : In June 1949 (by 30.5%) (Finance Minister : Dr. John Madiai).

Second Devaluation : In June 1966 (by 57%) (Finance Minister: Sachindra Chaudhry).

Third Devaluation : On July 1, 1991 (by 9%) (Finance Minister : Dr. Manmohan Singh).

Fourth Devaluation : On July 3, 1991 (by 11%) Finance Minister : Dr. Manmohan Singh).
• The Basic Objective of devaluation duce deficits in balance of trade by making exports relatively cheap and
imports costly.

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Inflation in India :

Inflation is that state in which the prices of goods and services rise on the one hand and value of money falls on the other.
When money circulation exceeds, the production of goods and services, the state of inflation takes place in the Economy.

Types of Inflation in India :

Demand Pull Inflation : Inflation created and sustained by excess of aggregate demand for goods and services over the
aggregate supply. In other words, demand pull inflation takes place when increase in production lags behind the increase
in money supply.

Cost Push Inflation : Inflation which is created and sustained by increase in cost of production which is independent of
the state of demand (e.g. Trade unions can bargain for higher wages and hence contribute to inflation).

Stagflation : In this type, there is fall in the output and employment levels. Due to various pressures, the entrepreneurs
have to raise the price to maintain their margin of profit. But as they only partially succeed in raising the prices, they are
faced with a situation of declining output and investment. Thus, on one side there is a rise in the general price level and
on the other side, there is a fall in the output and employment.

Hyper – Inflation : Very rapid growth in the rate of inflation in which money loses its value to the point where alternative
mediums of exchange – such as barter or foreign currency are commonly used. Also called Galloping Inflation.

Measurement of Inflation in India :

Inflation is measured by general price index. General Price index measures the changes in average prices of goods and
services. Abase year is selected and its index is assumed as 100 and on this basis price index for the current year is
calculated.

If the index of the current year is below 100, it indicates the state of deflation and, on the contrary, if index of the current
year is above 100 it indicates the state of inflation.

Inflation rate and the value of money (or the purchasing power of money) are inversely correlated. Hence, the value of
money can also be measured with the help of price indices. The value of money declines when price index goes up and
vice – versa.

Wholesale Price Index (WPI) India :

On the recommendation of Working Group under the Chairmanship of Prof. Abhijit Sen, Member Planning Commission
Government has changed the base year of Wholesale Price Index (WPI) from 1993 – 94 to 2000 – 01. The new base year
2000 – 01 became operational w.e.f. 01 April, 2006.

Steps for Preventing Inflation :

Various steps have been taken on both demand and supply side to control the inflation rate in the Economy. During recent
years, the Government has taken a number of steps in this direction.

(a) Steps related to Supply Side

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• Open Market Sale of wheat and rice by Indian Food Corporation.

• Wheat and wheat products were brought under the provisions of licensing and storage limit for preventing black
marketing of these products.
• Import of wheat to maintain the buffer stocks in the Economy.
• Import of edible oils on 20% import duty and pulses on 5% import duty.
• Import of 2 lakh tonnes Palmolin oil for the sale under Public Distribution System.
• To ensure the sufficient supply of sugar, edible oil and pulses, liberalized imports were permitted.

(b) Steps related to Demand Side

• To curtail fiscal deficit up to 5% of GDE.

• To put a check on money supply increase.

Deflation in India :

• Deflation is that state in which the value of money rises and the price of goods and services falls.
• The state of deflation may appear in the economy due to following reasons :
a. When the Government withdraws money from Circulation.
b. When Government imposes heavy direct taxes or takes heavy loans from the public (Voluntary or
Compulsory or Both).
c. When the Central Bank sells the securities in open market (which reduces the quantity of Money in
Circulation).
d. When Central Bank controls the credit money and adopts various measures such as increase in CRR,
credit rationing and direct action.
e. When the Central Bank increases the Bank rate (which curtails the quantity of credit in the Economy).
f. When state of Over – Production (excess supply over demand) takes place in the Economy.

Measures of Checking Deflation :

• To increase money supply.

• To promote credit creation by the banks.
• Curtailment in taxes so as to increase the purchasing power of people.
• To increase the public expenditure and to increase the employment opportunities in the economy.
• To increase the money supply in circulation by repayment of old public debts.
• To provide economic subsidy by the Government to the industrial sector of the economy.

Note :

Deficit Financing is the technique of mobilizing resources through borrowings or printing currency when the revenue of
govt., is not adequate to meet its expenditure.

It leads to increase in money supply which leads to increase in price level in the absence of increase in supply of
consumer goods quickly.

Money Stock Measures in India :

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• Money supply has been increasing continuously with the rise in prices, through the increase rate in money supply
has varied from year to year.
• On the recommendations of the second working group on money supply, RBI introduced a series of money stock
measures in India since 1970 – 71, which are :

M1 => Money with the Public (currency notes and coins) + Demand deposits of banks (on current and
saving bank accounts) + Other demand deposits with RBI.

M2 => M1 + Saving bank deposits with Post – Offices.

M3 =>M1 + Term deposits with the Bank.

M4 =>M3 + All deposits of Post – Offices.
• M1 measure represents the most liquid form of money among four money stock measures adopted by RBI. As we
proceed from M1 to M4, the liquidity gets reduced. In other words, M4 possesses the lowest liquidity among all
these measures. All these four money stack measures are not of equal importance. Their relative importance
varies from the point of view of monetary policy.
• Generally, in developed countries, the bank deposits are the most important component in money supply, while
due to less banking habits in underdeveloped countries people want to keep their money in the most liquid form,
i.e., currency.
• M3 is the most important component among all money stock measures which is generally termed as ‘Broad
Money’.

Cheap Money Policy and Dear Money Policy :

• Cheap Money Policy is that Monetary Policy in which loans and advances are made available on low interest rate
and easy terms to Industries, Businessmen and Consumers. Cheap Money Policy increases the inflation rate in
the economy and it is generally adopted to get rid of deflationary tendencies in the Economy.
• On the other hand, dear money policy is adopted to squeeze the credit utilization facilities in the economy. Under
dear Money Policy, interest rate is increased which helps in Controlling Inflation in the Economy.

Indian Tax Structure

(B) List – II of Seventh schedule enlists the taxes which are within the jurisdiction of the States :

• Land revenue.
• Taxes on the sale and purchase of goods, except newspapers.
• Taxes on Agricultural Income.
• Taxes on land and buildings.
• Succession and estate duties on agricultural land.
• Excise on Alcoholic Liquors and Narcotics.
• Taxes on the entry of goods into a local area.
• Taxes on the consumption and sale of electricity.
• Taxes on mineral rights (subject to any limitations imposed by the Parliament).
• Taxes on vehicles, animals and boats.
• Stamp duties except those on financial documents.
• Taxes on goods and passengers carried by board or inland water – ways.
• Taxes on luxuries including entertainments, betting and gambling.
• Tolls.
• Taxes on professions, trades, callings and employment.
• Capitation taxation.
• Taxes on advertisements other than those contained in newspapers.
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(C) Apart from taxes levied and collected by the States, the Constitution has provided for the revenues for certain taxes on
the Union List to be allotted, partly or wholly to the States. These provisions fall into various categories :

• Duties which are levied by the Union Government but are collected and appropriated by the States. These include
stamp duties, excise duties on medicalpreparations containing alcohol or narcotics.
• Taxes which are levied and collected by the Union, but the entire proceeds of which are assigned to the states, in
proportion determined by the Parliament. These taxes include :

Succession and Estate duty.

Terminal Taxes on goods and passengers.

Taxes on railway freight and fares.

Taxes on transactions in stock exchanges and future markets.

Taxes on sale and purchase of newspapers and advertisements therein.

• Central Taxes on income and union excise duties are levied and collected by the Union but are shared by it with
the States in a prescribed manner.
• Proceeds of additional excise duty on mill – made textiles, sugar and tobacco which are levied by the Union since
1957 in replacement of State sales taxes on these commodities are wholly distributed among the States in a
manner as to guarantee their former incomes from the displaced sales taxes.

Finance Commission of India

• Finance Commission is constituted to define financial relations between the Centre and the States. Under the
provision of Article 280 of the Constitution, the President appoints a Finance Commission for the specific purpose
of devolution of non – plan revenue resources. The functions of the Commission are to make recommendations to
the President in respect of :

Finance Commission Established in Chairman Operational Duration Year of Submitting Report

I 1951 KC Niyogi 1952 - 57 1952

II 1956 K Santhanam 1957 - 62 1956* and 1957

III 1960 AK Chanda 1962 - 66 1961

IV 1964 PV Rajamannar 1966 - 69 1965

V 1968 Mahaveer Tyagi 1969 - 74 1968* and 1969

VI 1972 Brahma Nand Reddy 1974 - 79 1973

VII 1977 JM Shellet 1979 - 84 1978

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Finance Commission Established in Chairman Operational Duration Year of Submitting Report

VIII 1983 YB Chawan 1984 - 89 1983* and 1984

IX 1987 NKP Salve 1989 - 95 1989

X 1992 KC Pant 1995 - 2000 November 26, 1994

XI 1998 AM Khusro 2000 - 2005 January 15, 2000* and 7 July, 2000 and 31 August, 2000

XII 2003 C Rangarajan 2005 - 2010 November 30, 2004

XIII 2007 NC Kelkar 2010 - 2015 -

* Interim Report

1. The distribution of net proceeds of taxes to be shared between the Union and the States and the allocation of
share of such proceeds among the States.
2. The principles which should govern the payment of grants – in – aid by the Centre to the States.
3. Any other matter concerning financial relations between the Centre and the States.

Telecommunication Sector
Telecommunications has been recognized the world-over as an important tool for socio-economic development for a
nation. It is one of the prime support services needed for rapid growth and modernization of various sectors of the
economy. It has become especially important in recent years because of enormous growth of information technology and
its significant potential for the impact on the rest of the economy. The Telecom Sector, which has the multiplier effect on
the economy, has a vital role to play in economy by way of contributing to the increased efficiency. The available studies
suggest that income of business entities and households increases by the use of telecom services. Thus it contributes to
the growth in GDP. The Government of India recognizes that provision of world class telecommunications infrastructure
and information is key to rapid economic and social development of the Country.

Present Status

Telecommunications is one of the few sectors in India, which has witnessed the most fundamental structural and
institutional reforms since 1991. In recent times, country has emerged as one of the fastest growing telecom markets in
the world, particularly by the unprecedented growth in mobile telephony. This high growth rate has been achieved in major
part due to sharp fall in tariffs. The rapid growth in Indian telecom services has prompted major global manufacturers of
telecom equipment to consider investing in India, paving the way for extensive provision of modern communication
services in rural areas and also provide a strong boost to government revenues. With the successfully concluded auctions
of the 3G and BWA spectrum, this growth is set to become even more pronounced.

Indian telecom network has 787.29 million connections as on 31st December 2010 with 752.20 million wireless
connections, Indian telecom has become the second largest wireless network in the world after China. The future
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progress of telecom in our country is very encouraging. The addition of over 18 million connections per month puts the
telecom sector on strong footing. The target of 600 million telephones by the end of 11th five year plan has been achieved
in February, 2010. With such a pace of expansion the Department is certain to achieve the 11th plan targets.

Indian Telecom market is one of the fastest growing markets in the world.

• With its 787.29 million Telephone connection as on 31st December 2010, it is the second largest network in the
world after China.
• It is second largest wireless network in the world.
• Over 18 million connections are being added every month.
• The target of 600 million telephones by the end of 11th five year plan has been achieved in February'10 itself.
st
• Wireless telephones are increasing at faster rate. The share of wireless telephones as on 31 December 2010 is
95.54% of the total phones.
• The share of private sector in total telephone is 84.60%.
• Overall tele-density has reached 66.17%. Urban tele-density is about 148%, whereas rural teledensity is at
31.22% which is also steadily increasing.
• Broadband connections increased to 10.74 million by November, 2010.

Growth

The opening of the sector has not only led to rapid growth but also helped a great deal towards maximization of consumer
benefits as tariff have been falling across the board as a result of unrestricted competition. Telecom sector has witnessed
a continuous rising trend in the total number of telephone subscribers. From a meager 22.8 million telephone subscribers
in 1999, it has grown to 621.28 million at the end of March, 2010. The total number of telephones stands at 787.29 million
as on 31st December 2010 showing addition of 166.01 million during the period from March to December 2010. Wireless
telephone connections have contributed to this growth as the number of wireless connections rose from 35.61 million in
2004 to 584.32 million in March, 2010 and 752.20 million as on 31st December 2010. The wireline started to decline from
40.92 million in 2004 to 36.96 million in March, 2010 and 35.09 million in December, 2010, albeit it is stagnating now.

International Orgnisations in India

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

• Established on December 27, 1945 in Washington D.C. on the recommendations of Bretton Woods Conference.
But it started its operations on March 1, 1947.
• At present 185 nations are members of the IMF. Dominique Strauss Kahn is the present MD of IMF.

Objectives of IMF

• To promote international monetary co – operation.

• To ensure balanced international trade.
• To ensure exchange rate stability.
• To eliminate or to minimize exchange restrictions by promoting the system of multilateral payments.
• To grant economic assistance to member countries for eliminating the adverse imbalances in balance of
payments.
• Main function is to stabilize exchange.
• Offers facilities to the member nations for the expansion of international trade, the control of international
exchange and to avoid competitive exchange depreciation.

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• The capital resources of the IMF comprise Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) and currencies that members pay
under quotas calculated for them when they join the IMF.
• Every IMF member is required to subscribe to the IMF an amount equal to its quota. The quota of a member is
largely determined by its economic conditions relative to other members. An amount, not exceeding 25 per cent of
the quota, is to be paid in reserve assets, the balance in member’s own currency.
• The quota determines both the amount of foreign exchange a member may borrow from the Fund and its voting
power on IMF policy matters. The members with the largest quotas are USA, Japan and Germany in first, second
and third spots. India is placed at the thirteenth spot (1961 per cent share in total quota).
• The IMF makes its resources available to its members to meet their short – term or medium – term payment
difficulties, subject to established limits and conditions with respect to the amount of its drawing rights.
• Member – countries are given borrowing or drawing rights with the fund which they can use, together with their
own nationally held international reserves, to finance the balance of payments deficits.

World Bank Group India

The World Bank Group constitutes the following Institutions :

• International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)

• International Development Association (IDA)
• International Finance Commission (IFC)
• Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
• International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID)
• The IDA and the IBRD constitute the World Bank. Robert Zoellick is its present head.

1. International Bank for Re – Construction and Development (IBRD)

• IBRD was established in December 1945 with the IMF on the basis of the recommendations of the Bretton Woods
Conference. That is why IMF and IBRD are called Bretton Wood Twins. Its head – quarter is at Washington D.C.
• At present, 186 nations are members of the IBRD.
• Objective is of assisting of member nations in the economic re – construction and development of their territories.
• The bank makes its loans on terms that are reasonable but at the same time sufficient to earn a profit in the form
of interest and commission fees. The loans are long – term, generally repaid in the currencies loaned over 20
Years, with a five – year grace period.
• May also guarantee loans by private investors.
• The loans may be made to member countries, to their political sub – divisions or to private business enterprises in
their territories. If the borrower is not a government guarantee of the member – government concerned is
required.

Difference between IBRD and IMF

• The banks lends while funds sells i.e., it makes available the necessary currency of a particular country in case of
a shortage.
• The bank assists by advancing long – term credits for development and re – construction, whereas IMF facilitates
the balanced growth of international trade by short – term credit.

2. International Development Association (IDA) India

• IDA is an associate institution of IBRD and is known as the Soft Loan Window of World Bank.
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• It was established on September 24, 1960.

• It provides loans to its member countries and no interest is charged on these long – term loans (but there is a
0.75 per cent annual service charge on disbursed credits). Most IDA commitments are made to countries with
annual per capita incomes less than $785. Credits are extended for terms of 40 Years for least developed
countries and 35 Years for other countries.
• As an affiliate of IBRD, its directors, officers and staff are those of the IBRD.

3. International Finance Corporation (IFC)

• Established in 1955, the IFC became a UN specialized agency in 1957.

• It provides loans to private industries of developing nations without any government guarantee and also promotes
the additional capital investment in these countries

India Population Policy 2000

India Population Policy 2000

• The National Population Policy 2000 provides a policy framework for advancing goals and prioritizing strategies
during the next decade to meet the reproductive and child health needs of the people of India.
• This new policy states that the objective of economic and social development is to improve the quality of lives
people lead to enhance their well being and to provide them with opportunities and choices to become productive
assets in society.
• The immediate objective of this new policy is to address the unmet needs of contraception, health infrastructure,
health personnel and to provide integrated service delivery for basic reproductive and child health care.
• The medium term objective is to bring the total fertility rates to replacement level by 2010.
• The long term objective is to achieve a stable population by 2045.
• In pursuance of these objectives, 14 National Socio – Demographic Goals are formulated to be achieved by 2010.
The important goals of this category are :

Making School Education compulsory and to reduce dropouts.

Reduce infant mortality rate to 30 per 1000 live births.

Reduce maternal mortality rate to below 100 per 100000 live births.

Promote delayed marriage of girls.

Achieve 80% institutional deliveries.

Prevent and control communicable diseases.

Promote vigorously the small family norm to achieve replacement levels of TFR (Total Fertility Rate).

• The policy speaks about the formation of National Commission on Population under the chairmanship of Prime
Minister to monitor and implement population policy and to guide planning implementations.
• Policy also suggests some promotional and motivational measures to promote adoption of the small family norm.
The important are :

Reward Panchayat and Zila Parishads for promoting small family norm.

Incentives to adopt two child norms.

Couples below poverty line, having sterilization with not more than two living children will be eligible for
health insurance plan.

Strengthening abortion facility scheme.

CENSUS OF INDIA 2011

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Census 2011 was conducted in two phases. The first phase, called the House Listing or Housing Census was conducted
between April and September last year across the country, depending on the convenience of different States/UTs. The
second phase, Population Enumeration, began simultaneously all over the country from February 9, 2011 and continued
up to February 28, 2011.

The 15th Indian National census was conducted in two phases, houselisting and population enumeration. Houselisting
phase began on April 1, 2010 and involved collection of information about all buildings. Information for National Population
Register was also collected in the first phase, which will be used to issue a 12-digit unique identification number to all
registered Indians by Unique Identification Authority of India. The second population enumeration phase was conducted
between 9 to 28 February 2011. Census has been conducted in India since 1872 and 2011 marks the first time biometric
information was collected. According to the provisional reports released on March 31, 2011, the Indian population
increased to 1.21 billion with a decadal growth of 17.64%. Adult literacy rate increased to 74.04% with a decadal growth of
9.21%.

The following fresh categories have been incorporated for comprehensive and better data:

• Gender: New category "Other" introduced in addition to Male and Female.

• Date of Birth question introduced along with Age.
• Current Marital Status: Separate codes Assigned for Separated and Divorced.
• New filter Question on SC/ST Introduced - "Is this person SC/ST?"
• Disability: Household Schedule of Census 2011 attempts to collect information on eight types of disabilities as
against five included in the Household Schedule of Census of India 2001. The information is being collected on
disabilities namely, disability 'In Seeing', 'In Hearing', 'In Speech', 'In Movement', 'Mental retardation', 'Mental
Illness', 'Any Other' and 'Multiple Disability'.
• Literacy Status for "Other" sex added in addition to existing Male and Female.
• New Codes under Status of Attendance in Educational Institutions introduced for Not Attending viz., (i) Attended
before and (ii) Never attended.
• Work: Marginal workers have been classified into two categories viz., (i) worked for 3 months or more but less
than 6 months (ii) worked for less than 3 months. The definition of 'Main worker' remains the same.
• A separate code-5 has been included under Non-economic activity for renters.
• Migration - Provision to specify the present name of the Village/Town of the Birth Place as well as the Place of
Last Residence introduced.
• Name of the Institutional Household is also being recorded.

Number of Administrative Units in Census 2011

• State/Union Territories: 35
• Districts: 640
• Sub-districts: 5,924
• Towns: 7,938
• Villages: 6.41 Lakh

Census of India 2011 and Population of India 2011 at Glance

Population Statistics
Total Population 1,21,01,93,422 (persons)
Males 62,37,24,248
Females 58,64,69,174
Ratio 940 Females/1000 Males

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Decadal Growth(2001-2011) 18,14,55,986(17.64%)

Density of Population 382 per sq. km.
Literacy(in percent) Total; 74.04, Males: 82.14, Females: 65.46.

Population of India 2011 - Census India 2011 Demographic Statistics of India States
Sr. No. State Name/Union Territory Total Population Males Females
0 INDIA 1,21,01,93,422 62,37,24,248 58,64,69,174
1 Uttar Pradesh 19,95,81,477 10,45,96,415 16.49
2 Maharashtra 11,23,72,972 5,83,61,397 5,40,11,575
3 Bihar 10,38,04,637 5,41,85,347 4,96,19,290
4 West Bengal 9,13,47,736 4,69,27,389 4,44,20,347
5 Andhra Pradesh 8,46,65,533 4,25,09,881 4,21,55,652
6 Madhya Pradesh 7,25,97,565 3,76,12,920 3,49,84,645
7 Tamil Nadu 7,21,38,958 3,61,58,871 3,59,80,087
8 Rajasthan 6,86,21,012 3,56,20,086 3,30,00,926
9 Karnataka 6,11,30,704 3,10,57,742 3,00,72,962
10 Gujarat 6,03,83,628 3,14,82,282 2,89,01,346
11 Orissa 4,19,47,358 2,12,01,678 2,07,45,680
12 Kerala 3,33,87,677 1,60,21,290 1,73,66,387
13 Jharkhand 3,11,69,272 1,59,54,927 1,52,14,345
14 Assam 3,11,69,272 1,59,54,927 1,52,14,345
15 Punjab 2,77,04,236 1,46,34,819 1,30,69,417
16 Chhattisgarh 2,55,40,196 1,28,27,915 1,27,12,281
17 Haryana 2,53,53,081 1,35,05,130 1,18,47,951
18 Delhi 1,67,53,235 89,76,410 77,76,825
19 Jammu and Kashmir 1,25,48,926 66,65,561 58,83,365
20 Uttarakhand 1,01,16,752 51,54,178 49,62,574
21 Himachal Pradesh 68,56,509 34,73,892 34,73,892
22 Tripura 36,71,032 18,71,867 17,99,165
23 Meghalaya 29,64,007 14,92,668 14,71,339
24 Manipur 27,21,756 13,69,764 13,51,992
25 Nagaland 19,80,602 10,25,707 9,54,895
26 Goa 14,57,723 7,40,711 7,17,012
27 Arunachal Pradesh 13,82,611 7,20,232 6,62,379
28 Puducherry 12,44,464 6,10,485 6,33,979

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29 Mizoram 10,91,014 5,52,339 5,38,675

30 Chandigarh 10,54,686 5,80,282 4,74,404
31 Sikkim 6,07,688 3,21,661 2,86,027
32 Andaman and Nicobar 3,79,944 2,02,330 1,77,614
33 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 3,42,853 1,93,178 1,49,675
34 Daman and Diu 2,42,911 1,50,100 92,811
35 Lakshadweep 64,429 33,106 31,323

India Census 2011 - Literacy Rate of Population in Percent(%)

Sr. No. State/Union Territory Literacy Rate
0 INDIA 74.04
1 Kerala 93.91
2 Lakshadweep 92.28
3 Mizoram 91.58
4 Tripura 87.75
5 Goa 87.40
6 Daman and Diu 87.07
7 Puducherry 86.55
8 Chandigarh 86.43
9 Delhi 86.34
10 Andaman and Nicobar 86.27
11 Himachal Pradesh 83.78
12 Maharashtra 82.91
13 Sikkim 82.20
14 Tamil Nadu 80.33
15 Nagaland 80.11
16 Manipur 79.85
17 Uttarakhand 79.63
18 Gujarat 79.31
19 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 77.65
20 West Bengal 77.08
21 Punjab 76.68
22 Haryana 76.64
23 Karnataka 75.60
24 Meghalaya 75.48

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25 Orissa 73.45
26 Assam 73.18
27 Chhattisgarh 71.04
28 Madhya Pradesh 70.63
29 Uttar Pradesh 69.72
30 Jammu and Kashmir 68.74
31 Andhra Pradesh 67.66
32 Jharkhand 67.63
33 Rajasthan 67.06
34 Arunachal Pradesh 66.95
35 Bihar 63.82

Density of Population in India and States wise demograpic statistics

Sr. No. Name of State Density (persons / sq. km.)
0 INDIA 382
1 Bihar 1,102
2 West Bengal 1,029
3 Kerala 859
4 Uttar Pradesh 828
5 Haryana 573
6 Tamil Nadu 555
7 Punjab 550
8 Jharkhand 414
9 Assam 397
10 Goa 394
11 Maharashtra 365
12 Tripura 350
13 Karnataka 319
14 Andhra Pradesh 308
15 Gujarat 308
16 Orissa 269
17 Madhya Pradesh 236
18 Rajasthan 201
19 Chhattisgarh 189
20 Uttarakhand 189

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21 Meghalaya 132
22 Jammu and Kashmir 124
23 Himachal Pradesh 123
24 Manipur 122
25 Nagaland 119
26 Sikkim 86
27 Mizoram 52
28 Arunachal Pradesh 17

Note: high density to low density wise.

Density of Population in India and Union Territory demograpic statistics

Sr. No. Union Territory Density (persons / sq. km.)
0 INDIA 382
1 Delhi 11,297
2 Chandigarh 9,252
3 Puducherry (Pondycherry) 2,598
4 Daman and Diu 2,169
5 Lakshadweep 2,013
6 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 698
7 Andaman and Nicobar 46

Note: ordered in high density to low density.

State wise Population and Percent(%) of Total Indian Population as per India Cencus 2011
Sr. No. State/Union Territory Total Population Percent(%) of Total Population
0 INDIA 1,21,01,93,422 100
1 Uttar Pradesh 19,95,81,477 16.49
2 Maharashtra 11,23,72,972 9.29
3 Bihar 10,38,04,637 8.58
4 West Bengal 9,13,47,736 7.55
5 Andhra Pradesh 8,46,65,533 7.00
6 Madhya Pradesh 7,25,97,565 6.00
7 Tamil Nadu 7,21,38,958 5.96
8 Rajasthan 6,86,21,012 5.67

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9 Karnataka 6,11,30,704 5.05

10 Gujarat 6,03,83,628 4.99
11 Orissa 4,19,47,358 3.47
12 Kerala 3,33,87,677 2.76
13 Jharkhand 3,11,69,272 2.72
14 Assam 3,11,69,272 2.58
15 Punjab 2,77,04,236 2.29
16 Chhattisgarh 2,55,40,196 2.11
17 Haryana 2,53,53,081 2.09
18 Delhi 1,67,53,235 1.38
19 Jammu and Kashmir 1,25,48,926 1.04
20 Uttarakhand 1,01,16,752 0.84
21 Himachal Pradesh 68,56,509 0.57
22 Tripura 36,71,032 0.30
23 Meghalaya 29,64,007 0.24
24 Manipur 27,21,756 0.22
25 Nagaland 19,80,602 0.16
26 Goa 14,57,723 0.12
27 Arunachal Pradesh 13,82,611 0.11
28 Puducherry 12,44,464 0.10
29 Mizoram 10,91,014 0.09
30 Chandigarh 10,54,686 0.09
31 Sikkim 6,07,688 0.05
32 Andaman and Nicobar 3,79,944 0.03
33 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 3,42,853 0.03
34 Daman and Diu 2,42,911 0.02
35 Lakshadweep 64,429 0.01

NATIONAL POPULATION POLICY 2000

The National Population Policy, 2000 (NPP 2000) affirms the commitment of the Government towards voluntary and
informed choice and consent of citizens while availing of reproductive health care services, and continuation of the target
free approach in administering family planning services. The NPP 2000 provides a policy framework for advancing goals
and prioritising strategies during the next decade, to meet the reproductive and child health needs of the people of India,
and to achieve net replacement levels (TFR) by 2010. It is based upon the need to simultaneously address issues of child
survival, maternal health, and contraception, while increasing outreach and coverage of a comprehensive package of
reproductive and child health services by government, industry and the voluntary non-government sector, working in
partnership.

Census 2001
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Census 2001 in India

• Total Population : 1,02,87,37,436

Males : 532,223,090

Females : 496,514,346

• Population Growth : 21.54%

• Average Yearly Growth Rate : 1.93%
• Density of Population : 325
• Sex Ratio : 933
• Literacy Rate : 64.80%

Males : 75.30%

Females : 53.70%

• Life Expectancy : 62 years

• Child Population : 15.42%
• Scheduled Caste Population : 166,636,000
• Percentage of Scheduled Caste Population in Total Population : 16.20
• Scheduled Tribe Population : 84,326,000
• Percentage of Scheduled Tribe Population in Tot0al Population : 8.20
• Percentage of Urban Population in Total Population : 27.78

Growth of Population in India

Census Year Total Population Decadal Growth %

1901 23,83,96,327 -

1911 25,20,93,390 +5.75

1921 25,13,21,213 -0.31

1931 27,89,77,238 +11.00

1941 31,86,60,580 +14.22

1951 36,10,88,090 +13.31

1961 43,92,34,771 +21.64

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Census Year Total Population Decadal Growth %

1971 54,81,59,652 +24.80

1981 68,33,29,097 +24.66

1991 84,63,87,888 +23.86

2001 1,02,87,37,436 +21.54

• The year 1921 is called the Year of Great Divide, because after this census the population growth has always
been in the positive.

SI. No. State / UTs Population Decadal Growth Rate Sex Ratio Density % of Literacy 2001

2001 1981 - 1991 1991 - 2001 1991 2001 1991 2001 Total Male Female

1 Jammu & Kashmir 10143700 30.89 29.43 NA 892 77 100 55.5 66.6 43.0

2 Himachal Pradesh 6077900 20.79 17.54 976 968 93 109 76.5 85.3 67.4

3 Punjab 24385999 20.81 20.10 882 876 403 484 69.7 75.2 63.4

4 Chandigarh 900635 42.16 40.28 790 777 5632 7900 81.9 86.1 76.5

5 Uttaranchal 8489349 23.13 20.41 937 962 132 159 71.6 83.3 59.6

6 Haryana 21144564 27.41 28.43 865 861 372 478 67.9 78.5 55.7

7 Delhi 13850507 51.45 47.02 827 821 6352 9340 81.7 87.3 74.7

8 Rajasthan 56507188 28.44 28.41 910 921 129 165 60.4 75.7 43.9

9 Uttar Pradesh 166197921 25.61 25.85 876 898 548 690 56.3 68.8 42.2

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10 Bihar 82998509 23.38 28.62 907 919 685 881 47.0 59.7 33.1

11 Sikkim 540851 28.47 33.06 878 875 57 76 68.8 76.0 60.1

12 Arunachal Pradesh 1097968 36.83 27.00 859 893 10 13 54.3 63.8 43.5

13 Nagaland 1990036 56.08 64.53 886 900 73 120 66.6 71.2 61.5

14 Manipur 2293896 29.29 29.86 958 978 82 103 70.5 80.3 60.5

15 Mizoram 888573 39.70 28.82 921 935 33 42 88.8 90.7 86.7

16 Tripura 3199203 34.30 16.03 945 948 263 305 73.2 81.0 64.9

17 Meghalaya 2318822 32.86 30.65 955 972 79 103 62.6 65.4 59.6

18 Assam 26655528 24.24 18.92 923 935 286 340 63.3 71.3 54.6

19 West Bengal 80176197 24.73 17.77 917 934 767 903 68.6 77.0 59.6

20 Jharkhand 26945829 24.03 23.36 922 941 274 338 53.6 67.3 38.9

21 Orissa 36804660 20.06 16.25 971 972 203 236 63.1 75.3 50.5

22 Chhatisgarh 20833803 25.73 18.27 985 989 130 154 64.7 77.4 51.9

23 Madhya Pradesh 60348023 27.24 24.26 912 919 158 196 63.7 76.1 50.3

24 Gujarat 50671017 21.19 22.66 934 920 211 258 69.1 79.7 57.8

25 Daman & Diu 158204 28.62 55.73 969 710 907 1413 78.2 86.8 65.6

26 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 220490 33.57 59.22 952 812 282 449 57.6 71.2 40.2

27 Maharashtra 96878627 25.73 22.73 934 922 257 315 76.9 86.0 67.0

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28 Andhra Pradesh 76210007 24.20 14.59 972 978 242 277 60.5 70.3 50.4

29 Karnataka 52850562 21.12 17.51 960 965 235 276 66.6 76.1 56.9

30 Goa 1347668 16.08 15.21 967 961 316 364 82.0 88.4 75.4

31 Lakshadweep 60650 28.47 17.30 943 948 1616 1895 86.7 92.5 80.5

32 Kerala 31841374 14.32 9.43 1036 1058 749 819 90.9 94.2 87.7

33 Tamil Nadu 62405679 15.39 11.72 974 987 429 480 73.5 82.4 64.4

34 Pondicherry 974345 33.64 20.62 979 1001 1683 2030 81.2 88.6 73.9

35 Andaman Nicobar 356152 48.70 26.90 818 846 34 43 81.3 86.3 75.2

India (Total) 1028737436 23.87 21.54 927 933 267 325 64.8 75.3 53.7

Top Ten Population Countries - World Population and India

Country Percent(%) of World Population
China 19.4
India 17.5
USA 4.5
Indonesia 3.4
Brazil 2.8
Pakistan 2.7
Bangladesh 2.4
Nigeria 2.3
Russia Federal 2.0
Japan 1.9
Others 41.2

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Foreign Trade

Foreign Trade Policy

Export Performance and the Foreign Trade Policy (FTP)

In the wake of global economic slowdown, India’s merchandise exports faced significant adverse impact. Exports, which
had grown by 48.1% during April to September, 2008, suffered a decline during the next 12 months from October, 2008 to
September, 2009, due to the shrinkage of the demand worldwide and particularly the contraction in demand in the
traditional markets of our exports. In May, 2009, the exports declined by as high as 34.2% in US$ terms. The downward
trend was arrested from October, 2009 onwards and our exports ended up with an export figure of US$ 178.75 billion in
2009-10 against US$ 185.30 billion in 2008-09, which indicates an overall decline of 3.5% in dollar terms. The growth in
exports since October, 2009 can be attributed to growth in some sectors, but is primarily due to the lower base effect of
the exports in the corresponding months of previous financial year. This year, exports have registered a growth of about
27% in US$ terms and it is expected that we exceed the merchandise export target of US$ 200 billion by the end of 2010-
11.

Foreign Trade Policy, 2009-14

The Foreign Trade Policy (FTP), 2009-14 was announced on 27th August, 2009 in the backdrop of a fall in India’s exports
due to global slowdown. The immediate and the short term objective of the policy was to arrest and reverse the declining
trend of exports as well as to provide additional support especially to those sectors which were hit badly by recession in
the developed world. The Policy envisaged an annual export growth of 15 per cent with an annual export target of US $
200 billion by March 2011 and to come back on the high export growth path of around 25 per cent per annum in the
remaining three years of this Foreign Trade Policy i.e. up to 2014. The long term policy objective for the Government is to
double India’s share in global trade by 2020.

As an immediate relief, the Government provided a policy environment through a mix of measures including fiscal
incentives, institutional changes, procedural rationalization, and efforts for enhanced market access across the world and
diversification of export markets. Towards achieving these objectives, several steps were announced in the Policy. Some
of the important steps included addition of new markets under the Focus Market Scheme, coverage of Africa, Latin
America and large part of Oceania under Focus Market Scheme (FMS) and the Market Linked Focus Product Scheme
(MLFPS), increase in incentives available under the Focus Market Scheme from 2.5% to 3% and for Focus Product
Scheme (FPS) and MLFPS from 1.25% to 2%, introduction of EPCG Scheme at zero duty for specified sectors, and the
grant of additional duty credit scrip to status holders.

Thereafter, as promised in FTP, to continue regular interaction with stakeholders to maintain a close watch on the
performance of the policy in the field, a number of interactions were held with members of Board of Trade, Open Houses
with exporters and sectoral reviews with EPCs. Constant dialogues were held with all key stakeholders in industry and the
exporting community for sectoral assessment of exports at regular intervals. The first review was undertaken in December
2009 and thereafter in February 2010, which demonstrated that some sectors were still facing difficulties. Need-based
additional support measures were announced in January, 2010, March, 2010 and on 11th February, 2011 for certain
product groups / products.

The recovery has been fragile and economies around the world are still emerging out of the shadows of a grim
recessionary period. The IMF projections indicate that the world economy is recovering at varying speeds for different
regions. Though, there had been marginal improvement in some of the developed economies like US, UK, Germany,
France, Japan etc., the nervousness continued in the markets about the fiscal situation and sovereign indebtedness in
several high income countries of Europe. In this setting, it was expected that the developed countries would aim at
economic recovery through consolidation and export led growth, which would pose a challenge to Indian exporters in
accessing overseas markets for their products. The uncertainty surrounding Indian exporters’ prospects, therefore,

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continued to linger. Though the exports growth moved towards the positive trajectory from October, 2009 onwards, our
exports were not yet out of the woods.

Under this global situation of slow recovery, it was necessitated to take stock of the situation so as to make mid course
corrections. Accordingly, sectoral reviews were continued in the current financial year 2010-11, and the first such review
for 2010-11 was undertaken in July 2010. It was observed that despite the measures announced in the FTP and
additional support extended in January and March, 2010, some sectors continued to face difficulties. It was also realized
that there was a shroud of uncertainty continuing over the fragile nature of global economic recovery. Even as global
economic rebalancing had been proceeding apace, it was not going to be an easy patch for Indian exporters. In view of
resource constraints, it was not simply possible to sustain support to all sectors and there was need to calibrate the
support measures appropriately. On the other hand, exports of certain products had been placed under restriction in view
of domestic situation i.e. inflationary pressures and unemployment. It was also essential to be conscious of the need for
and the inevitability of fiscal consolidation. Keeping all these factors in mind and based on the sectoral review held in July,
2010, need based additional initiatives were undertaken in the Annual Supplement 2010-11 to FTP 2009-14, announced
on 23rd August, 2010. While emphasis on stability of policy regime was continued, additional measures were announced
to support exports particularly for the labour intensive sectors. In order to promote technological upgradation, zero duty
EPCG and Status Holder Incentive Schemes were expanded and validity extended. It will add to expansion and
modernization of production base at a time when investment is drying up in export industry.

A new facility of Annual EPCG authorization was introduced.

While exports have shown a rising trend during the last few months, certain sectors are still not out of woods. Further,
fragile economic recovery and consequent slower demand growth in the developed markets has necessitated greater
emphasis on improving the competitiveness of our exports. To access the export performance of various sectors, second
sectoral performance review was conducted during November-December, 2010. Accordingly, to enhance competitiveness
for products which are labour intensive, technology intensive and value added, further export incentives were undertaken
on 11th February, 2011 for more than 600 products for sectors viz. Agriculture, Chemicals, Carpets, Engineering,
electronics and plastics. In addition, as a continuing endeavor for procedural simplification and trade facilitation, a few
measures were taken.

Salient features of measures undertaken in FTP, 2009-14 and subsequent to it are given in FTP

Economic Terminology

Indian Economic Terminology

• Arbitration : A method for solving disputes, generally of an industrial nature, between the employer and his
employees.
• Annuity : A fixed amount paid once a year or at interval of a stipulated period.
• Ante Date : To give a date prior to that on which it is written, to any cheque, bill or any other document.
• Appreciation of Money : It is a rise in the value of money caused by a fall in the general price fall.
• Assets : Property of any kind.
• Balance of Trade (or Payment) : The difference between the visible exports and visible imports of two countries
in trade with each other is called balance of payment. If the difference is positive the balance of payment (BOP) is
called favorable and if negative it is called unfavorable.
• Balance Sheet : It is a statement of accounts, generally of a business concern, prepared at the end of a year,
showing debits and credits under broad heads, to find out the profit and loss position.
• Banker’s Cheque : A Cheque by one bank on another.
• Bank Rate : It is the rate of interest charged by the Reserve Bank of India for lending money to commercial
banks.

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• Black Money : It means unaccounted money, concealed income and undisclosed wealth. In order to evade taxes
some people falsify their account and do not record all transactions in their books. The money which thus remains
unaccounted for is called Black Money.
• Barter : To trade by exchanging one commodity for another.
• Bear : A speculator in the stock market who believes that prices will go down.
• Bearer : This term on cheques and bills denotes that any person holding the same has the same right in respect
of it, as the person who issued it.
• Bond : A legal agreement to pay a certain sum of money (called principal) at some future date and carrying a
fixed rate of interest.
• Bonus : It is in addition to normal payment of dividend to shareholders by a company, or an extra gratuity paid to
workers by the employer.
• Budget : An estimate of expected revenues and expenditure for a given period, usually a year, item by item.
• Budget Deficit : When the expenditure of the government exceeds the revenue, the balance between the two is
the budget deficit.
• Bulls : Speculators in the stock markets who buy goods, in some cases without money to pay with, anticipating
that prices will go up.
• Buyer’s Market : An area in which the supply of certain goods exceeds the demands so that purchasers can
drive hard bargains.
• Carat : Measure or weight of precious stones. 24 carat gold is the purest gold, thus 22 carat gold means a piece
of gold in which 22 parts are pure gold and 2 parts of an alloy, usually copper.
• Cartel : It is a combination of business, generally in the same trade formed with a view to controlling price and
enjoying monopoly
• Caution Money : It is the money deposited as security for the fulfillment of a contract or obligation.
• Call Money : Loan made for a very short period. It carries a low rate of interest.
• Credit, Letter of : A letter from a bank or a firm authorizing payment to a third person of a specific sum for which
the sender assumes full responsibility.
• Commercial Banks : Financial institutions that create credit accept deposits, give loans and perform other
financial functions. They create credit by creating deposits on the basis of their cash reserve ratio.
• Deflation : It is a state in monetary market when money in circulation has decreased and is characterized by low
prices, unemployment, etc.
• Depreciation : Reduction in the value of fixed assets due to wear and tear.
• Depression : A phase of the business cycle in which economic activity is at low ebb and there is mass scale
unemployment and underemployment of sources. Prices, profits, consumption, etc are also at a low level.
• Devaluation : Official reduction in the foreign value of domestic currency. It is done to encourage the country’s
exports and discourage imports.
• Direct Tax : Taxes that are directly borne by the person on whom it was initially fixed. e.g.: Personal income tax.
• Dividend : Earning of stock paid to share holders.
• Dumping : Sale of a commodity at different prices in different markets, lower price being charged in a market
where demand is relatively elastic.
• Exchange Rate : The rate at which central banks will exchange one country’s currency for another.
• Excise Duty : Tax imposed on the manufacture, sale and consumption of various commodities, such as taxes on
textiles, cloth, liquor, etc.
• Fiscal Policy : Government’s expenditure and Tax policy.
• Foreign Exchange : Claims on a country by another, held in the form of currency of that country. Foreign
exchange system enables one currency to be exchanged for another, thus facilitating trade between countries.
• Gross Domestic Product (GDP) : A measure of the total flow of goods and services produced by
the economy over a specific time period, normally a year. It is obtained by valuing output of goods and services at
market prices and then aggregating.

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• Indirect Taxes : Taxes levied on goods purchased by the consumer for which the tax payer’s liabilities vary in
proportion to the quantity of particular goods purchased or sold.
• Inflation : A sustained and appreciable increase in the price level over a considerable period of time.
• Laissez – faire : The principle of non – intervention of government in economic affairs.
• Mixed Economy : The economy in which there is a unique blend of public sector and private sector co – exist.
The perfect example is India.
• National Income : Total of all incomes earned or inputted to factors of productions, used in economic literature to
represent the output or income of an economy in a simple fashion.
• Per Capita Income : Total GNP of a country divided by the total population. It is often used as an economic
indicator of the levels of living and development. However, it is a biased index because it takes no account of
income distribution.
• Patents : It is an exclusive right granted under the Patents Act to the inventor for a new invention.
• Preference Shares : These are the shares entitled to a fixed dividend before any distribution of profits can be
made amongst the holders of ordinary shares or stock.
• Public Sector : A term which is generally applied to state enterprises, i.e., those companies which are
nationalized and run by the government.
• Recession : It happens when there is excess of production over demand.
• Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) : It is the ratio of cash in hand, exclusive of cash balances maintained by banks
to meet required CRR.
• Tariff (ad valorem) : A fixed percentage tax on the value of an imported commodity, levied at the point of entry
into the importing country.
• Value Added Tax (VAT) : A tax levied on the values that are added to goods and services turned out by the
producers during stages of production and distribution.
• Zero Based Budgeting (ZBB) : The practice of justifying the utility in cost benefit terms of each government
expenditure on projects. The ZBB Technique involves a critical review of every scheme before a budgetary
provision is made in its favor. If ZBB is properly implemented it could help to reverse the trend of large deficits on
the revenue account of the Union Government.

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SCIENCE & Technology

Basic Forces in Nature

Following Four Basic Forces operate in all natural processes:

1. Gravitation Forces
2. Weak Force
3. Electromagnetic Force
4. Strong Forces

1. Gravitation Forces

• It is the force of attraction between two masses.

• It is always attractive in nature; hence sometimes it is taken with negative sign.
• It is a long range force, i.e., it can extend up to infinity.

• It follows inverse square law i.e., F ∞ 1 / r2.

• It is assumed to be created by a particle called gravitation.
• It is central force and hence, it is conservative in nature.
• It is the weakest force.

2. Weak Force in Physics

a) It is the force associated with beta - decay in radioactivity.

b) During beta - decay, following reaction takes place.

1
0n β- + 1P
1
+ γ

Neutron Beta Particle Proton Antineutrino

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or Electron

Since, neutrino is a chargeless - massless particle, therefore during beta - decay, the electron and antineutrino interact with each other
through very weak forces.

c) Moreover, the leptons interact with Leptons, Baryons or Mesons through these weak forces.

3. Electromagnetic Force Physics

a) Force between two static charges is called electrostatic force.

b) A moving charge produces both magnetic and electric fields.

The charged particle moving in magnetic field experiences a force called electromagnetic force comprising of electrostatic as well as
magnetic forces.

c) Electromagnetic force bears following properties:

i. It may be attractive or repulsive in nature.

ii. It is created due to exchange of photons.
iii. It is long range force.
11 36
iv. It is 10 time stronger than weak forces and 10 times stronger than the gravitational force.
v. It is central and conservative force.

4. Strong Forces (Nuclear Force)

a. It is the force of nuclear origin.

b. It is basically attractive in nature.
-14
c. It is short range force and is operative only inside the nucleus (i.e., for distance = 10 m)
d. They are produced by the exchange of mesons between the nucleons (neutron & proton).
e. It is not a central force.
f. It is the strongest force acting in nature. The relative strengths of the gravitational force, the weak force, the electromagnetic
force and the strong nuclear force are :

Fg : Fw : Fe : Fn :: 1 : 1025 : 1036 : 1038

Computer Vision Syndrome (CVS).

Computer Vision Syndrome (CVS).

Recent studies have shown that about 85 per cent of computer users suffer from computer vision syndrome.

Computer Vision Syndrome (CVS) is a complex eye and vision – related problem associated with computer use. Recent
studies have shown that about 85 per cent of computer users suffer from this problem, possibly making it the silent
epidemic of the 21st century.

Hence it is important to know a few essential things about CVS.

Computer Vision Syndrome Symptoms

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The primary symptoms are eyestrain, blurred vision, dry and irritated eyes, tired eyes, and headaches. Neck and
backaches can also be related to the way we use our eyes at the computer.

Computer Vision Syndrome Causes

There are several reasons, but the most important reason is that the blink rate (16 / min) is reduced to about 1/3 the
normal rate. This leads to irritation, dryness, excessive tearing, burning, itching and redness.

Contact lens wearers also often experience problems with their contact lenses. In response, reflex tearing sometimes
occurs and floods the eyes with tears.

Computer Vision Syndrome Precautions

Use artificial tears to rewet and lubricate your eyes. Lower the computer screen so that the centre of the screen is four to
eight inches below your eyes. If seated in a draft or near an air vent, try to eliminate the flow of air past your eyes.

Low humidity or fumes aggravate a dry eye condition, so fix these if possible. Blink whenever you begin to sense eye
discomfort; close eyelids and roll eyes frequently.

While working on computers, use glasses with anti – reflection coating. These are advised for those wearing lens as well.

For those with presbyopia (glasses for reading after 40 years), the best solution is a lens that is specifically designed for
this purpose.

Because the eyes lead the body, the body will assume whatever position is required to enable your eyes to see
comfortably. The most optimum viewing distance is considered to be 20 – 28 inches.

Care for Eyes

Care of a person with CVS often requires an expanded case history, testing of the eyes or vision, or treatment since it
involves taking into consideration many aspects.

Perfect Computer Display

Flat panel (LCD) are better than cathode ray tube (CRT) displays since they do not flicker and the contrast is typically
higher. Optimal contrast and visibility are attained with black characters on a white background.

The size of the text should be three times the size of the smallest text you can read. Adjust refresh rate (flicker) as high as
possible, preferably 85 hertz or higher. For colour monitors, smaller dot pitches (less than 0.28 mm) are desirable.

Adjust the screen contrast so that the characters are clear. Reflections from your computer screen reduce the contrast
and make it difficult to see your work. If possible, remove the offending source of light – turn off the source, draw blinds.

Know the Best Lighting

Bright lights or other bright objects in your peripheral vision are uncomfortable and can contribute to eye and
musculoskeletal symptoms.

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• Try the following measures.

• Turn off the light that is bothering you.
• If window light is causing discomfort, draw blinds.Alter your workstation position so that bright overhead lights or
bright windows are not in your field of vision. If a desk lamp is causing discomfort, try turning if off and determine
whether you can still adequately see your work.
• Use a shield or partition to block bright lights.

Blurring of Vision

Intermittent blurring is caused by an inability of the accommodative mechanism to maintain a steady focus on near
objects.

This occurs when, after extended near work, the muscles remain fixed or somewhat locked in the near contracted
position, effectively making the eye myopic, taking a few seconds to focus on objects. Sometimes this can last for several
hours.

This can even affect driving and can be treated with Spectacles and Exercises. Eyelids flutter or twitch because the
muscle surrounding the eye is fatigued. Take periodic breaks, eliminate glares and consider an eye examination.

There is no way that screen and the keyboard can be optimally located with laptops and notebooks and extended work is
not recommended on these.

Electricity in Physics

Electron has a negative charge equal to -1.6 x 10-19 coulomb while the charge on a proton is exactly equal and opposite
to that on electron and is equal to +1.6 x 10-19 coulomb.

Charge can neither be created nor destroyed. This is known as law of charge conservation; charge conservation is
followed in nuclear reactors, electricity, electrification by friction, electrification by induction, etc.

For the electrification of a body only electrons are responsible.

If a body is negatively charged then it has an excess of electrons, while if a body is positively charged then it has a deficit
of electrons.

Good conductors are the substances which allow an easy flow of charge through them.

They have a large number of free e- in them. Best conductor of electricity is Ag. All metals are good conductors.

If a small charged conductor is placed inside another big and hollow charged conductor and the two are joined by a wire
then the charge flows from smaller conductor to bigger conductor because the potential of smaller conductor is more than
that of bigger conductor.

