Geothermal Energy: MCE 4573 Renewable Energy Resources

Geothermal Energy
MCE 4573
Renewable Energy Resources
Introduction
• Geothermal energy is that part of the total heat energy stored within the Earth’s
interior that is available for human use. That means practically it is related to the
heat energy stored in the upper layers (crust) of the earth.
• Although the earth’s stored heat is theoretically finite, its large amount (12.6 ×
1024 MJ) makes geothermal energy practically a renewable energy that can
theoretically sustain the energy needs of mankind many times.
• The inner core of the Earth reaches a
maximum temperature of about 4000˚C,
with the outward heat flow maintained
predominantly by natural radioactive
decay of certain dispersed elements
(e.g. uranium, thorium and certain
isotopes of potassium).
• Heat passes out through the solid
submarine and land surface mostly by
conduction – geothermal heat– and occasionally by active convective currents of
molten magma or heated water.
Introduction
• The average geothermal heat flow at the Earth’s surface is only 0.06 W/m2, with
average temperature gradient of 25 to 30˚C/km.
• This continuous heat current is trivial compared with other renewable supplies in
the above surface environment that in total average about 500 W/m2.
• However, at certain specific locations increased temperature gradients occur,
indicating significant geothermal resources.
• Regions of geothermal potential generally
have permeable rock of area ~10 sq km and
depth ~5 km through which water may
circulate.
• Consequently, they can be harnessed at
fluxes of 10 to 20 W/m2 to produce ~100 MW
(thermal) per km2 in commercial supplies for
at least 20 years of operation.
• Regions of ‘hot, dry rock’ have to be fractured artificially to become permeable, so
that water may be circulated through the fractures to extract the heat.
Uses of Geothermal Energy
1. Electricity generation:
At a few locations geothermal heat is available at temperatures of more than 150˚C, as
a natural flow of high pressure water and/or steam, so having the potential for
electrical power production from turbines. Several geothermal electric power
complexes have operated for many years, especially in Italy, Iceland, New Zealand and
the USA. The number of similar installations has increased steadily since the 1970s. As
for hydropower, hydrothermal power technology is mature and long-lasting when
tailored to specific sites.
2. Hot water supply:
In many more locations, geothermal heat is available at ~50 to 70°C; for instance, for
‘medicinal’ bathhouses in the Roman Empire, and today for greenhouse heating for
vegetable crops and soft fruits, for crop drying, for aquaculture of fish and algae, for
district heating servicing buildings and for industrial process heat (e.g. for paper pulp
from wood processing, and for leaching chemicals). More than 60 countries list such
uses, many of which do not produce geothermal electricity.
3. Heat pumps:
Heat at ambient temperature
from near-surface ground (to
depths of usually about 3 m), or
from rivers and lakes, is input to
electrical-powered heat pumps,
which provide heat to buildings
at increased temperature. The
systems are often called
‘geothermal’, although the input
heat arises from soil heated by
sunshine and ambient air. Note
that ground at depths of more
than about 2 m has nearly
constant temperature through the year. In reverse mode extracting heat from buildings,
the same heat pumps may be used for cooling, i.e. they function as refrigerators. This
technology is available worldwide and is by far the most rapidly growing ‘geothermal’
application.
Geothermal Regions
There are three classes of global geothermal regions:
1 Hyperthermal: Temperature gradient ≥80˚C/km. These regions are usually on

tectonic plate boundaries. The first such region to be tapped for electricity generation
was in 1904 at Larderello in Tuscany, Italy. Nearly all geothermal power stations are in
such areas.
2 Semithermal: Temperature gradient ~40˚C/km to 80˚C/km. Such regions are

associated generally with anomalies away from plate boundaries. Heat extraction is
from harnessing natural aquifers or fracturing dry rock. A well-known example is the
geothermal district heating system for houses in Paris.
3 Normal: Temperature gradient <40˚C/km. These remaining regions are associated

with average geothermal conductive heat flow at ~0.06 W/m2. It is unlikely that these
areas can ever supply geothermal heat at prices competitive to present (finite) or
future (other renewable) energy supplies.
Extracting Geothermal Energy
Hydrothermal Extraction Technique: The most successful geothermal projects have
boreholes sunk into natural water channels in hyper-thermal regions. This is the
method used at Wairakei, New Zealand, and at the geysers in California. Similar
methods are used for extraction from hot aquifers in semi-thermal regions, where
natural convection can be established from the borehole without extra pumping.
Extracting Geothermal Energy
Enhanced Geothermal System: Sources of ‘hot, dry rock’ (HDR) are much more
abundant than hydrothermal regions: temperatures of 200°C are accessible under a
significant proportion of the world’s landmass. This has motivated expensive research
and development in the USA and Europe on techniques to harness this heat for
electricity power generation. One result has
been the recognition that few basement rocks are
completely dry, but there are many regions
where utilization of their geothermal heat
requires ‘enhanced geothermal systems’, in
which re-injection is necessary to maintain
commercial production. Using such
‘enhanced geothermal systems’ (EGS),
complex arrays of injection and return
boreholes might, in principle, enable
gigawatt supplies of heat to be obtained.
Electricity generating systems
The choice of the heat exchange and turbine system for a particular geothermal
source is complex, requiring specialist experience. Nearly always the emerging bore
water after use is re-injected into the reservoir.
Dry-steam power plant:

The simplest systems pass
‘dry’ steam from the ground
directly into a steam
turbine, as used in the first-
ever geothermal power
plant in Italy in 1904, and
subsequently in other
places (e.g. Wairakei, New
Zealand).
Flashed steam power plant:
The geothermal reservoir contains superheated water at temperatures >180°C and at
large pressure. As the water flows to the surface, the pressure decreases and some
boils (‘flashes’) into steam, which is injected into steam turbines that power the
generators .
These are the most common
plants. The remaining water and
steam are then injected back into
the source from which they were
taken.
Binary cycle power plant:
In other situations, water at lower temperatures (110°C to 180°C) heats other working
fluids, usually organic compounds, in a heat exchanger; these generally boil at about
80°C, so providing the pressurized vapor to a turbine.
In the heat exchangers, the counter-

flowing fluids are separate, yet
nevertheless difficulties occur owing to
deposits and corrosion from the
chemicals in the cooling borehole water.
This process does not produce any
emissions and the water temperature
needed for the water is lower than that
needed in the Flash Steam power
plants.
Direct used of geothermal heat
• Despite using insulated pipes, heat cannot be distributed effectively over distances
greater than ~30 km, so use of geothermal must be near to the supply.
• In cold climates, household and business district heating schemes have proved
viable if the population density is ≥350 people/km2 (>100 premises/km2).
• Thus a 100 MW geothermal plant can serve an urban area ~20 km × 20 km at ~ 2
kW per premises.
• Other heating loads are for glasshouse
heating, fish farming, food drying, factory
processes, etc.
• Only Iceland and Japan are major producers
of geothermal electricity; moreover, in
Iceland, geothermal energy is the principal
source for both electricity and heating.
• Because direct heating applications (unlike electricity) can use geothermal sources
at temperatures <100°C, many more countries use geothermal sources for heat
than for electricity.
Direct used of geothermal heat
Ground-source heat pump
Heat pumps driven by a power source provide heating and/or cooling, and are often
described as a form of renewable energy. Heat passes into a built space (heating) or
out of the space (cooling), either (i) having been extracted from the ground or outside
air (heating); or (ii) passing into the ground or air (cooling). When most of the energy
exchange is with local ground or water, the technology is called ‘Ground-source heat
pumps (GHP)’.
• The systems exchange heat with the nearly constant temperature, Tg, beneath
ground at depths from 2 to 50 m, providing heat in winter and cooling in summer.
• A heat pump is essentially a ‘refrigerator working backwards’.
• A motor, usually electric, operating at power Pm enables the device to extract heat
at a rate Pg from the air or ground of the outside environment, and deliver heat
flow Pout for a purpose.
• Setting
Pout = CcopPm
defines the coefficient of performance (COP); here with the
symbol Ccop.
• Thermodynamic analysis treats a heat pump as a thermal engine
in reverse.
• In heating mode heat Pg is taken from the ground using motor of
power Pm; so heat Pout = Pg + Pm is delivered.
• In heating mode, the COP is Pout/Pm = 1 + (Pg /Pm).
• In cooling mode the COP is in effect Pg/Pm.
• For a commercial ground-sourced heat pump, Ccop is about 3 to 5, depending on
the temperatures at input and output.
• So the user receives 3 to 5 more heat with a heat pump than by dissipating the
electric power directly as heat.
• For an air-source heat pump, Ccop, is generally less at about 2.
• The temporarily cooled environment is restored by renewable energy entering
from the wider environment.
• For a closed loop ‘ground-sourced heat pump’
(GSHP), Pg is obtained from a transfer fluid
(perhaps water) circulating inside the pipes
of a buried heat exchanger.
• This may be constructed as long pipes
arranged horizontally under, typically, a
garden or car park, or as vertical pipes in
relatively deep boreholes.
• For the latter, the structural foundation
piles of commercial-scale buildings can
be used in dual purpose.
• In practice, for heating an insulated
building, the area needed for the
capture of the heat through horizontal
heat exchangers is about 1.5 times the
outside wall area of the building.
• For deep, vertically orientated heat
exchangers (e.g. if combined with
structural piling), the underground
surroundings heat in summer and cool
in winter, so becoming a heat store with
a six-month reversible cycle.

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Geothermal Energy

1 Hyperthermal: Temperature gradient ≥80˚C/km. These regions are usually on

2 Semithermal: Temperature gradient ~40˚C/km to 80˚C/km. Such regions are

3 Normal: Temperature gradient <40˚C/km. These remaining regions are associated

Dry-steam power plant:

In the heat exchangers, the counter-

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