Fuse Wire

Fuse Wire is used in a circuit to control the maximum current flowing in a circuit. It is a thin wire having high resistance
and is made up of a material with low melting point.

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House Wiring circuits are in parallel therefore the voltage across each bulb is constant.

The filament of 60 W bulb is thinner than the filament of 100 W bulb.

If two bulbs, one of 60 W and the other of 100 W are connected in parallel, then 100 W bulb will glow more.

If two bulbs, one of 60 W and other of 100 W are connected in series, then the 60 W bulb will glow more, because in
series combination current through both the bulbs is the same and the Power consumed P = I²R or P ∞ R.

Now, since the resistance of 60 W bulb is more than the resistance of 100 bulb, the 60 W bulb will glow more.

In Series Resistance Circuit, it should be remembered that :

• The current is same in every part of the series circuit.

• The total resistance in the circuit is the sum of the individual resistances including internal resistance of the cell (if
any).
• Voltage across any part of a circuit is proportional to the resistance of that part
• Current in the circuit is independent of the relative positions of the various resistances in the series.

In Parallel Combination of Resistances, it should be remembered that :

• Total current through the combination is the sum of individual currents through the various branches
• The potential difference across all the resistances is the same.
• The current through each branch is inversely proportional to die resistance of that branch.
• The reciprocal of the total resistance of the combination is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
resistances.

• Resistivity of a conductor changes with impurity. The impurity increases the resistivity.
• Resistivity of an alloy is greater than the resistivity of its constituents.
• Resistivity increases with temperature.

Fluorescence and Phosphorescence

Fluorescence Physics :

There are certain substances which, on being illuminated by high – frequency light (blue, ultraviolet), emit light of relatively
low frequency.

The emission occurs so long the substance is being illuminated.

This phenomenon of emission of light is called ‘Fluorescence’ and the substances exhibiting this phenomenon are
called ‘Fluorescent Substances’.

Different substances give fluorescence of different colours (i.e., different frequencies).

For example, when violet or ultraviolet light is incident on quinine sulphate, it gives fluorescence of blue colour.

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Similarly, fluoricine, barium platinocynide and uranium oxide give green fluorescence.

Uses of Fluorescence :

Fluorescence has many applications in daily life.

For example, the presence of invisible ultraviolet rays can be detected by their fluorescent effect. Now – a – days,
fluorescence is used in the fluorescent tubes used for light purposes.

The inner surface of the fluorescent tube giving white light is painted with magnesium tungstate and zinc – berilium
silicate.

The mercury light produced by electric discharge in the tube has ultraviolet rays in large quantity.

When these rays fall on the paint of the wall, the magnesium – tungstate produces light blue fluorescence and the zinc –
berilium silicate produces yellow – orange fluorescence.

The mixture of these two produces white – light fluorescence. Similarly the tube painted with cadmium borate produces
pink light, whereas the tube producing green light with zinc silicate.

Phosphorescence Physics :

Fluorescent materials emit light only so long as light is incident on them.

There are certain substances which continue emitting light for some time after the light incident on them is stopped.

This phenomenon is called ‘Phosphorescence’, e.g., if we make blue light incident on a zinc – sulphide (ZnS) screen,
then it produces phosphorescence for some time.

Time of phosphorescence is different for different materials.

Uses of Phosphorescence :

Phosphorescent substances are painted on watch hands, electric switch – boards and sign – boards.

These substances absorb sunlight during day – time and illuminate during the dark night by phosphorescence.

Friction in Physics

Types of Friction Force

Static Friction

• The opposite force that comes into play when one body tends to move over the surface of another body but
actually motion has yet not started is called static friction.
• The magnitude of static friction is not constant; hence it is a self adjusting force.

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Limiting Friction

• As we increase applied force, a stage comes when the body is just at the verge of moving over the other, the
static friction at this stage is maximum. This maximum value of static friction is called limiting friction.

Rolling Friction

• When two bodies actually roll on each other (as in case of ball bearing), the rolling friction comes into play.

Sliding Friction

• When two bodies actually slide over each other, sliding friction comes into play.
• Rolling friction is always less then the sliding friction i.e.,

• When a person pushes the ground in backward direction, force of friction is in the forward direction.

• In cycling, rear wheel is pushed in backward direction and hence force of friction is in forward direction. Front
wheel moves by itself, hence force is in forward direction and therefore, the force of friction is in backward
direction.
• When pedaling is stopped, both the wheels move by themselves. So, force of friction is in backward direction.

• Rolling friction is always less than the sliding friction and hence it is easier to move a heavy object on rollers
rather than to slide it. This property can be attributed to the fact that in case of rolling friction, the area of contact
between the two surfaces is far less.

Gravitational Motion Physics

Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

Every planet revolves round the sun in an elliptical orbit with sun at one of the foci.

The line joining the sun to the planet sweeps out equal area in equal interval of time i.e., the area velocity is constant.

dA / dT = constant

The consequence of this theory is that the linear velocity is different at different places.

It is maximum at a place where the distance between the planet and the sun is minimum.

The orbital velocity is minimum when the distance between the planet and the sun is maximum.

2
The square of time period of revolution is directly proportional to the cube of average distance between the planet and sun T ∞ R3 or
the square of time period of revolution is proportional to the cube of semi - major axis of ellipse.

T2 ∞ a3

Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation

Every two objects in the universe attract each other.

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"The force of attraction is directly proportional to the product of masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
the two masses"

F ∞ m1 m 2 / r²
(or) F = G . m 1 m 2 / r²

where, G = universal gravitational constant.

-11 -2 -2
G = 6.67 x 10 N m kg

Acceleration Due to Gravity

When a body falls freely, then the increase in velocity per second is called acceleration due to gravity.

It is represented by g.

g = GMe / R²e

where, Me = mass of the earth,

Re = radius of the earth.

Value of g depends upon the radius of the earth as g ∞ 1/R.

So, value of g is maximum at poles and minimum at equator.

-2
Value of g at poles is greater than its value at equator by 1.80 cms

Variation in the Value of G With Height

• Value of g at the surface of the earth is 9.8 m/s²

• Value of g at the centre of earth is zero.
• Value of g at infinity becomes zero.
• If the body is taken inside the earth, acceleration due to gravity decreases linearly with the distance from centre of the earth.
• If the body is taken above the surface of the earth, acceleration due to gravity varies inversely as the square of the distance
from the centre of earth.
• If we go up to height of equal radius of earth then value of g becomes one fourth of the value of g at the earth.
• g is a vector quantity. Its direction is towards the centre of the earth. Its value is independent of the shape, size, mass, etc of
the body but depends upon mass and radius of the earth or planet due to which there is a gravity pull.
• The rate of decrease of the acceleration due to gravity with height is twice as compared to that with depth.
• The value of acceleration due to gravity is minimum at planet mercury and maximum at planet Jupiter.
• If gravity suddenly disappears :
i. All bodies will lose their weights.
ii. We shall be thrown away from the surface of earth due to centrifugal force.
iii. The motion of the planets around the sun will cease because centripetal force will not be provided.
iv. Motion of the satellite around earth will also be not possible as no centripetal fore will be provided.
• If the rate of rotation of earth increases, then the value of g decreases at all places except at the poles.
• If the earth starts rotating with an angular speed 17 times the present speed of rotation the object will fly off the equator (i.e., g
will be zero at the equator)
• If the observed value of g becomes zero at equator, then the length of the day will be 1.4 h.

Hydrostatics Physics

Archimede's Principle Physics

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According to the principle when a body (totally or partially) immersed in a fluid, it appears to lose a part of its weight and the apparent
loss of weight is equal to the weight of fluid displaced.

Apparent weight of body,

= Actual Weight of Body - Upthrust

= [mg - m / d x ρg]
= mg [1 - ρ / d]

where, d = density of body and

ρ = density of fluid.

Buoyant force depends on the density of the fluid and not on the density of body acting on centre of gravity of fluid.

Archimedes Law of Floatation

When a body is immersed in a fluid then if

a. The weight W of body is more than the up - thrust W' (W > W'), the body will sink.
b. The weight W of the body is equal to up - thrust W' (W' = W), the body floats with whole of its volume inside the liquid.
c. The weight (W < W'), the body will float with some of its part outside the liquid.

When a block of ice floats in a liquid having density greater then that of water, the liquid level rises when all the ice melts into water.

When an ice block floats in a liquid of density less than that of water, the liquid level falls when all the ice melts into water.

When an ice block floats in water the water level will remain the same when all the ice melts into water.

Memorable Points

• Normal atmospheric pressure is equal to 76 cm of height of mercury in the Barometer.

• If h is the barometric height for a liquid of density d, then,

hdg = 76 x 13.6 x g or h = 76 x 13.6 / d

• Relative Density,

= Density of Body / Density of Water at 4°C

• A pressure applied at any point of the fluid is equally transmitted in all the directions.

Inventions and Discoveries in Physics

Inventions and Discoveries in Physics.

Invention Year Inventor Country

Acetylene Gas 1862 Berthelot France

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Invention Year Inventor Country

Adding Machine 1642 Pascal France

Adhesive Tape, (Scotch) 1930 Richard Drew U.S.A

Aeroplane 1903 Orville & Wilbur Wright U.S.A

Air Conditioning 1902 Carrier U.S.A

Airplane, (Jet Engine) 1939 Ohain Germany

Airship (Non - Rigid) 1852 Henri Giffard France

Aerosol Spray 1926 Erik Rotheim Norway

Artificial Heart 1957 Willem Kolff Netherlands

Atomic Bomb 1945 J. Robert Oppenheimer U.S.A

Atomic Numbers 1913 Moseley Britain

[gads name="160x600" align="right" no="2"]

Invention Year Inventor Country

Atomic Theory 1803 Dalton Britain

Automatic Rifle 1918 John Browning U.S.A

Bakelite 1907 Leo H. Baekeland Belgium

Ballistic Missile 1944 Wernher von Braun Germany

Balloon 1783 Jacques & Joseph Montgolfier France

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Invention Year Inventor Country

Ball - Point Pen 1888 John J. Loud U.S.A.

Barometer 1644 Evangelista Torricelli Italy

Battery (Electric) 1800 Alessandro Volta Italy

Bicycle 1839 - 1840 Kirkpatrick Macmillan Britain

Bicycle Tyres (Pneumatic) 1888 John Boyd Dunlop Britain

Bifocal Lens 1780 Benjamin Franklin U.S.A

Bleaching Powder 1798 Tennant Britain

Bunsen Burner 1855 R. Willhelm von Bunsen Germany

Burglar Alarm 1858 Edwin T. Holmes U.S.A

Calculus 1670 Newton Britain

Camera, (Kodak) 1888 Walker Eastman U.S.A

Canned Food 1804 Appert France

Car (Steam) 1769 Nicolas Cugnot France

Car (Petrol) 1888 Karl Benz Germany

Carburetor 1876 Gottlieb Daimler Germany

Cassette, (Audio) 1963 Philips Holland

Cassette, (Videotape) 1969 Sony Japan

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Invention Year Inventor Country

Celluloid 1861 Alexander Parkes Britain

Cement (Portland) 1824 Joseph Aspdin Britain

Chemotherapy 1909 Ehrlich Germany

Chronometer 1735 John Harrison Britain

Cinema 1895 Nicolas & Jean Lumiere France

Clock (Mechanical) 1725 l-Hsing & Liang Ling - Tsan China

Clock (Pendulum) 1656 Christian Huygens Netherlands

Cloning, (DNA) 1973 Boyer, Cohen U.S.A

Cloning, (Mammal) 1996 Wilmut, et al U.K

Compact Disc 1972 RCA U.S.A

Compact Disc Player 1979 Sony, Philips Japan, Netherlands

Computer, (Laptop) 1987 Sinclair Britain

Computer, (Mini) 1960 Digital Corp U.S.A.

Crossword Puzzle 1913 Arthur Wynne U.S.A

CT Scan 1973 Hounsfield Britain

Diesel Engine 1895 Rudolf Diesel Germany

Disc Brake 1902 Dr. F. Lanchester Britain

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Invention Year Inventor Country

Disc, (Video) 1972 Philips Co Holland

DNA (Structure) 1951 Crick - UK, Watson - US, Wilkins - UK U.K / U.S

Dynamo 1832 Hypolite Pixii France

Electric Flat Iron 1882 H.W. Seeley U.S.A

Electric Lamp 1879 Thomas Alva Edison U.S.A

Electric Motor (DC) 1873 Zenobe Gramme Belgium

Electric Motor (AC) 1888 Nikola Tesla U.S.A

Electric Iron 1882 Henry W. Seely U.S.A

Electric Washing Machine 1906 Alva J. Fisher U.S.A

Electromagnet 1824 William Sturgeon Britain

Electron 1897 Thomson. J Britain

Electroplating 1805 Luigi Brugnatelli Italy

Electronic Computer 1824 Dr. Alan M. Turing Britain

Facsimile Machine 1843 Alexander Bain Britain

Floppy Disk 1970 IBM U.S.A

Frequency Modulation 1933 E.H. Armstrong U.S.A

Frisbee 1948 Fred Morrisson U.S.A

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Invention Year Inventor Country

Fountain Pen 1884 Lewis E. Waterman U.S.A

Galvanometer 1834 Andre-Marie Ampere France

Glider 1853 Sir George Cayley Britain

Gramophone 1878 Thomas Alva Edison U.S.A

Helicopter 1924 Etienne Oehmichen France

HIV 1984 Martagnier French

Holograph 1947 Denis Gason Britain

Hydrogen Bomb 1952 Edward Teller U.S.A

Intelligence Testing 1905 Simon Binet French

Jet Engine 1937 Sir Frank Whittle Britain

Laser 1960 Theodore Maiman U.S.A

Launderette 1934 J.F. Cantrell U.S.A

Lift (Mechanical) 1852 Elisha G. Otis U.S.A

Lighting Conductor 1752 Benjamin Franklin U.S.A

Milestone in Space Exploration

Year Countries that have Launched Satellites

1957 Sputnik - I and Sputnik - II of Russia, first two Earth - Orbiting Satellites; USA's Vanguard TV3 fails.

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Year Countries that have Launched Satellites

1959 Russia Launches Luna - I, first lunar fly - by and Luna - II, first lunar impact.

1961 Russia's first manned Earth orbiter Vostok - I carrying Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin.

1962 Mariner - II, first Venus fly - by of USA.

1964 Mariner - IV, first Mars fly - by of USA.

1965 Russia's Venera - III, first spacecraft to impact another Planet.

1966 Russia's Luna - IX, first spacecraft to land on the moon and Luna - X, first man - made satellite of the moon.

1967 Russia's Venera - IV, first spacecraft to transmit data from Venus's atmosphere.

1968 USA's Apollo - VIII, first manned lunar orbiter.

1969 USA's Apollo - X, manned lunar orbiter and Apollo - XL first manned lunar landing; Neil .Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin become the first cosmonauts
to land on moon.

Year Countries that have Launched Satellites

1970 USA's Apollo - XIII, spacecraft returns after malfunctioning; Russia's Venera - VII, first Venus lander and Luna - XVII (Lunokhod - I), first lunar
rover.

1971 Russia's Mars - II, first Mars orbiter and first mission to impact Mars; Mars - III, first Mars lander.

1972 USA's Pioneer - X first Jupiter fly - by.

1973 USA's Pioneer - XI, first Saturn fly - by; Mariner - X uses the gravitational pull of Venus to reach Mercury.

1975 Russia's Venera - IX, first Venus orbiter and USA's Viking - I, Mars orbiter and lander.

1976 USA's Helios - II reaches closest to Sun.

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Year Countries that have Launched Satellites

1977 Voyager - II of USA flies by Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.

1981 USA's space shuttle STS - 1, First Space Shuttle Flight.

1985 Japan's Sakigakc, Comet Bailey fly - by.

1989 USA's Galileo, first Jupiter orbiter and first atmospheric probe of the Planet.

1990 USA's Bubble Space Telescope Observatory in space 600 km above Earth's Surface.

1995 ESA's SOHO (Solar Heliospheric Observatory), Solar OBSE.

1996 USA's NEAR, first near - Earth asteroid rendezvous mission; Mars Pathfinder, first Mars Rover.

2001 USA's Genesis, first mission to collect solar wind sample.

2005 USA's Messenger, Mercury orbiter, expected to return in 2011.

2006 USA's New Horizons and Pluto - Kupito Belt Probe; Stereo Solar orbiter.

2007 USA's Phoenix, Mars Polar Lander; Japan's Selene, Lunar Orbiter and USAs Dawn, Asteroids Orbiter.

SRO launch Vehicles

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) added yet another achievement to its list by the successful launch of the
PSLV – C7 from

Magnetic Material

Magnetic Material.

On the basis of Magnetic Properties, different materials have been classified into three categories :

• Diamagnetic
• Paramagnetic
• Ferromagnetic

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Diamagnetic

Diamagnetic substances are those in which the individual Atoms / Ions / Molecules do not possess any net magnetic
moment on their own.

These are feebly magnetized in a direction opposite to that of the magnetizing field in which they are placed, e.g.,
Bismuth, Antimony, Copper, Gold, Quartz, Mercury, Water, Alcohol, Air, Hydrogen etc.

Paramagnetic

Paramagnetic substances are those in which each individual Atom / Molecule / Ion has a net non-zero magnetic moment
on its own.

These are weakly magnetized in the direction of the magnetizing field in which they are placed, e.g., Al, Pt, Cr,
manganese, crown glass, O2 etc.

Ferromagnetic

Ferromagnetic substances are those in which each individual Atom / Molecule / Ion has a non – zero magnetic moment
on its own.

These are magnetized strongly in the direction of the magnetizing field in which they are placed.

They show all the properties of paramagnetic substances to a much greater degree.

At certain temperature, ferromagnetic passes over to paramagnetic.

This transition temperature is called Curie temperature.

For soft iron Curie temperature is 1000 K. e.g., iron, cobalt, nickel, and a number of their alloys.

Motion in One Dimension Physics

Mechanics can be divided into 2 Parts :

(A) Statics :

Which deals with the study of stationary objects

(B) Dynamics :

Which deals with the study of moving objects

Terms Regarding Motion

Displacement

The change in position of the body in a certain direction is known as displacement. It is a vector quantity.

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Distance

The total path transversed by the body between initial and final states is called distance. It is a scalar quantity.

Displacement may be positive, negative or zero but distance is always positive.

Velocity

Time rate of change of displacement is called velocity.

Velocity (v) = Displacement (x) / Time (t)

It is a vector quantity and may be positive or negative.

Average Velocity = Total Displacement / Total Time

Average velocity is zero, if the body returns to starting point in the given time interval.

If the body covers first half distance with velocity V1 and next half with velocity V2, then

Average Velocity = 2 V1*V2 / V1+V2

If a body travels with uniform velocity V1 for time t1 and with uniform velocity V2 for time t2, then

Average Velocity = V1t1 + V2t2 / t1+t2

Speed

It is a scalar form of velocity and is defined as the distance traveled in 1s.

If the body covers a distance d in time t, then

v = d / t (or) Average Speed = Total Distance / Total Time

If the body covers first half distance with speed u and next half with speed v, then

Average Speed = 2uv / u+v

Acceleration

Time rate of change of velocity is known as acceleration.

It is a vector quantity. If ∆ v is the change in velocity in time ∆t, then

α=∆v/∆t

Negative acceleration is known as retardation. It indicates that the velocity of the object is decreasing with respect to time.

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Acceleration is uniform when neither its direction nor magnitude changes with respect to time.

Nuclear Physics

The nucleus of an atom consists of two types of particles - protons and neutrons.

The total number of protons in the nucleus is called atomic number (Z).

The total number of nucleons (proton or neutrons) in the nucleus is called its mass number (A).

If N is number of neutrons then,

A=Z+N

Binding energy of a nucleus is the energy with which nucleons are bound in the nucleus.

It is measured by the work required to be done to separate the nucleons an infinite distance apart from the nucleus so that they may not
interact with each other.

Nuclear Fission Physics

It is the phenomenon of splitting a heavy nucleus into two or more smaller nuclei.

235 141
92U + 0n¹ 56Ba + 36Kr92 + 30n¹ + Q

where, Q = 200 MeV (nuclear energy)

Nuclear reactor uses nuclear energy for peaceful purpose. It is based on phenomenon of controlled nuclear chain reaction.

Moderators like heavy water; graphite and deuterium slow down neutrons. Rods of cadmium or boron serve as control rods. Ordinary
water and heavy water serve as coolants.

Nuclear Fusion Physics

It is the phenomenon of fusing of two or more lighter nuclei to form a single heavy nucleus.

Mass defect in the process appears as energy.

4
41H¹ 2He + 2 (+1e0) + 26.7 MeV

Example Hydrogen bomb.

Hydrogen Bomb Physics

It is based on the phenomenon of nuclear fusion and was made in 1952 by American scientists.

The central core of a hydrogen bomb is a uranium (or plutonium) fission bomb which is surrounded by a compound of heavy hydrogen,
like lithium hydride (LiH2).

When the fission bomb is exploded, it produces such a high temperature and pressure that the heavy - hydrogen nuclei come extremely
close and fuse together, liberating - huge energy.

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Memorable Points

• Rutherford (1911), discovered nucleus by the scattering of α - particles from gold foil.

• Nucleus contains almost all the mass and all the positive charge of the atom.

-15
• The nucleus is spherical in shape and its volume is nearly 10 times the volume of atom.

• The sum of number of proton and number of neutrons is called mass number; Neutron was discovered by Chadwick in 1932.

• Neutron is slightly heavier than proton.

• Since, neutron is neutral; it does not ionize the gas and hence does not produce any track in the Wilson Cloud Chamber.

• Penetrating power of neutrons is very high and it can penetrate through the nucleus of an atom. That is why neutron is
responsible for the nuclear fission.

• Owing to the small size of nucleus, Fermi (F) is found to be convenient unit of length :

1 Fermi (F) = 10-15 m

• Density of the nuclei of all the atoms is same, as it is independent of mass number.

• Lighter elements have equal, or nearly equal, number of protons and neutrons in their nuclei.

• As we go to heavier elements, the number of neutrons compared with the number of protons increases progressively. The
number of neutrons is 20% larger in iron and 50% larger in uranium.

The excess of neutrons over protons in the heavier nuclei is due to the fact that the protons repel each other electro -
statically, and as such their relative number must be reduced in order to secure the stability of the nucleus.

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• The nuclei for which Z (number of protons) is greater than 82 are unstable and undergo radioactive decay.

• Relative strength of the gravitational, coulomb's and nuclear force is,

Fg : Fc : Fn : 1 : 1036 : 1038

• The minimum mass of uranium needed to sustain chain reaction is called critical mass. Critical mass of uranium is 10 kg.

• All the neutrons produced during fission cannot cause fission. Some of them escape out of the material.

• To form atom bomb two or more pieces of uranium or plutonium are used. The mass of each piece is less than the critical
mass but combined mass is more than the critical mass. In controlled chain reaction only one neutron causes further fission.
The rate of reaction remains constant.

7 8
• Fusion takes place at high temperature of 10 or 10 °C. The pressure required is also high.

• Fusion is possible only where there is an abundance of lighter elements.

• At high temperatures Carbon - Nitrogen cycle takes place in which four hydrogen nuclei fuse together to form a helium
nucleus. In this reaction carbon and nitrogen act as catalysts.

• The first nuclear reactor was made by Fermi who used U235 as fuel.

• The size of a fission bomb cannot be increased beyond a limit because in it the fissionable substance is kept in two pieces,
and the size of each piece should be less than the critical size.

There is no such restriction on the size of hydrogen bomb. The substance to be fused may be taken in it in any quantity. Once
the fusion is initiated, it can spread throughout any mass of the substance. Therefore, a fusion bomb is much more destructive
than the fission bomb.

Photoelectric Effect Physics

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Photons

These are the packets of energy which are emitted by a source of radiation.

They travel in straight line with speed same as that of light with energy

E = hv.

Physics Photoelectric Effect

It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of metals when light radiations of suitable frequency fall on
them.

The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons and the current so produced is called photoelectric current.

Applications of Photoelectric Cells

The most important application of photoelectric call is in the reproduction of sound in cinema, television and
phototelegraphy (long transmission of pictures in very short time).

The temperature of celestial bodies is measured and their spectra are studied by using these cells.

Automatic Doors

These cells are used in opening and closing of doors automatically.

In Automatic switches for street lights.

Electric Eye

The electric eye is also called the thief-detector bell. It is used for giving theft – warning in banks, treasuries etc.

Complexion Meters

The photoelectric cells may be used to compare dark, whitish and white faces.

The light reflected from the face is allowed to fall on the photoelectric cell and the current produced is measured.

Whiter the face more is the reflected light and more will be the current produced by the cell.

Thus the current is a measure of the face complexion.

Space

Photoelectric cells are also used in obtaining electrical energy from sunlight during space travel.

Memorable Points

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• Electrons of different kinetic energies are emitted from the metal surface even if the light of single frequency is
allowed to fall on the metal plates.
• The reason is that the electrons coming from interior of metal lose some of their energy in colliding with the
positive ions.
• The electrons emitted from the metal surface have maximum kinetic energy.

Physics of Surface Tension

Surface tension is that property of liquids owing to which they tend to acquire minimum surface area.

If F is the force acting on length I then surface tension:

T=F/l

Cohesive and Adhesive Forces

• Cohesive forces are the forces of attraction acting between molecules of same substance. The liquids for which
cohesive forces are large do not wet the walls of the vessel e.g., mercury. Surface tension forces arise due to
cohesive forces.
• Adhesive forces are the forces of attraction acting between the molecules of different substances. If adhesive
forces are greater than cohesive force then the liquid wets the walls of the vessel e.g., water wets the walls of a
glass – capillary.

Effect of Temperature on Surface Tension

• The surface tension is zero at boiling point. Moreover the, surface tension vanishes at critical temperature.
• When a large number of drops combine to form a big drop then the energy will be liberated because the surface
area decreases.
• When a big drop is broken into large number of small drops then energy is absorbed because the surface area
decreases.
• A molecule in the surface of liquid possesses more potential energy than a molecule in the interior of a liquid.
• A steel needle maybe made to float on the surface of liquid due to surface tension force.
• Addition of detergent to a liquid decreases the angle of contact and hence the surface tension also decreases.
• If a bubble is formed inside a liquid, the pressure inside the bubble is more than the pressure outside the bubble.

Radioactivity in Physics

Hendry Becquerel (1896) observed that a photographic plate blackened, when placed near double sulphate of potassium and uranium.

He further observed that uranium emitted special kind of Rays. They were called Becquerel Rays.

Pierre and Marrie Curie observed that the radiation from pitchblende was four times stronger than uranium.

210 226
In 1898, they finally discovered two new substances - Polonium(84Po ) and Radium (88Ra )

These newly discovered substances were called radioactive substances and this property of these substances was named radioactivity.

Many more radioactive substances were discovered later on.

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Schmidt and Curie (1898) discovered Thorium and Debierne (1899) discovered Actinium

Radioactivity is exhibited by elements of high atomic weight (Z > 82) where nuclei are unstable and break up of their own accord into
simpler elements giving out radiation.

The process is spontaneous i.e., it can neither be started, stopped, accelerated nor retarded under any physical circumstances.

Properties of Radioactive Substances

• They affect a photographic plate like light or X-Rays.

• They penetrate through matter, the thickness depending upon the nature of radiations and source.
• They ionize the gas through which they pass.

Nature of Radioactive Rays

Rutherford (1902) studied the effects of electric and magnetic fields on the radioactive Rays emitted by different radioactive substances.

He kept a radioactive substance in a thick walled lead box and subjected an electrostatic field to the radioactive Rays emerging from a
narrow opening in the box.

He also studied the behaviour of these radiations in magnetic field.

He observed that radioactive Rays or particles are three types.

(1) Alpha Rays (α - Rays) : Rays which are deflected towards the negative plate are called alpha Rays.

Properties of α - Rays

i. α - particles carry double the positive charge of proton and are four times as heavy.
ii. α - particles produce fluorescence in substance like zinc sulphide and barium platinocyanide.
iii. α - particles are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
iv. α - particles get scattered while passing through metal foils.
v. α - particles affect a photographic plate.
vi. α - particles can produce artificial radioactivity in certain elements and can produce nuclear reaction.
vii. α - particles may cause burns on human body.
viii. On being stopped α - particles produce heating effect.

(2) Beta Rays (β - Rays) : Rays which are deflected towards the positive plate are called beta Rays.

Properties of β - Rays

i. β - particles can easily through a few mm thick aluminium foil.

ii. The range of β - particles in air is several meters
iii. β - particles can also produce fluorescence in materials like zinc sulphide and barium platinocyanide.
iv. β - particles are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
v. β - particles are affect a photographic plate.
vi. They can produce artificial radioactivity.

(3) Gamma Rays (γ - Rays) : Rays which go undeflected by the electric field are called Gamma Rays.

Properties of γ - Rays

i. They are electromagnetic waves and move with velocity of light.

ii. They are highly penetrating.
iii. They can produce fluorescence in a substance like willemite.
iv. They can affect photographic plate
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v. They are not deflected by electric and magnetic field.

vi. They knock out electrons from the surface on which they fall.
vii. Hard γ - Rays are used in radiotherapy.

No radioactive substance emits both α and β - particles simultaneously.

Some substances emits α - particles while some other emits β - particles. γ - Rays are emitted along with both α - and β - particles.

Sody - Fajan's Displacement Law

i. When a radioactive atom emits an α - particle (mass 4 and charge 2e), it is converted into another element of atomic number
two less and atomic weight four less than that of the parent element and thus the place of the new atom is two groups lower in
the periodic table.

-α
226 222
88Ra 86RaEm

ii. When a radioactive atom emits a β - particle (mass - 0, charge - e) it is converted into a new element of atomic number one
greater than the parent element but of the same atomic weight as the parent substance and thus its place is shifted one group
higher in the periodic table. These are isotopes.

-β
234 234
90U 91U

Carbon Dating

It is used to find the age of earth and old civilizations in archaeology. This method is developed by Libby.

14
7N + 0n1 6C
14
+ 1H1

14 14.
The half - life of C is 5730 yr and it emits a β - particle of 0.155 MeV transforming itself back in N

The age is calculated by the formula :

N = N0e-λx

where N0 is 153 disintegrations / min / g of carbon.

Reflection in Physics

Reflection in Physics

When the two mirrors are placed parallel to each other then,
n = (360 / zero) = ∞ (infinite)

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The least size of the mirror required is half the height of the observer.

The least size of the mirror required is one – third the height of the wall of a room in which an observer at the centre of the
room can see the full image of the wall behind him.

If the image is erect and of the same size as the object and it appears to be formed behind the mirror, the reflecting
surface is plane.

If the image is erect and formed behind the mirror but diminished in size for all positions of the mirror, the mirror must be
convex.

If the image is erect, formed behind the mirror and enlarged, then the mirror is concave.

The image can be seen from any position, provided the line joining the eye to the image cuts the surface of the mirror.

Twilight is an example of diffused reflection of sunlight from clouds, dust particles and other floating particles in the air.

Convex mirror always form virtual image smaller than the object.

If the mirror moves by a distance a towards or away from the object, the image will also move by distance 2a in same
phase.

If the object is displayed a distance a towards or away from the mirror, then the image will be displayed by a distance a
towards or away from the mirror.

A fish inside the water cannot see the entire surface. It sees only a circular path of radius r.

This fact is based on total internal reflection.

Refraction at a Plane Surface

When a ray of light passes from one medium to other it suffers a change in direction at the boundary of separation of two
media.

This phenomenon is called refraction.

When a ray of light travels from one medium to another the wavelength and velocity of light change but the frequency
does not change.

If v1 and v2 are the velocities of light in two media and λ1 and λ2 are the corresponding wavelengths in these media then,
v1 / λ1 = v2 / λ2

Twinkling of Stars

The refractive index of atmosphere changes with height. Even at the same level the refractive index of air varies
periodically.

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The rays of light from a star are sometimes concentrated at a point when it appears bright; next moment the concentration
of rays decreases and the star appears faint, the planets being nearer, the amount of light received from them is greater
and so, the variation of brightness is not appreciable.

Memorable Points

• When a light ray travels from denser to rarer medium, it deviates away from normal while if it is traveling from
rarer to the denser medium, it is deviated towards the normal.
• Refractive index is the optical property of the medium.
• Refractive index of vacuum is one while the refractive index of air is 1.0003, but for simplicity it is taken to be one.
• At sunset and sunrise, sun appears above horizon while actually it is below horizon, due to atmospheric
refraction.
• Rivers appear shallow, coin in a beaker filled with water appears raised, pencil appears broken, due to refraction.
• The duration of day appears to be increased by nearly 4 min. due to atmospheric refraction.
• Brilliance of diamonds is due to their high refractive index, low critical angle and hence easy total internal
reflection.
• The air bubbles in glass paperweight appear silvery white due to total internal reflection.
• A test tube blackened from outside appears silvery white due to total internal reflection when dipped in water.
• Dispersion takes place because the light rays of different colours are deviated at different angles, so an angular
separation is produced between them.
• If the lens is immersed in a medium having refractive index more than that of lens, then the nature of the lens
changes, i.e., convex behaves as concave and vice – versa. The focal length of the lens may increase, decrease
or even remain the same.
• If the lens is immersed in a medium having refractive index equal to that of the lens, then

• The lens becomes invisible.

• The lens behaves as a plane glass plate.
• The focal length becomes infinite.

• An air bubble in water behaves as a concave lens.

• The nearest distance up to which eye can see clearly is called least distance of distinct vision. For normal eye this
distance is 25 cm.

Optical Instruments Physics

Telescopes and microscopes are the aids to increase the apparent size of objects by increasing visual angle.

Very distant objects (such as sun and moon), although very big in size appear very small because they subtend very
small visual angle at the eye.

To see them bigger, we cannot decrease their distance.

But if with the help of proper lenses, a small image of the distant object be formed close to the eye then its image will
subtend a large visual angle at the eye and the object will appear large. Telescope is based on this principle.

Very small objects subtend small visual angle due to their smallness.

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We can increase the visual angle by bringing these objects closer to the eye, but we cannot do so beyond a certain limit
(25cm) because then the objects will not be seen distinct.

If with the help of proper lenses, a large image of small object is formed, then this image will subtend a large visual angle
at the eye and the object will appear large. Microscope is based on this principle.

List of Scientific Instruments

Instrument Use

Altimeter It measures altitudes and is used in aircrafts

Ammeter It measures strength of electric current (in amperes)

Anemometer It measures force and velocity of wind.

Audiometer It measures intensity of sound.

Audio - Phone It is used for improving imperfect sense of hearing.

Barograph It is used for continuous recording of atmospheric pressure.

Barometer It measures atmospheric pressure.

Binocular It is used to view distant objects.

Bolometer It measures heat radiation.

Calorimeter It measures quantity of heat.

Carburetor It is used in an internal combustion engine for charging air with petrol
vapour.

Instrument Use

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Instrument Use

Cardiogram It traces movements of the heart, recorded on a cardiograph.

Chronometer It determines longitude of a place kept onboard ship.

Cinematography It is an instrument used in cinema making to throw on screen and enlarged image of photograph.

Crescograph It measures the growth in plants.

Cyclotron A charged particle accelerator which can accelerate charged particles

to high energies.

Dynamo It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Dynamometer It measures electrical power.

Electrometer It measures electricity.

Electroscope It detects presence of an electric charge.

Endoscope It examines internal parts of the body.

Eudiometer Glass tube for measuring volume changes in chemical reactions between gases.

Fathometer It measures the depth of the ocean.

Galvanometer It measures the electric current of low magnitude.

Hydrometer It measures the specific gravity of liquids.

Hygrometer It measures humidity in air.

Hydrophone It measures sound under water.

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Instrument Use

Kymograph It graphically records physiological movements (Blood pressure and heart

beat).

Lactometer It determines the purity of milk.

Manometer It measures the pressure of gases.

Mariner's Compass It is an instrument used by the sailors to determine the direction.

Microphone It converts the sound waves into electrical vibrations and to magnify
the sound.

Microscope It is used to obtain magnified view of small objects.

Odometer An instrument by which the distance covered by wheeled vehicles is measured.

Phonograph An instrument for producing sound.

Photometer The instrument compares the luminous intensity of the source of light.

Periscope It is used to view objects above sea level (used in sub - marines).

Potentiometer It is used for comparing electromotive force of cells.

Pyrometer It measures very high temperature.

Radar It is used for detecting the direction and range of an approaching plane
by means of radio microwaves.

Rain Gauge An apparatus for recording rainfall at a particular place.

Radiometer It measures the emission of radiant energy.

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Instrument Use

Refractometer It measures refractive index.

Saccharimeter It measures the amount of sugar in the solution.

Seismograph It measures the intensity of earthquake shocks.

Salinometer It determines salinity of solution.

Sextant This is used by navigators to find the latitude of a place by measuring the elevation above the horizon of the sun
or another star.

Spectrometer It is an instrument for measuring the energy distribution of a particular

type of radiation.

Speedometer It is an instrument placed in a vehicle to record its speed.

Sphygmomanometer It measures blood pressure.

Spherometer It measures the curvatures of surfaces.

Stereoscope It is used to view two dimensional pictures.

Stethoscope An instrument which is used by the doctors to hear and analyze heart
and lung sounds.

Stroboscope It is used to view rapidly moving objects.

Tachometer An instrument used in measuring speeds of aero - planes and motor boots.

Teleprinter This instrument receives and sends typed messages from one place to another.

Telescope It views distant objects in space.

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Instrument Use

Theodolite It measures horizontal and vertical angles.

Thermometer This instrument is used for the measurement of temperatures.

Thermostat It regulates the temperature at o particular point.

Viscometer It measures the viscosity of liquids.

Voltmeter It measures the electric potential difference between two points.

Scientific Explanations

Scientific Explanations

It is dangerous to sleep in an unventilated room with fire burning inside because the fire produces carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide gases. Carbon monoxide is poisonous and can cause death.

The filament of an electric bulb is made of tungsten because it has a high melting point and can be heated to a high
temperature to emit light.

Water kept in an earthen pitcher becomes cold because the pitcher has minute pores on its surface which absorb water.

Water in the pores evaporates when it comes in contact with air, and produces a cooling effect.

A sliced apple, when exposed to air, turns brown after some time as it contains iron which gets oxidized and gives the fruit
a brownish colour.

The freezing compartment inside a refrigerator is at the top because the air in contact with it becomes cold and heavy and
sinks downwards, cooling the rest of the compartment.

A copper vessel left in the air for a long time turns green. This is due to the formation of copper carbonate when copper
reacts with carbon dioxide and moisture present in the air.

A wick in a stove keeps burning continuously as kerosene rises in the wick due to capillary action.

The Earth rotates on its axis from west to east. This rotation makes the Sun and the stars appear to be moving across the
sky from east to west.

The sky appears blue because the light of the Sun is spread or scattered by the dust particles in the air. In space the sky
would appear black as there are no dust or air particles to scatter the light.
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Food is cooked quickly in a pressure cooker because the boiling point of water increases at high pressure. Food cooks
faster at high temperature.

In mountainous regions, the atmospheric pressure is less than it is at sea level. Water, therefore, boils at a lower
temperature (less than 100° C) and food takes more time to cook.

When ice floating in a glass of water melts, the level of water remains unchanged because as a solid, ice displaces an
equal volume of water.

A man weighs more at the poles than at the equator because the polar radius of the Earth is less than the equatorial
radius. Hence the gravitational pull is more at the poles than at the equator.

Standing in double – decker buses, particularly on the upper floor, is not allowed because on tilting, the centre of gravity of
the bus gets changed and it is likely to overturn.

The boiling point of seawater will be more than the boiling point of pure water because the former contains salt and other
impurities.

An ordinary clock loses time in summer because the length of its pendulum increases, and therefore, its time period also
increases. The pendulum takes more time to complete each oscillation and thus loses time.

Whenever there is water loss from the body, secretion of saliva is reduced resulting in dryness of the mouth and
stimulating the sensation of thirst. Intake of fluid then helps in restoring the loss of the water.

A swimmer just out of the river feels cold particularly if it is windy, because of the evaporation of water from his body
surface. The evaporation is more on a windy day.

Alcohol is sometimes rubbed on the body of a person suffering from fever. As soon as it is applied on the body, it
evaporates taking away some heat from the body.

Since evaporation has a cooling effect, the body temperature can be reduced by rubbing alcohol.

Soft iron is used as an electromagnet because it remains a magnet only while the current passes through the coil around
it and loses its magnetism when the current is switched off.

The person jumping out of a moving train is carried forward in the direction of the train because the person himself is in
motion sharing the velocity of the train and will continue in its state of uniform motion unless it exercises some force to
prevent it (Newton’s first law of motion).

A lightning conductor is fixed to tall buildings to protect them from the destructive effects of the lightning.

An electric bulb makes a bang when it is broken because there is a vacuum inside the electric bulb; when the bulb is
broken air rushes in at great speed from all sides to fill the vacuum. The rushing of air produces a noise generally referred
to as the ‘bang’.

A small space is left between each set of two rails of railway line to allow for their expansion in summer.

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A bad egg floats in water because the up-thrust produced on account of displaced water, by the immersed portion of the
bad egg is greater than the weight of the egg.

Moisture gathers on the outer surface of a glass tumbler containing cold water) because the water vapours present in the
air get cooled and appear as droplets of water on coming in contact with the cold surface of the glass tumbler.

The launching of Earth satellites should be from a place near the equator to take the fullest advantage of the Earth’s
movements.

The regions of the Earth closer to the equator are moving faster through space as compared to regions elsewhere.

Thus at the equator, rockets would start off with a speed of nearly 1600 km/hour. Further, rockets are usually fired in the
direction of the Earth’s rotation.

In deserts, day temperatures are very high and night temperatures are extremely low because the specific heat of sand is
very low.

It, therefore, absorbs the heat readily and its temperature rises by a large degree during the day.

At night sand radiates the heat equally readily, making the temperature low.

If you are sweating, you will feel cooler on a hot day than on a cooler moist day because on a hot dry day the perspiration
gets evaporated quickly producing more cooling effect.

The air escaping from a punctured tyre feels cold because the air escaping from a punctured tyre enters a region of low
pressure from high pressure and thus suffers a fall in temperature.

White roof keeps the house cooler in summer than black roof because white roof reflects more and absorbs less heat rays
whereas black roof absorbs more and) reflects less heat rays.

It is hotter on a cloudy night than on a clear night because clouds prevent the heat radiated by the Earth from escaping
into the sky.

Ice wrapped in a blanket does not melt away quickly because woolen blanket is a bad conductor of heat.

A rose appears red when day light falls on it because it absorbs all the constituent colours of white light except red, which
it reflects to us.

Grass appears dark in blue light because it has the property of absorbing all other colours except its own colour.

The blue rays falling on the grass are absorbed by it and hence it appears dark in colour.

A group of soldiers on a bridge are advised not to walk in steps because their movement causes the bridge to vibrate.

It they walk in step the frequency of vibration may match the natural frequency of the bridge structure, thereby causing
resonance. This resonance of frequency can cause the bridge to collapse.

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When the wind is blowing at high speed, the roofs of the hutments are sometimes blown away.

The pressure at the top falls much below the pressure below the roof.

This difference in pressure across the roof causes it to be blown away.

Human breath is visible in winter but not in summer because in winter air is cold and so water vapours present in the
human breath condense, making it visible.

Steam causes more severe burns than boiling water because steam at the same temperature has more latent heat which
causes more severe burns than boiling water at the same temperature.

It is not advisable to wash a clinical thermometer with boiling water because the boiling point of water is much above the
maximum provided in the clinical thermometer.

As a result, pressure from undue expansion of mercury may break it.

The face turns red when one feels hot and turns blue when one feels cold.

This is because in the first case the blood rushes towards the skin to get cooled, and in the second case it rushes away
from the skin to keep itself warm.

A petrol fire cannot be extinguished by pouring water over it because of the high temperature of burning petrol the water
breaks up into hydrogen and oxygen which only helps in burning.

Further, petrol being lighter than water, floats on water and continues to burn.

We experience difficulty in breathing on mountains because the pressure of the air outside is less as compared to the
pressure of air inside the lungs.

If a highly corked glass bottle full of water is left out of doors on a frosty night it will burst because the water contained in
the bottle will freeze on a frosty night and convert into ice.

There is no room available for the increased volume and this may result in bursting of the bottle.

Water extinguishes fire because as it evaporates, the temperature of the burning body is lowered, thus retarding or
stopping the burning action.

Also the resulting vapour surrounds the burning substance cutting off the oxygen supply thus inhibiting the burning
process.

In fact, hot water will extinguish fire more quickly than cold water as hot water will vaporize faster.

A perspiring man feels relief when air floats by his side because the flow of air increases the rate of evaporation of
perspiration from the body.

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Water from a hand pump is warm in winter and cold in summer because in winter outside temperature is low and in
summer outside temperature is higher as compared to the temperature of water obtained from underground which
remains practically unchanged due to Earth being bad conductor of heat.

A thick glass tumbler often cracks when very hot liquid is poured into it because the inner surface of the thick glass
tumbler coming in contact with the hot liquid expands more in comparison with the outer surface which has relatively lower
temperature.

This unequal expansion of inner and outer surfaces causes the tumbler to crack.

When a gun is fired at a visible distance, the sound is heard a little after the smoke is seen because the velocity of light is
much higher than that of sound.

A train stops when the chain is pulled because of the following mechanism.

When the chain is pulled, one small valve gets opened and air enters to the under side of the piston head of the brake
cylinder through pipe connections.

Initially there is vacuum on both top and bottom side of the piston head.

When air enters the under side of the piston head, the piston raises up due to difference of pressure and pulls the brake
thus stopping the train.

Thermometry Physics

Thermometry Physics

Measurement of temperature is called Thermometry Physics.

Temperature is the thermal condition of the body which determines the direction of flow of heat, hence we can say the
degree of hotness or coldness is known as temperature.

Temperature Scale

One of the fixed points in the freezing points of water is known as ice point or lower point.

The other fixed point is the boiling point of water and known as steam point or upper point.

A Thermometer may be Graduated in following Scales :

• The upper and lower points of Centigrade scale are 100°C and 0°C and the fundamental interval is 100°C.
• The upper and lower points of Fahrenheit scale are 212°F and 32°F and fundamental interval is 180°.
• The upper and lower points of Reaumur scale are 80°R and 0°R and fundamental interval is 80°.
• The upper and lower points of Kelvin scale are 373 K and 273 K and the fundamental interval is 100°.
• The upper and lower points of Rankine scale are 672°Ra and 460°Ra and the fundamental interval is 212°.

Relation between different Temperature Scales :

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C / 100 = F – 32 / 180 = R / 80

C/100= K – 273 / 100 = Ra – 460 / 212

Note :

The exact value of absolute zero is 273. 16K.

Triple Points of Water

A substance is found to exist in three states : solid, liquid and gas.

For each substance there is a set of temperatures and pressures at which any two of the three states of the substance
may coexist in equilibrium.

This temperature is called triple point of the substance.

Triple point of water has coordinates 0.0075°C temperature and 4.58 mm pressure.

Memorable Points

• The temperature at which centigrade and Fahrenheit thermometers read the same is -40°C. The temperature at
which Fahrenheit and Kelvin scale read the same is 574.25.
• The temperature at which Fahrenheit and Reaumur scale read the same is -25.6.
• The temperature at which Celsius and Reaumur scale read the same is zero.

Transmission of Heat

Transfer of Heat

Heat can transferred by the following 3 ways :

1. Conduction Heat Transfer :

In this process heat transferred without bodily movement of the particles of medium.

2. Convection Heat Transfer :

In this process heat is transferred by the bodily movement of particles of the medium due to difference in densities of
different parts of the medium.

3. Radiation Heat Transfer :

Quickest way of transmission of heat is known as radiation.

In this mode of heat transmission heat is transferred from one place to another without effecting the intervening medium.

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Mercury though a liquid, is heated by conduction and not by convection.

All liquids and gases are heated by convection. Heat comes to us from the sun by radiation.

Perfectly Black Body

Perfectly black body is that which neither reflects nor transmits the radiations falling on it, inspite of it the black body
absorbs all radiations falling on it and hence it appears black.

It is clear that, when heated, the black body will radiate all the energy absorbed by it.

Memorable Points
All metals are good conductors of heat. Silver is the best conductor.

• Good conductors of heat are good conductors of electricity. Mica is an exception which although being a good
conductor of heat and a bad conductor of electricity.
• Cooking utensils are provided with wooden or ebonite handles, since wood or ebonite is a bad conductor of heat.
• In winter, wooden chair appears hotter than the metal one because metal is a good conductor of heat while wood
is a bad conductor of heat.
• Convection takes place in liquids and gases but not in solids.
• In a room, ventilators are provided at ceiling, to escape the hot air by convection.
• Principle of chimney used in the kitchen or a factory is based on the convection.
• Land and sea breezes are due to the convection.
• Temperature of the upper of the flame is more then the temperature on the sides, because the currents of air
carry the heat upwards.
• Dull black surfaces are good emitters and good absorbers while they are bad reflectors.
• Highly polished surfaces are bad absorbers and bad emitters but they are good reflectors.
• If a thermous flask containing tea is shaken vigorously, temperature of the tea rises because of increase in
internal energy.
• If the door of refrigerator is kept open, it will not cool the room, it will increases the temperature of the room
because heat rejected by the refrigerator to the room will be more than the heat taken by the refrigerator from the
room.
• If heat rejection portion of the refrigerator is outside the closed room, the opening of refrigerator door will cool the
room gradually.

Latent Heat Physics

It is defined as the amount of heat absorbed or given out by a body during the change of state. It is of two types :

(1) Latent Heat of Fusion

The latent heat of fusion of a substance is quantity of heat required to change unit mass of solid substance from solid
state to liquid state.

The latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 cals.

(2) Latent Heat of Vaporization

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• It is the quantity of heat required to change unit mass of liquid substance from liquid to vapour state while
temperature remaining constant.
• The latent heat of vaporization of water is 536 cals.
• Latent heat of vaporization is maximum at 0°C and decreases on increasing temperature.
• Latent heat of vaporization of water decreases on increasing pressure or we may say that the latent heat of
vaporization decreases with increase in boiling point.
• Ice of 0°C feels colder than water at 0°C.
• Hot water (100°C) burns are less serve than steam burns (100°C), because steam has high latent heat.
• Melting point decreases on adding impurity.
• The melting point of solids which contract on melting decreases with increase in pressure e.g., ice and cast iron.
These solids float on their corresponding liquid.
• The melting point of solids which expand on melting, increase with increase in pressure e.g., wax, glass, gold etc.,
• Boiling point increases on adding impurity.
• Boiling point increases on increasing pressure.
• Cooling a liquid below freezing point without turning it to a solid is called super – cooling. Water can be super –
cooled to temperature as low as -12°C.
• Heating a liquid above its boiling point without converting it vapour state is called super – heating. Water can be
heated up to 137°C without boiling.

Uniform Circular Motion Physics

"When a body moves such that it keeps equal distance from the axis of rotation, then the motion of the body is called circular motion."

Centripetal Force Physics

Centripetal Force acting towards the centre on a particle executing uniform circular motion is called centripetal force and is given by,

F = mv²/r = mrω² = 4 π²rn²m

[v = rω, ω = 2πn]

Centripetal force always acts on the particle performing circular motion.

Without centripetal force there can be no circular motion.

Examples :

1. When a car turns, it requires centripetal force.

2. Centripetal force acts on the earth, moving round the sun.

3. Electrons moving round the nucleus require centripetal force.

4. Cyclist bends his body towards the centre on a turn while turning.

Centrifugal Force Physics

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• The pseudo force that balances the centripetal force in uniform circular motion is called centrifugal force.

• Centrifugal force is directed away from the centre along the radius.

• Although centrifugal force is equal and opposite to the centripetal force yet it is not the reaction of centripetal force because
reaction cannot exist without action while centrifugal force can exist without centripetal force.

Memorable Points

• The physical quantities which remain constant for a particle moving in circular path are speed, kinetic energy, angular
momentum.

• On unbanked curved roads the minimum radius of curvature of curve for safe driving is r = v2 / µg, with where v is speed of
vehicle and µ is coefficient of friction.

Units of Measurement Physics

Quantity Unit (SI)

Length Metre

Time Second

Mass Kilogram

Area Square metre

Volume Cubic metre

Velocity Metre / second

Acceleration Metre / Second Square

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Quantity Unit (SI)

Density Kilogram / Metre Cube

Momentum Kilogram Metre / Second

Work Joule

Quantity Unit (SI)

Energy Joule

Force Newton

Pressure Pascal or Newton / Square Metre

Frequency Hertz

Power Watt

Weight Newton or Kilogram

Impulse Newton - Second

Angular velocity Radian / Second

Viscosity Poise

Surface tension Newton / Square Metre

Heat Joule

Temperature Kelvin

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Quantity Unit (SI)

Absolute temperature Kelvin

Resistance Ohm

Electric current Ampere

Electromotive force Volt

Electrical conductivity Ohm / Metre

Electric Energy Kilo Watt hour

Electric Power Kilo Watt or Watt

Magnetic Intensity Orsted

Charge Coulomb

Magnetic induction Gauss

Luminous flux Candela

Intensity of Sound Decibel

Power of lens Dioptre

Depth of Sea Fathom

Units of Physics

List of Physics Units

Fundamental Physics Units

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S No Unit Quantity

1. Metre Length

2. Kilogram Mass

3. Second Time

4. Kelvin Temperature

5. Ampere Electric Current

6. Candela Luminous Intensity

7. Mole Amount of Substance

Supplementary Units

S No Unit Quantity

1. Radian Plane Angle

2. Steradian Solid Angle

Fundamental Physics Units

• Important SI Units of Physics

• Newton : Force
• Joule : Work done
• Watt : Power
• Coulomb : Quantity of Electricity
• Volt : Potential difference
• Ohm : Electrical Resistance
• Farad : Capacitance
• Henry : Inductance
• Lumen : Luminous Flux
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Some Important Units of Long Distances

• Light year = Distance traveled by light in vacuum in one year = 9.46 x 1015 m ~ 1016 m.
• 1 Parsec (Parallactic second) is the distance corresponding to a parallex of one second of arc, 1 Parsec = 3.08 x
1016 m = 3.26 light years.

Some Important Units of Short Distances

• 1 micron (1 µ) = 10-4 cm, 10 -6 m

• 1 Angstrom (1 Å) = 10 -8 cm, 10 -10 m
• 1 Fermi (1F) = 10 -13 cm, 10 -15 m
• 1 x U = 10 -11 cm, 10 -13 m

Well Known Indian Scientists.

Aryabhatta :

He lived between 476 and 520 A.D. He was a great mathematician and an astronomer. His contributions include about
the movement of earth around the Sun, determination of various physical parameters of various celestial bodies, such as
diameter of Earth and Moon.

He laid foundations of algebra and pointed out the importance of zero. The first Indian satellite was named after him.

Bhagavantam :

His contribution to radio astronomy and cosmic rays in noteworthy. An associate of Sir C.V.Raman, Dr.S.Bhagavantam
was scientific adviser in the Ministry of Defence and Director General of Defence Research Development Organisation.

Bhaskaracharya :

Born in 1114 A.D., bhaskaracharya was a great Hindu mathematician and Astronomer. His work ‘Sidhanta Siromain’
consists of two parts of mathematics and two parts of astronomy. He had a foresight on the modern theory of conventions.

S.S. Bhatnagar :

A great Indian Scientist who lived between 1895 and 1955. He was the first Director General of Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research. Under his directorship, many research laboratories were established throughout India.

J.C.Bose :

He was an eminent Physicist and Botanist. He founded Bose Research Institute, Calcutta. He invented Crescograph and
lived between 1858 and 1937.

S.N. Bose :

He became well – known when he expounded the Bose Einstein theory which deals with the detection of a group of
nuclear particles – named after him ‘Boson’. His contribution to Planck’s Law is laudable. He died in 1974.

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Dr. S.Chandrasekhar :

An Indian – born American, who won Nobel Prize for Physics in 1983. He is an Astrophysicist. His theory of Stellar
Evolution – the birth and death of stars is 35 years old. His first discovery was laughed at.

After three decades, it was recognised and today he is a Nobel Laureate. According to his theory, the old stars just
collapse and disappear in the light of denser stars of low light popularly called Chandrasekhar Limit.

Charaka :

He lived between 80 and 180 A.D. He was a court physician of King Kanishka. His writings on Hindu Medicine are
invaluable.

Dhanvantri :

He was a great physician during the period of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. His period was between 375 and 413 A.D.

Hargobind Khorana :

He created an artificial gene and deciphered genetic code. He was awarded Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1968.

Homi J.Bhaba :

He largely contributed to the development of Atomic Physics and he was primarily responsible for setting up of Nuclear
reactors in India. He published important papers on Quantum Theory, Cosmic Rays, Structure of atom, etc. He was the
first Chairman of Atomic Energy Commission. He died in a plane crash in 1966 over Alps.

Joshi :

Prof. S.S.Joshi’s works on Physical and Chemical Reaction under Electrical Discharge on Active Nitrogen, Colloids,
Hydrogen Peroxide are Noteworthy.

Nagarjuna :

A great Buddhist Philosopher and Chemist. He mentioned about Crecibles, Sublimation, Colouring Process etc. His works
are still available in China and Tibet. His theory on extraction of copper and metallic oxides are mention – worthy.

Nag Chowdhury B.D : An eminent Indian Nuclear Physicist known all over the world.

Narlikar :

J.V.Narlikar was the co – author of Hoyle – Narlikar theory of continuous creation which supplies missing links in
Einstein’s theory of Relativity. Hoyle and Narlikar have shown that the gravitation is always attractive and there is no
gravitational repulsions.

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Raja Ramanna :

A great nuclear scientist, who was instrumental to stage India’s first Nuclear explosion at Pokharan range in 1974.

Sir C.V. Raman :

First Indian Scientist to receive Nobel prize for physics in 1929 for his invention ‘Raman Effect’. His study of crystal
structure is of unique importance. He founded Raman Research Institute at Bangalore.

Sir C.P.Roy :

Author of ‘Hindu Chemistry’. He founded Indian Chemical Society and Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. He has
done good work on nitrous acid and its salts. He lived between 1861- 1944 AD.

Prof. V.Ramachandra Rao :

Direction of Indian Scientific Satellite Project (ISSP) at Peenya near Bangalore

Saha Dr.Maghnad :

Late Palit Prof.of Physics, University College of Scientific and Technology, Calcutta University well – known for his
researches in Nuclear Physics, Cosmic Rays, Spectrum Analysis and Other Branches of Theoretical Physics. He lived
from 1893 to 1956.

Srinivas Ramanujam :

A mathematical wizard, contributed much to number theory, theory of partitions and theory of continuous fractions. He
lived between 1887 to 1920 AD. His birth centenary was celebrated in 1987.

Satish Dhavan :

He was chairman of Indian Space Research Organisation. He was instrumental to take India into space age by launching
Aryabhatta in 1975.

Susruta :

A fourth century Hindu Surgeon and Physician. He had written an important book on medicine and on medical properties
of garlic.

Varahamihira :

An Indian astronomer and astrologer of 6th Century A.D. He was a mathematician and philosopher. He was one of the
nine gems of Vikramaditya.

Work Power and Energy in Physics

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Work Power and Energy in Physics.

Work in Physics

Whenever a force acting on a body displaces it, work is said to be done.

If a force F acting of the body displaces it by a distance s in the direction of force die work done is given by,
W = F.s (or) W = |F||s|cosθ

If θ < 90°, work done is positive and if θ > 90° it is negative.

Work done does not depend on the path followed and time taken.

In SI system units of work are joule and in CGS system the units of work are ergs.
1 joule = 107 erg

Positive Work Physics : If θ is acute (θ < 90°), work done is positive.

Examples:

• When body falls freely under gravity, θ = 0, and work done is positive.
• When a lawn roller is pulled by applying a force along the handle at an acute angle, work done by applied force is
(+) ve.
• When a spring is stretched or when a gas filled in a cylinder filled with moving piston is allowed to expand, work
done is positive.

Negative Work Physics : If θ is obtuse (θ > 90°), work done is negative.

Examples :

• When a body is thrown up, its motion is opposed by gravity; θ between F and s is 180°.
• When a body is moved over a rough horizontal surface, the motion is opposed by the force of friction. Work done
by the friction force is negative.
• When brakes are applied to a moving vehicle.
• When a positive charge is moved closer to another positive charge.

Zero Work Physics : If θ is right angle (θ = 90°), work done is zero.

Examples :

• When we fail to move a heavy stone because s-> = 0.

• Coollie carrying some load on his head on a horizontal platform θ = 90°.
• Person carrying a briefcase moves on a horizontal road.
• Tension in the string of simple pendulum is always perpendicular to the displacement of the bob, hence it is zero.

Kinetic Energy Physics

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• Capacity of doing work is known as the energy.

• KE of the body is equal to the work done by the body before coming to rest.

K = 1/2 mv² and W = ∆K

• When the speed of the body is constant there is no change in kinetic energy and the work done by the resultant
force is zero, e.g., in uniform circular motion.
• Work and Energy have same units.
• Kinetic energy and potential energy are called mechanical energy.

Power

• It is defined as the time rate of doing work.

• If an agent does work W in time t then average power is,

P = W/t = F.s/t = F.v = |F||v|cosθ

• It is a scalar quantity.
• SI units of power is watt and is also measured in horse power.
• 1 HP = 746 W (watt)

Potential Energy

• Potential energy is the energy possessed by the body by virtue of its position, configuration or any condition of
stress or strain.
• Gravitational potential energy of the body at a height h = mgh
• When work is done on the system, potential energy increases and when work is done by the system, potential
energy decreases.

Examples:

• When spring is compressed, work is done on the spring in compressing, so PE increases.

• Work is done in stretching a spring, so PE increases.
• When two dissimilar charges are brought near each other, they attract each other; work is done by the field, so
PE decreases.
• Work is done by us in taking a body against gravitational field, so PE decreases.
• Air bubble rises up in water because of up-thrust, PE decreases.
• When two protons are brought towards each other they repel each other being similar charges, work is done by
us in bringing them close, so PE increases.

Law of Conservation of Energy

It states that the total energy remains constant in any process i.e., it may neither be created nor destroyed.

KE + PE + other forms of energy = constant

If conservative forces are acting on a body, then,

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KE + PE = constant i.e., the loss of PE is equal to the gain in KE.

Einstein Relation

According to Einstein, mass can be converted into energy and energy can be converted into mass. One can be obtained
at the cost of the other.

The equivalence between mass and energy is expressed in terms of Einstein relation:

E = mc²

Where m is the mass that disappears, E is the energy that appears and c is the velocity of light in vacuum (c = 3 x 108;
m/s).

X-Rays in Physics

X-Rays in Physics.

X-Rays are Electromagnetic Radiations having wavelength from a fraction of an Angstrom to about 100 Å.

They were discovered by Roentgen during his studies on the electrical discharge phenomena in gases – he found that an
unknown radiation was produced when electrons collided with the walls of the tubes.

Properties of X-Rays

• They ionize the material through which they pass.

• They affect photographic plates in the same manner as visible light
• They cause fluorescence in certain chemical compounds like zinc sulphide
• They penetrate matter and are absorbed as they pass through it.

Memorable Points

For the production of X-Rays, it is essential to keep high order vacuum in the tube so that the electrons emitted by the
filament do not collide with the gas atoms before they reach the target.

Because if the electrons strike the atoms of the gas they will lose their energy by ionizing the gas, and the positive ions so
produced will be attracted towards the filament and damage it by collision.

When some information is required about patient’s stomach by X-Rays, then the patient is administered some heavy –
atom substance (like barium sulphate solution).

Heavy atoms diffract X-Rays sufficiently. So, those parts of the stomach where this solution goes are photographed on the
plate.

This enables direction of some stone etc, in those parts.

The parts, where this solution does not reach, are not clearly photographed.

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This shows that there is some obstruction in the path of the solution.

Chemistry Science
Atomic Structure of an Element

Atomic Structure of an Element.

In 1809, Dalton suggested that atom is the smallest particle of the element and it is indivisible.

But in the beginning of 20th century Rutherford, J.J. Thomson etc. suggested that atom is divisible and made up of
electrically charged particles.

Electron

The electron is a fundamental particle of an atom which carries a unit negative charge.

It was discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897.

Proton

It is a fundamental particle of an atom carrying a unit positive charge.

It was discovered by Rutherford and Goldstein in 1886.

Neutron

It is a fundamental particle of an atom carrying no charge.

It was discovered by Chadwick in 1932.

Charge and Mass of Fundamental Sub – Atomic Particles

Particle Charge Mass Discovered by

Symbol

kg amu

Electron -1 9.10939 x 10-31 0.000548 e, -1e 0 J.J. Thomson

Proton +1 1.672 x 10-27 1.007276 p, 1H¹ Rutherford

Neutron 0 16.74793 x 10-27 1.008665 n, 1n¹ Chadwick

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Properties of Cathode Rays

• They travel in straight lines

• They cast shadow of solid objects placed in their path.
• They cause mechanical motion i.e., they consists of material particles.
• They carry -ive charge.
• These rays are deflected when magnetic field is applied on them.
• They produce heating effect.
• They cause ionization of gas through which they pass.
• They produce green fluorescence on the glass walls of the discharge, tube as well as on certain other substances
such as zinc suplhide.
• They effect the photographic plates.
• They have penetrating power.
• The ratio of charge / mass (i.e., e / m) = 1.76 x 108 coulombs / g.

Properties of Anode Rays

• They travel in straight lines, however, their speed in much less than that of cathode rays.
• They are made up of material particles.
• They are positively charged.
• They deflect in electric and magnetic field.
• The ratio of charge / mass is found to be different for the particles constituting anode rays when different gases
are taken inside the discharge tube.

Properties of Nucleus

• Nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons which are collectively known as nucleons.
• The forces that bind the electrons to the nucleus are electrical or coulombic in nature.
• Density of nucleus is enormous and is of order of 1014 g/cm.
• Instability of the nucleus is due to high neutron proton ratio.
• The radius of the nucleus is around 5 x 10-13 cm (5 Fermi).

Atomic Number (Z)

Atomic number of an Element.

= Total No. of protons present in the nucleus = Total No. of Electrons present outside the nucleus. (or)

Z=p=e

Mass Number (A)

Mass Number = Number of Protons + Number of Neutrons

A = p + n (or) A = z + n

Representation

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Mass Number =>A

Atomic Number =>ZX

11 35
e.g., 23 Na, 17 Cl and so on

Alloys in Chemistry

Name Composition Use

Brass Cu (60 to 80%), Zn (40 to 20%) For making household utensils

Bronze Cu (75 to 90%), Sn (25 to 10%) For making coins, idols, utensils

German Silver Cu (60%), Zn (25%), Ni (15%) For making utensils

Magnelium Mg (5%), Al (95%) For making aircraft frame

Rolled Gold Cu (90%), Ni (10%) For making cheap ornaments

Monel metal Cu (70%), Ni (30%) For making alkali resistant containers

Bell metal Cu (80%), Sn (20%) For making bells

Gun metal Cu (85%), Zn (10%), Sn (5%) Used for engineering purposes

Solder Sn (50-75%), Pb (50-25%) Soldering of metals

Duralium Al (95%), Cu (4%), Mg (0.5%), Mn (0.5%) In aircraft manufacturing

Steel Fe (98%), C (2%) For making nails, screws, bridges

Stainless Steel Fe (82%) Cr, Ni (18%) For making cooking utensils, knives

An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals.

Basic Concepts of Chemistry

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Basic Concepts of Chemistry.

Chemistry is the branch of science which deals with the study of matter, its physical and chemical properties, the physical
and chemical changes which it undergoes and the energy changes that accompany these processes.

Matter : Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.

It can be changed from one form to another or into energy but can never be completely destroyed.

Elements of Chemistry

An element is a substance which can neither be broken nor built from two or more simple substances by any physical or
chemical method.

Or in other words an element is a pure substance which contains only one kind of atom, e.g., Fe (Iron), Na (Sodium) etc.

Types of Chemistry Elements

• Metals
• Non – Metals
• Metalloids

Compounds of Chemistry

A compound is a pure substance which contains more than one kind of element or atom in fixed proportion by weight e.g.,
NaCl (Sodium chloride), SO2 (Sulphur dioxide), etc.

Types of Chemistry Compounds

• Organic Compounds
• Inorganic Compounds

The properties of a compound are completely different from those of its constituents.

Mixtures in Chemistry

A material containing two or more elements or compounds in any proportion is a mixture. It can be separated into its
constituents, e.g., Air, Milk, Paints, Cements etc.

Types of Mixtures in Chemistry

Homogeneous : A mixture is said to be homogeneous if its composition is uniform throughout.

Heterogeneous : A mixture is said to be heterogeneous if its composition is not uniform.

The properties of a mixture are the properties of its constituents. A mixture with definite boiling point is known as
azeotropic mixture.

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Separation of Mixtures in Chemistry

• Sublimation : In this process, a solid substance passes directly into its vapours on application of heat, and when
vapours are cooled, they give back the original substance, e.g., iodine, napthalene, benzoic acid etc.
• Sedimentation and Decantation : This method is used when one component is liquid and the other is insoluble
solid.
• Crystallization : This method is based on the difference in solubility of the various compounds in a solvent, e.g.,
mixture of KNO3 and NaCl can be separated by this process.
• Filtration : It is used for quick and complete removal of solid suspended particles from a liquid (or gas) by
passing the suspension through a filter.
• Evaporation : In this method the solution is heated so that the solvent vaporises to give the solute (solid
substance) e.g., salt can be obtained from salt solution.
• Distillation : A mixture of two substances, only one of which is volatile, can be separated by this process, e.g.,
NaCl can be separated from water by distillation.
• Fractional Distillation : This process is used if both the components of a mixture are volatile. It is based on the
difference of boiling points, e.g., the various fractions of crude petroleum can be separated by this process.
• Steam distillation : It is used to separate a liquid (should be immiscible with water) from a mixture by heating
with steam, e.g., lemon oil, toluene, nitrobenzene etc.
• Mechanical Separation : Two immiscible liquids can be separated by using a separatory funnel e.g., oil and
water.
• Magnetic Separation : Two solids one of which is magnetic substance can be separated by this method.
• Atmolysis : In this process a mixture of gases can be separated based on their rates of diffusion, e.g., Isotopes
of uranium (U235 and U238) are separated by converting them into gaseous UF6.
• Chromatography : This is the most versatile separation method which can be applied to solid, liquid or gas. In
this method the components of a mixture are adsorbed on a suitable adsorbent at different rates and thus get
separated, e.g., to separate coloured materials from dyes, green vegetables, ink etc.

Chemical Reactions and their Results

Reaction Result

If a lighted paper is introduced in a jar of carbon The flame will be extinguished because carbon dioxide does not help in burning.
dioxide?

Blue litmus is put into a solution of acid? It turns red.

Red litmus is put into a solution of base / alkali why? It turns blue.

Why does a candle blow off when covered? Because it does not get oxygen which helps in burning.

Why is phosphorous kept in water? Because with air it catches fire and in water it is insoluble.

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Reaction Result

Sugar gets charred on heating. Why? When sugar is heated above 200°C decomposes into carbon and water and therefore gets
charred.

If flame water is kept in air? If turns milky due to carbon dioxide in the air.

Reaction Result

Why does the mass of an iron rod increase on Because rust is hydrated ferric oxide (Fe2O3 . 3H2O) which adds to its mass.
rusting?

Why is salt mixed with ice when making ice Salt causes reduction of temperature and helps to freeze the cream and freezing temperature is
cream? lowered from 0°C to 5°C

Why does milk curdle? Lactose (milk sugar) content of milk undergoes fermentation and changes into lactic acid which on
reacting with lactose forms curd.

Why does milk turn sour? The microbes react with milk and grow. They turn lactose into lactic acid which is sour in taste.

Why doesn't hard water lather soap profusely? Hard water contains sulphates and chlorides of magnesium and calcium which from an insoluble
compound with soap. Therefore soap does not lather
with hard water.

Why does sea water boil at a higher Sea water contains impurities which raises the boiling point of water.
temperature than fresh water?

Why is it dangerous to have charcoal fire When characoal burns its produces carbon monoxide which is suffocating.
burning in a closed room?

Why is dangerous to sleep under trees at night? Plants respire at night and give out carbon dioxide which reduces the oxygen content of air required
for breathing.

Why does ENO's salt effervesce on addition of It contains tartaric acid and sodium bicarbonate. On adding water carbon dioxide produced which
water? when released into water causes effervescence.

Chemical Changes in Chemistry

Chemical Changes in Chemistry

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(i) Combination Reactions : Combination reactions occur when two substances unite to form a third substance.

For example, combining magnesium (Mg) and oxygen (O2) result in the production of magnesium oxide (MgO)

2Mg + O2=> 2MgO

This ereaction can be accomplished by burning magnesium in air, which supplied the oxygen.

(ii) Decomposition Reaction : Decomposition reaction occurs when a single compound breaks down into two or more
simpler substances.

In the decomposition of mercuric oxide (HgO), the elements mercury (Hg) and oxygen (O2) are produced.

2HgO=> 2Hg + O2

(iii) Displacement Reaction : When one element replaces another in a compound, it is known as a displacement
reaction.

For example, iron (Fe) may displace copper (Cu) in a solution of cupric sulphate (CuSO4).

Fe + CuSO4=> FeSO4 + Cu

(iv) Double Decomposition Reactions : When two compounds interact to form two other compounds, it is known as a
double decomposition reaction.

For example, Sodium iodide (Nal) and lead nitrate (Pb(NO3)2) react to form lead iodide (Pbl2) and sodium nitrate
(2NaNO3).

2NaI + Pb(NO3)2=> Pbl2 + 2NaNO3

(v) Hydrolysis : Hydrolysis is a double decomposition reaction in which water reacts with a second substance.

When ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) is combined with water (H2O), it undergoes hydrolysis, yielding ammonium hydroxide
(NH4OH) and hydrochloric acid (HCl).

NH4Cl + H2O=> NH4OH + HCl

(vi) Neutralization Reactions : Neutralization is the interaction of an acid with an equivalent quantity of a base.

If the process is carried out in an aqueous solution (dissolved in water), the products are water and a salt.

For example, hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) neutralize each other when dissolved in water,
forming sodium chloride (NaCl), a salt, and water (H2O).

HCl + NaOH -> NaCl + H2O

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(vii) Substitution Reaction : Substitution reactions occur when an element, such as chlorine (Cl), replaces one or more
hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon, such as methane (CH4).

CH4 + Cl2=> CH3Cl + HCl

Common and Chemicals Names of Some Compounds

Common Name Chemical Name Chemical Formula

Dry Ice Solid Carbon dioxide CO2

Slaked Lime Calcium Hydroxide Ca (OH)2

Bleaching Powder Calcium Oxychloride CaOCl2

Nausadar Ammonium Chloride NH4Cl

Caustic Soda Sodium Hydroxide NaOH

Rock Salt Sodium Chloride NaCl

Caustic Potash Potassium Hydroxide KOH

Potash Alum Potassium Aluminium Sulphate K2SO4 . Al2(SO4)3 . 24H2O

Epsom Magnesium Sulphate MgSO4 . 7H2O

Quick Lime Calcium Oxide CaO

Plaster of Paris Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4) ½ H2O

Common Name Chemical Name Chemical Formula

Gypsum Calcium Sulphate CaSO4 . 2H2O

Green Vitriol Ferrous Sulphate FeSO4 . 7H2O

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Common Name Chemical Name Chemical Formula

Mohr's Salt Ammonium Ferrous Sulphate FeSO4(NH4)2SO4 . 6H2O

Blue Vitriol Copper Sulphate CuSO4 . 5H2O

White Vitriol Zinc Sulphate ZnSO4 . 7H2O

Marsh Gas Methane CH4

Vinegar Acetic Acid CH3COOH

Potash Ash Potassium Carbonate K2CO3

Hypo Sodium Thiosulphate Na2S2O3 . 5H2O

Baking Powder Sodium Bicarbonate NaHCO3

Washing Soda Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3 . 10H2O

Magnesia Magnesium Oxide MgO

Chalk (Marble) Calcium Carbonate CaCO3

Lunar Caustic Silver Nitrate AgNO3

Laughing Gas Nitrous Oxide N2O

Chloroform Tricholoro Methane CHCl3

Vermelium Mercuric Sulphide HgS

Borax Borax Na2B4O7 . 10H2O

Alcohol Ethyl Alcohol C2H5OH

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Common Name Chemical Name Chemical Formula

Sugar Sucrose C12H22O11

Heavy Water Duterium Oxide D2O

Globar's Salt Sodium Sulphate Na2SO2 . 10H2O

T.N.T Tri Nitro - toluene C6H2CH3(NO2)3

Calomel Mercurous Chloride HgCl

Sand Silicon Oxide SiO2

Different Forms of Carbon Allotropy

Allotropy

A phenomenon in which an element is found in different forms having different physical properties but similar chemical
properties is known as allotropy.

The different forms are called the allotropic or simply allotropes.

Phosphorus, sulphur, carbon etc. are elements which occur in different allotropic forms.

Carbon

It has various allotropic forms but these can be classified into crystalline form (diamond, graphite) and amorphous form
(coke, coal, lamp – soot, carbon black, animal charcoal, gas carbon, wood charcoal etc).

Crystalline forms of Carbon

1. Diamond : Diamond is the purest form of carbon. It is found very deep inside the earth, in South Africa, Congo, Angola.

Of late, synthetic diamonds have also been prepared.

Properties

• It is the hardest natural substance.

• It is insoluble in any solvent
• It is of specific gravity 3.5
• It is non – conductor of Heat and Electricity.
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• It burns in air at 900°C and gives out CO2.

• It occurs as octahedral crystals
• It is transparent and has refractive index of 2.45.
• It occurs in Free State.

Uses

• It is used in making jewellery

• It is used for cutting hand tools
• For drawing thin wires, diamond dies are used.

2. Graphite : Also called as black lead. As compared to diamond, it is widely available in nature in countries like India, Sri
Lanka, Canada, Russia etc.

It can also be produced artificially by heating anthracite coal with little iron oxide of silica in electric furnace.

Properties

• It is soft.
• Its specific gravity is 2.3.
• It is good conductor of heat and electricity
• It is black in colour
• It is insoluble in ordinary solvents
• It burns in air at 700 – 800°C and gives out CO2.
• It is of hexagonal crystals.

Uses

• It is used in writing pencils and lead.

• It is used as a lubricant for high temperature.
• It is used as refractory material for designing crucibles and electrodes for high temperature.
• It is used in electro – typing and manufacturing of gramophone records for making the non – conducting surface
as conducting.

Amorphous Forms of Carbon

3. Coal : Its common variety is bituminous which is like hard stone and burns with smoky flame.

The superior quality coal burns without smoke and is called anthracite.

It is formed out of carbonization of organic and fossil matter buried deep into the earth, under high pressure and high
temperature with very – very limited supply of air, during centuries. Anthracite, Bituminous, Lignite and Peat are the types
of coal with decreasing C%.

Uses

• It is used as a fuel.

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• It is used in the manufacturing of coal gas. The by – products of this process are coke, coal – tar, ammonical
liquor. Coal – tar is a source for making dyes, explosives, chemicals etc.
• It is also used in manufacturing fuel gases like producer gas, water gas and semi – water gas.
• It is used for manufacturing of synthetic petrol by catalytic hydrogenation of coal.

4. Coke : It is a coal deprived of volatile constituents such as coal gas, ammonia, benzene, phenol, tar etc.

It is manufactured from coal by destructive distillation by heating in the absence of air due to which volatile constituents
are left back in the coal.

Uses

• It is used as a fuel.
• It is used for making graphite and water gas.
• It is used as reducing agent in iron and steel industry.

5. Wood Charcoal : When wood is suitably stocked, encased in an earthy / clay cover and ignited with a very limited
supply of air, the volatile products are allowed to escape, and wood charcoal is obtained.

Uses

• It is used as a fuel.
• It is used a constituent of gun – powder.
• It is used for purification of water.
• It is used as a deodorant and decolourising agent in sugar solution and gas masks.

6.Bone Black or Animal Charcoal : When bones are subjected to destructive distillation in a retort, the residue obtained
is boneblack or animal charcoal.

7.Lampblack : When tar or vegetable oil rich in carbon is burnt in an insufficient supply of air, black soot is deposited on
the wet blankets hung in the room.

Uses

• It is used in making Indian ink.

• It is used in making printers ink.
• It is also used by ladies for eyelids decoration.

8. Carbon Black : It is obtained by burning natural gas in the presence of limited supply of air and collecting the soot on
the underside of a revolving disc which is scrapped off and packed.

Uses

• It is used in the rubber for making automobile tyres.

• It is used as a replacement of lamp black used for many a purpose.

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9. Gas Carbon and Petroleum Coke : Gas carbon is produced by scrapping the carbon from the walls of the retort
formed as a result of destructive distillation of coal.

When distillation of crude petroleum is done in a retort, the petroleum coke is deposited on the walls of the retort.

Uses

• It is used for making electrodes when pressed into sticks, as both are good conductors of electricity.

10. Sugar Charcoal : It is the poorest form of carbon.

• It is obtained when sugar is heated strongly out of contact with air.

• It can be liquefied even to room temperature but under high pressure.

Further, it can be converted into a solid state, known as dry ice which is used as a mobile refrigerant.

11. Carbon – 14 : It is a useful radioactive isotope for tracer studies in organic and biochemical system, including the
determination of the age of materials that were once alive.

The identity and amount of many elements present in trace amounts in mixtures may be determined by neutron activation
analysis.

This procedure involves the conversion of non – radioactive isotopes of chemical elements and the determination of the
type and intensity of the radioactivity that results.

Dyes in Chemistry

Coloured substances used for colouring Textiles, Foodstuffs, Silk, Wool, etc., are called dyes.

But all coloured substances are not Dyes. For a substance to act as a dye, it must fulfill the following requirements.

It must have a suitable attractive colour, i.e., it should absorb light in the visible Region. It must be able to fix itself to the
fabrics by either Physical or Chemical Bonding.

It must be fast to light; it must not be affected either by water, dilute acids or alkalies.

Different classes of dyes are discussed below.

Nitro Dyes : These are polynitro derivatives of phenol where nitro group acts as a chromophore and hydroxyl group as
auxochrome.

These are less important industrially because the colours are not fast.

Azo Dyes : These are an important class of dyes and are characterized by the presence of azo group (-N = N-) as the
chromophore.

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The groups like NH2, NR2 or -OH etc, present in the molecule containing one or more azo groups act, as the
auxochromes.

Triphenyimethane Dyes : These dyes contain the paraquinoid moiety as chromophore and -OH,-NH2 or -NR2 as
auxochrome.

These dyes are not fast to light and washing and hence are mainly used for colouring paper or typewriter ribbons, e.g.,
malachite green which is used for dyeing wool and silk directly and cotton after mordanting with tannin.

Direct dyes: These include dyes which can be directly applied to the fabric when the latter is dipped in a hot aqueous
solution of the dye.

Wool and silk are dyed by direct dyes.

The polar groups of the fabric (proteinic structure) unit with the polar groups of the dye and thus the dye is chemically fired
upon the fibre.

Example of direct dyes are Mautius yellow, Naptho yellow S, Congo red, etc.

Mordant Dyes : Those dyes which are fixed on the fibre with the help of a modrant are known as mordant dyes.

Various mordants depending upon the nature of the dye are used.

For acidic dyes, basic mordants (such as hydroxides of iron, aluminium and chrornium) are used, while for basic dyes,
acidic mordants (like tannic acid) are used.

Here the fabric is first dipped into a solution of mordant and then into the dye solution.

The colour produced depends on the nature of the mordants used.

Using alizarin as Mordant dye and aluminium, chromium and iron as mordants, red, brownish – red tones and black –
violet colours, respectively are produced.

Vat Dyes : These are water insoluble dyes and are introduced into the fibre in its soluble) reduced form, also known as
leuco form (colourless).

The parent dye is regenerated by oxidant with air or a suitable chemical.

These are called vat dyes because reducing operation (using sodium hydrosulphite) was formerly carried out in wooden
vats.

Indigo is a vat dye and is used for Dyeing Cotton.

Electrolysis in Chemistry

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Electrolysis Process of decomposition of an electrolyte (a compound formed by electrovalent bonds) by the passage of an
electric current through its molten state or its aqueous solution is called electrolysis and the experimental arrangement
used for this purpose is called an electrolytic cell.

Applications of Electrolysis

The process of electrolysis is applied in a number of fields for various purposes.

Some of the important applications are discussed below :

(i) Electroplating :

It is a process of depositing one metal (generally a superior metal such as silver, gold, nickel or chromium) over another
metal (which is generally a basal metal, such as iron or copper) through the process of electrolysis Electroplating may be
carried out for preservation of decoration.

For example, articles made of iron are electroplated with tin, nickel or chromium to prevent rusting, similarly, many
household articles such as tea sets and decoration pieces made of metals like copper and brass are electro plated with
gold or silver to enhance their beauty.

(ii) Electrorefining :

Metals can be refined (purified) by the electrolytic method. A thick slab of impure metal is made the anode and a thin
sheet of pure metal is made the cathode in the solution of a suitable salt of the metal to be purified.

On passing electricity, the anode goes on dissolving and the pure metal gets deposited at the cathode.

The impurities are thrown down in the form of anode mud Copper is industrially purified by this method.

(iii) Electro – Printing :

In large – scale printing, impression of the ordinary type page is made on wax of plaster of Paris.

The wax plate is made a conductor by sprinkling graphite on it and then made cathode in copper plating bath.

On passing electric current, copper deposits on the wax plate till a sufficient thickness of copper deposits is obtained.

It is removed and strengthened by filling its back with type – metal. The mould obtained is an exact copy of the printer’s
page and is used in large scale printing.

(iv) Electro – Metallurgy :

The process of extraction of metal from its ore by electrolysis is called electrometallurgy.

For example, sodium is obtained by electrolysis of fused sodium chloride; while aluminium is extracted by the electrolysis
of bauxite is fused cryolite.

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(v) Industrial Preparations :

A large number of chemicals used in industry and medicine are prepared electrolytically.

For example, caustic soda, washing soda, chlorine, and so on are obtained by electrolysis of sodium chloride, while
hydrogen and oxygen are manufactured by electrolysis of acidulated water.

Elements Symbols and Atomic Numbers

Elements Symbols and Atomic Numbers

Name Symbol Atomic No Name Symbol Atomic No

Hydrogen H 1 Iron (Ferum) Fe 26

Helium He 2 Cobalt Co 27

Lithium Li 3 Nickel Ni 28

Berylium Be 4 Copper (Cuprum) Cu 29

Boron B 5 Zinc Zn 30

Carbon C 6 Germenium Ge 32

Nitrogen N 7 Bromine Br 35

Oxygen O 8 Krypton Kr 36

Flourine F 9 Zirconium Zr 40

Neon Ne 10 Silver Ag 47

Sodium (Natrium) Na 11 Tin (Stannum) Sn 50

Name Symbol Atomic No Name Symbol Atomic No

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Name Symbol Atomic No Name Symbol Atomic No

Magnesium Mg 12 Antimony (Stabnium) Sb 51

Aluminium Al 13 Iodine I 53

Silicon Si 14 Barium Ba 56

Phosphorous P 15 Gold (Aurum) Au 79

Sulphur S 16 Mercury (Hydragerm) Hg 80

Chlorine CI 17 Lead (Plumbum) Pb 82

Argon Ar 18 Bismuth Bi 83

Potassium (Kalium) K 19 Radium Ra 88

Calcium Ca 20 Thorium Th 90

Titanium Ti 22 Uranium U 92

Vanadium V 23 Plutonium Pu 94

Chromium Cr 24 Curium Cm 96

Manganese Mn 25

Glass in Chemistry

Ordinary glass is solid mixture of silica (SiO2), sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) and calcium silicate (CaSiO3).

Glass is a super cooled liquid hence; it has no definite crystal structure and melting point.

But the average composition of glass is x . M2O . yM’O . 6SiO2, where M is a monovalent alkali metal like Na, K etc., M’ is
a bivalent metal like Ca, Pb, Zn etc. and x and y are whole numbers.

Thus, ordinary glass may be represented as Na2O . CaO . 6SiO2.

Hence we can say that glass is a mixture, not a compound.

Annealing of Glass

The process of slowly cooling of glass in annealing kiln is called Annealing of glass.

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Types of Glass

Glass is of following Types :

1. Soft – Glass :

It is sodalime silicate glass (Na2O . CaO . 6SiO2).

It melts at low temperature It is used in manufacturing of bottles, test tubes and glass of windows etc.

2. Hard – Glass :

It is potash lime silicate (K2O . CaO . 6SiO2).

It melts at high temperature in comparison to soft glass and is used in manufacturing of flask, etc.

3. Flint – Glass :

It is lead – potash silicate (K2O . PbO . 6SiO2) and is used in manufacturing of prism and lens of optical instruments.

4. Crookes – Glass :

It is special type of optical glass containing circum oxide which cut off ultra violet rays harmful to eyes and used in
manufacturing of lens of spectales.

5. Pyrex – Glass :

It is a mixture of sodium aluminum borosilicates (Na2O . Al2O3 [B2(SiO3)3]). Its coefficient of expansion is very low and
hence it can withstand sudden temp changes.

It has high percentage of silica, about 80%. It is used in manufacture of high quality equipments in laboratory because it
does not melt at very high temperature.

6. Quartz – Glass :

It is obtained from pure silica. It has a low coefficient of expansion and does not break even when plunged in water while
red hot.

7. Ground Glass : It is prepared by grinding ordinary sand (soft) glass by emery and turpentine oil.

8. Reinforced Glass : It has a network of wires embedded in and does not shatter easily.

9. Safety – Glass :

It is also known as Shatter Proof glass. It is prepared by placing a layer of transparent plastic glass (usually a sheet of
vinyl acetate resin) between two layers of glass by means of a suitable adhesive.

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This glass does not break easily under ordinary impact. It is used in making wind screen of automobiles, aero – planes,
trains etc.

Important Elements and Compounds

Hydrogen

It is Colourless, Odourless, Tasteless, Inflammable and Lightest known substance (gas).

It is found in water (H2O), in organic compounds and all living things. It is neutral to litmus.

Can be produced in the laboratory by Bosch process and by electrolysis. It is used m balloons, ships, for ammonia and
vanaspati ghee preparation etc.

Oxygen

It is Colourless, Tasteless, Odourless, Combustible Slightly Heavier than Air, some what soluble in Water. Atmospheric
Air contains Oxygen by about 21% by Weight.

It can be prepared in the laboratory but also in factories on Commercial Scale.

It can be liquefied and solidified. It is employed in welding process and also used in hospitals for artificial respiration.

Nitrogen

It is colourless, tasteless, odourless, non – combustible, in – active, non – poisonous gas, forming about 80% of the
atmospheric air by volume and 75% by weight.

It is slightly lighter than air and only slightly soluble in water. It is used for filling electric bulbs, for making fertilizers,
ammonia, nitrates etc.

Ozone

It is an allotropic form of oxygen containing three atoms in the molecule and is formed when oxygen or air is subjected to
silent electric charge.

It is bluish gas, very active chemically and a powerful oxidizing agent. It is found in the upper atmosphere some 25 to 30
km from the earth’s surface, called ozonosphere layer.

It is this layer which absorbs a large proportion of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation. Ozone is used for purifying air and water
and in bleaching.

Carbon

It is universal constituent of living matter. It can be mainly classified into two forms :

Allotropic form and amorphous form.

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Diamond and graphite are two of its allotropic forms whereas charcoal, lamp black, coke etc., belong to amorphous form.
Carbon atoms are capable of uniting with each other to form very large molecules upon which life is based.

Diamond

It is a very costly stone and hardest naturally occurring substance. It is transparent to X – Rays only. It is used for
jewellery, drilling and cutting tools. It can be cut only by a diamond.

Graphite :

It is soft, easily powdered and gives a greasy feeling. It is good conductor of heat and electricity.

Used for lead pencils, electrical machines and as lubricant for heavy machines. Also used as a moderator in nuclear
reactors.

Coal

Over long periods of time, trees, bones get buried under the ground by violent geological changes. As a result of chemical
reaction with clay, sand, water etc. these get transformed to coal in nature.

This process is known as carbonization. Due to this process we get substances like peat, lignite, bituminous (soft) and
anthracite (hard) depending upon degree of carbonization.

Organic compounds

Constitute substances like petroleum, coal, food components (protein, fats carbohydrates, vitamins), anaesthetics,
antiseptic, antibiotics, cotton, wool, silk synthetic fibres.

Hydrocarbons

These are compounds of hydrogen and carbon vizard methane, ethane, propane, butane benzene. Hydrocarbons are
found abundantly in nature viz., petroleum, natural gas coal etc.

From these natural hydrocarbons or parent organic compounds many other organic compounds can be derived.

Petroleum

It is a hydrocarbon compound extracted from the ground or sea bed by deep drilling, Petroleum is then refined in
distilleries and converted into petroleum products such as petrol, diesel, grease, lubricating oil.

The residue of this is used for making man – made fibre like nylon, terylene, plastic etc., and wide range of drugs.

Natural gas, CNG are another range of products of hydrocarbon compounds.

Important Chemical Processes

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1. Bessemer Process : It is a method of converting pig iron to steel by blowing air though the molten metals to oxidize
impurities such as carbon, silicon, phosphorous and manganese normally present in pig iron.

2. Clemmensen Reduction : It is a process used to convert aldehydes and ketones to the corresponding hydrocarbons
by heating with amalgamated zinc and hydrochloric acid.

3. Gatterman Reaction : It is a process used to convert an aromatic amine into the corresponding halogen derivative
through diazonium salt formation using copper as a catalyst.

4. Haber Process : An industrial process of producing ammonia by the reaction of nitrogen with hydrogen in the presence
of a catalyst.

5. Kolbe Reaction : It is used for the preparation of saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbons by the electrolysis of solution
of the alkali salts of aliphatic carboxylic acids.

6. Solvay Process : It is a process of shaking sodium carbonate from calcium carbonate and sodium chloride in large
scale.

The Process involves heating of calcium carbonate to give calcium oxide and carbon dioxide which is bubbled into a
solution of sodium chloride in ammonia, Sodium hydrogen carbonate is precipitated which on heating gives sodium
carbonate.

7. Bayer Process : A process used to extract aluminium oxide Al2O3 or aluminium by treating powdered bauxite with hot
caustic soda solution under pressure.

The process was developed by German chemist, Karl Joseph Bayer in 1888.

8. Bergius Process : A process for making lubricants and synthetic fuel e.g., petrol, from coal by heating a mixture of
powdered coal and heavy oil or tar with hydrogen under pressure in the presence of a catalyst (iron, tin or lead).

The process was developed by German chemist, Friedrich Bergius, who shared the 1931 Nobel Prize.

9. Bosch Process : A process used to make industrial hydrogen by passing steam over white-hot coke to produce water
gas (a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen) which in the presence of a catalyst (a metal oxide) reacts with more
steam to liberate hydrogen and carbon dioxide.

The process is named after the German Chemist. Carl Bosch (1874 – 1940).

10. Down Process : It is a process of making sodium metal by electrolysis of molten sodium chloride.

The molten sodium and calcium formed at the cathode are separated.

11. Frasch Process : It is used to extract sulphur from subterranean deposits in which superheated water is forced down
the deposits which melts the sulphur under the ground.

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Molten sulphur is collected by forcing compressed air from another side. The process was developed by German chemist,
Herman Frasch 1891.

12. Hall – Heroult Process (Hall – Heroult) : A process used to a prepare aluminium by electrolysis in which alumina
(aluminium oxide) is dissolved in cryolite (sodium aluminium fluoride) and electrolyzed.

It was developed in 1885 in USA by Charles Hall and in France by PT Heroult.

13. Parkes Process : A process used for extraction of silver traces from lead are galena Molten zinc is added to molten
galena and lead is separated leaving zinc – silver which on heating distills off zinc freeing the silver.

Important General Chemical Tests

1. Brown – Ring Test :

It is used for chemical analysis of nitrates in which the solution to be tested is mixed with iron sulphate solution in a test
tube and concentrated H2SO4 (sulphuric acid) is carefully poured along the side of the test tube.

In nitrate containing substances a brown ring is formed where the layer of acid touches the solution (FeNO)SO4.

2. Flame Test :

It is used to identify certain elements in which a clean platinum wire is dipped into the mixture to be tested and the wire is
heated using a busen flame.

The presence of certain elements can be detected by the change in the colour of flame.

For example, a brilliant organe – yellow will indicate sodium; crimson, strontium; and apple green barium.

3. Beilstein’s Test :

It is used for the detection of halogen in an organic compound in which a clean copper wire is heated in an oxidizing flam
till the flame is no longer green.

The wire is then dipped in a solution of the substance to be analyzed and heated again. If CI, Br or I is present the flame
turns a bright green.

4. Fehling’s Test :

It is used to detect sugars and aldehydes in a solution. Equal amounts of solution of copper sulphate (Fehling A) and
sodium tartrate (Fehling B) are mixed in a test tube, On boiling this with a given solution a red precipitate forms is sugar or
aldehyde is present.

5. Kjedahl Method :

It is used to measure nitrogen in an organic compound. The compound boiled with concentrated sulphuric acid and
copper sulphate (catalyst) to convert nitrogen to ammonium sulphate.

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An alkali is added to the mixture and boiled to distill of ammonia which is passed into a standard acid solution and
estimated by titrating the solution.

6. Molish’s Test :

It is used to detect carbohydrates in a solution. The solution to be tested is mixed with a small quantity of alcoholic
alphanaphthol and concentrated sulphuric acid is slowly poured down the side of the test tube.

When the two liquids meet the formation of deep violet rings indicates presence of carbohydrate.

7. Rast’s Method :

It is used to determine molecular weight by measuring the depression of freezing point of a camphor by a known weight of
the solute.

8. Schiffs Test :

It is used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones. An aqueous solution of resoniline and sulphurous acid (Schiff’s
reagent) is used to test for the presence of aldehydes, which oxidize the reduced from of the dye rosaniline back to its
original magenta colour.

The aldehydes restore the colour immediately whereas ketones, restore the colour slowly.

Important Laws in Chemistry

Boyle’s Law

It states that when any gas is expanded or compressed at constant temperature, its volume (V) and pressure (P) are
inversely proportional to each other.

P ∞ 1/V (or) PV = constant

Charle’s Law

It states that when any gas is expanded or compressed at constant pressure, its volume (V) is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature T.

V ∞ T (or) V/T = contant (or) V1/T1 = V2/T2

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

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It states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of different gases in a given space is equal of sum to partial pressure
of each constituent gas where partial pressure of a gas is the pressure exerted by it, if it were to occupy the same space
alone.

P = P1 + P2 + P3 +…

Law of Indestructibility

It states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed by any chemical change.

Law of Multiple Proportion

It states that when two elements combine to form more than one compound, the mass of one which combines with the
fixed mass of the other bears a simple ratio to each other.

Law of Reciprocal Proportion (or Law of Equivalent Proportions)

It states that when two different elements combine with the same weight of third element the ratio in which they do so will
be the same or some multiple of the ratio in which they combine with each other, e.g., The elements C and H combine
with the third element O to form CO2 and H2O. Also they combine directly to form CH4 :

In CO2=> C : = 12 : 32 = 3 : 8
In H2O => H : O = 2 : 16 = 1 : 8

i.e., from this the ratio C : H = 3 : 1, Now in,

CH4 => C : H = 12 : 4 = 3 :1

Law of Constant Composition

It states that a chemical compound always consists of same elements combined together in the same proportion by mass.

Gay Lussac’s Law of Combining Volumes

It states that gases react together in volumes which bear simple and whole number ratios to one another as well as to the
volumes to the gaseous products whereas the volumes being measured under same conditions of temperature and
pressure.

Law of Mass Action

It states that the rate of chemical reaction is proportional to the molecular concentration of each of reacting constituents.

Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis

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1.The products of electrolysis appear only at the electrodes, having weight proportional to the quantity of electricity
passed.
2.The amounts of ions liberated at the various electrodes are proportional to their chemical equivalents when current
passes through the different electrolytes.

Ohm’s Law

It states that the magnitude of current flowing between two ends of a conductor is proportional to the potential difference
between them.

Avogadro’s Law

It states that under similar conditions of temperature and pressure equal volume of all gases contain equal number of
molecules.

Raoult’s Law

It states that the vapour pressure of a solution containing non – volatile solution is directly proportional to the mole fraction
of the solvent.

PA = P°A . XA, PB = P°B . XB, ∆Hmix = +ive, ∆V = +ive

The solutions which obey Raoult’s law are called Ideal Solutions

1.When solvent – solvent and solute – solute interactions are stronger than solvent – solute interaction positive deviations
take place.

PA > P°A . XA, PB < P°B . XB, ∆Hmix = +ive, ∆V = +ive

2.When solvent – solvent and solute – solute interactions are weaker than solvent – solute interaction negative deviation
takes place.

PA < P°A . XA, PB < P°B . XB, ∆Hmax = -ive, ∆V = -ive

Nuclear Reaction and Atomic Energy

A Nuclear Reaction is one in which a nucleus bombarded with an elementary particle (like neutron, proton, etc) or with
another nucleus to produce other products in a very shot time span.

The first nuclear reaction was discovered by Rutherford in 1919 when he bombarded nitrogen with alpha particles.

Nuclear Fission :

Nuclear Fission is the fragmentation of a large nucleus into two smaller nuclei and the liberation of large amount of
energy.

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In 1939 the German scientists Otto Hahn and F steersman observed that when uranium was bombarded with slow
neutrons, then two smaller products were obtained with a tremendous amount of heat.

The splitting of uranium was called nuclear fission.

Types of Nuclear Fission :

1. Controlled Nuclear Fission : Carried out in nuclear reactors in which rate of fission reaction is reduced and energy
produced can be used for constructive purposes.

2. Uncontrolled Nuclear Fission : In an atom bomb uncontrolled fission takes place. A very large amount of heat is
produced and the process continues until the entire amount of fissionable material is exhausted.

First Atom Bomb :

On August 6, 1945, an atom bomb was dropped on Hiroshima city in Japan.

The second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, another city of Japan on August 9, 1945. The bomb was made of Plutonium
– 239.

Nuclear Fusion :

It is nuclear reaction in which lighter nuclei fuse to form a nucleus of greater mass.

In this reaction also an enormous amount of heat is produced.

By carrying on nuclear fusion under controlled conditions, the large amount of energy could be made available for useful
purpose.

Atomic Energy (Nuclear Energy)

Energy produced by nuclear fission or nuclear fusion is called nuclear energy or atomic energy.

In nuclear reactions there is loss of mass. This mass is converted into energy.

It can be transformed into electrical and mechanical energy which can be used for various peaceful purposes.

List of Ores of Metals

List of Ores of Metals Ores Chemical Formulae

Names of the Elements

Aluminium (Al) (a) Bauxite Al2O3 . 2H2O

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List of Ores of Metals Ores Chemical Formulae

Names of the Elements

(b) Corundum Al2O3

(c) Kryolite Na3AlF6

Iron (Fe) (a) Haematite Fe2O3

(b) Magnetite Fe3O4

(c) Iron Pyrite FeS2

(d) Siderite FeCO3

Copper (Cu) (a) Copper Pyrite CuFeS2

(b) Copper Glance Cu2S

(c) Malachite 2CuCO3 . Cu(OH)2

Names of the Elements Ores Chemical Formulae

Zinc (Zn) (a) Zinc Blende ZnS

(b) Calamine ZnCO3

Sodium (Na) (a) Rock Salt NaCl

(b) Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3

Potassium (K) (a) Karnalite KCI MgCl . 6H2O

(b) Salt Petre KNO3

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Names of the Elements Ores Chemical Formulae

Lead (Pb) (a) Galena PbS

(b) Anglesite PbCl2

Tin (Sn) (a) Tin Pyrites Cu2 FeSnS4

(b) Cassiterite SnO2

Silver (Ag) (a) Silver Glance Ag2S

Gold (Au) (a) Calverite AuTe2

(b) Syvanite AgAuTe2

Mercury (Hg) (a) Cinnabar HgS

(b) Calomel Hg2Cl2

Magnesium (Mg) (a) Dolomite MgCO3 . CaCO3

(b) Karnalite KCl MgCl2 . 6H2O

Calcium (Ca) (a) Lime Stone CaCO3

(b) Dolomite MgCO3 . CaCO3

Phosphorous (P) (a) Phosphorite Ca3(PO4)

(b) Floreapetite 3Ca3(PO4)2CaFe2

Oxidation and Reduction in Chemistry

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Oxidation and Reduction in Chemistry

• Removal of hydrogen atom is oxidation while addition of hydrogen atom is reduction.

• Addition of oxygen atom is oxidation while removal of oxygen atom is reduction.
• Increase in valency of an element is oxidation while decrease in valency of an element is reduction.
• Addition of an electronegative element is oxidation and removal is reduction.
• Removal or electropositive element is oxidation and addition is reduction.
• Loss of electrons is oxidation and gain of electrons is reduction.
• Increase in oxidation number is oxidation while decrease in oxidation number is reduction.

Rules for Finding Oxidation Numbers :

• Oxidation number of element in free state is zero i.e., P4 (oxidation number) 0

• Alkali metals (Na, K, Li, Cs etc.) and Alkaline earth metals (Ca, Mg, Ba, Sr etc.) have +1 and +2 oxidation number
respectively.

• Oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 except in metal hydride in which its oxidation number is -1. i.e., LiH (oxidation
number of hydrogen atom) = 1
• Oxidation number of oxygen atom is always equal to -2 except.
• F2O (in this compound the oxidation number of oxygen is +2).
• The oxidation number of oxygen atom in all peroxides is equal to -1.

Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

Compounds having higher oxidation number will be more acidic and act as oxidizing agent and compounds having lower
oxidation number will be less acidic and act as reducing agent.

Generally, compounds with oxygen atom are called oxidizing agent and compounds with hydrogen atom are called
reducing agent.

• H2O2 acts as an oxidizing agent when it is reduced to H2O.

• H2O2 acts as a reducing agent when it is oxidized to O2 or O3.
• H2S acts as a reducing agent when it is oxidized to sulphur.
• Halogens act as oxidizing agent and they are reduced to halogen acids.

Periodic Table of Elements in Chemistry

Mandeleev’s Periodic Law (1869)

“The physical and chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of then atomic weights, i.e., when the elements
are arranged in order of their increasing atomic weights, elements with similar properties are repeated after certain regular
intervals”.

Modern Periodic Law

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“The physical and chemical properties of the elements are a periodic function of then atomic numbers, i.e., when the
elements are arranged in order in order of their increasing atomic weights, elements with similar properties are repeated
after certain regular intervals”.

Cause of Periodicity

The cause of periodicity in properties is the repetition of similar outer electronic configurations at certain regular intervals.

Main features of Modern Periodic Table

• It has 7 horizontal rows called periods and 16 vertical columns called groups or families.
• The first period is the shortest period consisting of 2 elements.
• The second and third periods contain 8 elements, a fourth and fifth period contains 18 elements, sixth period
contains 32 elements and seventh period is incomplete with 27 known elements.
• The elements of second period are known as bridge elements.
• The elements of I, II, XIII, XIV, XV, XVI, XVII and XVIII groups are collective known as normal or representative
elements.
• The elements of XVIII group are known as inert gases or noble gases.
• The elements of III group to XIII group are known as transition elements. This is because their properties lie
between the properties of the reactive metals (alkali and alkaline earth metals) placed on extreme left and the non
– metals (halogens and chalcogens = oxygen family) placed on extreme right of the periodic table. Their general
1-10 0-2
electronic configuration is (n – 1)d ns .
• The series of elements with Z = 58 to Z = 71 which occur in periodic table after lanthanum are called lanthanides
or lanthanoids. The series of elements with Z = 90 to Z = 103 which occur in the periodic table after actinum are
called actinides or actinoids. These elements (lanthanides and actinides) are also known as inner transition
elements. The electronic configuration is,

0-14 0–1
(n – 2) f (n – 1) d ns²

s – Block Elements

Elements in which the last electron enters the s – orbital.

1–2
General configuration is: ns .The elements of I and II groups are s – block elements.

Properties :

• They are soft metals with low melting and boiling points.
• They have low ionization energies and high electro positivity.
• Their metallic character and reactivity increase in a group.
• They lose the valence electrons readily to form +1 and +2 ions.
• They are strong reducing agents.
• They are good conductors of heat and electricity.

p – Block Elements

Elements in which the last electron enters any one of the three p – orbitals.

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General configuration is : ns²np1 – 6. The XIII to XVIII groups (excluding He) have p – block elements.

The elements of XVII group are known as halogens (salt producers) and that of XVI group are known as chalcogens (ore
– forming).

Properties :

• The metallic character increases within a group and decreases along a period.
• Their ionization energies are relatively higher than that of s – block elements.
• They show more than one oxidation states.
• Their oxidizing character increase in a period and reducing character increases along a group.

d – Block Elements

Elements in which the last electron enters any one of the five d – orbitals.

1 – 10 0–2
General configuration is (n – 1)d ns . The elements of groups III to XII belong to this category.

They are called transition elements.

Properties:

• They are hard, malleable and ductile metals with high m.p. and b.p.
• They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
• Their ionization energies are between s and p – block elements.
• Their compounds are generally coloured and paramagnetic.
• They show variable oxidation states.
• They form both ionic and covalent compounds.
• Most of the transition elements form alloys.

f – Block Elements

Elements in which the last electron enters any one of the seven f – orbitals.

0 – 14 0–1
General configuration is (n – 2)f (n – 1)d ns². There are 28 f – block elements in all (Lanthanides and Actinides).

They are called inner – transition elements.

Properties :

• They are heavy metals with high m.p. and b.p.

• They show variable oxidation states.
• Their compounds are generally coloured.
• They have a high tendency to form complexes.
• Most of the elements of the actinide series are radioactive.

Prediction of Period, Group and Block

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• For s – block elements group number is equal to the number of valence electrons.
• For p – block elements group number is equal to 10 + number of valence electrons.
• For d – block elements group number is equal to the number of electrons in (n – 1)d – subshell + number of
electrons in valence shell.

Principles in Chemistry

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

It states that “No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers”.

In other words “An orbital can have a maximum two electrons and these must have opposite signs”.

Aufbau Principle

It states that “Orbital of lowest energy is filled first, before the filling of orbitals having higher energy starts”.

So, the order of relative energies is : 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d and so on.

(n + l) Rule

Lower the value of (n + l) for an orbital, the lower is its energy.

If two orbitals have same (n + l) value, the orbital with lower value of n has lower energy and hence is filled first.

Exceptions of Aufbau Principle

The electronic configurations having half – filled or completely filled orbitals are more stable.

In light of this fact the electronic configurations of Cu (29) and Cr (24) can be studied as follows :

The electronic configuration of Cr24 according to Aufbau’s principle :

1s², 2s², 2p6, 3s², 3p6, 4s², 3d4

5
The actual configuration of Cr24 : 1s², 2s², 2p6, 3s², 3p6, 4s¹, 3d

Since 3d subshell is more stable when it has 5 electrons in it i.e., it is half filled so the latter configuration is actual and
more stable of Cr.

The elements not obeying Aufbau’s principle

Cr24, Cu29 Nb41, Mo42, Tc43, Ru44, Rh45, Pb46, Ag47, La57, Gd64, Pt78, Au79 etc.

Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity

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It states that “Electron pairing in any orbital (s, p, d, f) cannot take place until each orbital of the same sublevel contains
one electron.”

e.g., O8=>2, 6
1s², 2s², 2p4
1s², 2s², 2p²x, 2p¹y, 2p¹z

Heisenberg’s Uncertainity Principle (1926)

It states that “It is impossible to specify at any given moment both the position and momentum of an electron.”

If δx and δp be the uncertainties with respect to the position and the momentum, then uncertainty principle can be
expressed as:

∆x . ∆p ≥ h/4 π

Bohr’s Principle

It states thatx “An electron can resolve only in those orbits whose angular momentum (mvr) is an integral multiple of the
factor (h/2π)”

Bohr – Bury Scheme

• The maximum no. of electrons in each shell is 2n², where n is the principal quantum number.
• The maximum no. of electrons in outermost orbit can be 8 and in its penultimate orbit can be 18.
• The outermost shell can contain not more than 2 electrons, if the next to the outermost has not reached its
maximum requirement (e.g.),

• Ca20 2, 8, 8, 2;
• Sc21 2, 8, 9, 2;
• Zn30 2, 8, 18, 2;
• Kr36 2, 8, 18, 8;
• Rb37 2, 8, 18, 8, 1.

Quantum Numbers in Chemistry

The set of four numbers which give complete information about the electron in an atom i.e., energy, orbital occupied, size,
shape and orientation of that orbital and the direction of electron spin.

(a) Principal Quantum Number (n)

It gives the major energy level to which the electron belongs.

Thus, n = 1, 2, 3,… etc depending upon whether the electron belongs to first, second, third etc. energy levels For the first
energy level (K – shell) n = 1, for second (M – shell) n = 2, etc.

(b) Azimuthal (or) Subsidiary (or) Angular Momentum Quantum Number (I)

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It gives the energy level of subshells. It gives the following information :

• Number of subshells present within a main shell.

• Shapes of subshells.
• Contribution of energy due to angular momentum towards the total energy of the electron.

• For a given value of n, l can have values from 0 to (n – 1).

• For n = 1(K), l = 0 i.e. one subshell (s)
• n = 2 (L), I = 0, 1 i.e., two subshells (s, p)
• n = 3 (M), l = 0, 1, 2 i.e., three subshells (s, p, d)
• n = 4 (N), I = 0, 1, 2, 3 i.e., four subshells (s, p, d, f)

Order of energies : s < p < d < f

It was proposed by Sommerfeld.

(c) Magnetic Quantum Number (m)

It tells the number of orditals present within the same subshell.

For a given value of I, m can have values from -l to +l including 0, making a total of (2l + 1) values.

These quantum number also give the orientation of the orbital.

The number of orbital in a shell with principal quantum number n is equal to n²
The orbitals having same energy level are called degenerate orbitals.

Subshell (l) (m) No. of Orbitals

s 0 -1, 0, +1 1

p 1 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 3

d 2 -3, -2, -1, 0, +1 5

f 3 +2, +3 7

It was given by Lande to explain Zeeman and Stark effects.

(d) Spin Quantum Number (s)

This arises due to the spinning of the electron about its own axis.

It can be clockwise represented by +1 / 2 or or anticlockwise represented by -1/2.

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This is the only quantum number that has non – integral values. It was introduced by Uhlenbeck and Goudsmet.

Distribution of Electrons in Quantum Levels :

S. No n l m s Orbitals No. of Electrons Total Electrons

1 K-Shell 0 0 +1/2, -1/2 1s 2 2

2 L-Shell 0 0 +1/2, -1/2 2s 2 8

1 +1 +1/2, -1/2 2p 6

0 +1/2, -1/2

-1 +1/2, -1/2

3 M-Shell 0 0 +1/2, -1/2 3s 2 18

1 +1 +1/2, -1/2 3p 6

0 +1/2, -1/2

-1 +1/2, -1/2

2 +2 +1/2, -1/2 3d 10

+1 +1/2, -1/2

0 +1/2, -1/2

-1 +1/2, -1/2

-2 +1/2, -1/2

4 N-Shell 0 0 +1/2, -1/2 4s 2 32

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S. No n l m s Orbitals No. of Electrons Total Electrons

1 +1 +1/2, -1/2 4p 6

0 +1/2, -1/2

-1 +1/2, -1/2

2 +2 +1/2, -1/2 4d 10

+1 +1/2, -1/2

0 +1/2, -1/2

-1 +1/2, -1/2

Radioactivity in Chemistry

A phenomenon of spontaneous disintegration, first observed in certain naturally occurring heavy elements like radium,
actinium, uranium, thorium, etc, with the emission of alpha, beta and gamma rays.

It is the property of the nuclide to disintegrate in which a transformation takes place of a relatively unstable nuclide to
relatively stable nuclide accompanied with the emission of particles or electromagnetic radiation.

The nuclide that decays is said to be radioactive.

Discovery of Radioactivity

The phenomenon was accidentally discovered in 1896 by French physicist Henry de Becquerel.

He observed that uranium mineral gave off invisible radiation. He termed this property of uranium radioactivity. Later
Pierre and Madam Curie showed similar phenomenon in other metals like poeonium, francium and radium.

Radioactive Emissions

(i) Sub – Atomic Particles (Radiation)

• Alpha (α) Particles : A positively charged helium atom which has very little penetrating power. They can be
absorbed by a sheet of paper or stopped by aluminium foil.
• Beta (β) Particles : A negatively charged light particle. Its penetrating power is greater than that of alpha – ray.

(ii) Penetrating Particles (Radiation)

Also called Gamma (γ) emission. These are electromagnetic radiations of low wavelength, high frequency, and high
energy. Their penetrating power is very great as they can pass through several centimetre of lead.

Important Terms of Chemistry

(a) Metals : Metals comprise 75% of all known elements and appear on the left hand side of the periodic table.

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Metals are solids at room temperature (except mercury, gallium and francium).

They are malleable, ductile and good conductors of heat and electricity.

(b) Non – Metals : These can be gases, liquids or even solids with low m.p and b.p. Most of them are brittle and are
neither malleable nor ductile.

(c) Metalloids : The elements which show the properties of both metals and non – metals are known as metalloids or
semi – metals.

(d) Valency :

• The valency of a metal is equal to number of valence electrons. The electrons present in outer- most orbit are
called valence electrons. (or)
• Valency is equal to the number of hydrogen atoms or twice the number of oxygen atoms which combines with one
atom of an elements. (or)
• The valency of a non – metal elements is usually equal to eight minus the number of valence electrons in its
atom.
• The atoms combine with each other since; they have a tendency to acquire eight electrons (except hydrogen
atom) in its outermost orbit. The atoms which give outermost electrons acquires positive charge and other which
take electrons acquire negative charge.

(e) Atomic Radius : The distance between the centre of nucleus and the outer most shell of electrons.

(f) Van der Waal’s Radius : Half of the distance between the nuclei of two adjacent atoms belonging to two neighbouring
molecules of an element.

(g) Ionic Radius : The distance from the nucleus of an ion up to which it has influence on its electron cloud.

(h) Ionization energy (Ionization potential or Ionization enthalpy) : The minimum amount of energy required to
remove an electron from an atom.

The ionization energies required to remove first second and third etc., electrons from an atom are called successive
ionization energies.

Remember that Third IE > Second IE > First IE

Ionization energy is governed by the factors :

• Nuclear Charge : Energy increases with increase in nuclear charge

• Atomic Size : Energy decreases with increase in size
• Penetration effect of the Electrons : Energy increases with increase in penetration effect
• Screening effect of the Inner Shell Electrons : Energy decreases with increase of screening or shielding effect
• Effect of half – filled or completely filled Orbitals : If an atom contains half – filled or completely filled orbitals
then it is more stable, so the energy required is more than expected.

Biological Science
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Origin of Life

Several theories have been put forward about the origin of life. Theory of Spontaneous Generation or Abiogenesis held
that life originated repeatedly from non – living materials by spontaneous generation. Van Helmont and William Harvey
supported it.

The above theory was disapproved by Spallanzani, Redi and Louis Pasteur.

The 1st scientific account of the origin of life was given by Russian scientist A.I. Oparin in his book ‘Origin of Life’.

This was proved by Miller and Urey in 1953.

Lamarckism

He gave his theory of evolution in the form of 4 Laws :

• The internal forces are fully responsible for increase or decrease in size.
• Formation of a new organ or disappearance of an existing organ is the result need.
• The development and degeneration of organs is based on the continuous ‘use’ and ‘disuse’.
• The characters acquired by an organism during its life time are transmitted to their offspring by the process of
inheritance.

Fathers of Biology :

Aristotle Father of Zoology, Father of Biology

Theophrastus Father of Botany

Linnaeus Father of Modern Botany

G.J. Mendel Father of Genetics

Bateson Father of Modern Genetics

Robert Koch Father of Bacteriology

Edward Jenner Father of Immunology

Louis Pasteur Father of Microbiology

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Francis Galton Father of Eugenies

Hugo de Vries Father of Mutation

Robert Hooke Father of Cytology

Micheli Father of Mycology

Hippocrates Father of Medicine

Landsteiner Father of Blood groups

Empedocles Father of Evolutionary ideas

V. Korenchevsky Father of Gerontology

Thomas Addison Father of Endocrinology

Stephen Hales Father of Plant Physiology

Professor R. Mishra Father of Indian Ecology

Professor Birbal Sahani Father of Indian Palaeobotany

Carolus Linnaeus Father of Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Pavlov Father of Conditional Reflex

Einthovan Father of ECG

William Harvey Father of Blood Circulation

Kolreuter Father of Polygenic Inheritance

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Darwinism :
The theory of natural selection was given by him.

He, in his book ‘Origin of species’ mentioned the following factors for the formation of species by natural selection.

• The over – production is shown by every organism.

• The organisms show struggle for existence.
• This struggle for existence leads to ‘Appearance of Variation’.
• The advantageous variations in organisms results in ‘Survival of the Fittest’.
• The advantageous variations are inherited through the fittest and then accumulation for a period gives rise to a
new species.

Mutations :

• Darwin in his theory explained the origin of species due to some changes.
• Mutation is a process which produces a heritable alteration.
• Hugo de Vries was the I to give much importance to these discontinuous variations.

Excretory System of Human Body

Waste materials excreted in animals are of many kinds : Nitrogenous Substances, Carbon – Dioxide, Pigments, Excess
Water, etc.

The Nitrogenous Waste can be excreted in the following forms :

• Ammonia : Highly Toxic, Soluble in Water and has to be immediately excreted. In aquatic animals (called
Ammoniotelic).
• Urea : Far less toxic than ammonia. Less water required than ammonia. In Mammals, Alligators, Turtles (called
Ureotelic).
• Uric Acid : In animals where conservation of water is needed. In Birds, Insects, Land Reptiles (called Uricotelic).

Excretory System of Mammals

1. Kidneys

Left kidney is higher than the right kidney.

A kidney is composed of 1.2 million microscopic structural and functional units called nephrons or uriniferous tubules.

2. Ureters

Open into Urinary Bladder

3. Urinary Bladder

Size depends upon the amount of mine in it (up to 700 – 800 ml).

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The lower part is guarded by 2 Sphinctors : inner involuntary and outer voluntary.

4. Urethra

Leads to the exterior.

In females, it carries only urine. Opens by urinary aperture in the vulva in front of vaginal aperture.

In males it carries urine as well as spermatic fluid.

Act of passing urine is called Micturition.

Nephron

Functional unit of kidney. It is a long tube differentiated into 4 regions.

1. Bowman’s Capsule

Contains a globular bunch of capillaries, the glomerulus.

The Bowman’s capsule and the glomerulus together form a globular body called Malpighian body.

In glomerular filtrate : water (99%), inorganic salts, amino acids, fatty acids, glucose, urea, uric acid, hippuric acid,
hormones, vitamins are present.

2. Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)

Starts from the neck of Bowman’s capsule and is highly twisted.

Almost whole of the glucose and vitamins, about 75% of amino acids, about 70% of Na and K, a large amount of Ca and
Mg and 75% water is absorbed.

3. Loop of Henle

U – shaped. Consist of 2 straight limbs : descending and ascending. No water is absorbed in ascending limb.

4. Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)

• Greatly twisted.
• Reabsorbs some Na and Cl.
• Leads to Collecting Tubules which lead to ureters.

Note :

The yellow colour of urine is caused by the pigment urochrome, which is a breakdown product of haemoglobin from worn
out RBCs.

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The urine on standing gives a pungent smell. It is due to conversion of urea in to ammonia by bacteria.

pH of urine is between 5 – 8. Average pH is 6.0 (slightly acidic).

Kidney Stones : Calcium Oxalate

Gametogenesis in Humans

Gametogenesis

Process of formation of gametes in gonads.

It includes spermatogenesis (formation of sperms by the testes) and oogenesis (formation of eggs by the ovaries).

It is controlled by gonadotrophic hormones (FSH, LH, ICSH, etc.) secreted by pituitary gland.

Meiosis forms the most significant part of the process of gametogenesis.

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

Occurs in testes Occurs in ovary

Spermatogonia are not found in follicles Oogonia are found in ovarian follicles

Primary spermatocyte divides to form two secondary spermatocytes Primary oocyte divides to form one secondary oocyte and one polar
body.

Each secondary spermatocyte gives rise to two spermatids Secondary oocytes give rise to one ootid (secondary oocyte) and one
polar body.

No polar body is formed Polar bodies are formed

Both maturation divisions are completed in testes themselves First maturation division may be completed in the ovaries but the
second one is completed outside ovaries after fertilization begins.

A spermatogonium forms four spermatozoa An oogonium forms one ovum

It is generally completed in testes and thus mature sperms are released from It is often completed in the female reproductive tract or in many animals
testes in water because oocytes are released from the ovaries.

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Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

To take part in reproduction, the spermatids have to transform into thread like Ootids as such take part in reproduction.
sperms by the process of spermateleosis / spermiogenesis

Sperms are minute, yolkless and motile Ova are much larger often with yolk and non - motile.

Human Diseases

A disease or medical condition is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions, associated with
specific symptoms and signs.

It may be caused by external factors, such as infectious disease, or it may be caused by internal dysfunctions, such as
autoimmune diseases.

In holistic medicine and alternative medicine tradition, disease is said to be caused by energetic imbalances in physical,
emotional, spiritual, social and / or environmental needs [citation needed].

In human beings, “disease” is often used more broadly to refer to any condition that causes pain, dysfunction, distress,
social problems, and / or death to the person afflicted, or similar problems for those in contact with the person.

In this broader sense, it sometimes includes Injuries, Disabilities, Disorders, Syndromes, Infections, Isolated Symptoms,
Deviant Behaviors, and Atypical variations of Structure and Function, while in other contexts and for other purposes these
may be considered distinguishable categories.

List of Human Diseases :

Human Viral Diseases

• Chickenpox
• Measles
• Polio
• Rabies
• Mumps
• Influenza
• Hepatitis
• Herpes
• AIDS
• Trachoma (of Cornea)

Human Bacterial Diseases

• Cholera
• Diphtheria
• Tuberculosis
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• Leprosy
• Tetanus
• Typhoid
• Plague
• Whooping Cough
• Sore Throat
• Pneumonia
• Gonorrhoea
• Syphilis
• Botulism

Human Fungal Diseases

• Ringworm
• Athlete’s foot
• Dhobie itch

Human Protozoans Diseases

• Amoebiasis
• Malaria
• Sleeping Sick – ness
• Kalazar
• Diarrhoea
• Piarrhoea

Human Helminthesavorms Diseases

• Filaria
• Tapeworm and Hookworm Transmission

Human Endocrine System

Formed by endocrine glands (or Ductless Glands) and their secretion. They secrete hormones directly into the blood
stream in response to instructions from the brain. The blood then carries them around the body.

Endocrine Glands

Hypothalamus

Forms a part of fore – brain, secretes neurohormones, which effect the release of hormones from pituitary. Acts as the
thermostat. Pituitary Gland

Also called Master Gland. It is the smallest endocrine gland. It secretes :

1. Somatotrophic Hormone (Growth stimulating Hormone) : Controls the general growth of the body.

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Its hypersecretion leads to acromegaly in adults and gigantism in children. Its hyposecretion leads to dwarfness in
children.

2. Gonadotrophic Hormone (GTH) : Stimulates the primary sex hormones, i.e. ovaries and testes.

GTH are Follicle stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH).

• Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) : It is secreted in males and females both. In males, it stimulates
spermatogenesis and development of seminiferous tubules. In females, it stimulates formation and growth of
ovarian follicle in ovary.

• Luteinizing Hormone (LH) : In females only. Final maturation of ovarian follicleand ovulation takes place by LH
only.

3. Lactogenic Hormone : Initiates milk production in the pregnant females.

4. Thyrotrophic Hormone : Aids in the regulation of thyroid secretion.

5. Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH) : Influences the secretion from the cortex of adrenal glands.

6. Diabetogenic or Metabolic Hormone : Influences metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins.

7. Oxytocin or Pitocin : Stimulates smooth muscle contractions, especially of the uterus during child birth. Also helps in
the secretion of milk in females.

8. Vasopressin or ADH (Anti – Diuretic Hormone) : Regulates reabsorption of water from the kidney tubules.

Its Hypoactivity leads to Diabetes insipidus in which patients excrete large amount of urine.

Also causes contraction of small arteries, causing increase in Blood Pressure.

Thyroid Gland

It is the largest endocrine gland located in the neck between the trachea and larynx.

Controls BMR (Basal Metabolic Rate). BMR is die minimum energy requirement for maintenance of body during rest or
sleep.

For normal human adult, it is 1600 Kcal / day.

Thyroid Gland Secretes :

1. Thyroxine : Regulates physical, mental and sexual development.

Hypoactivity in children leads to cretinism. Hypoactivity in adults leads to Myxoedema (sluggish appearance, feeble
mindedness, low body temperature).

A diet, poor in iodine, which is insufficient for the synthesis of thyroxin, leads to simple goitre.

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Its hyperactivity leads to increased metabolic activities (highly nervous, overactive and irritated person). Sometimes it
leads to Exophthalmic goitre (Grave’s disease) (bulging eyeballs, irregular heartbeat, loss of weight).

2. Thyrocalcitonin : It controls the amount of calcium in the body.

Note :

Hashimoto Disease : Due to age factor or injury in thyroid gland secretion of thyroid reduces.

When thyroxine secretion falls up to minimum limit, antibodies formation starts against the gland.

So thyroid gland is destroyed. It is known as suicide of the thyroid.

Parathyroid Gland

Secretes Parathormone, which is also known by the name of Collip’s Hormone.

It influences calcium and phosphorus metabolism (Ca level = 12 mg / 100 ml of blood)

Removal of this gland leads to death due to tetany (cramps, tremors and convulsions in muscles)

Hyperactivity withdraws calcium from bones leading to weakness and pain.

Thymus Gland

• Situated near the heart.

• Produces Thymine.
• Plays important role in formation of antibodies in children.
• Decreases in size as sexual maturity increases as it absorbs GTH, thus preventing development of gonads.

Pancreas

It is an exocrine as well as an endocrine gland. Its endocrine part is known as Islets of Langerhans. Its 3 types of cells
secrete 3 different hormones.

Beta cells secrete Insulin which controls the amount of sugar in the blood. Its hyposecretion leads to Diabetes Mellitus.
Alpha cells secretes Glucagon which increases blood sugar level.

Gamma cells secrete Somatostatin which controls the functioning of alpha and beta cells.

Adrenal Glands

2, on each kidney. Adrenal gland is also known as 4S gland. (4S stands for: Sugar metabolism, Salt retention, Sex
hormone and Source of energy).

Consists of 2 Distinct Parts : Outer cortex and inner medulla.

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1. Adrenal Medulla secretes Adrenaline or epinephrine which effects liberation of glucose from glycogen stored in liver
and increases the rate of metabolism.

• Its over – secretion leads to increased saliva flow, tears, bile and sweat, quickens heart beat, speeds up
respiratory activities. It is also known as 3F Gland because of these (fear, fight, flight).

• Nor – epinephrine or Nor – adrenaline is also secreted from medulla (20%) which is opposite to adrenaline.

2. Adrenal Cortex secretes two types of Hormones :

• Mineralo Corticoids : Maintain electrolyte balance in the body and distribution of water to the tissues. It. is also
known as salt retaining hormone. Its hyposecretionresults in Addison’s disease. In this disease, excessive loss of
Na, Cl ions takes place and level of K ions increases in blood. Its hypersecretion leads to retension of Na, Cl ions
and more absorption of water.

• Gluco Corticoids : It influences carbohydrate metabolism and also effect protein and fat metabolism. Its
hyposecretion leads to fall in glucose level due to which body temperature decreases. Its hypersecretion leads to
Cushing Disease in which irregular deposition of fat takes place and glucose level increases in blood.

Menstrual Cycle in Human

Cyclic changes occurring in the reproductive tract of females.

The reproductive period of the human female continues from about the age of about 12 years to 45 – 50 years.

This period is marked by a characteristic event repeated almost every month (28 days with minor variation) in the form of
a menstrual flow (i.e., shedding of the endometrium of the uterus with bleeding).

It may be temporarily stopped only by pregnancy.

Menopause is stopping of ovulation and menses. Average age is 51 years. In this stage, woman lose the ability to
reproduce.

Menstrual cycle is controlled by FSH, LH, estrogen and progesterone.

The period of a menstrual cycle is counted from the day of the onset of the flow to the next onset after 28 days.

This period can be divided into four main phases.

1. Menstrual phase :

It lasts for 3 – 5 days during which blood is discharged out.

The bleeding is caused due to the shedding of the uterine lining rupturing the blood vessels which is mainly due to
decrease of estrogen and progesterone secretion.

2. Follicular phase :

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As the follicle grows it produces certain hormones which reactivate the uterine wall to become thickened and to be
supplied with a lot of blood.

The thickening of endometrium occurs under the influence of estrogen hormone in association with progesterone.

This change is kind of preparation of die uterus to receive the fertilized egg and to provide for the development of the
future embryo.

3. Ovulatory phase :

During this phase production of FSH decreases while that of LH increases which leads to ovulation on about the 14th day.

The follicle reptures and the released egg travel down the oviduct.

This phase helps in fertilization in the following ways, like:

• Uterine movements help in spread of sperms in female reproductive tract.

• Ciliary movements in the epithelium of fallopian tubes for bringing in the ovum.

4. Luteal phase / Secretory phase :

It lasts from 15 – 28 days. Uterus lining thickens further and becomes secretory.

This stage is meant for receiving the fertilized ovum (implantation).

Emptied follicle in the ovary turns into corpus luteum and supervised by LH of anterior pituitary.

Muscular System of Human Body

Human body has about 639 types of muscles.

Muscles specialized to contraction are of 3 types :

• Striated
• Unstriated and
• Cardiac.

Striated Muscles

Striated Muscles are also called Skeletal Muscles. These muscles are mostly attached to bones by tendons and takes
part in voluntary movements under conscious control of brain.

Therefore they are called voluntary muscles. Each muscle fibre shows dark and light striations and is covered by a
sheath, the sarcolemma.

Its cytoplasm is called sarcoplasm in which are present large number of contractile myofibrils. Myofibrils are made up of
thick myosin and thin actin filaments. They are present in limbs, tongue, pharynx, etc.

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Unstriated Muscles

These smooth muscles are involuntary muscles. Functionally they are of two types – single unit and multi unit.

Single unit smooth muscles are present in urinary bladder and gastro intestinal tract. Multi unit smooth muscles are
present in walls of large blood vessels.

Cardiac Muscles

They are involuntary, striated and non fatigued fibres which are found in the wall of heart where they form myocardium.
They generate their own wave of excitation.

Medical Inventions and Discoveries

S. No. Name Medical Inventions and Discoveries

1 Ronald Rose Malaria Parasite

2 Salk, Jonas E. Anti - Polio Vaccine

3 Simpson and Harrison Chloroform

4 Waksman Streptomycin

5 Banting Insulin (as a palliative for diabetes)

6 Barnard, Christian Replacing the human heart

7 Brahmachari, U.N. Cure of Kala - a - zar fever

8 Davy Isolation of Metals by Electricity; studied Properties of Chlorine

9 Domagk Sulpha Drugs as Bactericides

10 Eijkman Cause of Beri - Beri

11 Finsen Discovered Curative effect of Ultra Violet Rays; Photography

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S. No. Name Medical Inventions and Discoveries

12 Fleming, Alexander Penicillin (in 1929)

S. No. Name Medical Inventions and Discoveries

13 Harvey Circulation of Blood

14 Hahnemann Homeopathy (Founder)

15 Hopkins, Frederick Gowland Vitamin D

16 Jenner Smallpox Vaccination

17 Koch Tubercle Bacillus

18 Lainnec Stethoscope

19 Lister, Lord Antiseptic Treatment

20 Pasteur, Louis Treatment of Rabies; Cure of Hydrophobia

Milestones in Medicine

S.No. Discovery / Invention Year Discoverer / Inventor Country

1 Adrenaline 1894 Schafer and Oliver Britain

2 Anesthesia, Local 1885 Koller Austria

3 Anesthesia, Spinal 1898 Bier Germany

4 Anti - Toxins (Science of Immunity) 1890 Behring and Kitasato Germany, Japan

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S.No. Discovery / Invention Year Discoverer / Inventor Country

5 Aspirin 1889 Dreser Germany

6 Ayurveda 2000 - 1000 BC - India

7 Bacteria 1683 Leeuwenhock Netherlands

8 Bacteriology 1872 Ferdinand Cohn Germany

9 Biochemistry 1648 Jan Baptista Van Helmont Belgium

10 Blood Plasma Storage (Blood bank) 1940 Drew U.S.A

11 Blood Transfusion 1625 Jean - Baptiste Denys France

12 Cardiac Pacemaker 1932 A.S Hyman U.S.A

13 CAT Scanner 1968 Godfrey Hounsfield Britain

14 Chemotherapy 1493 - 1541 Paracelsus Switzerland

15 Chloroform as Anaesthetic 1847 James Simpson Britain

16 Chloromycetin 1947 Burkholder U.S.A

17 Cholera T.B germs 1877 Robert Koch Germany

18 Circulation of blood 1628 William Harvey Britain

19 Cryo - Surgery 1953 Henry Swan U.S.A

20 Diphtheria germs 1883 - 84 Klebs and Loffler Germany

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12 Cardiac Pacemaker 1932 A.S Hyman U.S.A

21 Electro - Cardiograph 1903 Willem Einthoven Netherlands

22 Electro - Encephalogram 1929 Hand Berger Germany

23 Embryology 1792 - 1896 Kari Ernest Van Baer Estonia

24 Endocrinology 1902 Bayliss and Starling Britain

25 First Test Tube Baby 1978 Steptoe and Edwards Britain

26 Gene Therapy on humans 1980 Martin Clive U.S.A

27 Genes Associated with Cancer 1982 Robert Weinberg and Others U.S.A

28 Heart Transplant Surgery 1967 Christian Barnard S. Africa

29 Histology 1771 - 1802 Marie Bichat France

30 Hypodermic syringe 1853 Alexander wood Britain

31 Kidney Machine 1944 Kolf Netherlands

32 Leprosy Bacillus 1873 Hansen Norway

33 LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide) 1943 Hoffman Switzerland

34 Malaria Germs 1880 Laveran France

35 Morphine 1805 Friderich Sertumer Germany

36 Neurology 1758 - 1828 Franz Joseph Gall Germany

37 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging 1971 Raymond Damadian U.S.A

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12 Cardiac Pacemaker 1932 A.S Hyman U.S.A

38 Open Heart Surgery 1953 Walton Lillehel U.S.A

39 Oral Contraceptive Pills 1955 Gregory Pincus, Rock U.S.A

40 Penicillin 1928 Alexander Fleming Britain

41 Physiology 1757 - 66 Albrecht Von Haller Switzerland

42 Positron Emission Tomography 1978 Louis Sokoloff U.S.A

43 Rabies Vaccine 1860 Louis Pasteur France

44 Recombinant - DNA technology 1972 - 73 Paul Berg, H.W. Boyer, S Cohen U.S.A

45 Reserpine 1949 Jal Vakil India

46 Rh - Factor 1940 Karl Landsteiner U.S.A

47 Serology 1884 - 1915 Paul Ehrlich Germany

48 Sex hormones 1910 Eugen Steinach Australia

49 Small Pox eradicated 1980 W.H.O Declaration UN

50 Stethoscope 1819 Rene Laennec France

51 Streptomycin 1944 Selman Waksmann U.S.A

52 Synthetic Antigens 1917 Landsteiner U.S.A

53 Terramycin 1950 Finlay and Others U.S.A

54 Thyroxin 1919 Edward Calvin - Kendall U.S.A

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12 Cardiac Pacemaker 1932 A.S Hyman U.S.A

55 Typhus Vaccine 1909 J. Nicolle France

56 Vaccination 1796 Edward Jenner Britain

57 Vaccine, Measles 1963 Enders U.S.A

58 Vaccine, Meningitis 1987 Gardon, et al. Connaught Lab U.S.A

59 Vaccine, Polio 1954 Jonas Salk U.S.A

60 Vaccine, Polio - orai 1960 Albert Sabin U.S.A

61 Vaccine, Rabies 1885 Louis Pasteur France

62 Vaccine, Smallpox 1776 Jenner Britain

63 Virology 1892 Ivanovski and Bajernick USSR, Netherlands

64 Vitamin A 1913 Mc Collum and M. Davis U.S.A

65 Vitamin B1 1936 Minot and Murphy U.S.A

66 Vitamin C 1919 Froelich Holst Norway

67 Vitamin D 1925 Mc Collum U.S.A

68 Vitamin K 1938 Doisy Dam U.S.A

69 Western Scientific Therapy 460 - 370 BC Hippocrates Greece

70 Yoga 200 - 100 BC Patanjali India

National Laboratories and Research Institutions

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Name Place
S. No.

1 Central Building Research Institute Roorkee, Uttaranchal

2 Central Drug Research Institute Lucknow, U.P.

3 Central Electro - Chemical Research Institute Karaikudi, T.N.

4 Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute Pilani, Rajasthan

5 Central Food Technological Research Institute Mysore, Karnataka

6 Central Fuel Research Institute Dhanbad, Jharkhand

7 Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute Jadhavpur, W.B.

8 Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Lucknow, U.P.

9 Central Leather Research Institute Chennai, T.N.

10 Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute Durgapur, W.B.

11 Central Mining Research Station Dhanbad, Jharkhand

12 Central Road Research Institute New Delhi, Delhi

13 Central Salt and Marine Chemical Research Institute Bhavnagar, Gujarat

14 Central Scientific Instruments Organisation Chandigarh, Chandigarh

15 Indian Institute of Chemical Biology Kolkatta, W.B.

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11 Central Mining Research Station Dhanbad, Jharkhand

16 Indian Institute of Petroleum Dehradun, Uttaranchal

17 Industrial Texicology Central Centre Lucknow, U.P.

18 National Aeronautical Laboratory Bangalore, Karnataka

19 National Botanical Research Institute Lucknow, U.P.

20 National Chemical Laboratory Pune, Maharashtra

21 National Environment Engineering Institute Napery, Maharashtra

22 National Geophysical Research Institute Hyderabad, A.P.

23 National Institute of Oceanography Panjim, Goa

24 Bose Research Institute Kolkata, W.B.

25 National Metallurgical Laboratory Jamshedpur, Jharkhand

26 National Physical Laboratory New Delhi, Delhi

27 Regional Research Laboratories Bhubaneshwer, Orissa; Jorhat, Assam; Jammu, J & K; Hyderabad, A.P.

28 Structural Engineering Research Centre Roorkee, Uttaranchal, Chennai, T.N.

29 Visvesvarayya Industrial and Technological Museum Bangalore, Karnataka

30 High Altitude Research Laboratory Gulmarg, J and K

31 Indian Cancer Research Centre Mumbai, Maharashtra

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11 Central Mining Research Station Dhanbad, Jharkhand

32 Seismic Research Centre Gaurividanur, Near Bangalore, Karnataka

33 Central Marine Research Station Chennai, T.N.

34 Central Research Laboratory Chennai, T.N.

35 Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology Hyderabad, A.P.

36 Council of Scientific and Industrial Research New Delhi, Delhi

37 Forest Research Institute Dehradun, Uttaranchal

38 Indian Institute of Science Bangalore, Karnataka

39 Indian Institute of Sugar Technology Kanpur, U.P.

40 Indian Space Research Organisation Bangalore, Karnataka

41 Birbal Sahni Institute of Paleobotany Lucknow, U.P.

42 All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health Kolkata, W.B.

43 All India Institute of Medical Science New Delhi, Delhi

44 All India Malaria Institute Delhi

45 Institute of Ayurvedic Studies and Research Jamnagar, Gujarat

46 National Institute of Communicable Diseases New Delhi, Delhi

47 Central Research Institute Kasauli, H.P.

Nervous System of Human Body

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Nervous System Unit is Neuron.

Minimum power of regeneration is found in Nervous System. Largest cell of our body is Neuron only.

Nervous System is of following types :

• Central Nervous System : Brain + Spinal Chord

• Peripheral Nervous System : Nerves
• Autonomic Nervous System : Sympathetic + Parasympathetic Nervous System.

A. Central Nervous System : Consists of Brain and Spinal Cord.

Brain : Brain is convered by 3 layers (Meninges)

• Duramater (Toughest)
• Arachnoid Mater
• Piamater

Cerebrospinal Fluid is filled between the Meninges. Increased cerebrospinal fluid may result in meningitis.

Brain has the following parts :

(a) Cerebrum

2 distinct Parts : Outer Grey Matter or Cerebral Cortex and Inner White Matter.

Grey Matter Controls Activities such as Speech, Taste, Smell, Hearing (Conscious Activities).

It is the seat of Intelligence, Reasoning, Learning, will pleasure, Pain, Fear, etc. Beneath the Grey Matter is White Matter.

If cerebrum is removed, the person will become a simple reflex animal.

(b) Cerebellum

Concerned with equilibrium of the body and brings about co – ordination and control of muscular activities of the body.

(c) Medulla Oblongata :

Lowest Part of the brain and is connected to the Spinal Cord.

Controls the involuntary actions (Respiration, Heart Beat, Flow of Blood in Blood Vessels, Secretion of Glands, etc).

Nerves : It is of 2 Types :

Efferent : The fibres which carry impulses from the CNS. Many of them pass through the muscles making them to
contract, and are therefore called Motor Nerve Fibres.

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Afferent : Those which carry impulses to the CNS. The information which they transmit from the skin and deeper tissues
often evokes subjective sensation within the nervous system and are therefore called Sensory Nerve Fibres.

Reflex Action :

First discovered by Marshal Hall can be defined as the spontaneous response to the external stimuli.

Coordinated by spinal cord. In this, the stimulus received by the receptor organ is conveyed to the spinal cord by the
sensory or afferent nerve fibres.

The order is transmitted to the effectors organs like muscles by motor or efferent nerve fibres.

Conditional Reflex :

First shown by Pavlov on dog.

When the reflex action becomes the regular feature of an animal or the animal becomes habitual of it, such a reflex action
is known as the conditional reflex.

It is controlled by the cerebrum.

B. Peripheral Nervous System : Composed of Cranial Nerves and Spinal Nerves. Cranial arise from Brain While Spinal
from Spinal Cord.
Cranial are 12 pairs while spinal are 31 pairs. The following are the Cranial Nerves in man.

They can broadly be divided into Sensory, Motor and mixed Nerves.

• Olfactory : Sensory
• Optic : Sensory
• Occulomotor : Motor
• Trochlear : Motor
• Trigeminal : Mixed
• Abducens : Motor (smallest)
• Facial : Mixed
• Auditory : Sensory
• Glosso pharyngeal : Mixed
• Vagus : Mixed (largest)
• Spinal Accessory : Motor
• Hypoglossal : Motor

Summary of the Human Cranial Nerves

No. Name Found At Nature Function

1. Olfactory Olfactory epithelium Sensory Smell

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2. Optic Retina Sensory Sight

3. Occulomotor Four Eye Muscles Motor Movement of Eyeball

4. Trochlear Superior Oblique Eye Muscle Motor Rotation of Eyeball

5. Trigeminal - Mixed Sensations of touch and taste

(i) Ophthalmic Skin of Nose, Eyelids, Forehead, Scalp, Conjunctiva, Sensory -

Lacrimal Gland

(ii) Maxillary Mucous Membrane of Cheeks and Upper lip and Lower Sensory -
Eyelid.

(iii) Mandibular Lower Jaw, Lower Lip, Pinna, Tongue Mixed -

6. Abducens External Rectus Eye Muscle Motor Rotation on eyeball

7. Facial Face, Neck, Taste Buds, Salivary Glands Mixed Taste, Facial Expression, Saliva Secretion, Neck
Movement.

8. Auditory Internal Ear Sensory Hearing, Equilibrium

9. Glossopharyngeal Muscles and Mucous Membrane of Pharynx and Tongue Mixed Taste, Pharyngeal Contractions, Saliva Secretion

10. Vagus Larynx, Lungs, Heart, Stomach, Intestines Mixed Visceral Sensations and Movements

11. Acessory spinal Muscles of Pharynx, Larynx, Neck and Shoulder Motor Movements of Pharynx, Larynx, Neck and Shoulder

12. Hypoglossal Muscles of Tongue Motor Movements of Tongue

C. Autonomous Nervous System : Not under voluntary control. Controlled by Central Nervous System.

Controls, Digestion, Excretion, Secretion of Sweat and Digestive Juices, etc. Divided into two :

1. Sympathetic Nervous System :

• Increases the defence of body against adverse conditions.

• It is active in stress condition, pain, fear and anger.

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• Speeds up heartbeat, BR etc.

• Expenditure of energy takes place.
• Acetyl – choline and sympathetin are released.

2. Parasympathetic Nervous System :

• Provides relaxation, comfort and pleasure at the time of rest.

• Lowers heartbeat, thus lowering the BP.
• Restoration and conservation of energy takes place.
• Only acetyl – choline is released.

Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities

I. Pulmonary Volume

• Volume of air in the lungs.

• It is divided into four different types, according to the completely or incompletely filled lungs during breathing.

1. Tidal Volume (TV) : The volume of air inspired or expired involuntarily in each normal breath. It is about 500 ml of air in
average young adult man.

2. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) : The maximum volume of air which a person can inhale over and above tidal
volume by deepest possible voluntary inspiration. It is about 3000 ml.

3. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) : The volume of air which can be expired over] and above the tidal volume with
maximum effort. It is about 1100 ml.

4. Residual Volume (RV) : The volume of air left in the lungs even after maximum forceful expiration. It is about 1200 ml.

II. Pulmonary Capacities : Combination of two or more pulmonary volumes.

• Inspiratory Capacity (IC) : TV + IRV. It is about 3500 ml.

• Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) : ERV + RV. It is about 2300 ml.
• Vital Capacity (VC) : IRV + TV + ERV. It is the maximum amount of air a person can expel forcefully from his
lungs after first filling these with a maximum deep inspiration. It is about 4600 ml.
• Total Lung Capacity (TLC) : TV + IRV + RV + ERV. It is about 5800 ml.

Note :

All pulmonary volume and capacities are about 20% to 25% less in women than in men, more in athletic people than non
– exercising ones and more in non smokers than the smokers.

Comparison of Respiratory Gases

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Comparison of Respiratory Gases

Gas Inspired Air Alveolar Air Expired Air

O2 20.95% 13.8% 16.4%

CO2 0.04% 5.5% 4.0%

N2 79.01% 80.7% 79.6%

Respiratory Disorders in Human Body

Asphyxia : It is a condition caused by increase in CO2 concentration in tissue.

Hypoxia : Shortage of oxygen supply to body.

Hypopnoea : Slow breathing.

Hyperpnoea : Rapid breathing.

Apnoea : No breathing.

Dyspnoea : Painful breathing except in upright position.

Orthopnoea : Difficult breathing.

Tachypnoea : Rapid shallow breathing.

COPD : Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease which includes Emphysema, Chronic bronchitis and Asthma.

Emphysema : A situation of ‘short breath’ due to die break down of alveolar walls and reduction of respiratory area as it
happens due to smoking.

Tuberculosis : A bacterial disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Pneumonia : Infection of lungs by Diplococcus pneumonia and leads to accumulation of mucous and lymph in alveoli,
impairing gaseous exchange.

Whooping cough or Pertussis : An infectious disease caused by bacterium Bordetella pertussis.

Asthma : Difficult breathing due to spasm in bronchial muscles and narrowing of bronchi.

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Sleep Apnoea Syndrome (SAS) : Persons with snoring habit suffer with sleep apnoea syndrome because their upper
respiratory tract closes on inhalation leading to apnoea and sleep breaks.

Cough : A reflex in lower respiratory passages followed by forceful expulsion of air to remove any irritant.

Sneeze : A reflex similar to cough but applies to nasal passageways instead of lower respiratory passages.

Hypercapnia : Excess of CO2 in the body.

Cyanosis : Means blueness of skin because of excessive amount of deoxygenated haemoglobin.

Atelectasis : Means collapse of alveoli. Lack of surfactant also leads to atelectasis.

Hiccups : Exact reason unknown; due to spasmodic contraction of diaphragm (possibly due to irritation of phrenic nerve
which supplies the diaphragm).

Pleurisy : Inflammation of pleural membrane causing severe chest pain.

Respiratory Pigments

Name of the Respiratory Pigment Metal Present Colour Features

Hoemogobin Iron Red Plasma of some Annelids (e.g., Earthworm and Nenes)

Haemocyanin Copper Blue Plasma of Crustaceans (e.g., prawn), Some snails (Pila), Cephalopods(e.g.,
Sepia)

Haemoerythrin Iron Red Blood Cells of some Annelids (e.g., Polychaete Magelona)

Chlorocruorin Iron Green Plasma of some Annelids (e.g., Polychaete sabella)

Reproductive System of Human Body

It is the process by which an individual multiplies in number by producing more individuals of its own type.

Basic Features of Reproduction include :

• Synthesis of RNA and proteins

• Replication of DNA
• Cell division
• Formation of reproductive units or bodies
• Development of reproductive units into young ones.

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Types of Reproduction

I. Asexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction is the process of multiplication of individuals without the formation or fusion of gametes.

It involves a single parent and the young ones produced through it are genetically similar to the parent.

Asexual reproduction occurs in several ways :

1. Binary Fission

It involves the division of the nucleus followed by that of the cytoplasm, breaking the body into two young ones.

It occurs in unicellular organisms, e.g., Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium, etc.

2. Multiple Fission

In this the nucleus divides into several daughter nuclei, followed by the simultaneous division of the cytoplasm.

The nuclei move towards the periphery and each one is surrounded by small amount of cytoplasm which gives rise to new
daughter cells.

It occurs in protozoa e.g., Plasmodium.

3. Sporulation

In many protozoa and bacteria the asexual reproduction occurs by the division of nucleus into several daughter nuclei,
and then each daughter nucleus gets enclosed by small amount of cytoplasm to form a spore.

4. Budding

Budding is an unequal division of the parent where the identity of the parent body is still maintained.

It is in contrast to binary fission where parent body divides equally into two and no identity of the parent is left.

Bud is an outgrowth formed on the surface of the body which finally gets detached and develops into a young one.

It is common in Hydra.

5. Fragmentation

The body may break into two or more fragments, and each fragment develops into a complete individual e.g., Filamentous
algae, Spirogyra.

II. Sexual Reproduction

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The process of sexual reproduction involves the formation and fusion of gametes (Syngamy) and results in the formation
of a new organism genetically different from parent.

Sexual reproduction is usually biparental, i.e., involves a male and a female individual producing a male and a female
gamete respectively.

Such animals are called unisexual or dioecious e.g., frog, cockroach, humans.

In certain animals, the male and female sex organs are present in the same individual.

Such species are called monoecious or bisexual. e.g., earthworm, leech.

Parthenogenesis is a specialized reproduction in which eggs develop without fertilization e.g., bees, ants, wasps, etc.

Mammalian Reproductive System

The reproductive system of sexually reproducing animals consists of :

• Primary Sex Organs (called gonads) which produce gametes and hormones.
• Secondary Sex Organs / Glands which participate in reproduction but do not form gametes.
• Accessory Sex Organs / Characters which distinguish the two sexes in appearance.

Primary Sex
Sex Secondary Sex Organs Accessory or External Sex Character
Organs

Male Testes Epididymis Vas deferens Ejaculatory duct Urethra Seminal vesicle Prostate Low pitch voice Beard Broad shoulder
Gland Cowper's gland Penis Narrow hips

Female Ovary Fallopian tubes (oviducts) Uterus Vagina External Genitalia / Vulva High pitch voice Smooth face Narrow
Bartholian's Gland Mammary glands shoulder Broad hips

Respiratory System in Human Body

All physical and chemical reactions in which atmospheric air oxidizes food in the body cells resulting in production of
energy and liberation of CO2 are included in respiration.

Types of Respiration

I. Anaerobic Respiration

When nutrients are oxidized without using O2 (also called fermentation).

In yeast, glucose forms ethyl alcohol and CO2.

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In bacteria and muscles, glucose is converted into lactic acid. Endoparasites like Ascaris, Fasciola, Taenia also respire
anaerobically.

It is a low energy yielding process.

II. Aerobic Respiration

Cells utilize O2 for oxidizing nutrients. O2 is used either from atmospheric air or from water.

It is found in most plants and animals.

It provides much more energy than the anaerobic one.

It involves:

1. External Respiration: Gaseous exchange of O2 and CO2 between blood and air (or water).
2. Transport of gases to the tissues.
3. Internal Respiration: Gaseous exchange between blood and tissues.
4. Cellular Respiration: Oxidation of nutrients in the cells and liberation of energy.

Respiratory Organs in Human Body

I. Nasal Cavity

It opens to the exterior through nostrils.

The small hair present in the cavity help to filter particles of dust and other foreign matter.

The air in the nasal cavity gets warmed (because nasal cavity has a very good blood supply) and moistened before it
enters lungs.

II. Pharynx

From the nasal cavity the air enters the pharynx. It serves as a common passage for both air and food.

The opening into the wind pipe or trachea is a narrow slit, the glottis.

The glottis is protected against the entrance of food by a triangular flap of tissue, the epiglottis.

III. Larynx (Voice Box)

Called Adam’s apple in man. It is the first part of trachea present in the neck.

When air is forced into the larynx, the vocal cords present in it vibrates and sound is produced.

The pitch of a sound is determined by the tension on the vocal cords – the greater the tension, the higher the pitch.

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IV. Trachea

It is four and a half inch long tube with C – shaped ring of cartilages in its walls.

These tings of cartilage make the wall non – collapsable.

The trachea branches into two bronchi on to each lung and these branches within the lung into many smaller bronchioles.

V. Lungs

Surrounding each lung is a double walled sac, the pleural cavity. Hence, the covering of lungs are called pleural
membrane.

The right lung is divided into three lobes and left into two.

The left lung is smaller than the right and has a concavity, the cardiac notch, where the heart lies.

Inside the lung, each bronchi divides into numerous bronchioles, each of which terminates into an elongated saccule, the
alveolar duct, which bears on its surface air sac or alveoli.

The latter provide a large surface for gaseous exchange.

Sensory Organs in Humans

Eye
Eye is made up of 3 Layers :

• Upper Sclerotic
• Middle Choroids
• Inner Retina

1. Sclerotic Layer

The Transparent bulging, circular part of sclerotic layer which lies in the front is called cornea.

Cornea is covered by the thin Conjunctiva.

2. Choroid Layer

Choroid layer starts from iris which is next to cornea.

It controls the amount of light entering into the eye (in brighter light, the iris automatically shuts tighter, reducing the
amount of light entering the pupil).

The circular aperture of iris is called pupil.

Next is lens (proteinous). It is biconvex in nature.

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Space between, lens and cornea is filled with a transparent watery fluid called Aqueous Humour.

The space behind the lens is filled with Vitreous Humour.

3. Retina

Image of the object is formed on retina.

Image is formed upside down on it and the process of interpretation takes place in brain.

Retina is composed of 2 types of Cells :

1. Rod Cells : Sensitive to dim light and contain the pigment Rhodopsin (in nocturnal animals more)

2. Cone Cells : Color sensitive for 3 primary colors (Red, Blue and Green).

They are found more in diurnal animals. Transferred from parents. Found more at yellow spot.

Yellow Spot (Macula Lutea) : On retina, finest image is formed here. Favea centralis is the depression in the middle of
yellow spot.

Blind Spot : No image formation takes place here as the optic nerves innervate the eyeball here.

Also the rods and cones are absent here.

Color of Eye is the Color of the Iris.

Cornea is donated in Eye Donation.

Eyes glow in animals due to tapetum.

Correspondence between Camera and Eye

S. No Camera Eye

1. Box Sclera

2. Black inner paint Choroid

3. Shutter Eyelids

4. Diaphragm Iris

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S. No Camera Eye

5. Light hole Pupil

6. Lens Lens

7. Light-sensitive plate of film Retina

8. Image small and inverted Image small and inverted

Defects of Eye

1. Myopia: Cannot see distant objects, image formed before retina, concave lens is used.

The power of the lens is denoted by negative sign.

2. Hypermetropia : Cannot see near objects, image formed behind retina, convex lens is used.

The power of the lens is denoted by positive sign.

3. Astigmatism : Curvature of cornea becomes irregular and image is not clear cylindrical lens is used.

4. Cataract : Due to defective protein metabolism the lens becomes opaque Operation is needed.

5. Gloucoma : Due to defect in aqueous humour.

6. Xerophthalmia : It is due to deficiency of Vitamin A.

In this conjunctiva or cornea becomes keratinied. It may lead to blindness.

7. Presbiopia : In this, power of accommodation of lens decreases due to age factor and defected metabolism.

Also known as age sightedness. Can be removed by bifocal lens.

Ear

Divided into 3 Parts :

1. External Ear (Pinna + External Auditary Meatus)

• Leads into auditary canal or external auditary meatus. Auditary canal terminates at ear drum or tympanum.
• Pinna collects the sound waves and transmits them to ear drum which further transmits it to the middle ear.
• Has wax glands which produce cerumen to trap dust particles.

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2. Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity)

It encloses 3 Ear Ossicles :

• Malleus (Hammer – Shaped)

• Incus (Anvil – Shaped)
• Stapes (Stirrup – Shaped)

These 3 transmit sound to the internal ear (through stapes, which is connected to the internal ear)

Fanastra Ovalis : Connects middle ear to internal ear

Middle ear is connected to the pharynx by Eustachian tube.

3. Internal Ear (Membranous Labyrinth)

Most delicate part. Enclosed by parotic bone.

Various parts are there which perform 2 acts:

Maintenance of balance and hearing.

Succulus and cochlea parts are associated with hearing.

It is filled with a fluid, perilymph.

It ultimately leads to nerve impulses through corti (rod shaped structure), Cochlea is a small snail shaped tube, in a
3/4
2 turned spirally).

In the internal ear are 3 semi – circular canals and utriculus which are filled with a fluid, endolymph.

They perform the balancing act.

Skeletal System in Human Body

Skeletal system constitutes hard internal or external living or non – living parts that form the supporting framework of
body.

It is divided into 2 Parts :

Exoskeleton : It is hard, protective and supportive frame – work which is produced by ectoderm.

It is present on the outside of the body (made of either dead tissues or biochemical secretion).

Found in both invertebrates (shells of snails, corals, etc.) and vertebrates (hair, nails, claws, hooves, etc.).

Endoskeleton : It is hard, supportive framework which is produced by mesoderm.

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It occurs inside the body and is made of cartilages and bones. Found in corals, echinoderms and vertebrates.

Human Endoskeleton

Divided into two main parts : Axial Skeleton and Appendicular Skeleton.

A. Axial Skeleton (Total 80 bones)

It lies along the principal axis of the body.

It includes skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum.

Skull

Skull consists of two main parts – cranium and face.

Cranium (brain box) is formed by 8 bones and provides a bony protection for the brain.

Face : There are 14 bones which form the skeleton of face.

There are also present 6 ear ossicles in the skull.

Another bone is hyoid, which is horse shoe shaped present in neck between lower jaw and sound box (or larynx).

It supports tongue.

Vertebral Column

It is a string like vertebrae which lies in the mid dorsal line of the neck and trunk.

It is made up of 33 vertebrae in which 26 bones are visible because five sacral vertebrae are fused to form one sacrum
and four coccygeal vertebrae are fused to form one coccyx.

It displays four curves to enhance balancing power and firmness for upright posture of body. The curvatures are cervical,
thoracic, lumbar, pelvic (or sacral).

The vertebrae are grouped into five groups – cervical (7 bones), thoracic (12 bones) lumbar (5 bones), sacral (1 bone)
and coccyx (1 bone).

Ribs

Ribs are 12 pairs (12 x 2) of bony bars which form the sides of chest cage.

They protect the delicate organs (heart, lungs, etc.) and provide surface for attachment of muscles concerned with
respiratory mechanism.

Sternum (or Breast Bone)

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It is a narrow, elongated and flattened structure, present just under the skin in the middle of front of the chest.

B. Appendicular Skeleton (Total 126 bones)

This skeleton lies laterally and is attached to axial skeleton at an angle.

It is made up of girdles (pectoral and pelvic) and limb bones (forelimb and hind – limb).

Pectoral Girdle

• Also known as shoulder girdle.

• Has 4 bones (two in each pectoral girdle).

Limb Bones

Forelimbs: Consist of 60 bones

• Humerus (2): Upper arm

• Radius (2): Forearm
• Ulna (2): Forearm
• Carpals (16 = 2 x 8 ) : Wrist
• Metacarpals (10 = 2 x 5) : Palm
• Phalanges (28 = 2 x 14) : Finger

Hind – limbs : Consist of 60 bones

• Femur (2) : Thigh (longest bone in the body)

• Patella (2) : Knee
• Tibia (2) : Shank
• Fibula (2) : Shank (thinnest bone)
• Tarsals (14 = 2 x 7) : Ankle
• Metatarsals (10 = 2 x 5) : Sole
• Phalanges (28 = 2 x 14) : Toes

Pelvic Girdle : Has 2 hip bones.

Diseases of Skeletal System

1. Gout : Accumulation of uric acid crystals in joints leading to painful movement. Swelling and inflammation of
synovial membrane due to autoimmune reaction.
2. Dislocation : In this case, the bones at the joints are dislodged from their positions e.g., the ball of one bone may
slip out of the socket.
3. Hard tissue deposits over articular cartilage along with higher secretion of synovial fluid causing pain and stiffness
lead to rheumatoid arthritis.
4. Tearing of articular cartilage and development of bony lumps at places causing pain, stiffness and permanent
bending lead to osteoarthritis.

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5. Bursitis is inflammation of the bursae present within synovial joint as small membrane bound pockets which
stores synovial fluid. It is caused by physical injury or constant pressure on a single joint for a long time.
6. Osteitis is inflammation of bone.
7. Osteoporosis is loss of bone density due to excessive absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the bone.
8. Osteomyelitis is infection of bone.
9. Osteomyelodysplasia is a condition characterized by thinning of the osseous tissue of bones and increase in
size of the marrow cavities, attended with leukopenia and fever.
10. Osteopetrosis is a hereditary disease marked by abnormally dense bone, and by the common occurrence of
fractures of affected bone.

Articulation of Bones the Joints

A bone joint or articulation may be defined as the junction of two bones.

The study of such joints is known as arthrology.

There are 3 principal types of bone joints.

Note:

• Femur (in hind limbs) is the longest bone and stapes (in middle ear) is the smallest bone of the body.
• Sternum is absent in fish.
• Spondylitis is inflammation of vertebrae.
• Synovitis means an inflammation leading to swelling at joints.
• Osteology is study of skeleton.
• Chondrology is study of cartilages.
• Arthrology is study of joints.
• Masseters of jaw is the strongest muscle.
• Birds have spongy bones with air filled spaces, called pneumatic bones.
• Rigor mortis is the state of body stiffening after death.
• Fatigue is the inability of a muscle to contract due to depletion of its chemicals and lactic acid accumulation by
repeated contraction. A completely fatigued muscle refuses to respond to nervous stimuli.

Some Important Facts of Human Body

Length of Alimentary Canal Approximately 8 metres

BMR (Basal Metabolic Rate) 1600 K. Cal / day

Number of Cells in Body 75 trillion

Longest Bone Femur (Thigh bone)

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Smallest Bone Ear ossicle, stapes

Weight of Brain 1400 gms

Blood Volume 6.8 litres (in 70 kg body)

Normal B.P 120 / 80 mm Hg

Number of R.B.C (a) In Male : 4.5 - 5.0 million / cubic mm.

(b) In Female : 4.0 - 4.5 million / cubic mm

Life Span of R.B.C 120 days

Normal W.B.C Count 5000 - 1000 / cubic mm

Life Span of W.B.C 3 - 4 days

D.L.C. (Differential Leucocyte Count) (a) Basophils : 0.5 - 1%

(b) Eosinophils : 1 - 3%

(c) Monocytes : 3 - 8%

(d)Neutrophils : 40 - 70%

(e) Lymphocytes : 2 - 25%

Blood Platelets Count 2,00,000 - 4,00,000 / cubic mm

Haemoglobin (a) In Male : 14 - 15.6 gm / 100 c.c. of blood

(b)In Female : 11 - 14 gm / 100 c.c. of blood

Hb Content in Body 500 - 700 gm

Universal Blood Donor O Rh -ve

Universal Blood Recipient AB

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Blood Clotting Time 2 - 5 minutes

Average Body Weight 70 kg

Normal Body Temperature 98.4° F or 37° C

Breathing Rate 16 - 20 / minute

Dental Formula Adult : 2123 / 2123 = 32;

Child : 2120 / 2120 = 22 Milk Teeth

Number of Cranial Nerves 12 pairs

Number of Spinal Nerves 31 pairs

Largest Endocrine Gland Thyroid

Gestation Period 9 months (253 - 266 days)

Normal Heart Beat 72 - 75 / minute

Largest Gland Liver

Largest Muscle in the Body Gluteus maximus (Buttock Muscle)

Largest Smooth Muscle Uterus of Pregnant Woman

Smallest Muscle in the Body Stapedius

Largest Artery Abdominal Aorta

Largest Vein Inferior Venacava

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Largest W.B.C Monocyte

Smallest W.B.C Lymphocyte

Greatest Regeneration Power In liver

Longest Nerve Sciatic

Longest Cell Neuron (Nerve Cell)

Menstrual Cycle 28 days

Menopause Age 45 - 50 Years

Minimum Regeneration Power In Brain Cells

Minimum Distance for proper vision 25 cm

Type of Placenta Haemochorial (Chorioallantoic)

Pulse Rate 72 / minute

Volume of Semen 2 - 4 ml / ejaculation

Normal Sperm Count 200 - 350 million / ejaculation

FSR (normal Erythrocyte Sedimentation rate) 4 - 10 min / hr

Thinnest Skin Conjunctiva

pH of Gastric Juice 1.4

pH of Urine 6.0

pH of Blood 7.35 - 7.45

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pH of Bile 7.5

pH of Pancreatic Juice 8.5

Total Number of Muscles in the Body 639

Total Number of Bones in the Body 206

Largest Organ of Human Body Skin

Structural Organisation of Cell

Study which deals with the cell is called cytology.

Cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 in sections of cork. He only coined the term ‘Cell’.

The Cell Theory was given by Schleiden and Schwan.

Cell Theory states that :

• All living things are composed of cells and their products.

• All cells arise from pre – existing Cells.
• All cells are basically alike in Chemical Composition and Metabolic Activities.
• The function of an organism as a whole is the outcome of the activities and interaction of the Constituent Cells.

Types of Cells :

In a typical cell, the protoplasm consists of nucleus and cytoplasm.

Depending on the type of nucleus present, the cells are of two types :

• Prokaryotic cell (found in blue – green algae, bacteria and Pleuropneumonia like organisms (PPLO).
• Eukaryotic Cell.

Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

It is simple and primitive in nature. It is developed and comparatively complex in nature.

The nucleus is not well organized. It has no nuclear membrane and The nucleus is well organized. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are
nucleolus. present.

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Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

The cell has no membrane bound organelles except ribosomal granules. The cell contains almost all the membrane bound organelles.

Chromosomes are not formed in this cell during cell division. Chromosomes are formed in the nucleus during cell division.

Single DNA thread remains freely in the nuclear material. DNA is present in the nuclear reticulum or chromosomes.

On the basis of number of cells, the organisms are classified as Unicellular and Multi – cellular organisms.

Difference between Plant Cells and Animal Cells :

Plant Cell Animal Cell

A plant cell has a rigid wall on the outside. Cell wall is absent.

It is usually larger in size. An animal cell is comparatively smaller in size

It cannot change its shape An animal cell can often change its shape

Plastids are found in plant cells. Plastids are usually absent.

Plant cells exposed to sunlight possess chlorophyll containing Chlorophyll is absent

plastids called chloroplasts.

A mature plant cell contains a large central vacuole. An animal cell often possesses many small vacuoles.

Nucleus lies on one side in the peripheral cytoplasm. Nucleus usually lies in the center.

Mitochondria are comparatively fewer. Mitochondria are generally more numerous.

Cristae are tubular in plant mitochondria. Cristae are plate - like in animal mitochondria.

Plant cells do not burst if placed in hypotonic solution due to the Animal cells usually burst if placed in hypotonic solution unless and until they
presence of cell wall. possess contractile vacuoles.

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Plant Cell Animal Cell

Centrioles are usually absent except in lower plants. Centrioles are found in animal cells.

Golgi apparatus consists of a number of distinct or unconnected units Golgi apparatus is either localized or consists of a well connected single
called dictyosomes. complex.

Lysosomes are rare. Their activity is performed by specialized Typical lysosomes occur in animal cell.
vacuoles.

Glyoxysomes may be present. They are absent.

Crystals of inorganic substances may occur inside the cell. Crystals usually do not occur in animal cells.

Reserve food is generally starch and fat. Reserve food is usually glycogen and fat.

Adjacent cells may be connected through plasmodesmata. Adjacent cells are connected through a number of junctions.

General Facts

• Huxley called protoplasm as ‘Physical basis of life’.

• Ostrich egg is the largest cell in size.
• Human nerve cell is the longest animal cell.
• Largest cellular plant Acetabularia is 10 cm and animal is Amoeba, which is 1 mm.
• In human beings, cells of kidney are the smallest.
• Smallest cell is 0.1 – 0.3 µm in size. It is PPLO (Mycoplasma gallisepticum)

Test Tube Babies

The technique of in – vitro fertilization (IVF) and in – vitro development followed by the embryo transfer in the uterus of the
normal female to start the development and finally leading to normal birth is called test tube baby.

It is basically conceived by artificial insemination.

Methodology involves the following steps :

• Removal of unfertilized ovum from reproductive tract of a female.

• Ovum is kept under aseptic conditions.
• Fusion of sperm and ovum in a culture medium, outside the female body to form the zygote.
• Zygote is stimulated to develop in vitro up to 32 – celled stage.
• Developing embryo is implanted on the endometrium of the uterus at 32 – celled stage. So the pregnancy in the
woman starts and further the development of the child continues in the womb till it is born.

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The IVF technology is a boon to childless couples. First attempt to produce a test tube baby was made by an Italian
scientist Dr. Petrucci in 1959. But this human embryo survived for only 29 days.

The World’s first test tube baby (a baby girl) named as Louise Joy Brown was born on July 25, 1978 in Great Britain.

India’s first test tube baby was born in Calcutta on October 3rd, 1978. Her name is Durga.

Top Ten Sciences

Showing a clear departure from the year 2005, the world’s leading scientific research journal Science has dubbed an
outstanding work of mathematics as the most significant breakthrough of the year 2006.

It is worth mentioning that a work in the field of organic evolution had been accorded the same pride of place in the year
2005 for which the journal had invited criticism from several corners.

Taking cognizance of that fact, the Editorial has aptly noted, “Our readers can relax this year; Religion and politics are off
the table, and n – dimensional geometry is on instead”.

Solution of A Century – Old Mathematical Riddle

The work of Russia’s Publicity shy mathematician Grigori Perelman has topped the Science’s Top Ten Breakthroughs of
the Year 2006.

As the Editorial says, “To mathematicians, Grigori Perelman’s proof of the Poincare Conjecture qualifies at least as the
Breakthrough of the Decade. But it has taken them a good part of that decade to convince themselves that it was for real”.

Poincare Conjecture, which deals with abstract shapes in three – dimensional space, has finally been solved.

The Poincare Conjecture is part of a branch of mathematics called topology, informally known as ‘Rubber Sheet
Geometry’ because it involves surfaces that can undergo arbitrary amounts of stretching.

Proposed in 1904 by Henri Poincare, the conjecture describes a test for showing that a space is equivalent to a
‘hypersphere’, the three – dimensional surface of a four – dimensional ball.

In 2002, Russian mathematician Grigori Perelman, posted on the Interner the first of three papers that outlined a proof of
Poincare’s conjecture as part of an even more ambitious result.

Though many lacunae still existed, it appeared that Perelman had indeed solved one of the most difficult problems in
mathematics. The year 2006 saw three teams filling in the gaps of Perelman’s proof.

Tracking the Trail of Neanderthal – Homo Sapien Divergence

The two groups that published their results in 2006 concluded that Neanderthals diverged from our own ancestors at least
4,50,000 years ago – approximately the time suggested by fossil and mitochondrial DNA studies.

While one group decoded 65,000 Neanderthal bases the other decoded a million bases. Together these two groups
showed that researchers could now find sequence changes between modern and ancient humans.

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The works provide us a very rough draft of the complete Neanderthal genome sequence. This discovery coincided with
the 150th anniversary of the discovery of the Neanderthal type specimen celebrated in 2006.

Depletion of Great Ice Sheets

While climate change and its effects on ice sheets is now accepted, the observation by glaciologists that the two great ice
sheets covering Greenland and Antarctica are melting and losing ice to the oceans proved beyond doubt the effect of
climate change. The scientists also showed that the ice sheets are being lost at an accelerating pace.

The observation has in turn brought out the effect of how the sensitive ice sheets react to ‘an as – yet modest warming of
air and ocean water’.

Both Greenland and Antarctica have been losing ice over the past 5 to 10 years with Greenland shedding at least 100
gigatons each year and Antarctica in the range of tens of gigatons per year or more.

Evolutionary Feat of a Fossil Fuel Discovery

If glaciologists showed the effect of melting ice sheets on low lying coastal areas, paleontologists dug out evidence of a
fossil fish that long ago took a deep breath and made some tentative but ultimately far – reaching steps onto land.

“The 375 million year old specimen with its sturdy jointed fins fills and evolutionary gap and provides a glimpse of the
features that helped later creatures conquer the continents”, Science reports.

The fish have been named Tiktaalik roseae for ‘large freshwater fish’ in the Inuktitut language and a donor who helped
fund the expedition, respectively.

“All limbed vertebrates, known as tetrapods, evolved from lobe – finned fishes some 370 million to 360 million years ago.
The new species is the most tetrapod – like fish yet discovered”.

The First Rudimentary Invisibility Cloak :

Physicists also share their own claim for fame in 2006 by cobbling together the first ‘Rudimentary Invisibility Cloak’ –
Scientists developed this year the first rudimentary device for shielding objects from view.

The device guides incoming microwaves in such a way that they produce neither a reflection nor a shadow. Although far
from perfect – the ring shaped cloak is invisible only when viewed in microwaves of a certain wavelength travelling parallel
to the plane of the ring – the device could usher in a potentially revolution approach to manipulating electromagnetic
waves.

The First Ray of Hope for AMD Patients

The battle against Age – related Macular Degeneration (AMD), which is one of the leading causes of blindness in people,
appears to be won.

The results of two clinical trials showed that treatment with the drug ranibizumab improves the vision of roughly one – third
of patients with the more serious wet form of AMD and stabilizes the condition of most of the others. Other approved
treatments can only slow the progression of AMD.

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Vision loss in the wet form of AMD is caused by the growth and leakage of abnormal blood vessels in the macula, the
central region of the retina. The drug ranibizumab targets the protein that stimulates the vessel growth.

Detecting Genetic Changes to Develop New Species :

How does Speciation Start? Several genetic changes make a group of individuals become a separate species by giving
them the extra advantage to survive in a new environment.

And understanding these have come, thanks to genomics, in helping scientists understand one of the most fundamental
questions of biology on biodiversity.

From Florida beach mice to cactus finches, the effect of a single gene to help them become, a separate species has been
brought out.

Genes can help drive speciation in other ways as well. Researchers have long ago realized that as two incipient species
diverge, “the sequences of two or more interacting genes can evolve along different paths until the proteins they encode
no longer work together in any crossbred offspring”.

Scientists now have been able to pinpoint the first such pair of incompatible genes in Drosophila melanogaster and a
sister species, D. simulan.

“In June, evolutionary biologists detailed the most convincing case yet of a species that arose through hybridization. They
bred two species of passion vine butterflies and got the red and yellow stripe pattern of a third species”.

New Insight into Cellular Structure

Biologists have for the first time managed to get a clearer view of the fine structure of cells and proteins.

This was possible as they used a microscopy technique that sidestepped a fundamental limit of optics – inability to study
features smaller than half the wavelength of the light used to illuminate an object – about 200 nanometres for visible light.

Researchers in Germany using a technique known as Stimulated Emission Depletion (STED) and another simpler
technique known as photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM) have used fluorescent dye / tag effectively with some
light manipulations to study biological specimens that was not possible using conventional optical techniques.

Verification of Brain’s Memory Retention Capability

How does the brain record new memories? A process called Long Term Potentiation (LTP) that strengthens connections
between neurons was long suspected by neurologists to be the answer but there was no way of proving it.

Several findings reported in 2006 strongly bolstered the case. “LTP is based on the fact that synaptic connections
between neurons in the hippocampus, a brain region tied to memory, are bolstered under certain conditions”.

Scientists discovered LTP is the early 1970s, when experiments with rabbits showed that a brief barrage of electrical zaps
could holster synaptic connections between neurons in the hippocampus, a brain region tied to memory.

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Observing LTP in the hippocampus when an animal learns something was essential to prove LTP. In January, Spanish
scientists reported such an observation in mice conditioned to blink upon hearing a tone.

In August, another research team described LTP in the hippocampus of rats that had learned to avoid an area where they
had previously received a shock.

Discovery of a New RNA Type

After DNA, it has been the turn of small RNA molecules to hog the limelight. The number of small RNA being discovered
seems unending with Piwi – interacting RNAs (piRNAs) joining the elite club. piRNAs made their grand entrance last
summer.

piRNAs are abundant in the rests of several animals, including humans and are distinctly different from their small RNA
cousins. They appear to regulate the development and maintenance of sperm cells in many species. But much is
unknown about them.

Spece Science
India has a long and distinguished tradition in science and technology from the ancient times with great achievements
during the twentieth century. At the time of independence, our scientific and technological infrastructure was neither
strong nor organised as compared to the developed world. This had resulted in our being technologically dependent on
the skills and expertise available in other countries. In the past four decades, an infrastructure and capability largely
commensurate with meeting national needs has been created minimising our dependence on other countries. A range of
industries from small to the most sophisticated has been established covering a wide range of utilities, services and
goods. There is now a reservoir of expertise well acquainted with the most modern advances in basic and applied areas
that is equipped to make choices between available technologies, to absorb readily new technologies and provide a
framework for future national development.

Policies and Plans

Indian Government, at all levels, announces Policies and Plans from time to time. In this section, we have attempted to provide you with easy
and single point access to information about several policies and schemes of the Government.

• Science and Technology Policy 2003

• Technology Policy Statement 1983
• Scientific Policy Resolution 1958
• National Biotechnology Development Strategy
• Ethical Policies on the Human Genome, Genetic Research & Services
• Biotechnology Industry Partnership Program (BIPP)
• Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Program (BIRAP)

Indian Space Program

Despite being a developing economy with its attendant problems, India has effectively developed space technology and
has applied it successfully for its rapid development and today is offering a variety of space services globally. During the
formative decade of 1960s, space research was conducted by India mainly with the help of sounding rockets. The Indian
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Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was formed in 1969. Space research activities were provided additional fillip with
the formation of the Space Commission and the Department of Space by the government of India in 1972. And, ISRO was
brought under the Department of Space in the same year. In the history of the Indian space programme, 70s were the era
of Experimentation during which experimental satellite programmes like Aryabhatta, Bhaskara, Rohini and Apple were
conducted. The success of those programmes, led to era of operationalisation in 80s during which operational satellite
programmes like INSAT and IRS came into being. Today, INSAT and IRS are the major programmes of ISRO.

Indian space program achievements are given below :

PSLV-C18 successfully launches Megha-

Tropiques, Jugnu, SRMSat andVesselSat-1 from Sriharikota (October 12,
2011).

PSLV-C17 successfully launches GSAT-12 from Sriharikota (July 15, 2011).

Successful launch of GSAT-8 by Ariane-5 VA-202 from Kourou French Guiana,

(May 21, 2011).

PSLV-C16 successfully launches Three Satellites - RESOURCESAT-

2,YOUTHSAT, X-SAT from Sriharikota (April 20, 2011).

GSLV-F06 launched from Shriharikota (Dec 25, 2010). GSAT-5P could not be
placed into orbit as the GSLV-F06 mission was not successful.

Successful launch of advanced communication satellite HYLAS (Highly

Adaptable Satellite), built by ISRO on a commercial basis in partnership with
EADS-Astrium of Europe, by Ariane-5 V198 from Kourou French Guiana
(November 27, 2010).

PSLV-C15 successfully launches Five Satellites - CARTOSAT-2B, ALSAT-2A,

two nanosatellites-NLS-6.1 & 6.2 and a pico-satellite- STUDSAT from Sriharikota
(July 12, 2010).

GSLV-D3 launched from Sriharikota (Apr 15, 2010). GSAT-4 satellite could not
be placed in orbit as flight testing of the Indigenous Cryogenic Stage in GSLV-
D3 Mission was not successful.

PSLV-C14 successfully launches Seven Satellites - OCEANSAT-2,

FourCUBESAT Satellites and Two RUBIN-9 from Sriharikota (Sept. 23, 2009).

PSLV-C12 successfully launches RISAT-2 and ANUSAT from Sriharikota (April

20, 2009).

PSLV-C11 successfully launches CHANDRAYAAN-1 from Sriharikota (October

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22, 2008).

PSLV-C9 successfully launches CARTOSAT-2A, IMS-1 and 8 foreign nano

satellites from Sriharikota (April 28,2008).

PSLV-C10 successfully launches TECSAR satellite under a commercial contract

with Antrix Corporation (January 21, 2008).

Successful launch of GSLV (GSLV-F04) with INSAT-4CR on board from SDSC

SHAR (September 2, 2007).

ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C8, successfully launched Italian

astronomical satellite, AGILE from Sriharikota (April 23, 2007).

Successful launch of INSAT-4B by Ariane-5 from Kourou French Guyana,

(March 12, 2007).

Successful recovery of SRE-1 after manoeuvring it to reenter the earth’s

atmosphere and descend over the Bay of Bengal about 140 km east of
Sriharikota (January 22, 2007).
ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C7 successfully launches four
satellites - India’s CARTOSAT-2 and Space Capsule Recovery Experiment
(SRE-1) and Indonesia’s LAPAN-TUBSAT and Argentina’s PEHUENSAT-
1(January 10, 2007).

Second operational flight of GSLV (GSLV-F02) from SDSC SHAR with INSAT-
4C on board. (July 10, 2006). Satellite could not be placed in orbit.

Successful launch of INSAT-4A by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana,

(December 22, 2005).

ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C6, successfully

launchedCARTOSAT-1 and HAMSAT satellites from Sriharikota(May 5, 2005).

The first operational flight of GSLV (GSLV-F01) successfully

launchedEDUSAT from SDSC SHAR, Sriharikota (September 20, 2004)

ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C5, successfully

launchedRESOURCESAT-1(IRS-P6) satellite from Sriharikota(October 17, 2003).

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Successful launch of INSAT-3E by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana,

(September 28, 2003).

The Second developmental launch of GSLV-D2 with GSAT-2on board from

Sriharikota (May 8, 2003).

Successful launch of INSAT-3A by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (April

10, 2003).

ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C4, successfully

launchedKALPANA-1 satellite from Sriharikota(September 12, 2002).

Successful launch of INSAT-3C by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana,

(January 24, 2002).

ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C3,successfully launched three

satellites -- Technology Experiment Satellite (TES) of ISRO, BIRDof Germany
and PROBA of Belgium - into their intended orbits (October 22, 2001).
The first developmental launch of GSLV-D1 with GSAT-1 on board from
Sriharikota (April 18, 2001).

INSAT-3B, the first satellite in the third generation INSAT-3 series, launched by
Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (March 22, 2000).

Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-P4 (OCEANSAT), launched by Polar

Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C2) along with Korean KITSAT-3 and
German DLR-TUBSAT from Sriharikota (May 26, 1999).
INSAT-2E, the last satellite in the multipurpose INSAT-2 series, launched by
Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (April 3, 1999).

INSAT system capacity augmented with the readiness of INSAT-2DTacquired

from ARABSAT (January 1998).

INSAT-2D, fourth satellite in the INSAT series, launched (June 4, 1997).

Becomes inoperable on October 4, 1997. (An in-orbit satellite, ARABSAT-1C,
since renamed INSAT-2DT, was acquired in November 1997 to partly augment
the INSAT system).

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First operational launch of PSLV with IRS-1D on board (September 29, 1997).
Satellite placed in orbit.

Third developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-P3, on board (March 21, 1996).
Satellite placed in polar sunsynchronous orbit.

Launch of third operational Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-1C(December

28, 1995).

INSAT-2C, the third satellite in the INSAT-2 series, launched (December 7,

1995).

Second developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-P2, on board (October 15,

1994). Satellite successfully placed in Polar Sunsynchronous Orbit.

Fourth developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-C2, on board (May 4, 1994).

Satellite placed in orbit.

First developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-1E on board (September 20,

1993). Satellite could not be placed in orbit.

INSAT-2B, the second satellite in the INSAT-2 series, launched (July 23, 1993).

INSAT-2A, the first satellite of the indigenously-built second-generation INSAT

series, launched (July 10, 1992).

Third developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-Con board (May 20, 1992).
Satellite placed in orbit.

Second operational Remote Sensing satellite, IRS-1B, launched (August 29,

1991).

INSAT-1D launched (June 12, 1990).

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INSAT-1C launched (July 21,1988). Abandoned in November 1989.

Second developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-2 on board (July 13, 1988).
Satellite could not be placed in orbit.

Launch of first operational Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-1A (March 17,
1988).

First developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-1 satellite on board (March 24,
1987). Satellite could not be placed in orbit.

Indo-Soviet manned space mission (April 1984).

INSAT-1B, launched (August 30, 1983).

Second developmental launch of SLV-3. RS-D2 placed in orbit (April 17, 1983).

INSAT-1A launched (April 10, 1982).

Deactivated on September 6, 1982.

Bhaskara-II launched (November 20, 1981).

APPLE, an experimental geo-stationary communication satellite successfully

launched (June 19, 1981).
RS-D1 placed in orbit (May 31, 1981)

First developmental launch of SLV-3.

Second Experimental launch of SLV-3, Rohini satellite successfully placed in

orbit. (July 18, 1980).

First Experimental launch of SLV-3 with Rohini Technology Payload on board

(August 10, 1979). Satellite could not be placed in orbit.
Bhaskara-I, an experimental satellite for earth observations, launched (June 7,
1979).

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Satellite Telecommunication Experiments Project (STEP) carried out.

Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) conducted.

ISRO First Indian Satellite, Aryabhata, launched (April 19, 1975).

Becomes Government Organisation (April 1, 1975).

Air-borne remote sensing experiments.

Space Commission and Department of Space set up (June 1, 1972). ISRO

brought under DOS.

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) formed under Department of

Atomic Energy (August 15, 1969).

TERLS dedicated to the United Nations (February 2, 1968).

Satellite Telecommunication Earth Station set up at Ahmedabad.

Space Science & Technology Centre (SSTC) established in Thumba.

First sounding rocket launched from TERLS (November 21, 1963).

Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) formed by the

Department of Atomic Energy and work on establishing Thumba Equatorial
Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) started.

Launch Vehicles

After successfully testing the first indigenous launch vehicle SLV-3 in 1980, ISRO built the next generation Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle
(ASLV). ISRO’s Launch Vehicle Programme had a giant leap with the successful launch of IRS-P2 spacecraft onboard the Polar Satellite
Launch Vehicle (PSLV) in October 1994. On 18 April 2001, India successfully launched its Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV).
Technology development for advanced launch vehicles made good progress with the breakthrough achieved during the year in Supersonic

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Combustion Ramjet (SCRAMJET) to be employed in Air-Breathing engine. This is an important element in the launch vehicle technology
development. Concepts for reusable launch vehicle are also being studied.

Polor Satellite Launch Vehicle

The four stage PSLV is capable of launching upto 1,600 kg satellites into an 620 km polar orbit. It has provision to launch payloads from 100 kg
micro-satellites or mini or small satellites in different combinations. It can also launch one-ton class payloads into Geosynchronous Transfer
Orbit (GTO). So far, it has performed nine missions with eight consecutive successes. The latest launch of PSLV (PSLV-C6) was on 5 May
2005 during which the vehicle precisely placed the 1560 kg CARTOSAT-1 and the 42 kg HAMSAT into a 620 km high polar SSO.

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle

The GSLV was successful on its very first test flight. After its successful second flight on 8 May 2003, it was commissioned. This was followed
by the success of its third flight on 20 September 2004. The GSLV is capable of launching 2,000 kg class satellites into Geosynchronous
Transfer Orbit (GTO). The development of Indigenous cryogenic stage to be used as the third stage of GSLV made further progress during the
year. The cryogenic engine which forms part of this stage, has already been successfully qualified. GSLV-Mk III, a new version of GSLV and
capable of launching spacecraft weighing upto 4 tonnes to GTO is under development.

Launch Infrastructure

An elaborate launch infrastructure exists at the Satish Dhawan Space Centre(External website that opens in a new window) (SDSC) SHAR,
Sriharikota Island on the East Coast of India which is about 100 km from Chennai. Sriharikota is located at 13° North latitude. From here,
satellites can be launched into a variety of orbital inclinations starting from 18° and extending upto 99°. Full-fledged facilities for satellite
integration, assembly and launch exist there. Sriharikota also houses a Telemetry, Tracking and Command network for tracking satellites and
monitoring them. The newly built Second Launch Pad at SDSC SHAR as a redundancy to the existing launch pad, and to cater to the
requirement of GSLV-Mk III as well as other future launch vehicles, was commissioned on 5 May 2005 with the successful launch of PSLV-C6.

Ocean Development

Department of Ocean Development (DOD) (External website that opens in a new window)was created in July 1981 as a nodal and independent
department under the direct charge of PM for organising, co-coordinating and promoting ocean development activities. Immediately after the
formation of the Department, Ocean Policy Statement was prepared and brought out in 1982. The Ocean Policy Statement is primarily aimed at
utilisation of marine living and nonliving resources for societal benefits in a sustainable manner.

Considering India's long coastline and 37 per cent of her population deriving benefits from the seas, this was significant considering the
vast EEZ of 2 million square km coupled with additional 1 to 1.5 million of continental shelf estimated to follow as against the land area of 3.28
million sq.km. even some developed countries , with larger maritime areas had not thought of creation of a separate entity or Department.

Salient features of the Policy Statement and thrust areas include:

• Exploratory survey, assessment and sustainable utilisation/harnessing of the ocean resources including living, non-living and
renewable sources of ocean energy.
• Technological advances geared to the utilisation and preservation of the marine environment.
• Development of technology relating to instrumentation, diving systems, position fixing, materials development, oceanic data collecting
devices, submersibles, etc.
• Developmental activities related to integrated coastal and marine area management, coastal community development, etc., with direct
application to the welfare of the society.
• Establishment of an ocean related information system using indigenous and foreign sources; International co-operation in Ocean
Science and Technology.
• Development of technologies relating to seabed mining, extractive metallurgy and conducting Environmental Impact Assessment
studies.
• Contribution towards front ranking research in polar sciences.

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• Basic and applied research in Ocean Science and Technology, Human Resource Management, creation of Centres of Excellence in
academic institutions and public awareness on the potential and uses of ocean.

Considering the need for capacity building and specialised skilled human resources as emphasised in the Ocean Policy Statement, Department
of Ocean Development has established national institutes, viz. National Institute of Ocean Technology(External website that opens in a new
window) (NIOT) at Chennai,National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research(External website that opens in a new window) (NCAOR) at
Goa, Indian National Centre for Ocean and Information Services(External website that opens in a new window)(INCOIS) at Hyderabad, Project
Directorate, Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management(External website that opens in a new window) (PD-ICMAM) at Chennai and
Centre for Marine Living Resources and Ecology (CMLRE) at Kochi.

The Vision Statement highlighting the Perspective Plan 2015 of the Department of Ocean Development was formulated in the year 2002
stipulating the Vision, the Mission, the Mandate and the Priority Areas, to be pursued by the Department over the next decade. A number of
new initiatives have been introduced during the 10th Five-Year Plan period, which inter alia includes Gas Hydrate Exploration and Technology
Development for Assessment, Comprehensive Swath Bathymetric Survey of Indian EEZ, Geophysical study of Laxmi Basin, etc. Further,
considering the devastating effect of Tsunami in Andaman and east coast, a new major initiative for setting up Tsunami Warning System for
Indian Ocean has been taken up.

Indian Antarctic Program

The Antarctic Research Programme, which was initiated in 1981, has taken the shape of a major national programme that
has a distinct multi-institutional and multi-disciplinary approach. So far 25 scientific expeditions have been launched on a
regular basis. In addition, three expeditions to the Southern Oceans for carrying out research in the thrust areas of polar
science including a Weddel Sea Expedition and Krill Expedition for assessment of Krill Resources in Antarctic waters,
were also undertaken. The Indian station Maitri situated in the Central Droning Maud land of east Antarctica has provided
a platform to more than 1,500 personnel drawn from about 75 national laboratories, institutes, universities, survey and
service organisations to conduct experiments in all major disciplines of polar sciences. This is an outstanding example of
networking national facilities and expertise. The expeditions to Antarctica are organised every year by National Centre for
Antarctic and Ocean Research (External website that opens in a new window) (NCAOR) an autonomous institution of the
Ministry set up at Goa.

The Indian Antarctic Program is a multi-disciplinary, multi-institutional program under the control of the National Centre for
Antarctic and Ocean Research, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India. It was initiated in 1981 with the first
Indian expedition to Antarctica. The program gained global acceptance with India's signing of the Antarctic Treaty and
subsequent construction of the Dakshin Gangotri Antarctic research base in 1983, superseded by the Maitri base from
1990.Under the program, atmospheric, biological, earth, chemical, and medical sciences are studied by India, which has
carried out 30 scientific expeditions to the Antarctic as of 14th October 2010 and is currently planning to build an
additional research station in the region named Bharathi and thus India is all set to join the elite group of nine countries
which have multiple bases in Antarctica.

As of April 2008, India has sent a total of 27 expeditions to the Antarctic. The 27th expedition—initiated on December 6,
2007 under the National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR)—was completed on 11 April, 2008.
Scientists from over 20 scientific institutions participated in this expedition, which also probed the possibility of India's third
permanent research station in Antarctic.

Indian Research Stations in Antarctica

Dakshin Gangotri

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In 1981 the Indian flag unfurled for the first time in Antarctica, marking the start of Southern Ocean expeditions under the
environmental protocol of the Antarctic Treaty (1959). The first permanent settlement was built in 1983 and named
Dakshin Gangotri. In 1989 it was abandoned after it became buried in ice.

Maitri

The second permanent settlement, Maitri, was put up in 1988–89 on the Schirmacher Oasis and has been conducting
experiments in geology, geography and medicine. India built a freshwater lake around Maitri known as Lake
Priyadharshini. Maitri accomplished the mission of geomorphologic mapping of Schirmacher Oasis.

Bharathi (2012)

India has demarcated an area beside Larsmann Hill at 69°S, 76°E for its third settlement and second active research
station. The survey has already been completed and the station is scheduled to be operational by 2012. When it is
complete, India will enter the elite group of nine nations having multiple stations within the Antarctic Circle. Bharati is
proposed for oceanographic research and will collect evidence of continental breakup to reveal the 120-million-year-old
ancient history of the Indian subcontinent. In news sources this station is variously spelled "Bharathi", "Bharti" and
"Bharati".

Marine Non-Living Resources

Polymetallic Nodules (PMN) Programme

India is the first country to have received the status of Pioneer Investor in 1987 and was allocated an exclusive area in Central Indian Ocean
Basin by UN for exploration and utilization of nodules. India is presently having an area of 75,000 square km, located about 1600 Nm away
from her southern tip. India is one among the top 8-countries/ contractors and is implementing a long term programme on exploration and
utilization of Polymetallic Nodules. As part of the Manganese Nodule mining programme, a crawler, in-situ tester and remotely operable Vehicle
were designed, developed and tested at depths of 410m, 520m and 205m respectively. For extraction of metals, 3 primary process routes were
tested on the semi-continuous demonstration pilot plant set up at Hindustan Zinc Limited with successful extraction of Copper, Nickel and
Cobalt from Polymetalic Nodules.

Indian Continental Shelf Program

This is a major multi-institutional national endeavor that seeks to establish the outer limits of the country's continental shelf. Following India's
ratification of the convention in June 1995, it was mandatory for the country to lodge her claims for an extended shelf latest by May 2009. The
Indian endeavours towards this national goal were being spearheaded by the National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR).
Underpinning our endeavours has been a comprehensive multi institutional marine geophysical data acquisition programme which commenced
on the 17th July 2002. Spread over 385 days of fair-weather period, over 31, 000 km of seismic reflection gravity and magnetic data were
collected from the project area. In addition, for the first time in the country, 90 state of the art Ocean Bottom Seismometers (OBS) were
successfully deployed along several seismic transects to constrain the velocities from the reflection data as well as to develop a crustal model
of the area. The post-processing and interpretation of the data has been undertaken by three of the leading National Institutes, viz, NCAOR,
NGRI and NIO. The documentation as per the provisions of UNCLOS is currently in progress. In June 2007, India got elected as a member on
the commission.

During the year the Ministry had undertaken a bilateral programme to conduct geophysical survey as required by the CLCS for the Myanmar. A
workshop has already been organized at NCAOR, Goa to the Scientists of Myanmar for providing hand on training on the analysis of
geophysical data. A total of 2759 kms has been surveyed for collection of geophysical data in the EEZ of Myanmar.

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Gas Hydrates

Considering the vast potential of various resources including the gas hydrates in the EEZ of India, a comprehensive bathymetric survey
of EEZ was also taken up during the period. Towards exploration of gas hydrates, some of the scientific aspects of Gas hydrates have been
address and an Indo-Russian Gas hydrate centre was established to address the technological aspects.

Marine Living Resources

Assessment of Marine Living Resources

The programme on Assessment of Marine Living Resources was initiated during 1997 and the Centre for Marine Living Resources and
Ecology, Kochi(External website that opens in a new window) is implementing the programme. It envisages evaluation of existing information
on marine living resources, correlating it with the influence of physico-chemical parameters on the biota, identifying the gaps and formulating
future strategies for sustainable exploitation of marine living resources in the EEZ. Fisheries and Oceanographic Research Vessel Sagar
Sampada is undertaking the studies in the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone.

The studies pertain to the assessment of environmental parameters, primary and secondary productivity, upwelling, investigation on toxic algal
bloom, biomass estimation, distribution pattern of species at different depths in the EEZ carried out on seasonal basis. Studies on deep
scattering layers, resources assessment and biology of deep-sea fishes in the continental slope and harvest technology and catch composition
studies using different trawling techniques including the gear selectivity, and benthic productivity studies including the investigations on
sediment texture were also envisaged. Besides, studies on bioluminescence of plankton, screening of antifouling compound, plankton
biodiversity, black lip pearl oyster farming including near shore dynamic are being carried out under the programme through CMLRE, Kochi.

Marine Environment and Coastal Zone

Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction System Programme(COMAPS)

The Ministry of Ocean Development(External website that opens in a new window) (MoOD) is continuously carrying out the research activities
of monitoring the coastal water quality on long-term basis in order to understand the trend of pollution level. There are 25 parameters on
physical, chemical biological and microbiological characteristics of water and sediment are being sampled at 81 transects/locations (the number
fluctuates based on the pollution levels in the transects) at various frequencies with the participation of 10 reputed National Laboratories and
Universities. The coastal state-wise scenario of pollution sources and its trend based on the data collected till 2004 has found that quality of
coastal waters beyond 2 km is found to be clean except Mumbai, where it is beyond 5 km from the shore.

In addition to regular monitoring of coastal waters, the data base on GIS is being developed on marine pollution and analysis of pesticide
residue in the edible marine organisms under COMAPS programme. The residue in Indian sea food was found very well with in the permissible
limits.

Coastal Research Vessels

The Vessel Management Cell (External website that opens in a new window)(VMC) of National Institute of Ocean Technology(External website
that opens in a new window) operates, maintains and manages the two coastal research vessels, namely, Sagar Purvi and Sagar Paschimi.
These vessels are being used for pollution monitoring under Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction System(External website that opens in a
new window) (COMAPS), data buoy programme and also for Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management programmes. Further, these
vessels are being utilised by over 15 institutions along the west and east coast of India by effectively utilising the ship times for various
programmes.

Integrated Coastal and Marine area management

During the Tenth Plan period, programmes such as "Shoreline Management", "Tidal Inlets Management", "Ecosystem Modelling", "Marine
Ecotoxicology", "Application of Ocean Colour Monitoring in sediment transport studies", have been formulated and are being implemented. In
addition, the Ministry has expanded its activities on the following areas for detailed investigations:

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• The coastline of the country has been facing severe erosion in the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal
and in Union Territories of Pondicherry, Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep.
• The ICMAM programme on "Shoreline Management" presently aims to fulfill understanding of the coastal processes at Ennore
(Tamilnadu), Munambam to Kayamkulam (Kerala) and along Gahirmatha coast (Orissa) where shoreline changes are prominent in
the last few years.
• A number of new Ports, both minor and medium are being planned along the coastal areas. Since the port structures like jetties and
breakwaters are likely to cause adverse impacts such as erosion. Hence, ICMAM-PD would conduct training programme especially
on adoption of EIA guidelines and development of environment management plans to the coastal states and R&D institutions through
capacity building programmes.

The ICMAM Project Directorate has planned to carry out modelling of propagation of tsunami waves and their inundation in the coastal areas as
a part of the programme of Tsunami Early Warning system. This programme is likely to be continued during the Eleventh Plan. As a part of this
programme, development of model Coastal Risk Atlas for each State/UT be incorporated containing details of location of hazard line, risk areas
including infrastructure and establishments at risk. Concerned coastal state agencies will be trained to develop similar Atlas for other areas in
the State/UT.

Development of potential drugs from the Ocean

The National Project on "Development of Potential Drugs from the Ocean" was taken up for implementation from 1990-91 with a view to
harnessing the potential marine flora and fauna for extraction of drugs for medicinal purposes. The research activities include-Systematic
collection and identification of marine organisms, extraction and evaluation of medicinal properties of products derived from marine organisms
till completion of clinical trials and development of products from the pure molecules. The nodal Institute, Central Drug Research Institute,
Lucknow has been entrusted the responsibility of coordination and implementation; reconfirmation of bioactivity encountered by the other
participating Institutions, elucidation of chemical structure by way of spectrometry and high throughput screening, testing in laboratory animal
models, etc., so as to utilise their international standard infrastructure facilities and their expertise.

The Ministry has re-orientated this programme with the focus on exploratory and product development activities and initiated action to induct
more institutional participation including pharmaceutical industry. Collection of wide range of marine organisms even from deep sea and islands
and screening for 16 different bio-activities viz.,

i. Anti-cancer
ii. Immunomodulatory
iii. Anti-hyperglycemic;
iv. Wound healing
v. Anti-fungal
vi. anti-protozoal
vii. Antibacterial
viii. Anti-inflammatory
ix. Anti-viral
x. Anti-hyperglycemic
xi. Anti-hyperlipidemic
xii. Spasmolytic
xiii. CNS
xiv. Pesticidal and Anti-allergic

The routine experiments and defined protocols both for pre-clinical and clinical studies are being carried out continuously. The assays for the
drug/metabolite(s) concentrations in bio-samples are developed and validated as per the international guidelines.

Achievements made so far

Under this programme more than 6500 marine samples have been collected and screened. At least three potential drugs are identified which
are in advanced stages of development. The anti-diabetic compound is in clinical trial, Phase-I. The remaining two more compounds having

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combined potentials for anti-hyperglycemic-cum-anti-hyperlipidemic activities, are found to be safe as per the analysis of regulatory
pharmacology. Nine more new leads viz.,

a. Anti-hyperglycemic
b. Anti-hyperlipidaemic
c. Anti-fungal
d. Anti-viral

are in pipeline for further optimisation of various pharmacological activities.

Development of GIS based information system for 11 critical habitats: To assess the status of some of the critical coastal habitats like coral
reefs, mangroves, etc., and to suggest suitable management plans for protection, conservation and restoration, Development of Information
System using GIS was taken up during the 9th plan period. Development of GIS based information system for 11 habitats namely, Gulf of
Khambat, Karwar islands, Gulf of Kachchh, Cochin island Sunderbans, Malvan, Kadmat island, Gulf of Mannar, Pichavaram, Coringa and
Gahirmatha was also taken up. The application of GIS as a tool for assessing the status of the critical habitats, such as mangroves, coral reefs,
sea grass beds, wetlands and other coastal eco-systems, has revealed that more than the natural causes, the human perturbation has resulted
in severe damage to these eco-systems. Based on the extensive studies carried out by the Project Directorate (PD), ICMAM on Development
of GIS based Information System for these critical habitats, a number of suggestions/ recommendations have been made to the coastal states
for conservation and management of these critical habitats, based on sustainability principles.

Development of Guidelines for Environmental Impact Assessment

Guidelines have been developed for conducting Environmental Impact Assessment studies in the Ports and Harbours and Marine
transportation sectors, tourism related activities in the coastal marine areas, waste disposal from domestic and industrial sources including
discharge of waste through pipelines, etc.

Development of model ICMAM plans for Chennai, Goa and Gulf of Kutch

The draft ICMAM plan for Chennai has been finalised based upon the comments received from various stakeholders the report. A Decision
Support System (DSS) was developed to address the cross-sectoral issues like accretion/erosion, pollution, tourism and human settlements by
selecting Ecology, Environment and Economy as the criteria. Various options of the interventions such as provision of training jetties to keep
open the tidal inlets, beach nourishment to protect the coast from erosion and effluent treatment to improve the water quality, were analysed
using DSS. The design, structure and basic requirement of DSS including Activity, Impact, Entity and Attribute (AIEA) inputs were finalised
towards the preparation of Model ICMAM Plan for Goa and Gulf of Kachchh, Further, a prototype Decision Support System (DSS) for Chennai
has also been developed as a standalone package in Windows environment. This package contains a powerful user interface and thus
facilitates the decision makers to identify the various coastal activities and their cross impacts on ecology, economy and society and evaluates
best strategies in a digital framework in a user-friendly environment.

Marine Eco-toxicology and R&D activities have also been undertaken during the Tenth Five-year plan period. The main aim of this study is to
develop specific habitat/water quality criteria to facilitate better management of marine and associated ecosystems in view of growing problems
like pollution and waste disposal, etc., so that the levels prescribed for various chemical elements in this criteria/standard can be properly
assessed for their suitability for coastal waters and specific ecosystems like corals, mangroves, etc. As a part of eco-toxicological studies, to
assess the toxic effects of pollutants and their tolerance levels in marine organisms during the X Five-Year Plan period, involving various
universities and research institutes, a Trace Metal laboratory has been set-up, aiming at delineating the toxic effects of metals and their
threshold limits on various marine organisms. This infrastructure will serve as a National Facility.

The PD-ICMAM is now equipped with state-of-the-art computing facility and training facility to house a long-term training programme for utilising
the capacity built under the Capacity Building Programme. The training is provided to the coastal states in the development of ICMAM Plans
and use of GIS in the management of critical habitats. Further R&D activities included determination of Best Designated Use Classification of
Coastal Waters, Coastal Habitat Studies, Shoreline Management and Satellite Based R&D Programme.

Defense
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General Overview

The first decade of the 21st century has made it increasingly evident that security threats are unconstrained by borders. Each of India's
neighbours is undergoing a transition, giving rise to varied political experiences and experiments. The menace of terrorism and proliferation of
arms, drugs and nuclear technology pose dangers that merit constant attention.

The developments in 2008, particularly the challenges confronting the global financial system, created unprecedented strains in the global
security environment.

The continuing links of extremist and terrorist organisations with organs of the Pakistan State adds greater complexities and dangers to the
evolving situation confronting us. Strengthening of our security apparatus both internally and on our frontiers is, therefore, a national priority of
the highest order.

China's stated objectives, in their White Paper, of developing strategic missile and space-based assets and of rapidly enhancing its blue-water
navy to conduct operations in distant waters, as well as the systematic upgrading of infrastructure, reconnaissance and surveillance, quick
response and operational capabilities in the border areas, need to be monitored carefully in the foreseeable future for the implications that it can
have on the security and defence of India. Similarly, its military assistance and cooperation with Pakistan, including the possibility of enhancing
connectivity with Pakistan through the territory illegally occupied by Pakistan in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, will also have direct military
implications for India.

India's credible minimum deterrence plays an important role in the regional security calculus. While maintaining a posture of minimum
deterrence, India has announced a policy of no-first-use and a policy of non-use against non-nuclear weapon states. India also continues to
maintain a voluntary, unilateral moratorium on nuclear testing.

The need for enhanced maritime security has to be seen in the backdrop of a long coastline facing the Arabian Sea on the West, the Bay of
Bengal to the east and the vast Indian Ocean in the South. Increased economic activity along the coast and the growth of major towns has
heightened this necessity.

Over the recent years, maritime issues like the security of sea-lanes, piracy on the high seas, energy security, WMD, terrorism etc. have
become important elements in India's security. The Indian Navy has played an outstanding role in curbing piracy in parts of Indian Ocean. The
Mumbai terror attacks have once again highlighted the importance of the maritime dimension in India's security.

With a steadily growing economy, India has a vital stake in a safe and secure world. India has become a driver of the global growth and
prosperity. A strong defence force is a necessary prerequisite for growth, stability and peace. India has been committed to prepare its level of
defence preparedness to deter any type of threat both conventional as well as unconventional.

The Supreme command of the Armed Forces vests in the President of India. The responsibility for national defence, however, rests with the
Cabinet. The Defence Minister (Raksha Mantri) is responsible to Parliament for all matters concerning defence of the country. Administrative
and operational control of the armed forces is exercised by the Ministry of Defence and the three Service Headquarters.

Basic Functions and Organisations

The principal task of the Ministry is to frame policy directions on defence and security related matters and communicate them for
implementation to the Services Headquarters, Inter-Service Organisations, Production Establishments and Research & Development
Organisations. It is required to ensure effective implementation of the Government's policy directions and the execution of approved
programmes within the allocated resources.

The principal functions of the Departments are as follows:

1. The Department of Defence deals with the Integrated Defence Staff (IDS) and three Services and various Inter-Service Organisations.
It is also responsible for the Defence Budget, establishment matters, defence policy, matters relating to Parliament, defence co-
operation with foreign countries and co-ordination of all defence related activities.

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2. The Department of Defence Production is headed by a Secretary and deals with matters pertaining to defence production,
indigenisation of imported stores, equipment and spares, planning and control of departmental production units of the Ordnance
Factory Board and Defence Public Sector Undertakings (DPSUs).
3. The Department of Defence Research and Development is headed by a Secretary, who is the Scientific Adviser to the Raksha Mantri.
Its function is to advise the Government on scientific aspects of military equipment and logistics and the formulation of research,
design and development plans for equipment required by the Services.
4. The Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare, headed by a Secretary, deals with all resettlement, welfare and pension related matters
of Ex-Servicemen.

Integrated Defence Staff (IDS) was created on October 1, 2001 based on the recommendation of the Group of Ministers, which was set up in
2000 post Kargil to review the Nation's higher defence management. Since then, HQ IDS has been acting as the single point organisation for
inculcating jointness and synergy between the Armed Forces, by way of integrating policy, doctrine, war fighting and procurement.

The three Services Headquarters, viz., the Army Headquarters, the Naval Headquarters and the Air Headquarters function under the Chief of
the Army Staff (COAS), the Chief of the Naval Staff (CNS) and the Chief of the Air Staff (CAS) respectively. The Inter-Service Organisations,
under the Department of Defence are responsible for carrying out tasks related to common needs of the three Services such as medical care,
public relations and personnel management of civilian staff in the Defence Headquarters.

A number of Committees dealing with defence related activities assist the Raksha Mantri. The Chiefs of Staff Committee is a forum for the
Service Chiefs to discuss matters having a bearing on the activities of the Services and also to advise the Ministry. The position of Chairman of
the Chiefs of Staff Committee devolves on the longest serving Chief of Staff, and consequently rotates amongst the three Services.

Finance Division in the Ministry of Defence deals with all matters having a financial implication. This Division is headed by Secretary (Defence
Finance)/Financial Adviser (Defence Services) and is fully integrated with the Ministry of Defence and performs an advisory role.

Defence Production Policy - 2011

Self-reliance in Defence is of vital importance for both strategic and economic reasons and has therefore been an
important guiding principle for the Government since Independence. Accordingly, Government have, over the years
assiduously built up capabilities in Defence R&D, Ordnance factories and Defence PSUs to provide our Armed forces with
weapons/
ammunition/ equipment/ platforms and systems that they need for the defence of our country. Government considers that
the industrial and technological growth in the past decades has made it possible to achieve this objective by harnessing
the emerging dynamism of the Indian industry along with the capabilities available in the academia as well as research
and
development Institutions.

2. Consequently, after careful consideration and in consultation with all stakeholders, Government have decided to put in
place a Defence Production Policy. The objectives of the Policy are to achieve substantive self reliance in the design,
developmentand production ofequipment/ weapon systems/ platforms required for defence in as early a time frame as
possible; to create conditions conductive for the private industry to take an active role in this endeavour; to enhance
potential of SMEs in indigenization and to broaden the defence R&D base of the country. However, while pursuing the
above objectives, the overall aim of ensuring that our forces have an edge over our potential adversaries at all times – in
immediate terms as well as in sustainability – will be ensured. Accordingly, Government have decided that:-

3. Preference will be given to indigenous design, development and manufacture of defence equipment. Therefore,
wherever the required arms, ammunition and equipment are possible to be made by the Indian industry within the
timelines required by the Services, the procurement will be made from indigenous sources. Whenever the Indian industry
is not in a position
to make and deliver the equipment as per the SQRsin the requisite time frame, procurement from foreign sources would
be resorted to, in accordance with the Defence Procurement Procedure. While examining procurement cases, the time
taken in the procurement and delivery from foreign sources vis-à-vis the time required for making it in the country, along
with the urgency and criticality of the requirement will be examinedas per the Defence Procurement Procedure before
deciding to proceed with procurements from foreign sources.

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4. Based on the approved Long Term Integrated Perspective Plan (LTIPP), equipment/ weapon systems/ platforms
required 10 years and further down the line will by and large be developed/ integrated/ made within the country. Sub-
systems/ equipment/ components that are not economically viable or practical to be made within the country may be
imported, ensuring their availability at all times. However, as far as possible, the design and integration of the platform/
system will be undertaken within the country.

5. Government will endeavour to build up a robust indigenous defence industrial base by, proactively encouraging larger
involvement of the Indian private sector in design, development and manufacture of defence equipment. Towards this
end, efforts would be made in progressively identifying and addressing any issue which impacts; or has the potential of
impacting the competitiveness of the Indian defence industry in comparison to foreign companies.

6. In order to synergize and enhance the national competence in producing state of the art defence equipment/ weapon
systems/ platforms within the price lines and timelines that are globally competitive; all viable approaches such as
formation of consortia, joint ventures and public private partnerships etc. within the Government approved frameworkwill
be undertaken. The Academia, Research and Development Institutions as well as technical and scientific organizations of
repute will be involved for achieving this objective.

7. Government will further simplify the procedures under the “MAKE” category of the Defence Procurement Procedure in
such a manner that it enables the indigenous design and development of the required equipment/ weapon systems/
platforms by both public and private industryin a faster timeframe.

8. Service Headquarters (SHQs), while laying down the qualitative requirements for defence equipment/ weapon systems/
platforms to be developed/ integrated/ made, will exercise due diligence at all times to keep in view feasibility and
practicabilityof the QRs.It will be ensured that the systems/platforms designed/ developed/ integrated in the country
provide a competitive edge to our Services vis-à-vis our potential adversaries.

9. Government also recognizes that development of complex systems is generally a stage process with incremental
changes progressing from Mk-I and Mk-II and so on. The stage process will be followed. However, at every review of such
developmental projects by theDefence Production Board or Defence R&D Board as the case may be, it will be ensured
that our equipment, weapons systems and platforms are such that they provide an edge to our forces over our potential
adversaries. In case of delays in the realization of the projects, the corresponding proposal will be processed as
per the Defence Procurement Procedure and the option of “Buy” shall be followed for the necessary numbers till
indigenous production capability is established where after indigenous systems shall be procured.

10. Policies will be put in place to encourage the OFB, DPSUs and the Private Sector to strengthen their research and
development wings so that constant up-gradation and improvement in systems under manufacture is possible.

11. Government will set up a separate fund to provide necessary resources to public/private sectorincluding SMEs as
well as academic and scientific institutions to support research and development of defence equipment/systems
enhancing cutting edge technology.

12. In all cases of Transfer of Technology, DDP alongwithDRDO, HQIDS and SHQs will be involved in identification and
evaluation of requisitetechnology, and subsequently would be responsible to ensurethat appropriate absorption of
technology takes placein the Indian industry.Thereafter, successive generations of the weapon systems/ platforms will be
developed in the country.

13. Upgrades will be carried out by the Indian Industryas far as possible. DRDO, HQIDS, SHQs, OFB, DPSUs and the
privatesectorwill work in close coordination for continuous upgradation in systems.

14. The Committees set up under the Defence Procurement Procedure will process the acquisition proposals in
ccordance with the above policy guidelines.

15. The RakshaMantri will hold an Annual Review ofthe progress in selfreliance that has been achieved during the year.

16. This Policy will come into force with immediate effect.

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Biotechnology
National Jai Vigyan S&T Mission
Biotechnological approaches for herbal product development: An improved polyherbal formulation (BHU-x) has been
developed at Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi that has been effective in preventing the process of atherosclerosis
when tested in White Carneo pigeons and albino rabbits. It not only prevents atheroma formation but also stabilizes
already formed atheroma. The technology has been transferred to an industry, Surya Pharamceuticals, Varanasi for
further research and product development.

Further Studies on an immunomodulatory compound (NII-70) isolated from Tinospora cordifolia (guduchi) for its
application in ex-vivo propagation of bone marrow cells carried out at NII, New Delhi. Efforts are in progress to
transfer the technology to an industry.

Coffee Improvement: Under the coffee network project very promising leads have been obtained. Molecular
characterization of coffee germplasm made available by CCRI, is being done at CCMB, Hyderabad. All the species
available in India were selected for molecular characterization using various DNA typing approaches. Also, parents
and F1 mother plants were identified and crossed to develop suitable segregating mapping populations. DNA
fingerprinting analysis to assess the intra-population and inter-specific genetic variability using RAPD and ISSR
markers revealed low genetic variability in the founder germplasm of four of the exotic Coffea species. Analysis of
different species that are available in India revealed the genetic affinities between them and validated the placement
of four endemic species under Paracoffea. Studies on Coffea genome have been taken up and 0.64 MB (0.042%) of
the C. arabica genome has been sequenced. A Web-enabled database has been prepared.

In addition to the 30 microsatellite markers developed earlier, 50 additional markers were developed during the year
and these have been validated. Primer pairs have been designed and synthesized for another set of 60 potential
HDT clones. 80 markers have been used for parental survey of 11 elite genotypes. Studies are also continuing at
MKU, Madurai and CCRI, Mysore on transformation of Coffea arabica– ‘Kent’ and ‘Cauvery’ cultivars for leaf rust
resistance. An Agrobacterium binary vector with rice chitinase and tobacco glucanase was constructed. The
‘Robusta’ is also being transformed to regulate caffine biosynthesis. At SPIC Science Foundation, Chennai, N7
methyl transferase genes were isolated from ‘Robusta’ tissue using RT-PCR technologies and cloned using a
topocloning reactor. Attempts are being made to sub-clone it into Agrobacterium vector for transformation. At CFTRI,
Mysore the construct PSAT 202 containing PCR fragment from clone CS2B corresponding to 358 bp product, cloned
in antisense orientation. With respect to CaMV355 promote in the reactor PcaMBA 1301, was used in transformation
studies using embryos as explants. Thirty putative transformed plants surviving on selection media have been taken
up for further studies.

Mirror Sites: High congestion on the information highways impedes effective access to the major public domain
servers. One solution to this problem is to establish ‘mirror sites’ at different locations of the world, which are exact
replicas of the original sites. This enables scientists of the region to access these sites instead of the original URL.
Under the National Jai Vigyan Science & Technology Mission, the department has established six mirror sites. The
Protein Data Bank is mirrored at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore; University of Pondicherry, Pondicherry
and University of Pune, Pune. The Genome Data Bank mirror also hosted at the Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore. The Databases of European Bioinformatics Institute has been mirrored at the University of Pune. The
other specialized mirrors include the Structure Classification of Proteins Database (SCOP) at the University of
Pondicherry. Plant Genome databases at JNU, New Delhi. The Institute of Microbial Technology, Chandigarh
maintains a mirror for the Public Domain Resources in Biology and the EMBNet has established its India Node at the
Centre for DNA Fingerprinting & Diagnostics, Hyderabad.

New Generation Vaccines: The main objective of this mission has been to develop candidate vaccines for cholera,
rabies, Japanese encephalitis, tuberculosis, malaria and HIV infections using novel strategies i.e. recombinant
proteins, DNA vaccines with special focus on:
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• the study of the efficacy of DNA, recombinant/peptide vaccines for cholera, malaria, tuberculosis,
Japanese encephalitis (JE) and rabies (for animals and humans);
• to design, develop and produce preventive/therapeutic DNA candidate vaccine(s) for HIV infection.
The encouraging results would be taken up to generate pre-clinical data and to initiate clinical trials.

The projects have been defined under three categories: Category A included phase I & II clinical trials of an
indigenously-developed live oral recombinant cholera vaccine based on VA1.3 strain of V.cholerae; its genetic
stability and upscaling; generation of pre-clinical and efficacy data for DNA rabies vaccines for animal use. Category
B included study of immunogenicity and efficacy of tissue culture-propagated JE vaccine, generation of preclinical
data on DNA vaccines for JE virus; production and generation of pre-clinical data on clinical grade recombinant
malaria vaccinogens and phase I clinical trials of the synthetic peptide malaria vaccine. Category C included
development of multi-component DNA vaccine technologies utilizing isolates of HIV-1 subtype C with or without
IL2/IL12; and develop and evaluate candidate DNA vaccine for protection against tuberculosis.

Category A – Cholera – An indigenous recombinant oral vaccine based on VA1.3 strain on V. cholerae has been
developed through a multicentric approach. The vaccine was tested for its safety in Phase – I clinical trials and was
found to be safe. The extended Phase-I/Phase-IIa clinical trial recently completed by SAS, Kolkata and SGPGIMS,
Lucknow has shown good immunological response. So far, about 100 volunteers in the age of 20-30 years have been
inducted in the Phase IIa trials. Data from volunteers showed 8-fold rise in 42% of the cases; 2-fold rise in 33% and
no rise in 25%. In addition, preparation around Kolkata for Phase-III clinical trial has been initiated in terms of
determining the base-line antibody levels in local population. Concurrently, IMTECH, Chandigarh is making attempts
to scale up of VA1.3 strain of Vibrio cholerae in LB medium. After several attempts using a semi-synthetic medium, a
healthy growth of V.cholerae VA1.3, has been obtained. The cells were found to be both physiologically and
genetically stable. Negotiations with industries are going on for fine-tuning, upscaling and, finally commercialization, if
trials are successful.

Category A – DNA rabies vaccine – The production of plasmid DNA from shake cultures was carried out at IISc,
Bangalore. More than 1 gram of plasmid DNA has been prepared and used for testing the potency of rabies DNA
vaccine and a novel combination in mice, dogs and monkeys. M/s Indian Immunologicals (IIL) has constructed a new
facility for the GMP-production of recombinant plasmids as well as recombinant proteins. R&D on commercial
production of rabies DNA vaccine in fermentor and standardization of large scale downstream processing technology
has been completed at by IISc, Bangalore. A peripheral rabies virus challenge model has been developed and the
potency of rabies DNA vaccine and the combination rabies have been tested. Studies on protective efficacy of
pCMVRab and its variants, in Swiss mice showed that PCMVRab was the best DNA vaccine candidate. The
combination of DNA and vero cell rabies vaccines in dogs and cattle yielded 100% of animals developing desired
level of neutralizing antibodies. This combination is being upscaled and is likely to be available soon in the market to
control rabies in dogs. IISc and IIL have also standardized the protocols for large-scale plasmid preparation and
purification protocols.

Category B – Japanese encephalitis – Upscaling the JE virus culture techniques using the large volume spinner
flask at NII, New Delhi resulted in collection of about 200 ml of virus containing culture supernatant. The virus has
been formaline inactivated and immunogenecity in animals has been completed. A candidate DNA vaccine for JE
virus has also been developed by NII. The animals given DNA by direct intra-muscular injection, or through gene gun
developed immune responses comparable with commercial Nakayama strain based vaccine. Mice immunized with
the plasmid DNA or the commercially available vaccine, were challenged with the lethal dose of JEV through intra-
cerebral route. Over 50% protection was observed in plasmid DNA immunized mice. It was significantly lower
compared to over 90% protection provided by the commercial vaccine. The formulation is being improved.

Category B – Malaria recombinant vaccine – The malaria vaccine development programme at ICGEB, New Delhi
has focused on developing recombinant sub-unit blood stage vaccine molecules (Plasmodium falciparum and
P.vivax), namely, Pf MSP-119 and PvMSP-119 : merosoite surface protein-1 (MSP – 1) and a 195 KD protein.
Recombinant Pf F2 and PvRII in their native conformations have been produced. rPfMSP-119 and rPvMSP-119in E.coli
system have produced and the final yields of the purified products were 10 mg/L and 5 mg/L, respectively. The

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recombinant proteins (PfMSP-119) recognized more than 90% of the malaria endemic sera. Immunogenecity studies
in mice and rabbits producing high antibody titres indicate high immunogenic nature of recombinant protein. PvMSP -
119 was also found to be highly reactive to P.vivax patient sera. Scale up studies indicated yield of rPf MSP-1 19 to be
5 fold more by fermentation as compared to shake flask and the yield was 50 mg/L. Production and characterisation
of recombinant PvRII and PfF2 have been accomplished including the scale up process parameters. A GLP facility
has been set up. The recombinant molecules produced under GLP will be utilized for pre-clinical evaluation. The
production of these molecules under GMP facility at Bharat Biotech, Hyderabad is underway. This would provide
GMP grade material for Phase-I/II volunteer trials. Preparation of field trial site for the malaria vaccines is in progress
in the hyper endemic and low endemic areas of Sundergarh district of Orissa by MRC, Delhi. The high incidence
study areas constitute a set of 8 villages in the forest area where Anopheles fluviatilis is the major vector. The low
incidence study area consists of 5 villages in the plain area and A. culifacies has been found to be major vector. The
demographic information has been generated. Regular surveys and mass blood surveys have been conducted. Study
areas have been found to be suitable for the future clinical trials.

Category C – Tuberculosis – A group at IISc, Bangalore has generated recombinant forms of two promising
candidate T-cell antigens of Mycobacterium tuberculosis i.e. ARR65, ARR213; purified the proteins and determined
the T-cell response in PBMC cell from human volunteers. 26 tuberculosis patients and 14 healthy contacts have been
screened for T cell response using purified proteins. The group has also attempted to use the highly attenuated pox
virus MVA (Modified Vaccinia Ankara) for generating the pox virus recombinants expressing two genes. Challenge
experiments are being conducted on guinea pigs using DNA constructs in combination with pox virus recombinants
and soluble proteins using intramuscular and intradermal immunization. The results have been found to be
encouraging.

A group at University of Delhi has been working on the recombinant BCG approach for the development of a vaccine
against tuberculosis by overexpressing six antigens of M.tuberculosis namely Antigen 85A, Antigen 85B, Antigen
85C, 19 kDa antigen, model and protective efficacy in a guinea pig model. The DNA vaccine approach for the
development of a TB vaccine by using three M. tuberculosis antigens namely α-crystallin, superioxide dismutase
(SOD) and ESAT-6. has also been pursued. They are also developing and evaluating candidate DNA vaccines
against tuberculosis. The evaluation of recombinant BCG candidate vaccines expressing M.tuberculosis antigens
has been completed. The studies have revealed that recombinant BCGs over expressing either ESAT-6 or antigen
85C conferred better protection to animals as compared to the protection imparted by BCG. Three proteins i.e. ESAT-
6, α-crystalline homologue and superoxide dismutase in E. coli have been cloned and expressed. Simultaneously,
efforts are being made to express these in eukaryotic system. Antibodies have been raised against these three
recombinant proteins in rabbits and their immuno reactivity have been assessed.

Category C – Prophylactic anti-HIV/AIDS vaccine – At AIIMS, New Delhi, a clone of gag protease for HIV subtype
C isolate has been expressed in mammalian expression vector, pJW4304. Cloning of interleukine-2 genes from
murine and human resulted in two types of recombinant constructs, viz., sense (pJWm1L2/lg; right orientation) and
antisense (pJW Revm 1L2/lg; reverse orientation). Cloning of human IL-2 gene from pVRC 2000 hull-1/lg is in
progress. Studies on in vitro expression of clonal genes have been accomplished. Immunogenecity studies showed
that the mice immunized with env/gene constructs induced a very good clade specific as well as low level of cross
clade cellular immune response. Immunisation of animals with gag protease gene elicited gag specific CTL after
single dose. However, the best response was observed with prime-boost strategy. Evaluations of these constructs in
monkeys have been initiated. So far all the immunized primates developed antibodies. The CTL/Th1 response are
being studied.

Considering the present and future HIV/AIDS scenario in the country, the Department is also negotiating with US
laboratories towards the development of HIV/AIDS vaccine for India, particularly, for subtype ‘C’. A proposal is under
active consideration under the INDO-US Vaccine Action Programme from GeoVax/Emory Vaccine Centre, USA. The
vaccine involves priming with a multivalent DNA vaccine followed by a MVA boost. The experimental evidence
indicates that it induces a broad long lasting immune responses in monkeys and all the animals were protected
against AIDS following challenge with virulent SHIV. In this proposal, the concerned scientists from ICGEB, New
Delhi and Emory University, USA, would be involved towards design and construction of this vaccine in India along

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with the involvement of an Indian industry. After mandatory regulatory clearances, it is proposed to conduct Phase-I/II
clinical trials in human volunteers in India.

Biotechnology Patent Facilitating Cell (BPFC)

Patents Filed

Intellectual property protection plays an important role in gaining advantageous position in the competitive game for economic growth. India
enjoys a large asset of R&D personnel and infrastructure facilities. Scientists and policy makers need information and facilities for protecting the
products of intellectual power of Indian Scientists. As a step in this direction, a Biotechnology Patent Facilitation Cell was established by the
Department of Biotechnology (DBT) in July’1999.

Biotechnology Patent Facilitating Cell, a single window awareness -cum - facilitation mechanism, established under Department of
Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology, aims to create awareness and understanding about Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs)
among scientists and researchers, by arranging workshops, seminars, conferences, etc. at all levels and for introducing patent information as a
vital input in the process of formulation of R&D programmes in biotechnology and providing patenting facilities to biotechnologists in the
country, for filing Indian and foreign patents on a continuous basis.

Objectives
BPFC has been established with the following objectives:

• Creating awareness and understanding among biologists and biotechnologists, relating to patents and the challenges and
opportunities in this area including arranging workshops, seminars, conference, etc., at all levels.
• Introducing patent information as a vital input in the process of promotion of R&D programmes in biotechnology and biology.
• Providing patenting facilities to biologists and biotechnologists in the country for filing Indian and foreign patents on a sustained basis.
• Keeping a watch on development in the area of IPR and make important issues known to policy makers, bio-scientists, biotech
industry, etc.

Achievements

During few years of its existence, BPFC has carved out a unique identity of its own among the biologists and biotechnologists in the country;
with several achievements in the field of technology development in the Indian context. BPFC has facilitated filing more than 100 Indian and
international patent applications out of which more than 10 patents have been granted. BPFC now look forward to Industry for taking up of
these technologies to the market and to the consumers.

Medical Biotechnology

Concerted efforts have been made towards development of vaccines and diagnostics for the major infectious and non-infectious diseases
specially in the areas of tuberculosis, avian influenza, Chikungunya, rotavirus, typhoid, malaria and HPV. New DBT-ICMRcollaborative efforts
has been initiated on HIV/AIDS and Microbicides research. About 20 projects have been implemented under this joint effort. Brain storming
sessions were organized on future R&D efforts on avian influenza, Chikungunya and other infectious diseases. Emphasis was also laid on
setting up virus research network projects. Typhoid vaccine development technology was transferred to an industry for further Current good
manufacturing practices (cGMP) grade production, pre-clinical and clinical studies.

A rapid diagnostics test system for filariasis (Signal MF) developed by Anna University, Chennai has been commercially launched. More than
100 new projects have been recommended for support in various infectious and chronic diseases areas. Efforts have been initiated to study
molecular evolution and for the development of cost effective and easily up scalable multivalent vaccine for avian influenza (H5N1). Leads
obtained in various researches are being persuaded for product/process developments. Studies on development of a lentivirus based high
efficiency gene transfer vector has culminated towards development of indigenous gene transfer vector with novel features of versatile multiple
cloning site with expended cloning capabilities. An agreement has been signed between DBT and IAVI to pursue the biomedical research
programme towards vaccine development of HIV/AIDS, and collaborative programme Neutralizing Antibody Consortium is going to be initiated
soon. Follow up actions have been initiated on the leads available towards development of newer diagnostic systems, better therapeutics, RNAI
and newer vaccines.

Environmental Biotechnology

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Environmental Biotechnology Division, Department of Biotechnology has organized four Brainstorming Sessions on Environmental
Metagemomics at New Delhi, Environmental Biotechnology at Nagpur, Biodiversity Conservation at Shillong and Thiruvananthapuram for
identification of the thrust areas to the considered for research in the XIth Five Year Plan as well as for generation of focused, multi institutional
network projects wherever it is required. Efforts are being made to provide the biotechnological solutions to the industries for abatement of
pollutions with value added products from waste and conservation of endangered, threatened plant/animal species.

A joint programme with NTPC is planned to formulate programme on carbon sequestration using biotechnological tools. R&D leads in some of
the projects like Hydrogen (bio energy) from waste, industrial waste water treatment of highly polluting industries like Petroleum
installations/refineries, pulp and paper industries, textile/dye industries and poultry waste are being taken up for joint ventures with user
industries for demonstration of the technologies developed at laboratory scale.

ISEB (International Society for Environmental Biotechnology) is an interdisciplinary society of scientists, engineers,
and other individuals who have decided to join forces to promote environmental biotechnology. In this context,
environmental biotechnology is defined as the integration of science and engineer for the development, use and
regulation of biological systems for remediation of contaminated environments (land, air, water), and for environment-
friendly processes development (green manufacturing technologies and sustainable development).

Initiated in 1992, ISEB is a communication network for the promotion of environmental biotechnology and facilitation of
relevant information exchange. As such, ISEB provides an annotated membership list, sponsorship of a major biennial
symposium and other special conferences, and subscription to an email newsletter.

Mission

The "global village" is based on a common environment (air, water, land) which transcends national boundaries. The
growing concern over the quality of our environment demands prevention of polluting releases in the ecosystem and
treatment of pollutants already there.

Biotechnology offers a "natural" way of addressing environmental problems ranging from identification of biohazards to
bioremediation techniques for industrial, agricultural and municipal effluents and residues. We need to bolster a
biotechnology approach to environmental issues within an international context.

Objectives

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The basic objective of ISEB is to facilitate the development and promotion of environmental biotechnology worldwide.
Therefore, ISEB is mandated to:

• provide a general umbrella organization for regional/national chapters devoted to environmental biotechnology issues
• encourage the creation of new regional chapters
• organize an international symposium every two years at different geographical locations promote the organization of
specialized or regional conferences

Mission Mode Programme on Biofuels and Bioenergy

The Department of Biotechnology has launched a mission programme on biofuel from biomass. The thrust is on developing ethanol using
Lignocellulosic waste as a raw material, identifying recombinant microbial strains for enhanced ethanol recovery, producing high quality raw
material for biodiesel production and developing enzymatic transesterification process for conversion of oil to Biodiesel. Under a micro-mission
on production of quality planting material of Jatropha curcas, for the first time a systematic scientific survey, characterization and collection of
superior accessions from across the country has been taken up. More than 100 accessions have been collected and characterized. Nurseries
have been established at 12 locations to provide quality planting material.

Programme has also been initiated on using Lignocellulosic materials as they are cheap renewable resources, available in large quantities in
our country and would sustain the supply of raw material for ethanol production. The economic viability of the process depends on efficient
conversion of cellulose and hemicellulose to soluble sugars, which can be achieved by bringing down the cost of existing enzyme production by
2.0 fold. Under the Bioethanol programme, recombinant microorganisms have been identified, which are thermo tolerant and help in enhanced
ethanol recovery, enzymatic pretreatment processes for Lignocellulosic degradation are also going on. Efforts are continuing for scale-up of
these technologies to make them commercially viable.

Under micro-mission programme more than 1000 superior accessions of Jatropha have been identified and 820 samples have been analysed
for oil content and free fatty acids. Besides, germplasm characterization has also been taken up and 48 accessions have been analysed so far.

• What is bioenergy? Bioenergy is the general term for any form of renewable energy made from organic materials.
• What are biofuels? Biofuels are just one form of bioenergy. Specifically they are transportation fuels (ethanol and
biodiesel) made from renewable resources like corn and soybeans.
• The production of both bioenergy and biofuels spurs economic development in rural areas and brings new
ventures to these communities that otherwise would not ordinarily see investment.
• Bioenergy and biofuels projects create jobs for our state’s workers and are an important market for Hoosier
agricultural products, boosting agricultural profits.
• Bioenergy and biofuels production provide an opportunity for immediately addressing our energy security issues
by using domestic crops to produce fuel and renewable waste to create energy.
• Biofuels production reduces our dependence on foreign sources of oil by using renewable energy resources.
• Most biofuels are environmentally superior and contain very little sulfur and no toxic chemicals and can replace or
be a substitute for dirtier fuel sources.
• Using biofuels can reduce hydrocarbons emissions, particulate matter emissions and carbon monoxide
emissions.
• Bioenergy production offers a solution to waste management, by converting waste into usable energy. For
example, livestock waste and wood waste are excellent sources of energy. By using these renewable sources of
energy, we can reduce the effects, such as odor, of waste on our communities and environment.

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INDIAN POLITY
Framing of the Constitution

Framing of the Constitution

The idea to have Constitution was given by M.N. Roy (A pioneer of Communist Movement in India).

The present constitution was framed by the Constituent Assembly of India setup under Cabinet Mission Plan of May 16,
1946.

Composition of Constituent Assembly

• The Constituent Assembly consisted of 389 members, of which 292 were elected by the elected members of the
Provincial Legislative Assemblies while 93 members were nominated by the Princely States.
• A representative from each of the four Chief Commissioners Provinces of Delhi, Ajmer-Marwaf, Coorg and British
Baluchistan was also added.
• Each Province and each Indian State or group of States were allotted the total number of seats proportional to
their respective population roughly in die ratio of one to a million.
• The seats in each province were distributed among the three main communities – Muslim, Sikh and General, in
proportion to their respective populations.
• Members of each community in the Provincial Legislative Assembly elected their own representatives by the
method of proportional representation with single transferable vote.
• The method of selection in the case of representatives of Indian States was to be determined by consultation.
• But when the Muslim League decided to withdraw its members from the Constituent Assembly of India and with
the creation of a separate Constituent Assembly forPakistan on July 16, 1947, the membership of the Constituent
Assembly of India was reduced to 299, out of which 229 represented the provinces and 70 were nominated by the
Princely states.

Drafting Committee

Drafting Committee, which bore the responsibility of drafting the Constitutional document during the recess of the
Constituent Assembly, from July 1947 to Sept 1948, was formed on Aug 29, 1947.

Its members were:

1. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar – Chairman

2. N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar
3. Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar (a distinguished jurist)
4. K.M. Munshi (a distinguished jurist)
5. Syyed Mohd. Saadulla
6. N. Madhav Rao fin place of B.L. Mitra)
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7. D.P Khaitan (T Krishnamachari, after Khaitan’s death in 1948).

Functioning of the Constituent Assembly

• B N Rao was appointed the constitutional advisor of the Assembly.

• The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly took place on Dec 9, 1946 with Dr. Sachidanand Sinha as its
interim President. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as its President on Dec 11, 1946.
• The Assembly had 13 committees for framing the constitution.

The important ones were:

Committee Chairman

Union Power Committee Jawaharlal Nehru

Fundamental Rights and Minority Committee V.B Patel

Provincial Constitution Committee V.B Patel

Union Constitution Committee Jawaharlal Nehru

Drafting Committee B.R Ambedkar

Flag Committee Jivatram Kripalani

Steering Committee K.M Munshi

All these Committees submitted their reports, which were widely discussed by the Constituent Assembly.

Constitutional Development in India

The history of the Constitutional development in India can be traced back to the Regulating Act of 1773, which for the first
time made the provision for the post of Governor – General in India.

Since then a number of constitutional experiments were introduced aiming at streamlining the Indian Administration.
However, the year 1858 serves as watershed when the Indian Administration came under the direct rule of the British
Crown and the centralization of the administration was at its pinnacle.

Thus the period of British constitutional development experiment in India can be divided into two phases:

1. Constitutional experiments during the rule of the East India Company (1773-1857)

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2. Constitutional experiments under the British Crown (1857-1947).

Constitutional Experiments During the Rule of The East India Company (1773-1857)

Regulating Act, 1773

• Subjected the Company’s actions to the supervision of the British Govt.

• End of Dual government.
• Governor of Bengal to be the Governor-General of British territories of India.
• Establishment of Supreme Court in Calcutta.
• The servants of the Company were forbidden to engage in private trade, accept presents or bribes, etc.

Pitts Act of 1784

• The commercial and political activities of the Company were now separated. Board of Control of six members
(including two cabinet ministers) set-up to guide and supervise the affairs of the Company in India.
• Three members will be there in Governor-General’s Executive Council.
• Secret Committee of three Directors was to look into political and military affairs. [Governor General and the
council were forbidden to declare war and make treaties without the sanction of secret committee].
• Madras and Bombay Presidencies were subordinated to the Governor-General-in-Council of Bengal in all matters.
• This act gave the British Government a measure of control over the Company’s affairs. In fact, the Company
became a subordinate department of the State.

Act of 1786

Governor General given the power to over-ride the council and was made Commander-in-Chief also.

Charter Act of 1793

• Company given monopoly of trade for 20 more years.

• Expenses and salaries of the Board of Control to be charged on Indian revenue.
• The Governor General and the Governors could now over-ride the decisions of their respective Councils.
• All laws were to be translated in Indian languages.
• It laid the foundation of Govt. by written laws, interpreted by courts.

Charter Act of 1813

Company deprived of its trade monopoly in India except in tea and trade with China.

This made the Company more of an administrative body.

All Englishmen could trade with India subject to few restrictions.

A sum of

1 lakh earmarked annually for education of Indians.

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Further, Christian missionaries were also permitted to come to India and preach their religion.

Charter Act of 1833

End of Company’s monopoly even in tea and trade with China. Company was asked to close its commercial business at
the earliest.

All restrictions on European immigration into India and acquisition of land and property in India by them were removed,
legalizing European colonization of India.

Governor General of Bengal to be Governor General of India; all powers, administrative and financial, were centralized in
the hands of the Governor-General – in – Council. (1st Governor General of India – Lord William Bentinck).

President of Board of Control became the minister for Indian affairs. A law member (without power to vote) was added to
the Executive Council of the Governor General.

Macaulay was the first Law member. This increased the Council’s strength to four. With it began the Indian Legislature. A
law commission was constituted for codification of laws. The Act threw open to all, irrespective of religion, place of birth,
descent and colour, services under the Company.

Charter Act of 1853

• The Act renewed the powers of the Company and allowed it to retain the possession of Indian territories in trust
for the British Crown but not for any specified period.
• The number of members of the Court of Directors was reduced from 24 to 18 of which 6 were to be nominated by
the Crown.
• The Law member was made a full member of the Governor General’s Executive Council
• Legislation was treated for the first time as separate from executive functions.
• Questions could be asked and the policy of the Executive Council could be discussed, though the Executive
Council could veto a bill of the Legislative Council.
• Recruitment to Civil Services was based on open annual competition examination (excluding Indians).

Constitutional Experiments Under the British Crown (1857-1947)

Enactment of the Constitution

The Drafting Committee prepared the draft of the Constitution, which came out in the open on Feb 4, 1948 (first reading)
to elicit the public opinion and reaction to it.

The Assembly had a general discussion on it for five days.

The Constituent Assembly next met on Nov 15, 1948 when the provisions of the Draft were considered and discussed in
detail (second reading).

During this stage, as many as 7,653 amendments were proposed and 2,473 were actually discussed in the Assembly.

The third reading of the draft started on Nov 14, 1949. It was finally passed and accepted on Nov 26, 1949.

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The last session of the Assembly was held on Jan 24, 1950, which unanimously elected Dr. Rajendra Prasad as the
President of India.

In all, 284 members of the Assembly signed the official copies of the Indian Constitution which came into effect on Jan 26,
1950, known and celebrated as the Republic Day of India.

The Constitution, adopted on Nov 26, 1949, contained a Preamble, 395 articles & 8 schedules (12 at present).

Constituent Assembly took 2 years – 11 months – 18 days to complete the constitution.

Although Constitution was ready on Nov 26, 1949 but was delayed till Jan 26, 1950 because in 1929 on this day Indian
National Congress demanded ‘Poorna Swaraj’ in Lahore session under Jawaharlal Nehru.

[Some of the provisions as those related to citizenship, elections, provisional Parliament etc, were given immediate effect].

Constituent Assembly adopted our National Flag on July 22, 1947.

It was designed by Pingali Venkaiah of Andhra Pradesh.

Parts of the Constitution

Part - I (Article 1 - Deals with territory of India formation of new states, alterations, names of existing states.
4)

Part - II (Art. 5 - Deals with various rights of citizenship.

11)

Part - III (Art. 12 - Deals with fundamental rights of Indian citizens. (Art. 31 - dealing with the right to property was deleted by 44th amendment).
35)

Part - IV (Art. 36 - Deals with Directive Principles of State Policy.

51)

Part - IV - A (Art. Added by 42nd amendment in 1976. Contains the duties of the citizens.
51A)

Part - V (Art. 52 - Deals with govt. at the Union Level. (Duties & Function of PM, Ministers, Presidents, Attorney General, Parliament - Lok Sabha &
151) Rajya Sabha, Comptroller & Auditor General).

Part - VI (Art. 152 - Deals with govt. at the State Level. (Duties & functions of Chief Minister & his ministers, Governor, State legislature, High Court,
237) Advocate General of the State).

Part - VII (Art. 238) Deals with States, was replaced in 1956 by the 7th amendment.

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Part - VIII (Art. 239 - Deals with Union Territories.

241)

Part - IX Consists of 2 parts:

1. Added by 73rd amendment in 1992. Contains a new schedule 'SCHEDULE ELEVEN'. It contains 29 subjects related to
Panchayati Raj. (They have been given administrative powers).

2. Added by 74th amendment in 1992. Contains a new schedule 'SCHEDULE TWELVE'. It contains 18 subjects related to
Municipalities. (They have been given administrative powers).

Part - X (Art. 244, Deals with Scheduled & Tribal Areas.

244A)

Part - XI (Art. 245 - Deals with relation between Union & States.
263)

Part - XII (Art. 264 - Deals with distribution of revenue between Union & States, appointment of Finance Commission (Article 280), contracts,
300A) liabilities etc.

Part - XIII (Art.301 - Relates to trade, commerce & intercourse within the Territory of India.
307)

Part - XIV (Art.308 - Deals with UPSC and Public Service Commissions.
323)

Part - XV (Art.324 - Deals with elections (Also Election Commission)

329)

Part - XVI (Art.330 - Deals with special provisions for Scheduled Castes & Scheduled Tribed & Anglo - Indian Representation.
342)

Part - XVII (Art. 343 - Relates to official language.

351)

Part, XVIII (Art.352 - Deals with emergency provisions.

360)

Part - XIX (Art.361 - Exemption of criminal proceedings for their official acts as President & Governors.
367)

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Part - XX (Art. 368) Deals with Amendment of Constitution.

Part - XXI (Art.369 - (Art-369 gives temporary powers to the Parliament to make laws for State list).
392)
(Art -370 contains temporary provisions of J & K - Restricts the parliament to make laws for that State).

Part - XXII (Art.393 - Concerns the short title, commencement and repeal of the Constitution.
395)

Part - XIV - A By 42nd amendment in 1976. Deals with administrative tribunals set up by parliament to hear disputes & complaints regarding
(Art.323A, 323B) Union, States or local govt.Employees.

Constitution of India

India, also known as Bharat, is a Union of States.It is a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic with a parliamentary system of
government. The Republic is governed in terms of the Constitution of India which was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26th November
1949 and came into force on 26th January 1950.

The Constitution provides for a Parliamentary form of government which is federal in structure with certain unitary features. The constitutional
head of the Executive of the Union is the President. As per Article 79 of the Constitution of India, the council of the Parliament of the Union
consists of the President and two Houses known as the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and the House of the People (Lok Sabha). Article
74(1) of the Constitution provides that there shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister as its head to aid and advise the President,
who shall exercise his/her functions in accordance to the advice. The real executive power is thus vested in the Council of Ministers with the
Prime Minister as its head.

The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the House of the People (Lok Sabha). Every State has a Legislative Assembly. Certain
States have an upper House also called State Legislative Council. There is a Governor for each state who is appointed by the President.
Governor is the Head of the State and the executive power of the State is vested in him. The Council of Ministers with the Chief Minister as its
head advises the Governor in the discharge of the executive functions. The Council of the Ministers of a state is collectively responsible to the
Legislative Assembly of the State.

The Constitution distributes legislative powers between Parliament and State legislatures as per the lists of entries in the Seventh Schedule to
the Constitution. The residuary powers vest in the Parliament. The centrally administered territories are called Union Territories.

Preamble to the Constitution

It is a preface or the introduction to the Constitution. It is not an integral part of constitution. The interpretation of
constitution is based on the spirit of Preamble.

The ‘Objective Resolution’, proposed by Pandit Nehru and passed by the Constituent Assembly, ultimately became the
Preamble.

The Preamble States :

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“We, the People of India, have solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic
Republic and to secure to all citizens:

Justice social, economic and political; Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; Equality of status and of
opportunity; and to promote among them all Fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of
the Nation; in Our Constituent Assembly, this twenty – sixth day of November, 1949, do Hereby Adopt, Enact and Give to
Ourselves this Constitution.”

The idea of preamble was borrowed from the constitution of USA. The words ‘Socialist’, ‘Secular’ And ‘Integrity’ were
added by the 42nd Amendment in 1976.

Sovereign means free to follow internal and external policies. Socialist means no concentration of power and money.
Secular means no particular religion.

Democratic means Elected representatives. Republic means no room for hereditary ruler or monarch. Preamble is not
justiciable.

Citizenship

A citizen is a person who enjoys full membership of the community in which he lives.

Single Citizenship: No State Citizenships.

Citizens are different from aliens who do not enjoy the following Fundamental Rights:

1. The right not to be discriminated against on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. (Article 15)
2. The right to equality of opportunity in the matter of public employment (Article 16).
3. The right to six freedoms in Article 19, i.e., freedom of speech and expression, assembly, association, movement,
residence and profession.
4. Cultural and educational rights conferred by Articles 29 and 30.

Again, citizens alone have the right to hold certain high offices such as those of the President, Vice-President, Governor
of a State, Judge of Supreme Court and High Courts, Attorney General, etc. the right to vote to elect a member of the Lok
Sabha and a Vidhan Sabha and the right to become a Member of the Parliament and a State Legislature are reserved for
citizens only.

Citizenship at the Commencement of the Constitution

1. Every person who has domicile in the territory of India and:

a. Who was born in the territory of India; or
b. Either of whose parents was born in the territory of India; or
c. Who has been ordinarily residing in the territory of India for not less than five years immediately preceding
such commencement; shall be a citizen of India.
2. Persons who migrated to India from Pakistan before 19th July, 1948 and since then have been ordinarily residing
in India.
3. Persons who migrated to India from Pakistan on or after 19th July, 1948 but got themselves, duly registered as
citizens with a competent officer appointed for that purpose.
4. Persons who migrated to Pakistan after 1st March but returned to India under a permit for resettlement.
5. Any person who or either of whose parents or any of whose grandparents was born in India.

However, no person will be deemed to be a citizen, if he voluntarily acquires the citizenship of a foreign State.

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Citizenship Act, 1955 as Amended by Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 1986

The Act provides for the acquisition of Indian Citizenship after the commencement of the Constitution in five ways, i.e.,
Birth, Descent, Registration, Naturalization and Incorporation of territory.

1. Citizenship by Birth:

Every person born in India on or after 26th January, 1950 shall be a citizen of India by birth provided either or both of his
parents are citizens of India at the time of his birth.

However, such a person shall not be a citizen of India, if at the time of his birth:

i. His father is a foreign diplomat; or

ii. His father is an enemy alien.

2. Citizenship by Descent:

A person born outside India on or after 26th January, 1950 shall be a citizen of India by descent, if his father is a citizen of
India at the time of that person's birth.

3. Citizenship by Registration:

Any person who is not a citizen, and belongs to any of the following categories, can apply for registration as a citizen.

However, he must have resided in India for at least five years immediately before making an application for registration as
a citizen.

These are:

a. Persons of Indian origin who are ordinarily resident in India for five years immediately before making an
application for registration;
b. Persons of Indian origin who are ordinarily resident in any country or place outside India;
c. Women who are married to citizens of India;
d. Minor children of persons who are citizens of India; and
e. Persons of full age and capacity who are citizens of a country mentioned in the first schedule of the Act.

National Insignia

1. National Emblem

The state emblem of India is an adaptation from the Sarnath Lion, capital of Ashoka the Emperor as preserved in the
Sarnath Museum.

The Government adopted the emblem on 26th January, 1950, the day when India became a republic.

In the original of Sarnath Capital, there are four lions, standing back to back, mounted on an abacus with a frieze
carrying sculpture in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull and a lion separated by intervening wheels
(chakras) over a bell – shaped lotus.

Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the Capital is crowned by the Wheel of the Law (Dharma Chakra).

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In the state emblem adopted by the Government only three lions are visible, the fourth being hidden from view.

The wheel appears in relief in the centre of the abacus with a bull on the right and a horse on the left and the outlines of
the other wheels on the extreme right and left.

The words, Satyameva Jayate from the Mundaka Upanishad meaning ‘Truth alone triumphs’, are inscribed below the
abacus in Devanagari script.

2. National Flag

The National Flag is a horizontal tri – colour of deep saffron (Kesari) at the top, white in the middle and dark green at the
bottom in equal proportion.

The ratio of the width of the flag to its length is two to three.

In the centre of the white band is a wheel, in navy blue.

Its design is that of die wheel (Chakra) which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Asoka.

Its diameter approximates the width of the white band. It has 24 spokes.

The design of the National Flag was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 22nd July, 1947.

Its use and display are regulated by a code.

3. National Anthem

Rabindranath Tagore’s song Jana-gana-mana was adopted by the Constituent Assembly as the National Anthem of India
on 24th January 1950 and gave Vande Mataram – the national song equal honour.

It was first sung on 27th Dec. 1911 at the Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress.

The first stanza (out of 5 stanzas) of the song forms the National Anthem.

Playing time of the full version of the national anthem is approximately 52 seconds.

A shorter version consisting of the first and last lines of the stanza takes 20 seconds to play and it is played only on
certain occasions.

“Jana-gana-mana-adhinayaka jaya he
Bharata-bhagya-vidhata
Punjab-Sindhu-Gujarata-Maratha-Dravida-Utkala-Banga
Vindhya-Himachal-Yamuna-Ganga
Uchchhala-Jaladhi-taranga
Tava Subha name jage,
Tava Subha asisa mage,
Gahe tava jaya-gatha.

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Jana-gana-mangala-dayaka, jaya he
Bharata-bhagya-vidhata
Jaya he, Jaya he, Jaya he,
Jaya jaya jaya, jaya he.”

4. National song

The song Vande Mataram, composed by Bankimchandra Chatterji, has an equal status with Jana-gana-mana.

The first political occasion when it was sung was the 1896 session of the Indian National Congress.

“Vande Mataram,
Sujalam, suphalam, malayaja shitalam,
Shasyashymalam, Mataram!
Shubhrajyothsna pulakitayaminim,
Phullakusumita drumadala shobhinim,
Suhasinim sumadhura bhashinim, Sukadam,
varadam, Mataram!”

English translation of the stanza rendered by Sri Aurobindo (in Sri Aurobindo Birth Centenary Library Popular Edition
1972, vol. 8), is

“I bow to thee, Mother,

richly-watered, richly-fruited,
cool with the winds of the south,
dark with the crops of the harvests,
The Mother!
Her nights rejoicing in the glory of the moonlight,
Her lands clothed beautifully with her trees in flowering bloom,
sweet of laughter, sweet speech,
The mother, giver of boons, giver of bliss.”

Fundamental Rights of the Indian Constitution

Fundamental Rights of the Indian Constitution – Page 2

Article 14 : Equality before law – The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection
of the laws within the territory of India.

Equality before the law implies that no one is above the law of the land.

1. However, the Constitution allows the following exceptions to the rule of equality before the law :

• The President or the Governor of a State is not answerable to any Court for the exercise and performance of the
powers and duties of office;

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• No criminal proceeding is to be instituted or continued against the President or a Governor in any Court during his
term of office;

• No civil proceeding in which relief is claimed against the President or the Governor can be instituted during his
term of office in any Court in respect of any act done by him in his personal capacity, before or after he entered
the office of President or Governor, until two months expire after notice in writing has been delivered to the
President / Governor stating the nature of the proceedings, the cause of action,- and other details.

2. These apart, other exceptions, such as in favour of foreign rulers and ambassadors, also exist in accordance with
international standards.

Article 15 : Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth - Also, nothing in
this article shall prevent the State from making any special provision for women and children and also for the
advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes.

Article 16 : Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment – There shall be equality of opportunity for all
citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State.

1. It does not prevent the State from prescribing the necessary qualifications and selective tests for recruitment for
Government services.
2. Then, there may be good reasons for reserving certain posts in a State for the residents only.
3. It also empowers the State to make special provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any
backward class of citizens which in the opinion of State are not adequately represented in the services under the
State.
4. It also provides for the reservation of seats in promotion for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

Article 17 : Abolition of untouchability – Untouchability is abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden.

Article 18 : Abolition of titles – No title, not being a military or academic distinction, shall be conferred by the State.

1. Bharat Ratna, Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, Padma Shri and other State awards are not regarded as titles
in terms of Article 18 (1) of the Constitution.
2. Clause (2) prohibits a citizen of India from accepting any title from a foreign State.
3. Clause (3) provides that a foreigner holding any office of profit or trust under the State cannot accept any title from
any foreign State without the consent of the President. This is to ensure loyalty to the government he serves for
the time being and to shut out all foreign influence in Government affairs.
4. Clause (4) provides that no person holding any office of profit under the State is to accept without the consent of
the President, any present, emolument or office of any kind from or under any foreign State.

It is to be noted that there is no penalty prescribed for the infringement of the above prohibition.

Article 18 is merely directory. It is however, open to the Parliament to make a law for dealing with such a person who
accepts a title in violation of the prohibition prescribed in Article 18.

Right to Freedom

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Article 19 : Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech etc – It guarantees the citizens of India the
following six fundamental freedoms :

• Freedom of Speech and Expression

• Freedom of Assembly.
• Freedom to form Associations.
• Freedom of Movement.
• Freedom of Residence and Settlement.
• Freedom of Profession, Occupation, Trade or Business.

Freedom of Press : The Indian Constitution does not provide for the freedom of Press separately. It is implicit in Article
19. The restrictions that limit the freedoms in the case of individuals apply to the press also.

Article 20 : Protection in respect of conviction for offences.

No person shall be convicted of any offence except for violation of the law in force at the time of the commission of the act
charged as an offence, nor be subjected to a penalty greater than that which might have been inflicted under the law in
force at the time of the commission of the offence.

Thus the legislature is prohibited to make criminal laws having retrospective effects.

1. No person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more than once (double jeopardy).
2. No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.

Under the frame of criminal jurisprudence, a person is presumed to be innocent and it is for the prosecution to establish
his guilt.

Again, a person accused of an offence need not make any statement against his will.

Article 21 : Protection of life and personal liberty.

No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.

1. Personal freedom is secured by the Constitution by the judicial writ of Habeas Corpus (Article 32 and 226).
2. The 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002, has inserted in the Constitution a new article 21-A. It states that
the State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such
manner as the State may, by law, determine.

3. Inferred Rights : They are the rights of the citizens which are not explicitly provided by the Constitution but have been
derived by liberal interpretation of the various provisions of the Constitution.

Some of the Inferred rights from Article 21 are:

1. Right to health of the workers.

2. Right to privacy (i.e. to be left alone).
3. Right to live with dignity.
4. Right against denial of wages and arbitrary dismissal of workers.

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5. Right to speedy trial for under – trials.

6. Right against cruel punishment.
7. Right to shelter.
8. Right to free legal aid.

Directive Principles of State Policy of Indian Constitution

Directive Principles of State Policy of Indian Constitution

Mentioned under Part IV of the Constitution covering Articles 36 to 51.

They tell about the AIMS that the state should strive to achieve. This part of the Constitution is undoubtedly the sister of
the previous part dealing with the Fundamental Rights, and is described as the ‘Conscience of the Constitution’.

Their idea has been incorporated from the Constitution of Ireland. They are a unique blend of socialistic, liberal,
democratic and Gandhian Principles. Mere instructions, not enforceable by law, for day – to – day administration of the
country.

In State of Tamilnadu Vs L. Abu Kavur Bai case in 1984, the Supreme Court held that although directive principles are not
enforceable, yet the court shouldn’t avoid them.

Classification and Enumeration of Directive Principles. Can be classified under four principal groups. The first group deals
with general principles of social policy.

The second with the principles of administrative policy. The third deals with socio – economic rights. The fourth and last
group contains a statement of the International Policy of the Indian Republic.

They are as follows :

1. Article 38 : To secure and protect a social order which stands for the welfare of the people.

2. Article 39 : The State will, in particular, direct its policy towards securing :
Adequate means of livelihood to all citizens

• A proper distribution of the material resources of the community for the common good.
• Prevention of concentration of wealth to common detriment.
• Equal pay for equal work for both men and women.
• The protection of the strength and health of the workers and avoiding circumstances that force citizens to enter
avocations unsuited to their age or strength.
• The protection of childhood and youth against exploitation or moral and material abandonment.

3. Article 40 : To organize village panchayats as units of self – government.

4. Article 41 : To secure the right to work, education and public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness,
etc.

5. Article 42 : To secure just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief.

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6. Article 43 : To secure work, a living wage, a decent standard of life, leisure and social and cultural opportunities for
people, and in particular to promote cottage industries.

7. Article 44 : To secure a uniform civil code applicable to the entire country.

8. Article 45 : To provide, within 10 years from the commencement of the Constitution, free and compulsory education to
all children up to the age of 14.

9. Article 46 : To promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people,
especially the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

10. Article 47 : To secure the improvement of public health and the prohibition of intoxicating drinks and drugs.

11. Article 48 : To organize cultural and animal husbandry on scientific lines and preserve and improve the breeds and
prohibit the slaughter of cows, calves and other milch and draught cattle.

12. Article 49 : To protect all monuments of historic interest and national importance.

13. Article 50 : To bring about the separation of the judiciary from the executive.

14. Article 51 : To endeavor to secure

• The promotion of international peace and security.

• The maintenance of just and honorable relations between nations.
• The settlement of international disputes by arbitration.

Directive Principles Added after 42nd Amendment, 1976

Article 39 (a) : The legal system promotes justice on the basis of equal opportunity and will, in particular, free legal aid by
suitable legislation.

Article 39 (f) : The children are given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner and in conditions of
freedom and dignity and that childhood and youth are protected against exploitation and against moral and material
abandonment.

Article 43 (a) : To secure the participation of workers in the management of undertakings engaged in any industry.

Article 48 (a) : To protect the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.

Directive Principle Added after 44th Amendment, 1978

Article 38 (1) : The State shall, in particular, strive to minimize the inequalities in income and endeavor to eliminate
inequalities in status, facilities and opportunities, not only amongst individuals but also amongst groups of people residing
in different areas or engaged in different vocations.

Directive Principles Mentioned in Other Parts

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Article 350 (a) : It is the duty of the officers of concerned states to provide primary education in mother tongue to the
people of minorities particularly to the children of minorities’ class.

Article 351 : It will be the duty of the Union to spread Hindi language amongst the people of India which will develop our
cultural and social element.

Article 355 : It will be under consideration to appoint the people of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in
and as Union or State services.

Parliament

Parliament is the supreme legislative body of India. The Indian Parliament comprises of the President and the two Houses-Lok Sabha (House
of the People) and Rajya Sabha (Council of States). The President has the power to summon and prorogue either House of Parliament or to
dissolve Lok Sabha.

The Constitution of India came into force on January 26, 1950. The first general elections under the new Constitution were held during the year
1951-52 and the first elected Parliament came into being in April, 1952, the Second Lok Sabha in April, 1957, the Third Lok Sabha in April,
1962, the Fourth Lok Sabha in March, 1967, the Fifth Lok Sabha in March, 1971, the Sixth Lok Sabha in March, 1977, the Seventh Lok Sabha
in January, 1980, the Eighth Lok Sabha in December, 1984, the Ninth Lok Sabha in December, 1989, the Tenth Lok Sabha in June, 1991, the
Eleventh Lok Sabha in May, 1996, the Twelfth Lok Sabha in March, 1998, Thirteenth Lok Sabha in October, 1999, Fourteenth Lok Sabha in
May, 2004 and Fifteenth Lok Sabha in April, 2009.

Visit the Parliament of India Website(External website that opens in a new window)

Rajya Sabha

The origin of Rajya Sabha can be traced back to 1919, when in pursuance to the Government of India Act, 1919, a second chamber known as
the Council of States was created. This Council of States, comprising of mostly nominated members was a deformed version of second
chamber without reflecting true federal features. The Council continued to function till India became independent. The Rajya Sabha, its Hindi
nomenclature was adopted in 23 August, 1954.

The Rajya Sabha is to consist of not more than 250 members - 238 members representing the States and Union Territories, and 12 members
nominated by the President.

Rajya Sabha is a permanent body and is not subject to dissolution. However, one third of the members retire every second year, and are
replaced by newly elected members. Each member is elected for a term of six years.

The Vice President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha. The House also elects a Deputy Chairman from among its members.
Besides, there is also a panel of "Vice Chairmen" in the Rajya Sabha. The senior most Minister, who is a member of Rajya Sabha, is appointed
by the Prime Minister as Leader of the House.

Maximum strength : 550 + 2 [530 - States / 20 - Union Territories]

Present strength of Lok Sabha – 545.

The Ninety First Amendment, 2001, extended freeze on Lok Sabha and State Assembly seats till 2026.

The normal tenure of the Lok Sabha is five years, but it may be dissolved earlier by the President.

The life of the Lok Sabha can be extended by the Parliament beyond the five year term, when a proclamation of
emergency under Article 352 is in force.
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But the Parliament cannot extend the normal life of the Lok Sabha for more than one year at a time (no limit on the
number of times in the Constitution).

The qualification to become a member is :

• Citizen of India.
• At least 25 yrs of age.
• Mustn’t hold any office of profit.
• No unsound mind / insolvent.
• Has registered as voter in any Parliamentary constituency.

A member can be disqualified :

• If he voluntarily gives up the membership of party

• If he over – rules the ‘whip’.
• Absent for 60 days without intimation.

Members’ oath is administered by Pro-Tem Speaker.

Can resign, by writing to Speaker.

Presiding officer is Speaker (In his absence Deputy Speaker). The members among themselves elect him.

The Speaker continues in office even after the dissolution of the Lok Sabha till a newly elected Lok Sabha meets.

Usually the Speaker, after his election cuts-off all connection with his party & acts in an impartial manner.

He does not vote in the first instance, but exercises his casting vote only to remove a deadlock.

Name Tenure

From To

G.V. Mavalankar 15.05 1952 07.02.1956

M.A. Ayyanger 08 03.1956 10.05.1957

M.A. Ayyanger 11.05 1957 06.04.1962

Hukam Singh 17.04.1962 16.03.1967

N. Sanjiva Reddy 17.03.1967 19.07.1969

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Dr. G.S. Dhillon 08.08.1969 19.03.1971

Dr. G.S. Dhillon 22.03.1971 01.12.1975

Baliram Bhagat 05.01.1976 25.03.1977

N. Sanjiva Reddy 26.03.1977 13.07.1977

K.D. Hegde 21.07.1977 21.01.1980

Dr. Balram Jakhar 22.01.1980 15.01.1985

Dr. Balram Jakhar 16.01.1985 18.12.1989

Rabi Ray 19.12.1989 09.07.1991

Shiv Raj Patil 10.07.1991 22.05.1996

P.A. Sangma 23.05.1996 23.03.1998

G.M.C. Balyogi 24.03.1998 21.10.1999

G.M.C. Balyogi 27.10.1999 03.03.2002

Manohar Joshi 10.05.2002 20.02.2004

Somnath Chattergee 05.06.2004 31.05.2009

Smt. Meira Kumar 01.06.2009 Till Date

Charges his salary from Consolidated Fund of India.

Speaker sends his resignation to Deputy Speaker.

The majority of the total membership can remove Speaker after giving a 14 days notice.

(During this time, he doesn’t preside over the meetings).

After his removal, continues in office till his successor takes charge.

Rajya Sabha

Maximum Strength – 250 [Out of these, President nominates 12 amongst persons having special knowledge or practical
experience in the fields of literature, science, art and social service].

Presently, the Parliament, by law, has provided for 233 seats for the States and the Union Territories.

The total membership of Rajya Sabha is thus 245.

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All the States and the Union Territories of Delhi and Pondicherry are represented in the Rajya Sabha.

Representatives of the State are elected by members of state legislative assemblies on the basis of proportional
representation through a-single transferable vote. [States are represented on the basis of their population].

There are no seats reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Rajya Sabha.

The qualification to become a member is:

• Citizen of India.
• 30 yrs of age.
• Be a parliamentary elector in the state in which he is seeking election
• Others as prescribed by parliament from time-to-time.

For 6 years, as 1/3rd Members retire every 2 years.

Vice-President is the ex-officio chairman of Rajya Sabha.

He presides over the proceedings of the Rajya Sabha as long as he does not act as the President of India during a
vacancy in the office of the President of India.

Also a deputy Chairman is elected from its members.

In Rajya Sabha any bill can originate, apart from money bill (including budget).

Special Powers of the Rajya Sabha

A resolution seeking the removal of the Vice-President can originate only in the Rajya Sabha.

If the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by a majority of not less than two-third of the members present and voting that it is
necessary in the national interest that Parliament should make laws with respect to any matter enumerated in the State
List, it shall be lawful for Parliament 1 to make law for a period of not more than one year.

If the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by a majority of not less than two-third of the members present and voting that it is
necessary in the national interest to create one or more All-India services, Parliament by law, provide for such service or
services.

Lok Sabha

Parliamentary institutions in India, with all their modern ramifications, owe their origin to India's British connections. Until 1853, there was no
legislative body distinct from the Executive. The Charter Act of 1853, for the first time provided some sort of a legislature in the form of a 12
member Legislative Council. The Indian Independence Act, 1947 declared the Constituent Assembly of India to be a full sovereign body. Apart
from being a Constitution drafting body, it also assumed full powers for the governance of the country. With the coming into force of the
Constitution on 26 January, 1950, the Constituent Assembly functioned as the Provisional Parliament until the first Lok Sabha, then known as
the House of People, and was constituted following General Elections in 1952. Lok Sabha, the Hindi nomenclature was adopted on 14 May,
1954.

The Lok Sabha is composed of representatives of people chosen by direct election on the basis of Universal Adult Suffrage. The Constitution
provides that the maximum strength of the House be 552 members - 530 members to represent the States, 20 members to represent the Union

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Territories, and 2 members to be nominated by the President from the Anglo-Indian Community. At present, the strength of the House is 545
members.

The term of the Lok Sabha, unless dissolved, is five years from the date appointed for its first meeting. However, while a proclamation of
emergency is in operation, this period may be extended by Parliament by law for a period not exceeding one year at a time and not extending in
any case, beyond a period of six months after the proclamation has ceased to operate.

More information of Lok Sabha(External website that opens in a new window)

Difference between Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha

1. Members of Lok Sabha are directly elected by the eligible voters. Members of Rajya Sabha are elected by the elected members of
State Legislative Assemblies in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of single transferable vote.
2. The normal life of every Lok Sabha is 5 years only while Rajya Sabha is a permanent body.
3. Lok Sabha is the House to which the Council of Ministers is responsible under the Constitution. Money Bills can only be introduced in
Lok Sabha. Also it is Lok Sabha, which grants the money for running the administration of the country.
4. Rajya Sabha has special powers to declare that it is necessary and expedient in the national interest that Parliament may make laws
with respect to a matter in the State List or to create by law one or more all-India services common to the Union and the States.

Functions and Powers

The cardinal functions of the Legislature include overseeing of administration, passing of budget, ventilation of public grievances, and
discussing various subjects like development plans, international relations, and national policies. The Parliament can, under certain
circumstances, assume legislative power with respect to a subject falling within the sphere, exclusively reserved for the states. The Parliament
is also vested with powers to impeach the President, remove judges of Supreme and High Courts, the Chief Election Commissioner, and
Comptroller and Auditor General in accordance with the procedure laid down in the Constitution. All legislation requires the consent of both
Houses of Parliament. In the case of Money Bills, the will of the Lok Sabha prevails. The Parliament is also vested with the power to initiate
amendments in the Constitution.

The President

Executive Head of the State. First citizen of India.

The Executive powers vested in the President are to be exercised on the advice of the Council of Ministers responsible to the
Parliament.

The 42nd Amendment to the Constitution has made it obligatory on the part of the President to accept the advice of the Council of
Ministers.

President Qualifications

a. Must be a citizen of India.

b. Completed 35 yrs in age.
c. Eligible to be a member of Lok Sabha.
d. Must not hold any Government post.

Exceptions:

1. President and Vice - President

2. Governor of any State
3. Minister of Union or State.

President Election

Article 54 and 55 lay down the procedure for electing the President.
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Indirectly elected through 'Electoral College' consisting of elected members of both the Houses of Parliament & elected members of the
Legislative Assemblies of the States.

(No nominated members). According to the 70th Amendment Act, 1992, the expression 'States' includes the National Capital Territory
of Delhi and the Union Territory of Pondicherry.

Members of the Legislative Councils have no right to vote in the Presidential election.

The total voting strength of the Parliament is equal to the total voting strength of all state assemblies together.

There is uniformity in the representation of different States at the President's election according to the population and the total number
of elected members of the Legislative Assembly of each State.

The formula adopted to secure uniformity among the States is as follows:

Value of Vote of an MLA = State Population / (1000' Total no. of elected MLA's)

On the basis of the above formula, the value of the vote of an MLA from UP has the highest value and that from Sikkim the lowest.

The formula adopted to secure uniformity between all the States on one hand and the Parliament on the other is as follows:

Value of Vote of an MP = Total value of votes of MLA's of all States / Total no. of elected MP's (LS + RS)

The 1971 census is currently under consideration.

The election is held through the system of proportional representation by means of the single - transferable vote by secret ballot.

The candidate who gets 50% of votes is considered elected.

It was pointed out in the Constituent Assembly that proportional representation is meaningless where there is only one candidate to be
elected.

Moreover, "the single transferable vote does not exist here because nobody has a single vote; everybody has plural votes".

Answering these doubts, Dr. Ambedkar explained that "we have provided one single proportional representation in which every
candidate at the bottom will be eliminated until we reach one man who gets what is called a quota".

This method, he said, was adopted so that the minorities will have some hand and some play in the election of the President.

He refused to explain how it would work in case there is only one man to be elected.

Constitutional analysts aver that it is really what is known as the alternative vote.

Quota = (No. of votes polled / 2) + 1

By this method, each voter is entitled to cast as many votes as there are candidates in the field indicating the order of his preferences.

If in the first counting no candidate obtains the requisite quota, the process of transfer of votes is eliminated and his second preferences
are added to the first preference votes of other candidates.

This process continues until a candidate with the requisite quota emerges.

Thus the candidate who receives the largest number of votes on the first count is not necessarily the final choice.

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This procedure ensures that the President-elect has an absolute majority behind him.

Security deposit - Rs.15,000

Supreme Court inquires all disputes regarding President's election.

Takes OATH in presence of Chief Justice of India, or in his absence, senior most judge of Supreme Court.

Note:

In the history of Presidential elections, V.V. Giri is the only person who won the election of the President as an independent candidate
in 1969.

In July 1977, Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy was elected unopposed as no one else filed nomination for the post of the President.

List of Presidents of India

Name Tenure

From To

Dr. Rajendra Prasad * 26.01.1950 13.05.1962

Dr. S. Radhakrishnan 13.05.1962 13.05.1967

Dr. Zakir Hussain 13.05.1967 03.05.1969

V.V. Giri (Vice-President) 03.05.1969 20.07.1969

Justice M. Hidayatullah 20.07.1969 24.08.1969

V.V. Giri 24.08.1969 24.08.1974

F. AIi Ahmed 24.08.1974 11.02.1977

B.D. Jatti 11.02.1977 25.07.1977

N. Sanjiva Reddy 25.07.1977 25.07.1982

Gaini Jail Singh 25.07.1982 25.07.1987

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Name Tenure

From To

R. Venkataraman 25.07.1987 25.07.1992

Dr. S.D. Sharma 25.07.1992 25.07.1997

K.R. Narayanan 25.07.1997 25.07.2002

Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam 25.07.2002 25.07.2007

Mrs. Pratibha Patil 25.07.2007 Till date

# - Acting; * - First Chief Justice to be appointed President.

Vice President of India

Vice President of India

Elected by both the houses (Electoral College) in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of
single transferable vote and the vote being secret. Nominated members also participate in his election.

The Supreme Court has the final and exclusive jurisdiction for resolving disputes and doubts relating to the election of the
Vice – President.

Vice President Qualifications :

• Citizen of India.
• More than 35 Years of age.
• Possess the qualification for membership of Rajya Sabha.
• Not hold any office of profit under union, state or local authority. However, for this purpose, the President, Vice-
President, Governor of a State and a Minister of the Union or a State, are not held to be holding an office of profit.

Holds office for 5 Years. Can be re – elected.

Term can be cut short if he resigns or by a resolution of the Rajya Sabha passed by a majority of all the then members of
the Rajya Sabha and agreed to by the Lok Sabha.

The Vice President is the second highest dignitary of India, next to the President of India.
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No formal functions are attached to the office of Vice President.

He is the ex – officio chairman of Rajya Sabha. Since he is not a member of Rajya Sabha, he has no right to vote.

Being the Vice President of India, he is not entitled for any salary, but he is entitled to the salary and allowances payable
to the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.

All bills, resolution, motion can be taken in Rajya Sabha after his consent.

Can discharge the function of President if the post falls vacant. (For maximum 6 months).

The Vice President takes over the office of the President normally under these conditions :

• Death of the President.

• Resignation of the President.
• Removal of the President.
• When President owing to absence, illness or any other cause, is unable to perform the functions of his office.

When he discharges the functions of the President, the Vice President shall not perform the duties of the office of the
Chairman of Rajya Sabha and shall not be entitled to receive the salary of the Chairman.

During this period, he is entitled for the salary and privileges of the President of India.

Present salary is 1,25,000 per month.

The pension is 50% of the salary.

List of Vice Presidents in India

Indian Vice President List

Name Tenure

From To

Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan 1952 1962

Dr. Zakir Hussain 1962 1967

V.V. Giri 1967 1969

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Name Tenure

Bal Swaroop Pathak 1969 1974

Dr. M. Jatti 1974 1979

Justice Mohd. Hidayatullah 1979 1984

Name Tenure

From To

S. Venkataraman 1984 1987

Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma 1987 1992

K.R. Narayanan 1992 1977

Krishan Kant 1997 2002

Bhairon Singh Shekhawat 2002 2007

Hamid Ansari 2007 Till date

Prime Ministers in India

Real executive authority.

Gets the same salary as other MPs’. [In addition, he gets some other allowances].

He is the ex – officio Chairman of the Planning Commission, National Development Council, National Integration Council
and Inter – state Council.

Prime Minister Powers

• The President convenes and prorogues all sessions of Parliament in consultation with him.
• Can recommend the dissolution of Lok Sabha before expiry.

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• Appoints the Council of ministers.

• Allocates portfolios. Can ask a minister to resign & can get him dismissed by President.
• Assists the President in appointment of all high officials.
• Can recommend to the President to declare emergency on grounds of war, external aggression or armed
rebellion.
• Advises President about President’s Rule in the state or emergency due to financial instability.
• Leader of the House.

List of Prime Ministers in India

Name Tenure

From To

Jawahar Lal Nehru 15.08.1947 27.05.1964

Gulzari Lal Nanda 27.05.1964 09.06.1964

Lal Bahadur Shastri 09.06.1964 11.01.1966

Gulzari Lal Nanda 11.01.1966 24.01.1966

Indira Gandhi 24.01.1966 24.03.1977

Morarji Desai 24.03.1977 28.07.1979

Charan Singh 28.07.1979 14.01.1980

Indira Gandhi 14.01.1980 31.10.1984

Rajiv Gandhi 31.10.1984 01.12.1989

V.P. Singh 01.12.1989 10.11.1990

Chandra Shekhar 10.11.1990 21.06.1991

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Name Tenure

P.V. Narsimha Rao 21.06.1991 16.05.1996

Atal Bihari Vajpayee 16.05.1996 01.06.1996

H.D. Deve Gowda 01.06.1996 21.04.1997

I.K. Gujral 21.04.1997 19.03.1998

Atal Bihari Vajpayee 19.03.1998 13.10.1999

Atal Bihari Vajpayee 13.10.1999 22.05.2004

Dr. Manmohan Singh 22.05.2004 Till date

Council of Ministers in India

The President has to act in accordance with the advice of Council of ministers.

In this, 3 types of ministers are there:

• Minister of Cabinet Rank : Real policy makers. The cabinet meetings are not attended by other ministers.
• Minister of State : Can either hold independent charge or attached to a cabinet minister.
• Deputy Ministers : Do not hold separate charge.

Collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.

It is a team & its members sink or swim together. (Article 75). This is called ‘Collective Responsibility’.

A vote of no confidence against any Minister automatically leads to the resignation of the entire Council (or its dismissal
by the President).

A person can remain a minister without being a member of the either house up to 6 months maximum.

A Minister who is a member of one House has a right to speak in and take part in the proceedings of the other House –
though he has no right to vote in the House of which he is not a member.

According to Article 79, the Parliament consists of the President, the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and the House of
the People (Lok Sabha).

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Though the President is not a member of either of the House, he is an integral part of it.

Supreme Court of India

Supreme Court of India :: Chief Justices of India | Jurisdiction of Supreme Court

Stands at the apex of the judicial system of India.

Consists of Chief Justice & 30 other judges.

Appointment

The senior most judge of the Supreme Court is appointed as the Chief Justice of India.

Other judges are appointed by the President after consultation with such judges of the Supreme Court and of the High
Courts as the President may deem necessary.

In a landmark judgement, the Supreme Court in the “Supreme Court Advocates – on – Record Association vs. Union of
India” case, 1993, held that the Chief Justice’s opinion in the appointment of the judges of the Supreme Court and in the
appointment and transfer of the judges of the High Court shall enjoy primacy.

Supreme Court Judge Qualifications :

• Citizen of India.
• Have been a judge of High Court for 5 yrs or an advocate of High Court for 10 yrs minimum or in President’s view,
a distinguished jurist of the country.

Term & Salary

The Chief Justice & other judges hold office till 65 yrs of age.

• Can give resignation to President.

• Can be removed by the Parliament.
• After retirement, a judge of Supreme Court cannot plead or act before any authority.

Supreme Court Judge Salary :

• Chief Justice –

1,00,000 per month

• Other Judges –

90,000 per month

Removal of Judges

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A motion seeking the removal of the judge can be preferred before either House of the Parliament. If it is to be introduced
in the Lok Sabha, it should be signed in by not less than 100 members of the Lok Sabha.

If it is to be introduced in the Rajya Sabha, the motion should be signed in by not less than 50 members. The resolution
should be supported by a majority of total membership of both the houses & by 2/3 majority of the members present &
voting.

Other Points

The Chief Justice can appoint ad hoc judges in the Supreme Court after the consent of President; important aspect is they
should be qualified to do so.

The Chief Justice, with the previous consent of the President, may request a retired Judge of the Supreme Court or a
retired judge of a High Court who is duly qualified to be appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court, to sit and act as a
judge of the Supreme Court.

Supreme Court normally sits in New Delhi. Can hold its meetings outside if the decision is taken by Chief Justice on
consultation with the President.

Independence of Judges

The Constitution has ensured this by :

• Salaries from Consolidated Fund.

• Salaries cannot be changed to their disadvantage.
• Removal difficult.
• Cannot practice after retirement.
• Decision & actions of judges cannot be criticized & the person doing so can be punished.
• Conduct of judges cannot be discussed in Parliament.
• President cannot appoint judges of the Supreme Court himself, he has to consult the judges also.

Attorney General of India

Attorney General of India

Highest legal officer of the Union Government. He is Appointed by the President. The person should be qualified to be
appointed a judge of the SC.

He is entitled to audience in all courts of the country & can take part in the proceedings of the Parliament & its
committees. However, he is not given the right to vote.

He is also allowed to take up private practice provided the other party is not the State. Because of this, he is not paid
salary but a retainer to be determined by the President.

In England, the Attorney General is a member of the Cabinet, but in India he is not.

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It is a political appointment and therefore, whenever there is a change in the party in power, the Attorney General resigns
from his post to enable the new Government to appoint a nominee of his choice.

The Attorney General is assisted by two Solicitors – General and four Additional Solicitors – General.

The Attorney General gets a retainer equivalent to the salary of a judge of the Supreme Court.

State Attorney General Function

• Gives advice on all such legal matters which may be referred or assigned to him by the President.
• Appears before the Supreme Court and various High Courts in cases involving the Government of India.
• [Every state shall have an Advocate - General to advice the government on legal matters - Article 165].

State Legislature in India

Can be

• Unicameral – [One House]

• Bicameral – [Two House]

Bicameral Status :

6 States:

• Bihar – 75
• J & K – 36
• Karnataka – 75
• Maharashtra – 78
• Uttar Pradesh – 104
• Andhra Pradesh – 90

Legislative Council can be created or abolished on the recommendation of Legislative Assembly.

Note :

The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Law and Justice, headed by E.M. Sudarsana Natchippan, has recommended
revival of the Legislative Council in Andhra Pradesh, 20 years after it was abolished in 1985.

Legislative Council [Vidhan Parishad]

Also known as Upper House. Like Rajya Sabha, it is also a permanent house (sort of) and cannot be dissolved.

Strength

The total strength cannot exceed 1/3rd of the strength of Legislative Assembly, subject to a minimum of 40 members.

The strength varies as per the population of state.

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Creation and Abolition

As per Article 169, if the Legislative Assembly passes a resolution for abolishing or creating of the Legislative Council by a
majority of the total membership of the assembly and by a majority of not less than two – third of the members present
and voting, the Parliament may approve the resolution by a simple majority.

A resolution passed by the Legislative Assembly for the creation or abolition of its Council is not binding on the
Parliament.

The Parliament may or may not approve such a situation.

Tenure

6 yrs term with l/3rd members retiring every two years.

Qualification

Same as that of Lok Sabha, except the age which is 30 yrs.

Election

One – third of the members are elected by local bodies, one – third by legislative assembly, one – twelfth by university
graduates of at least 3 yrs standing, similar proportion by teachers (not less than secondary school) of at least 3 yrs
standing & one – sixth nominated by the Governor from among those persons who distinguish themselves in
literature, science or social service.
Chairman

The Council elects a Chairman & a Vice – chairman from amongst its members.

The Governor of India

Nominal executive head.

Normally each State has its own Governor, but under the Seventh Amendment Act, 1956, the same person can be
appointed as Governor of one or more States or Lt. Governor of the Union Territory.

Appointed by the President on the recommendations of

Governor Qualification

• Citizen of India.
• Completed 35 yrs of age.
• Shouldn’t be a member of either house of parliament or the state legislature.
• Must possess the qualification for membership of State Legislature.
• Mustn’t hold any office of profit.

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Other Points

• His usual term of office is 5 yrs but he holds office during the pleasure of the President.
• He can be asked to continue for more time until his successor takes the charge.
• Can give his resignation or can be removed earlier by the President.
• The legislature of a State or a High Court has no role in the removal of a Governor.
• Salary from the Consolidated Fund of the State (

1,10,000 per month) and is not subject to the vote of the State Legislature.

• When the same person is appointed as the Governor of two or more States, the emoluments and allowances
payable to him shall be allocated among the States in such proportion as determined by the President of India.
• His oath is administered by the Chief Justice of the concerned State High Court and in his absence, the senior –
most judge of that Court.

Governor Powers

a. Executive Powers of the Governor

Appoints Chief Minister, Council of Ministers, Chairman & members of State Public Service Commission, Advocate
General of the State and Election Commissioner of the State.

b. Legislative Powers of the Governor

• Summons, Prorogues & dissolves the State Legislature.

• Addresses the first session of State Legislature after election and at the beginning of each new session.
• Sends messages to State Legislature on bills pending before it.
• Appoints l/6th members of Legislative Council.
• Nominates one member from the Anglo-Indian community (if not proper representation).
• Makes laws through ordinances.
• Gives assent to the Bills so that they become laws.
• The Governor has three alternatives before him with respect to the Bills :
1. He can give his assent to the Bill;
2. He can return it, if it is not a Money Bill, for reconsideration suggesting alternations. But such Bills when
passed again have to be given assent;
3. He may reserve the Bill for the assent of the President.

c. Financial Powers of the Governor

Ensures that the budget is laid. All money bills can be introduced on his recommendation only.

d. Judicial Powers of the Governor

• President consults Governor while appointing Chief Justice and other judges of High Court.
• Appoints judges of courts below the High Court can grant pardon reprieve or remission of punishment for offense
against State laws.
• But he cannot grant pardon in cases of death sentences.

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e. Emergency Powers of the Governor

• Reports to the President if the State Government is not running constitutionally and recommends the President’s
Rule (Article 356).
• When the President’s Rule is in progress, he becomes the Agent of the Union Government in the State’.
• He takes over the reigns of administration directly into his own hands and runs the State with the aid of the Civil
Servants.

f. Other Governor Powers

• Receives & tables the report of State Auditor General.

• Tables the report of State Public Service Commission.
• Acts as Chancellor of State Universities & appoints Vice – chancellor.
• Can appoint any members as Chief Minister if no party has clear – cut majority.
• Can refuse to sign an ordinary bill passed by State Legislature.

Note:

Sarkaria Commission suggested that CM should be consulted while appointing the governor; only unquestionable person
be there; Active politician shouldn’t be appointed; Removal should be difficult; No need to remove the post of governor.

Governors

State Governor

Andhra Pradesh Shri E.S Lakshmi Narasimhan

Arunachal Pradesh General (Rtd.) J.J. Singh

Assam Shri Janaki Ballav Pattanaik

Bihar Shri Devanand Konwar

Chhattisgarh Shri Shekhar Dutt

Goa Shri K. Sankaranarayanan

Gujarat Dr. Kamla Beniwal

Haryana Shri Jagannath Pahadia

Himachal Pradesh Smt. Urmila Singh

Jammu and Kashmir Shri N. N. Vohra

Jharkhand Dr. Syed Ahmed

Karnataka Shri H.R. Bhardwaj

Kerala Shri M.O.H. Farook

Madhya Pradesh Shri Ram Naresh Yadav

Maharashtra Shri Kateekal Sankaranarayanan

Manipur Shri Gurbachan Jagat

Meghalaya Shri Ranjit Shekhar Mooshahary

Mizoram Shri Vakkom Purushothaman

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Nagaland Shri. Nikhil Kumar

Orissa Shri Murlidhar Chandrakant Bhandare

Punjab Shri Shivraj Patil

Rajasthan Shri Shivraj Patil

Sikkim Shri Balmiki Prasad Singh

Tamil Nadu Dr. K. Rosaiah

Tripura Shri Dnyandeo Yashwantrao Patil

Uttar Pradesh Shri B.L. Joshi

Uttarakhand Smt. Margaret Alva

West Bengal Shri M.K. Narayanan

Chief Minister

Chief Minister

Real executive head of the Government at the State level.

The position of Chief Minister at the State level is analogous to the position of the Prime Minister at the Center.

Chief Ministers are appointed by Governor. Other Ministers are appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief
Minister.

The Chief Minister is the chief link between the Governor and the Council of Ministers.

It is he who keeps the Governor informed of all decisions of the Council of Ministers.

If CM resigns, entire ministry resigns.

Generally, the leader of the majority party is appointed.

A person who is not a member of State Legislature can be appointed, but he has to get himself elected within 6 months,
otherwise he is removed.

Chief Ministers

State Chief Minister

Andhra Pradesh Shri Nallari Kiran Kumar Reddy

Arunachal Pradesh Shri Nabam Tuki

Assam Shri Tarun Gogoi

Bihar Shri Nitish Kumar

Chhattisgarh Dr. Raman Singh

Delhi Smt. Sheila Dikshit

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Goa Shri Digambar Kamat

Gujarat Shri Narendra Modi

Haryana Shri Bhupinder Singh Hooda

Himachal Pradesh Prof. Prem Kumar Dhumal

Jammu and Kashmir Shri Omar Abdullah

Jharkhand Shri Arjun Munda(

Karnataka Shri D V Sadananda Gowda

Kerala Mr Ooman Chandy

Madhya Pradesh Shri Shivraj Singh Chouhan

Maharashtra Shri Prithviraj Chavan

Manipur Shri Okram Ibobi Singh

Meghalaya Dr. Mukul Sangma

Mizoram Shri Pu Lalthanhawla

Nagaland Shri. Neiphiu Rio

Orissa Shri Naveen Patnaik

Puducherry Shri N. Rangasamy

Punjab Shri Parkash Singh Badal

Rajasthan Shri Ashok Gehlot

Sikkim Shri Pawan Chamling

Tamil Nadu Selvi J. Jayalalithaa

Tripura Shri Manik Sarkar

Uttar Pradesh Kumari Mayawati

Uttarakhand Major General Bhuvan Chander Khanduri (Retd)

West Bengal Km. Mamata Banerjee

Lt. Governors & Administrators

State Lt. Governors & Administrators

Andaman and Nicobar Islands Lt. Gen. (Retd) Bhopinder Singh, PVSM, AVSM (Lieutenant Governor)

Chandigarh Shri Shivraj V. Patil (Administrator)

Dadra and Nagar Haveli Shri Satya Gopal, IAS (Administrator)

Daman and Diu Shri Satya Gopal, IAS (Administrator)

Delhi Shri Tejendra Khanna (Lieutenant Governor)

Lakshadweep (UT) Shri J.K. Dadoo

Puducherry (UT) Shri Iqbal Singh

High Court

Each State has a High Court; it is the highest judicial organ of the State. However, there can be a common High Court
like Punjab, Haryana & Union Territory of Chandigarh.
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Presently there are 21 High Courts in India. Consists of Chief Justice & other such judges as appointed by the President.

The Constitution, unlike in the case of the Supreme Court, does not fix any maximum number of judges for a High Court.
A judge of a High Court can be transferred to another High Court without his consent by the President.

In this, the Chief Justice of India is also consulted. The opinion provided by him shall have primacy and is binding on the
President.

Appointment of Judges

The appointment of Chief Justice is made after consultation with the Chief Justice of Supreme Court & the Governor of
the State by the President.

In case of appointment of a Judge, the Chief Justice of the High Court concerned is also consulted in addition to Chief
Justice of Supreme Court & Governor of the State concerned.

On Oct 6, 1993, the Constitution bench of Supreme Court held that the opinion of Chief Justice (of the concerned High
Court & the Supreme Court) will be given priority in both the appointment as well as transfer of senior judges.

Jurisdiction and Seats of High Courts

Name Estd. In the Territorial Jurisdiction Seat

Year

Allahabad 1866 Uttar Pradesh Allahabad (Bench at Lucknow)

Andhra 1954 Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad

Pradesh

Mumbai 1862 Maharashtra, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Goa, Daman and Mumbai (Bench at Nagpur, Panaji and Aurangabad)
Diu

Kolkata 1862 West Bengal and Andaman and Nicobar Kolkata (Circuit Bench at Port Blair)

Delhi 1966 Delhi Delhi

Guwahati 1948 Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram Guwahati (Bench at Kohima and Circuit Benches at
and Arunachal Pradesh Imphal, Agartala & Shillong)

Gujarat 1960 Gujarat Ahmedabad

Himachal 1971 Himachal Pradesh Shimla

Pradesh

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Jammu & 1957 J&K Srinagar and Jammu

Kashmir

Karnataka 1884 Karnataka Bangalore

Kerala 1956 Kerala and Lakshadweep Ernakulam

Madhya 1956 Madhya Pradesh Jabalpur (Benches at Gwalior and Indore)

Pradesh

Chennai 1862 Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry Chennai

Orissa 1948 Orissa Cuttack

Patna 1916 Bihar Patna

Punjab & 1966 Punjab, Haryana and Chandigarh Chandigarh

Haryana

Rajasthan 1950 Rajasthan Jodhpur (Bench at Jaipur)

Sikkim 1975 Sikkim Gangtok

Bilaspur 2000 Chhattisgarh Bilaspur

Nainital 2000 Uttarakhand Nainital

Ranchi 2000 Jharkhand Ranchi

Judges Qualifications:

• Must be a citizen of India.

• Should have been an advocate of a High Court or of two such Courts in succession for at least 10 yrs; or should
have held judicial office in Indian for a period of at least 10 yrs.

Term & Salary

A judge of High Court continues his office till 62 yrs of age. Term can be cut short due to resignation or removal by the
President.

Salary : Chief Justice –

90,000 per month; Other Judges –

80,000 per month

Removal

The President can remove a judge of High Court only if the Parliament passes the resolution by a 2/3 majority of its
members present & voting in each house.

The conduct of the judges of the High Court cannot be discussed in Parliament, except on a motion for the removal of a
judge.

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Restriction on Legal Practice

The judge of a High Court is not allowed to practice law before the authority of the same court except the Supreme Court
& any other High Court.

Jurisdiction of High Court

• Court of record & has power to punish for its contempt.

• Under Article 226, the High Courts are given powers of issuing writs for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights
and for other purposes. The jurisdiction to issue writs under this Article is larger for High Courts as compared to
the Supreme Court because whereas the Supreme Court can issue them only where a Fundamental Right has
been infringed, a High Court can issue them not only in such cases but also where an ordinary legal right has
been infringed.
• Supervises the working of all subordinate courts & frames rules & regulations for the transaction of business. It
can examine the records of subordinate courts.

Subordinate Courts

Judiciary in States consists of a High Court and subordinate courts. The organization of the Subordinate Courts
throughout the country is generally uniform.

There are two types of law courts in every district – Civil and Criminal Courts. They function under the superintendence
and control of the High Court of that particular state.

The highest civil court in a district is the court of the District Judge. The court decides civil and criminal cases. When the
judge decides civil cases, he is called the District Judge and when he deals with the Criminal Cases, he is called the
Session Judge.

The District Judge is appointed by the Governor in consultation with the Chief Justice of the High Court. He hears the
appeals against the decision of the sub – judges.

Besides the District Court, there are courts of sub – judges, munsiff courts and courts of small causes. Below the Session
Courts are the courts of First Class Magistrates.

In Metropolitan cities like Kolkata, Chennai, Mumbai and Delhi, these Magistrates are known as Metropolitan Magistrates.
Apart from this, there are courts of Second Class and Third Class Magistrates also.

Comptroller Auditor General India CAG

Appointed by the President. A person with long administrative experience & knowledge of accounts is appointed. Holds
office for 6 yrs or till 65 yrs of age.

The President can remove him only on the recommendation of the 2 houses of Parliament (as in case of judge of
Supreme Court). He is the guardian of the public purse.

His duties are to audit the accounts of the Union and the States and to ensure that nothing is spent out of the
Consolidated Fund of India or of the States without the sanction of the Parliament or the respective State Legislatures.

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He submits an audit report of the Union to the President who shall lay it before the Parliament and the audit reports of the
States to the respective Governors who shall lay it before the respective State Legislatures.

In short the CAG acts as the custodian & trustee of public money.

Election Commission

The Constitution provides for an independent election commission to ensure free and fair election to the Parliament, the
state legislature and the offices of President and Vice – President.

Consists of Chief Election Commissioner + 2 Election Commissioners. They all enjoy equal powers.

The Chief Election Commissioner is appointed by the President and the other Election Commissioners are appointed by
the President after consultation with the Chief Election Commissioner.

Article 324 also provides for the appointment of Regional Commissioners at the time of General Elections after
consultation with the Election Commission.

Election Commissioners are appointed for a term of 5 yrs. They are not eligible for re – appointment. Also, they cannot
hold any office of profit after their retirement. Article – 324 says that there is no upper limit on the no. of Election
Commissioners.

In 1990, Dinesh Goswami Committee recommended that the Election Commission be a 3 – membered body. Also, at its
constitution Chief Justice & leader of the opposition ought to be consulted. (Thus Art – 324 was amended).

The Chief Election Commissioner can be removed from office before expiry of his term by the President on the basis of a
resolution passed by the Parliament by a special majority on the ground of proven misbehavior or incapacity (same as
that of Judge of Supreme Court).

The other Election Commissioners maybe removed by the President on the recommendation of the Chief Election
Commissioner.

Chief Election Commissioners of India

Name Tenure

From To

Sukumar Sen 21.03.1950 19.12.1958

K V.KSundaram 20.12.1958 30.12.1967

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S.P. Sen Verma 01.10.1967 30.09.1972

Dr. Nagendra Singh 01.10.1972 06.02.1973

T. Swaminathan 07.02.1973 17.06.1977

S.L. Shakdhar 18.06.1977 17.06.1982

R.K. Trivedi 18.06.1982 31.12.1985

R.V.S. Peri Shastri 01.01.1986 25.11.1990

Smt. V.S. Rama Devi 25.11.1990 12.12.1990

T.N. Seshan 12.12.1990 11.12.1996

M.S. Gill 12.12.1996 13.06.2001

J.M. Lingdoh 14.06.2001 16.02.2004

T.S. Krishnamurathy 17.02.2004 16.05.2005

B.B. Tandon 16.05.2005 29.06.2006

N. Gopalaswamy 30.06.2006 Till date

Functions

• Preparation of electoral rolls & keep voters list updated. The electoral roll is normally revised every year to add
the names of those who have turned 18 on the 1st January of that year or have moved into a constituency and to
remove the names of those who have died or moved out of a constituency.
• Preparation of code of conduct for all political parties.
• Recognition of various political parties & allotment of election symbols.
• Appointment of election officers to look into disputes concerning election arrangements.
• To examine the returns of election expenses filed by the candidate.

Political Parties

To be recognized as a National Party, a party needs to secure at least six percent of the valid votes polled in any four or
more states in a general election to the Lok Sabha or State Assembly.

In addition to it, it has to win at least four seats in the Lok Sabha from any State or States as well.

As an alternative, a party can also secure the status of a national party if it secures at least two percent seats in the Lok
Sabha subject to the conditions that these members are elected from at least three separate states.

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For getting recognition as a State Party, a political party has to poll at least six percent of the valid votes in the State
during a general election, either to that of the Lok Sabha or the State Assembly.

Apart from this, the party should also win minimum two seats in the Assembly of the State concerned.

As an alternate, a political party has to obtain at least three percent of the total number of seats in the Legislative
Assembly of the State, or minimum three seats in the Assembly, whichever is more.

In case a political party loses recognition as national or state party, it will not lose its allotted symbol with immediate effect.

They will be given a period of six years to elevate their status and in that period, they are free to use their symbols in the
elections.

Deposits and Nominations

Every candidate has to make a deposit of

10,000 for the Lok Sabha election and

5,000 for the Rajya Sabha elections, except for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes who pay half of these
amounts.

The deposit is returned if the candidate receives more than one – sixth of the total number of valid votes polled in the
constituency.

Nominations must be supported at least by one registered elector of the constituency, in the case of candidate sponsored
by a registered party and by ten registered electors from the constituency in the case of other candidates.

Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)

Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)

Composition is determined by the President.

The members of the UPSC are appointed for a term of 6 yrs, or till they attain 65 yrs of age.

Can resign earlier to the President.

President can remove them by issuing orders only the SC makes such a recommendation on the basis of an inquiry.

Members of the UPSC are no eligible for employment by the govt., after retirement.

Functions of UPSC:

• To conduct exams for appointment to services under the Union.

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• Advise the President (not obligatory on him) in maters relating to appointments, promotions & transfers from one
service to another of civil servants.
• All disciplinary matters affecting a person in the service of Union.
• Matters regarding award of pension & awards in respect to injuries sustained during service under the
government.
• Maintains continuity of administration.

Finance Commission

Finance Commission

The Finance Commission is constituted by the President of India every fifth year or at such an early time as he considers
necessary.

It consists of a Chairman & 4 other members. They are eligible for re – appointment.

The Chairman is selected from persons who have had experience in public affairs, while the members are selected from
the persons who:

• Qualified to be appointed judges of High Court.

• Have special knowledge of the finance & accounts of govt.
• Wide experience in financial matter & in administration.
• Have special knowledge of Economics.

Presently 12th Finance Commission is working. (C. Rangarajan – Chairman).

Functions

• To recommend to the President distribution of net proceeds of the taxes which are divisible between Union and
States
• To recommend the principles this should govern the Grants of the revenues of the State out of the Consolidated
Fund of India.
• The recommendations made by it are only of advisory nature and hence, not binding on the Government.
• To tender advice to the President on any other matter referred to the Commission in the interest of sound finance.

Anti – Defection Law

To curb political defection, added by 52nd amendment in 1985.

Any Member of Parliament belonging to any political party can be disqualified.

• If he voluntarily gives up the membership of that political party.

• If he votes or abstains from voting according to the party ‘whip’.

Any independent member can be disqualified if he joins any political party after election.

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Any nominated member can be disqualified if he joins any political party after the expiry of 6 month from the date of his
joining.

This law shall not apply:

• To a situation of ‘merger’ in which at least 2/3 members of any party are involved.

• To a person who resigns membership of his party after becoming the Presiding officer of the house & he rejoins
the party after laying down that office.

Recently, the Supreme Court in a significant ruling held that a Member of Parliament or a State Legislature can be
disqualified for defying a whip only on two counts, that is voting on a motion of confidence or no-confidence and when the
matter relates to the programme and policies of that political party.

Official Language

The Constitution declared Hindi as the official language of India.

However, it permitted the use of English for official purposes for a period of 15 years from the commencement of the
Constitution.

The Parliament was authorized to allow the use of English even beyond this period.

In 1964, the Parliament passed the Official Language Act, 1964, which permitted the use of English as official language
up to Jan. 26, 1971.

Again, through the Official Language (Amendment) Act, 1967, it was provided that use of English would continue
indefinitely.

Panchayati Raj

Panchayati Raj

Ensures the direct participation of people at the grass root level.

In 1956, the National Development Council appointed a committee under Balwant Rai Mehta, which submitted its report in
1957 in which it recommended :

• A 3 – tier structure consisting of Zila Parishad at the District Level, Panchayat Samiti at the Block Level and Gram
Panchayat at the Village Level.
• Genuine transfer of power & responsibility to these institutions.
• Adequate resources to them.
• All social & economic development programmes channelized through these.

The 3 – tier system of Panchayat Raj was 1st adopted by Rajasthan (Nagaur District) on Oct 2, 1959.

Three Tier System

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It envisages Panchayat at the village level, Panchayat Samitis at the block level & Zila Parishad at the district level.

a. Village Panchayat

• Consists of elected representatives of the people.

• Membership varies from 5 – 31.
• Seats reserved for SC, ST, women, etc.
• Chairman is elected from among its members, known as ‘Sarpanch’.
• The Panchayat is accountable for all its actions to the Gram Sabha, the general body of villagers.
• Gram Sabha consists of all the adults residing within the jurisdiction of the Panchayat.
• It exercises general supervision over the working of the Panchayat & lays down necessary guidelines for its
working.

b. Block & Panchayat Samiti

• The block, consisting of 20 – 60 villagers is administered through a Panchayat Samiti, consisting of indirectly
elected members of village panchayat.
• The chairman of Panchayat Samiti is called ‘Pradhan’.

c. Zila Parishad

• It is the top level of the 3 – tier structure.

• Elect its chairman from amongst its members who is known as the District Collector.

Ashok Mehta Committee

Appointed in Dec, 1977 by the Janta govt.

Submitted its report in 1978, which said:

• Replacement of 3 – tier system by 2 – tier system consisting of Mandal Panchayats at the base (consisting of a
group of villages comprising a population of 15,000 to 20,000) & the Zila Parishad at the top.
• To reduce the dependence of Panchayati Raj Institutions on State govt, by giving them powers to collect certain
taxes like profession tax, entertainment tax, etc in their areas.
• Suggested the setting up of Social Justice Committee in each Zila Parishad to protect the interests of vulnerable
sections of society.
• Favoured the open participation of political parties in the working of Panchayati Raj Institutions.

In Dec, 1992 73rd constitutional amendment was passed to decentralize the power, down to village level. It said
(envisaged) :

• Panchayati Raj institutions to be constituted through direct elections, with reservation as well.
• Fixed term of 5 yrs, & if dissolved earlier, elections must be held within 6 months.
• They are authorized to make laws concerning economic & social development of villages. These have been listed
in the eleventh schedule & comprise 29 subjects.

The New States Created After 1950

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Andhra Pradesh

Created by the State of Andhra Pradesh Act, 1953 by carving out some areas from the State of Madras.

Gujarat and Maharashtra

The State of Bombay was divided into two States, i.e., Maharashtra and Gujarat by the Bombay (Reorganization) Act,
1960.

Kerala

Created by the State Reorganization Act, 1956. It comprised Travancor and Cochin areas.

Karnataka

Created from the Princely State of Mysore by the State Reorganization Act, 1956. It was renamed Karnataka in 1973.

Nagaland

It was carved out from the State of Assam by the State of Nagaland Act, 1962.

Haryana

It was carved out from the State of Punjab by the Punjab (Reorganization) Act, 1966.

Himachal Pradesh

The Union Territory of Himachal Pradesh was elevated to the status of State by the State of Himachal Pradesh Act, 1970.

Meghalaya

First carved out as a sub – State within the State of Assam by 23rd Constitutional Amendment, 1969. Later, in 1971, it
received the status of a full – fledged State by the North – Eastern Areas (Reorganization) Act, 1971.

Manipur and Tripura

Both these States were elevated from the status of Union Territories by the North – Eastern Areas (Reorganization) Act,
1971.

Sikkim

Sikkim was first given the Status of Associate State by the 35th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1974; It got the status of a
full State in 1975 by the 36th Amendment Act, 1975.

Mizoram

It was elevated to the status of a full State by the State of Mizoram Act, 1986.

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Arunachal Pradesh

It received the status of a full State by the State of Arunachal Pradesh Act, 1986.

Goa

Goa was separated from the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu and was made a full – fledged State by the Goa,
Daman and Diu Reorganization Act, 1987. But Daman and Diu remained as Union Territory.

Chhattisgarh

Formed by the Constitutional Amendment Act, 2000 by dividing Madhya Pradesh on November 1, 2000.

Uttarakhand

Formed by the Constitutional Amendment Act, 2000 by dividing Uttar Pradesh on November 9, 2000.

Jharkhand

Formed by the Constitutional Amendment Act, 2000 by dividing Bihar on November 15, 2000

The procedure followed is :

• A Bill giving effect to any or all the changes stated above can be introduced in either house of the Parliament, only
on the recommendation of the President.

• If such a Bill affects the boundary or name of the State, then the President, before introducing it in the Parliament,
shall refer the Bill to the State Legislature concerned for its opinion, fixing a time limit within which an opinion may
be expressed by the State Legislature. The President may extend the time limit so specified.

• If the State Legislature fails to express an opinion within the stipulated time limit then it is deemed that it has
expressed its views. If it submits its views within the period so specified or extended, the Parliament is not bound
to accept or act upon the views of the State Legislature. Further, it is not necessary to make fresh reference to the
State Legislature every time an amendment to the Bill is proposed and accepted.
• The Bill is passed with simple majority.

• However, in the case of Union Territories, it is not necessary to obtain the views of legislatures of Union
Territories before a Bill affecting their boundaries or names is introduced.

Major Constitutional Amendments : A Brief Survey

It will be appropriate here to describe the major Constitutional Amendment in chronological order.

The Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951

In June 1951, the Constitution (First Amendment) Act was passed, and the following Amendment in the Constitution were
inserted : (i) To Article 15, a new clause (4) was added: (ii) clauses (2) and (6) of Article 19 were recast; (iii) After Article
31, Article 31A and 31B were inserted; (iv) For Original Article 85, a new Article was substituted; (v) In Article 87, clauses

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(1) and (2) were recast; (vi) For the Original Article 174, a new Article was substituted; (vii) In Article 176, clauses (1) and
(2) were recast: (viii) Clause (1) of Article 341 was recast; and similarly, clause (1) of Article 342, sub-clause (a) of Article
342, sub clause (a) of clause (3) of Article 372, and clause (1) of Article 376 were also recast; (ix) After the Eight Schedule
to the Constitution a Ninth Schedule was added and thirteen laws passed by State Legislatures were included in it so that
those Acts might not be challenged in courts.

The main purpose of the Amendment was the removal of certain practical difficulties created by court decisions in several
cases such as Kameshwar Singh vs. State of Bihar, Romesh Thapar vs. State of Madras, Brij Bhusan vs. State of Delhi
and Motilalvs. Government of Uttar Pradesh. The issues involved in these cases were numerous, such as the scope of
the fundamental right of freedom of speech, acquisition of Zamindari (land) of intermediaries, conflict between a citizen’s
fundamental right to practise any profession, or to carry on any business or trade (Article 19) and state monopoly of any
trade, and so on.

The Constitution (Second Amendment) Act, 1952

The Second Amendment amended Article 81 in order to remove the prescribed limit of 7,50,000 of the population for one member to be
elected to the Lok Sabha. According to the original provision, at least on member was to be elected to the Lok Sabha for every 7,50,000
of the population. It was further provided that the maximum number of elected member to the Lok Sabha should not exceed 500.

The Constitution (Third Amendment) Act, 1954

The Third Amendment brought about changes in the Seventh Schedule consisting of the three legislative lists and entry 33 of the
Concurrent List was substituted by a new one.

The Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act, 1955

Article 31 and 31A were amended by the Constitution Fourth Amendment Act. Clause (2) of Article 31 clause (1) of Article 31A were
substituted by new clauses as. As a result of these, the adequacy of the quantum of compensation paid for the compulsory acquisition
of property for ‘a public purpose’ could not be questioned in a court of law. It also amended Article 305 and the Ninth Schedule.

The Constitution (Fifth Amendment) Act, 1955

The Constitutional Fifth Amendment Act amended Article 3. in the Constitution there was no time limit during which a State Legislature
should express its boundaries, which the Centre may like to make. With the help of this amendment is was provided that the State will
be required to express its views on such matters within such period as may be specified in the reference or within such further period,
as the President may allow.

The Constitution (Sixth Amendment) Act, 1956

In this Act, the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution was amended and in the Union List, a new entry was added after entry 92 in the
State List, a new entry was substituted for entry 54. it also amended Articles 269 and 286 dealing with inter-state Sales-tax.

The Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956

The Seventh Amendment brought about the most comprehensive changes so fair in the Constitution. This amendment was designed to
implement the State Reorganisation Act. The Second and Seventh schedules were substantially amended for the purpose of the States
Reorganization Act.

The Constitution (Eight Amendment) Act, 1959

The Act extended the period of reservation seats in Lok Sabha and State Legislatures for the Anglo-Indians, the Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes by another 10 years.

The Constitution (Ninth Amendment) Act, 1960

It provided for the transfer of certain territories of India to Pakistan under and agreement between India and Pakistan as a part of a
comprehensive settlement of border disputes between the two countries.

The Constitution (Tenth Amendment) Act, 1961

The Tenth Amendment integrates the areas of Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli with the Union of India and provides for their
administration under the regulation making powers of the President.

The Constitution (Eleventh Amendment) Act, 1961

It amends Article 71 so as to make it clear that the election of the President or the Vice-President shall not be challenges on the ground
of any vacancy for whatever reason in the appropriate electoral college. It also obviates the necessity of a joint meeting of the two
Houses of Parliament (Article 66) by constituting them into an electoral college for the election of the Vice-President.

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The Constitution (Twelfth Amendment) Act, 1962

The main object of the Amendment was to add Union Territories of Goa, Daman and Diu to the Union of India and for this First
Schedule of the Constitution was amended.

The Constitution (Thirteenth Amendment) Act, 1962

The Act provides the creation of Nagaland as the Sixteenth State of the Union. The Amendment provides also for the vesting of certain
special responsibilities in the Governor of Nagaland.

The Constitution (Fourteenth Amendment) Act, 1962

The amendment provides for the incorporation of the former French Establishments in India, under the name Pondicherry, as an
integral part of the territory of the Indian Union. it also amended Article 31 to increase, from a maximum 20 to 25, the number of seats
assigned in the Lok Sabha for the Union Territories.

The Constitution (Fifteenth Amendment) Act, 1963

The amendment raised the retirement age of High Court. Judge from 60 to 62 years. It also empowered the various High Courts to hear
cases against to the Union Government.

The Constitution (Sixteenth Amendment) Act, 1963

The Act seeks to enable Parliament to make laws provident penalty for any person questioning the sovereignty and integrity of India.
Under the provisions of the this Amendment, a person shall not be qualified to be chosen to fill a seat in Parliament or in the Legislature
of State unless, inter-alia, he maker or subscribes before a person authorised by the Election Commission an oath or affirmation that he
will bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution and will uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India.

The Constitution (Seventeenth Amendment) Act, 1964

The Act amend the definition of the term ‘estate’ in Article 31A to include lands held under ryotwari settlement and also other lands in
respect of which provisions are normally made in land reform enact-ments. It also amends the Ninth Schedule of the Constitution to
include therein 44 State enactment relation to land reforms in order to remove any uncertainty or dobut that may arise with regard to
their validity.

The Constitution (Eighteenth Amendment) Act, 1966

The amendment provides for the creation of new States, namely, Punjab and Haryana as a result of the reorganisation of the former
State of Punjab and the Union Territory of Himachal Pradesh.

The Constitution (Nineteenth Amendment) Act, 1966

The Act modified Article 324 so as to terminate the jurisdiction of election tribunals to decide election disputes. The Amendment
withdrew from the Election Commission the power of setting up election tribunals.

The Constitution (Twentieth Amendment) Act, 1966

The Act inserts a new Article 233A immediately after Article 233 in order to validate the appointment of District Judges, which might not
have conformed fully to the different Constitutional requirements, which were in existent prior to 1966.

The Constitution (Twenty-first Amendment) Act, 1967

It amended the Eight Schedule to the Constitution by including ‘Sindhi’ therein.

The Constitution (Twenty-second Amendment) Act, 1969

The amendment conferred legislative power on Parliament for the purpose of creating and autonomous Hill State within the State of
Assam. Accordingly, Parliament passed the Assam Reorganization (Meghalaya) Act 1969 to set up the State of Meghalaya within the
State of Assam.

The Constitution (Twenty-third Amendment) Act, 1969

It deals with the questions of reservation of seat in Parliament and State Assemblies for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and
Anglo-Indian and further extend the period of reservation by another ten years, which means in effect thirty years from the
commencement of the Constitution.

The Constitution (Twenty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1971

It amends Article 13 and 368 with a view to removing all possible doubts regarding the power of Parliament to amend the Constitution
and procedure thereof. It gets over the Golak Nath ruling and asserts the power of Parliament, denied to in the Golak Nath, to amend
fundamental rights.

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The Constitution (Twenty-fifth) Amendment Act, 1971

The 25th amendment of the Constitution in 1971 added a new clause, Article 31C to the Constitution. Upto 1971, the position was that
fundamental rights prevailed over the directive principles of State Policy and that a law enacted to implement a directive principle could
not be valid if it conflicted with a fundamental right. Article 31C sought to change this relationship to some extent by conferring primacy
on Articles 39(b) and 39(c) over Articles 14, 19 and 31.

The Constitution (Twenty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1971

It abolishes Articles 291 and 362 of the Constitution and also inserts a new Article 362A after Article 363. the cumulative effect of these
changes is the end of the recognition granted to the former rulers of Indian States and the abolition of Privy Purses.

The Constitution (Twenty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1971

The Act was enacted to implement the decision to establish the Union Territory of Mizoram. It empowered Parliament to create a
legislature and Council of Minister for the new territory.

The Constitution (Twenty-eight Amendment) Act, 1972

The amendment deletes Article 314 of the Constitution, whish had given protection to the I.C.S. Officers, condition of service and
privileges and inserted a new Article 312A.

The Constitution (Twenty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1972

By the twenty-ninth Amendment Act, 1972 two Kerala Acts dealing with land reforms were included in the 9th Schedule to the
Constitution.

The Constitution (Thirtieth Amendment) Act, 1972

By this amendment Article 133 was recast so as to redefine the Civil Appellate Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. The result of this
Amendment is that while any case involving an important question of law can reach the Supreme Court by way of appeal, a case
however large the amount involved therein but involving no substantial point of law, would fail to reach the Supreme Court.

The Constitution (Thirty-first Amendment) Act, 1973

By this amendment, the strength of the Lok Sabha was increased from 525 to 545 members. This was done to accommodate the
increase in population as revealed by the 1971 Census. Accordingly, Article 81(i)(a) was suitably amended.

The Constitution (Thirty-second Amendment) Act, 1973

The amendment Act was enacted to make few special provisions for the State of Andhra Pradash to satisfy the aspirations of the
people of the Telangana region.

The Constitution (Thirty-third Amendment) Act, 1974

It amended Articles 101 and 190. Before this Amendment, the resignation of a member of legislature became effective the moment it
was tendered. This position is now changed. A resignation becomes effective only after it has been accepted by the Presiding Officer of
the House concerned who may refuse to accept the same if he is satisfied that the resignation is not voluntary or genuine. This
precautionary provision appeared to be necessary to avoid the members of Parliament or state legislatures being forced to resign.

The Constitution (Thirty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1974

By this amendment twenty State Acts concerning land ceiling and land tenure reforms were added to the Ninth Schedule to the
Constitution.

The Constitution (Thirty-fifth and Thirty-sixth Amendment) Acts, 1974-1975

The 35th Amendment Act introduced and innovation in the Indian Constitution by conferring on Sikkim the status of an associate in the
Indian Union. This was however, a short-lined experiment. The people of Sikkim desired to be and integral part of India. Accordingly,
the Constitution Thirty-sixth Amendment Act was enacted in 1975 to confer full-fledged statehood on Sikkim.

The Constitution (Thirty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1975

The Amendment upgraded the status of Arunachal Pradesh as a Union Territory. Articles 239A and 240 were amended so as to
authorize Parliament to create for Arunachal Pradesh a Legislature and Council of Ministers.

The Constitution (Thirty-eight Amendment) Act, 1975

This Amendment Act was enacted during the emergency to make certain modification in the emergency provisions. The Presidential
‘satisfaction’ to issue a proclamation was declared to be final and conclusive. A classificatory clause was added to Article 356(1) so as
to make Presidential ‘satisfaction’ to issue a proclamation there under as ‘final and conclusive’ which shall not be questioned in any
court on any ground.

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This Amendment also declared that the ‘satisfaction’ of the president and a State Governor to issue ordinances would be ‘final and
conclusive’ and shall not be questioned in any court on any ground’.

The Constitution (Thirty-ninth) Amendment) Act, 1975

The voiding of the election the Lok Sabha of PM Indira Gandhi by the Allahabad High Court in 1975 on the pertion of Raj Narain led to
the enactment of the 39th Amendment Act, 1975. it introduced changes in the method deciding election disputes relating to the four
high official of the state, viz. President, Vice-President, Prime Minister and the Speaker. Under the new Article 71(2), Parliament by the
law was to establish some ‘authority’ or ‘body’ for deciding such disputes, and its decisions have not be challengeable in any court.

The Constitution (Fortieth Amendment) Act, 1976

The Amendment Act extended immunity to 64 Central and State statues by including them in the IX Schedule. These statues pertained
to lad reform, Urban Ceiling and prevention of publication of objectionable matter.

The Constitution (Forty-first Amendment) Act, 1976

The Constitution Forty-first Amendment Act, 1976 raised the age of retirement of the chairman and members of state public service
Commissions from 60 to 62.

The Constitution (Froty-second Amendment) Act, 1976

The 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act brought a number of changes in the Constitution. The Act inter-alia gave preponderance to the
Directive Principles of State Policy over the Fundamental Rights. Established the supremacy of Parliament and curtailed the powers of
Judiciary. The Act was first of its kind. Is was the most comprehensive Act and touched almost all the sensitive areas of the
Constitution. The Amendment was meant to enhance enormously the strength of the Government.

The major Amendments made in the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment Act are:

Preamble
The characterization of India as ‘Sovereign Democratic Republic’ has been changed to ‘Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic
Republic’. The words ‘Unity of the nation’ have been changed to ‘Unity and integrity of the nation’.

Parliament and state legislatures : The life of the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies was extended from 5 to 6 years.

Executive : It amended Article 74 to state explicitly that the President shall act in accordance with the advice of the Council of Ministers
in discharge of his functions.

Judiciary : The 42nd Amendment Act inserted Article 32A in order to deny the Supreme Court the power to consider the Constitutional
validity of a State law. Another new provision. Article 131A, gave the Supreme Court and exclusive jurisdiction to determine question
relating to the Constitutional validity of a central law.

Article 144A and Article 128A, the creatures of Constitutional Amendment Act made further innovation the area of judicial review of the
Constitutionality of legislation. Under Article 144A the minimum number of judges of the Supreme Court to decide a question of a
Constitutional validity of a central or State law was fixed as at least seven and further, this required two-two-thirds majority of the judges
sitting declare law as unconstitutional. While the power of the High Court enforce fundamental rights remained untouched, several
restrictions were imposed on its power to issue writs ‘for any other purpose’.

Federalism : The Act added Article 257A in the Constitution to enable the Centre to deploy any armed force of the union, or any other
force under its control. For dealing with any grave situation of law and order in any State.

Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles: A major change that was made by 42nd Constitutional Amendment was to give
primacy to all directive principles over the fundamental right contained in Articles 14, 19 or 31. the 42nd Constitutional Amendment
added a few more directive principles free legal aid, participation of workers in management of industries, protection for environment
and protection of forests and wildlife of the country.

Fundamental Duties : The 42nd Amendment Act inserted Article 51-A to create a new part called IV-A in the Constitution, which
prescribed the fundamental duties to the citizens.

Emergency : Prior to 42nd Amendment Act, the President could declare emergency under Article 352 throughout the country and not
in a part of the country alone. The Act authorised the President to proclaim emergency in any part of the country.

The dominant thrust of the Amendment was to reduce the role of courts, particularly, that of the High Courts. It also sought to
strengthen Parliament in various ways which in effect, added to the power of the Central Government it drew enormous criticism
particularly for it was pushed through during Emergency.

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The Constitution (Forty-third Amendment) Act, 1977

In 1977, the Emergency came to an end the Janata Party came into power. It made an election pledge that it would repeal the 42nd
Amendment and restore the status quo ante. The 43rd Amendment repealed some of the provisions of the 42nd Amendment. Article
31D has also been omitted.

The Constitution (Forty-forth Amendment) Act, 1978

The 44th Amendment passed in 1978 undid most of the distortions introduced into the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment of the
Constitution. The salient features of the Amendment Act are as follows :
1. It reduced the life of Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies again to five years and thus restored thestatus quo ante.
2. It cancelled 39th Amendment which had deprived the Supreme Court of its jurisdiction to decide disputes concerning election
of the President and the Vice-President.
3. A new provision was added to Article 74(1) saying that the President cold require the council of ministers to reconsider its
advice to him, either generally or otherwise and the President should Act in accordance with the advice tendered after such re-
consideration.
4. Article 257A was omitted.
5. It has been provided that an Emergency can be proclaimed only on the basic of written advice tendered to the President by the
cabinet.
6. Right the property has been taken out from the list of Fundamental Rights and has been declared a legal right.

The Constitution (Forty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1980

The purpose of the Amendment was to continue reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha and
the State Assemblies for another 10 years, i.e., upto 1990. the same concession is extended to the Anglo-Indians who may have
representation by nomination in these chambers.

The Constitution (Forty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1982

The Forty-sixth Amendment enables the State Governments to plug loopholes and realise sales-tax dues on the one hand and on the
other aims at bringing about some uniformity in tax rates in case of certain items.

The Constitution (Forty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1984

This Amendment adds 14 State Acts dealing with land to the IX Schedule.

The Constitution (Forty-eight Amendment) Act, 1984

The purpose of the Amendment was to extend President’s rule in Punjab for two years. Under Article 356(5) President’s rule can last in
a State for a maximum period of one year. But the conditions in Punjab did not permit holding of fresh elections and accordingly,
extension of President’s rule became imperative.

The Constitution (Forty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1984

the purpose of this Amendment is to take out the Tribal areas of Tripura from Schedule V and put them in Schedule VI.

The Constitution (Fiftieth Amendment) Act, 1984

This Amendment substitutes an expounded Article 33 for the old Article by the new Article 33, Parliament is authorised to curtail the
fundamental rights of the members of the armed forces, forces charged with the maintenance of public order, intelligence organisations
or telecommunication systems set up for any force or intelligence bureau, with a view to ensure the proper discharge of duties by and
maintenance of discipline among those persons in the interest of country’s security.

The Constitution (Fifty-first Amendment) Act, 1984

the Amendment effectuates some changes in Articles 330 and 332 with a view to provide for reservation of seats in the Lok Sabha for
Scheduled tribes in Meghalaya, Aruncahal Pradesh and Mizoram, as well as in the Legislative Assemblies of Nagaland and Meghalaya.

The Constitution (Fifty-second Amendment) Act, 1985

The amendment is designed to prevent the scourge of defection of members of Parliament and State legislatures from one political
party to another.

The Constitution (Fifty-third Amendment) Act, 1986

The amendment Act elevated the Union Territory of Mizoram to the status of a State.

The Constitution (Fifty-fourth Amendment) Act,1986

The Salaries of the Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts have been enhanced by the 54th Amendment Act, 1986.
accordingly, a Judge of the Supreme Court gets a salary of Rs. 9,000 per mensem and the salary of the Chief Justice is Rs. 10,000 per
mensem. A Judge of the High Court gets a salary of Rs. 8,000 per mensem and the salary of the Chief Justice of the High Courts is Rs.
9,000 per mensem.
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The Constitution (Fifty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1986

The Union Territory of Arunchal Pradesh was elevated to the status of a State by the 55th Amendment Act.

The Constitution (Fifty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1987

Constitution (56the Amendment) Act, 1987 inserting Article 394A, to make the Hindi text of the Constitution authoritative.

The Constitution (Fifty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1987

The Constitution (57th Amendment) Act, 1987 with the Goa, Daman and Diu Reorganisation Act, 1987 lifts Goa from the status of
Union Territory to that of the 25th State of the Union of India.

The Constitution (Fifty-eight Amendment) Act, 1987

The Amendment Act provides the reservation of seats for tribals in the Legislative Assemblies of Arunchal Pradesh, Meghalaya,
Mizoram and Nagaland.

The Constitution (Fifty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1988

The Act empowered the Government to impose emergency in Punjab on the grounds that india’s integrity was threatened by internal
disturbances.

The Constitution (Sixtieth Amendment) Act, 1988

The Amendment Act authoriese State Governments to increase the ceiling on professional tax from Rs. 250 to Rs. 2,500 per person
per annum.

The Constitution (Sixty-first Amendment) Act, 1988

The 61st Amendment reduces the voting age from 21 years to 18 years for the Lok Sabha and Assembly election.

The Constitution (Sixty-second Amendment) Act, 1990

The 62nd Amendment Act extends by 10 years the reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok
Sabha and State Assemblies as well as nomination representatives of the Anglo-Indian community.

The Constitution (Sixty-third Amendment) Act, 1990

The Amendment Act repealed the 59th Constitution amendment which empowered the Government to impose emergency in Punjab.

The Constitution (Sixty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1990

The Amendments Act seeks to extend President’s rule in Punjab for further six months.

The Constitution (Sixty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1990

Article 338 of the Constitution has been amended for the Constitution of a National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes consisting of a chairperson, vice-chairperson and five other members who shall be appointed by the President by warrant under
his hand and seal.

The Constitution (Sixty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1990

The Act protects fifty-five State Acts relating to land reforms and ceiling on agricultural land holdings, enacted by States of Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal and Union Territory of Pondicherry, from challenge in courts, by including
them in the Ninth Schedule to the Constitution.

The Constitution (sixty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1991

The Amendment Act seeks to extend President’s rule in Punjab for further six months i.e., upto may 10,1991.

The Constitution (Sixty-eight Amendment) Act, 1991

The Amendment Act seeks to extend President’s Rule in Punjab for further six months after May 1991.

The Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1991

The Amendment Act seeks grant of Statehood to Delhi as ‘National Capital Territory of Delhi’. It also provides a 70 member assembly
and a 7 member Council Ministers for Delhi.

The Constitution (Seventy Amendment) Act, 1992

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It facilitates for members of Delhi and Pondicherry assemblies to participate in the election of the President.

The Constitution (Seventy-first Amendment) Act, 1992

The amendment facilitates for the inclusion of Napali, Manipuri and Konkani in the eight schedule of the Constitution. With the inclusion
of these three languages, the number of languages in the Eight Schedules goes up to 18.

The Constitution (Seventy-second Amendment) Act, 1992

For restoring peace and harmony in the areas of the State of Tripura where disturbed conditions prevailed, Memorandum of Settlement
was signed by the Government of India with Tripura National Volunteers on August 12,1988.

In order to implement the said Memorandum, Article 332 of the Constitution (Seventy-second Amendment) Act, 1992 for making a
temporary provision for the determination of the number of seats reserved for the Scheduled Tribes in the State Assemble of Tripura,
until the re adjustment of seats is made on the basis of the first census after the year 2000 under Article 170 of the Constitution

The Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act, 1992

The Seventy-third Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 was passed by the Parliament on December 22nd, 1992 which was notified by
the Central Government through Official Gazette on April 20,1993 as it gote rectification by the State legislatures and was assented to
by the President of India. After notification the Panchayati Raj institutions have now got Constitutional legitimacy.

After part VIII of the Constitution a separate part IX has been added to the Constitution with the addition in Article 243A and fresh
schedule called Eleventh schedule enumerating the powers and functions of Panchayti Raj Institutions has been incorporated. The Act
provides for Gram Sabha, a three-tiermodel of Panchayati Raj, reservation of seats for SCs and STs in proportion to their population
and one-third reservation of seats for women.

The Constitution (Seventy-fourth Amendment) Act, 1992

The Act provides constitutional status to urban local bodies. After part VIII of the Constitution a separate part IXA has been added to the
Constitution with the addition in Article 243A and fresh schedule called Twelfth schedule enumerating the powers and functions of
urban local bodies has been incorporated. The Act provides Municipal Panchayat, Municipal Council and Municipal Corporation,
reservation of seats for SCs and STs in proportion to their population and one-third reservation of seats for women.

The Constitution (Seventy-fifth Amendment) Act, 1993

It has amended Article 323-B and added a new clause (h) providing for establishment of tribunals for rent control cases.

The Constitution (Seventy-sixth Amendment) Act, 1994

This Amendment Act raises the reservation quota of government jobs and seats for admission in the educational institutions in favour of
socially and educationally backward classes to 69 per cent in Tamil Nadu. Further, the Amendment Act has been included in the Ninth
Schedule of the Constitution to exempt it from the purview of judicial scrutiny.

The Constitution (Seventy-eight Amendment) Act, 1995

This Amendment has added a new clause (4-a) to Article 16 of the Constitution which empowers the State to make any provisions for
reservation in promotions in Government jobs in favour of SCs and STs, if it is of opinion that they are inadequately represented in the
services under the State. This has been done to nullify the effect of the Supreme Court Judgment in the Mandal Commission
Case (Indra Sawhney vs. Union of India) in which the Court has held that reservation in promotions cannot be made.

The Constitution (Seventy-eight Amendment) act 1995

This amendment has amended the Ninth schedule of the Constitution and inserted 27 Land Reform Act of Various States in the Ninth
Schedule. After this the total number of Act included in the Ninth Schedule has gone upto 284. now these Acts cannot be challenged in
the courts on the plea for the violation of Fundamental Rights.

The Constitution (Seventy-ninth Amendment) Act 1999

By this Act the Government has extended the reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes as well as fro
the Anglo-Indians in the House of the People and in the Legislative Assemblies of the States for another ten years.

The Constitution (Eightieth Amendment) Act, 2000

Based on the recommendations of the Tenth Finance Commissions, an alternative scheme for sharing taxes between the Union and
the State has been enacted by the Constitution (Eightieth Amendment) Act, 2000. Under the new scheme of devolution of revenue
between Union and the States, 26 per cent out of gross proceeds of union taxes and duties is to be assigned to the States in lieu of
their existing share in the income-tax, excise duties special excise duties and grants in lieu of tax on railway passenger fares.

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The Constitution (Eighty-first Amendment) Act, 2000

By this amendment the unfilled vacancies of a year which reserved for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes for being filled
up in that year in accordance with any provision of reservations made under Article 16 of the Constitution shall be considered as a
separate class of vacancies to be filled up in any succeeding year or years, and such class of vacancies shall not be considered
together with the vacancies of the year in which they were filled up for determining the ceiling of fifty per cent reservation against total
number of vacancies of that year.

The Constitution (Eighty-second Amendment) Act, 2000

The amendment provides that nothing in Article 335 shall prevent the State from making any provisions in favour of the members of the
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes for relaxation in qualifying marks in any examination or lowering the standards of
evaluation for reservation in matters of promotion to any class or classes of services or posts in connection with affairs of the Union or
of a State.

The Constitution (Eighth-third Amendment) Act, 2000

The Act amended0 Article 243M of the Constitution to provide that no reservation in Panchayats need be made in favour of the
Scheduled Castes in Arunachal Pradesh wholly inhabited by tribal population.

The Constitution (Eighty-fourth Amendment) Act, 2001

The Act amended provisions to Article 82 and 170(3) of the Constitution to readjust and rationalise the territorial constituencies in the
States, without altering the number of seats allotted to each State in the House of People and Legislative Assemblies of the States,
including the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Constituencies, on the basis of the population ascertained at the census for the
year 1991 so as to remove the imbalance caused due to uneven growth of population/electorate in different constituencies.

The Constitution (Eighty-fifth Amendment) Act, 2001

This Act amended Article 16 (4A) of the Constitution to provide for consequential seniority in the case of promotion by virtue of rule of
reservation for Government servants belonging to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.

The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002

With a view to making right to free and compulsory education a fundamental right, the Act inserts a new Article, namely, Article 21A
conferring on all children in the age group of 6 to 14 years the right to free and compulsory education. The Act amends in Part-III, Part –
IV and Part-IV(A) of the Constitution.

The Constitution (Eighty-seventh Amendment) Act, 2003

The Amendment provides for readjustment of electoral constituencies, including those reserved for the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes, based on the population census for the year 2001, without affecting the number of seats allocated to States in the
legislative bodies.

The Constitution (Eighty-Eight Amendment) Act, 2003

The Act amends Article 268, 270 and VIIth Schedule of the Constitution. It adds 92C just after 92B and makes provisions for Tax on
Services.

The Constitution (Eighty- ninth Amendment) Act, 2003

The Act adds Article 338A and provides for the creation of National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.

The Constitution (Ninetieth Amendment) Act, 2003

The Act amends Article 332 and adds section (6) regarding representation in the Bodo Territorial Areas District in the State of Assam.

The Constitution (Ninety-one Amendment) Act, 2003

The Act makes provisions for limiting the size of the Council of Ministers at the center and in the States and gives teeth to debar a
defector from holding any remunerative political post for the remaining tenure of the legislature unless re-elected.

The Constitution (Ninety- two Amendment) Act, 2003

The Amendment facilitates for the inclusion of Bodo, Dogari, Maithili and Sanhali in the VIII Schedule of the Constitution. With the
inclusion of these four languages, the number of languages in the VIII Schedule goes upto 22.

Ninety- third Amendment (2005)

Providing reservation for the socially and educationally backward classes, besides the Schedules Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, in
private unaided educational institutions.

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Ninety-fourth Amendment (2006)

The Constitution provides that there shall be Minister in charge of tribal welfare who may in addition be in charge of the welfare of the
Scheduled Casts and backward classes or any other work in the State of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.

Employment

India is one of the most populated countries in the world, second after China. With a workforce of more than 440 million, a huge pool of English-
speaking graduates and a fast-growing economy, the need for employment opportunities has increased drastically. The Government is doing its
best to bring about a better matching between the demand and the supply of work opportunities. The Union Public Service Commission
(UPSC)(External website that opens in a new window) and the Staff Selection Commission (SSC)(External website that opens in a new
window) conduct competitive exams for recruitment to various services and posts. The Government has also set up a number of Employment
Exchanges all over the country to facilitate recruitment of suitable candidates into its various sectors. This section also provides an overview of
career opportunities in avenues like the armed forces.

Employment Related Information

• Union Public Service Commission

• Staff Selection Commission
• Employment Exchanges
• Public Sector Undertakings
• Armed Forces

Union Public Service Commission

The Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)(External website that opens in a new window) was established under Article 315 of the
Constitution of India. The commission conducts competitive examinations for recruitment to various services and posts, such as Civil Services,
Engineering, Medical and Forest Service, etc.

Recruitment is done through three methods-

• Direct Recruitment
• Promotion
• Transfer

In the Direct Recruitment method, recruitment takes place in the following ways:

Competitive Examination:

Under the Constitution, one of the functions of the Commission is to conduct examinations for appointment to civil services and posts. In
addition, the Commission also holds competitive examinations in coordination with the Ministry of Defence for entry into certain Defence
Services, through the National Defence Academy, Indian Military Academy, Naval Academy, Air Force Academy and the Officers Training
Academy.

The Commission usually conducts over a dozen examinations every year on an all India basis for recruitment to services/posts in various fields,
such as Civil Services, Engineering, Medical and Forest Service, etc.

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Recruitment by Selection:

• By Interview only - When the number of applicants is very large, the Commission calls short listed candidates for interview on the
basis of certain pre-determined criteria related to the job.
• By Written Test Followed by Interview - In this category, there are two types of procedures followed:
1. An objective-type written and/or practical test to test the skill of the candidates followed by Interview, the final selection being
decided by Interview, aided by the performance of the candidates in the written test and/or practical test.
2. An objective-type written and/or practical test is conducted to screen the candidates to be called for an interview, the final
selection being decided by Interview only.

Staff Selection Commission

The Subordinate Services Commission was set up for conducting examinations for recruitment to lower categories of posts in the government
sector. It was renamed as Staff Selection Commission in 1977. Its function is to make recruitments to non-technical group 'C' and group 'B' non-
gazetted posts in Ministries/ Departments, the attached and subordinate offices of the Government of India, and the C.A.G and the offices of
the Accountant General. The Commission is responsible for formulating policies, including schemes of Examination and other procedures for
smooth conduct of examinations / selection tests.

Visit the website of Staff Selection Commission

Employment Exchanges

National Employment Service or Employment Exchange, operated by the Directorate General of Employment and Training, Ministry of Labour,
runs over 900 Employment Exchanges in order to bring about a better matching of the demand for, and the supply of work opportunities. Job
seekers register themselves with these Employment Exchanges and get notified as soon as any vacancy in the Government sector matches
their desired profile.

According to the Employment Exchanges (Compulsory Notification of Vacancies) Act, 1959 in any State or area thereof, the employer in every
establishment in public sector in that State or area shall, before filling up any vacancy in any employment in that establishment, notify that
vacancy to such employment exchanges as may be prescribed.

Employment Exchanges play a significant role in assisting the youth in finding employment in paid jobs. They also assist them in starting Self-
Employment Ventures through Vocational Guidance activities. Registering the applications of job-seekers and notifying them about vacancies,
collection and dissemination of Employment Market Information, Vocational Guidance to students and the youth are the major functions of
Employment Exchanges.

Here's the list of the web pages of Employment Exchanges running in the following states in the country*:

• Chandigarh (UT)(External website that opens in a new window)

• Gujarat(External website that opens in a new window)
• Himachal Pradesh(External website that opens in a new window)
• Jammu and Kashmir(External website that opens in a new window)
• Karnataka(External website that opens in a new window)
• Kerala(External website that opens in a new window)
• Maharashtra(External website that opens in a new window)
• Manipur(External website that opens in a new window)
• Mizoram(External website that opens in a new window)
• Nagaland(External website that opens in a new window)
• Odisha(External website that opens in a new window)

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• Tamil Nadu(External website that opens in a new window)

• West Bengal(External website that opens in a new window)

* List currently provides links to available online information about the Employment Exchanges in various states.

Public Sector Undertaking

A lot of Public Sector Undertakings (PSU) under the aegis of Government of India regularly provide for employment opportunities in various
areas. Job seekers can apply to these undertakings, according to their required job profile and area of interest.

Here's a list of the recruitment web pages providing recruitment related information for some of the PSU's in India:

• Air India Limited(External website that opens in a new window)

• Airports Authority of India(External website that opens in a new window)
• Artificial Limbs Manufacturing Corporation of India (ALIMCO)(External website that opens in a new window)

• Bengal Chemicals and Pharmaceuticals Limited (BPCL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Bharat Coking Coal Limited (BCCL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL)
• Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Bharat Refractories Limited (BRL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Limited (BHAVINI)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Biecco Lawrie Limited(External website that opens in a new window)
• Bramhaputra Valley Fertilizer Corporation Limited (BVFCL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Broadcasting Engineering Corporation of India Limited (BECIL)(External website that opens in a new window)

• Cement Corporation of India Limited (CCI)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Central Coalfields Limited (CCL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Central Cottage Industries Corporation of India Limited(External website that opens in a new window)
• Central Mine Planning and Design Institute Limited (CMPDI)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Central Warehousing Corporation (CWC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Centre for Railway Information Systems (CRIS)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Coal India Limited (CIL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Cochin Shipyard Limited(External website that opens in a new window)
• Container Corporation of India Limited (CONCOR)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Cotton Corporation of India Limited (CCI)(External website that opens in a new window)

• Dredging Corporation of India(External website that opens in a new window)

• Educational Consultants India Limited (EDCIL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Engineers India Limited (EIL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Ennore Port Limited(External website that opens in a new window)
• Export Credit Guarantee Corporation of India Limited (ECGC)(External website that opens in a new window)
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• FCI Aravali Gypsum and Minerals India Limited (FAGMIL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Ferro Scrap Nigam Limited (FSNL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Fertilisers and Chemicals Travancore Limited (FACT)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Food Corporation of India (FCI)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Garden Reach Ship Builders and Engineers Limited (GRSE)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Gas Authority of India limited (GAIL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Goa Shipyard Limited(External website that opens in a new window)

• Handicrafts and Handlooms Export Corporation (HHEC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Heavy Engineering Corporation Limited (HEC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Heavy Water Board (HWB)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Hindustan Antibiotics Limited (HAL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Hindustan Insecticides Limited (HIL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Hindustan Latex Limited (HLL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Hindustan Prefab Limited(External website that opens in a new window)
• Hindustan Shipyard Limited(External website that opens in a new window)
• HMT Limited(External website that opens in a new window)
• Hospital Services Consultancy Corporation (I) Limited (HSCC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Housing and Urban Development Corporation Limited (HUDCO)(External website that opens in a new window)

• India Trade Promotion Organisation (ITPO)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Indian Airlines Limited (IA)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation Limited (IRCTC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Indian Rare Earths Limited(External website that opens in a new window)
• Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency Limited (IREDA)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Indian Telephone Industries Limited (ITI)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Instrumentation Limited, Kota(External website that opens in a new window)
• IRCON International Limited(External website that opens in a new window)

• Konkan Railway(External website that opens in a new window)

• Kudremukh Iron Ore Company Limited (KIOCL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Lubrizol India Limited (LIL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited (MTNL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Manganese Ore (India) Limited (MOIL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Mazagon Dock Limited(External website that opens in a new window)
• MECON Limited(External website that opens in a new window)
• Metro Railway, Kolkata(External website that opens in a new window)
• Mineral Exploration Corporation Limited (MECL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Minerals and Metals Trading Corporation Limited (MMTC)(External website that opens in a new window)
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• Mishra Dhatu Nigam Limited (MIDHANI)(External website that opens in a new window)
• MSTC Limited(External website that opens in a new window)
• Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation Limited (MRVC)(External website that opens in a new window)

• National Aluminium Company Limited (NALCO)(External website that opens in a new window)
• National Buildings Construction Corporation Limited (NBCC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• National Fertilizers Limited (NFL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• National Film Development Corporation (NFDC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• National Handloom Development Corporation Limited (NHDC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• National Hydroelectric Power Corporation Limited (NHPC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• National Insurance Company Limited (NICL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• National Mineral Development Corporation Limited (NMDC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• National Minorities Development and Finance Corporation (NMDFC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• National Projects Construction Corporation Limited (NPCC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• National Research Development Corporation (NRDC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• National Scheduled Castes Finance and Development Corporatioin (NSFDC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• National Scheduled Tribes Finance and Development Corporation (NSTFDC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• National Small Industries Corporation Limited (NSIC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• National Textile Corporation Limited (NTC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• National Thermal Power Corporation Limited (NTPC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited (NLC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• North Eastern Electric Power Corporation (NEEPCO)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Northern Coalfields Limited (NCL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Nuclear Fuel Complex(External website that opens in a new window)
• Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)(External website that opens in a new window)

• Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Oil India Limited (OIL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Pawan Hans Helicopters Limited (PHHL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Power Finance Corporation Limited(External website that opens in a new window)
• Power Grid Corporation of India Limited (POWERGRID)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Power Trading Corporation of India Limited (PTC)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Praga Tools Limited(External website that opens in a new window)
• Projects and Development India Limited (PDIL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Pyrites, Phosphates and Chemicals Limited (PPCL)(External website that opens in a new window)

• RailTel Corporation of India Limited(External website that opens in a new window)

• Railway Electrification Project Circle (REPC)
• Rajasthan Atomic Power Station / Project(External website that opens in a new window)
• Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited (RCF)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited (RINL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• RITES Limited(External website that opens in a new window)
• Rural Electrification Corporation Limited(External website that opens in a new window)
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• Semiconductor Complex Limited (SCL)(External website that opens in a new window)

• Shipping Corporation of India Limited (SCI)(External website that opens in a new window)
• South Eastern Coalfields Limited (SECL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Sponge Iron India Limited (SIIL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• State Trading Corporation of India Limited (STCI)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL)(External website that opens in a new window)

• Telecom Factory, BSNL(External website that opens in a new window)

• Telecom Stores Organisation(External website that opens in a new window)
• Telecommunications Consultants India Limited (TCIL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Uranium Corporation of India Limited (UCIL)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Water and Power Consultancy Services (India) Limited (WAPCOS)(External website that opens in a new window)
• Western Coalfields Limited (WCL)

Armed Forces

The Armed Forces epitomize the ideals of service, sacrifice, patriotism and our country's composite culture. The recruitment to the Armed
Forces is voluntary and every citizen of India, irrespective of his caste, class, religion and community is eligible for recruitment into the Armed
Forces, provided he meets the physical, medical and educational criteria laid down for this purpose. Recruitment into the Army is carried out
according to the Recruitable Male Population (RMP) of each state. Recruitment of Commissioned Officers in the Armed Forces is mainly done
through the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC). UPSC holds an all-India competitive examination, known as the Combined Defence
Services Examination (CDSE), twice a year. After appearing for the examination the successful candidates join the respective training
academies, viz., the Indian Military Academy (IMA) for the Army, the Naval Academy for the Navy and the Air Force Academy for the Air Force.

• Career in Indian Air Force(External website that opens in a new window)

• Career in Indian Army(External website that opens in a new window)
• Career in Indian Navy(External website that opens in a new window)
• Indian Armed Forces(External website that opens in a new window)
• Union Public Service Commission(External website that opens in a new window)
• National Defence Academy

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