Geothermal Energy

The thermal energy contained in the interior of the earth is called

geothermal energy. Volcanoes, geysers, and hot springs are visible evidence
of a large amount of heat lying in Earth’s interior. The geothermal is
enormous and last for several millions of years. Hence, it is called renewable
energy. Energy presents as heat ( i.e. thermal energy ) in the earth’s crust.
The more readily accessible heat is in the uppermost part (10 km ) or crust
constitutes a potentially useful and almost the inexhaustible source of
energy. This heat is apparent from the increase in temperature of the earth
with an increase in depth below the surface. Although higher and lower
temperatures or cross the average temperatures occur, the average
temperature at the depth of 10 kilometers is 200 degrees celsius.

The molten rock within the earth is called magma. It is commonly presented
at a depth of about 32 km on an average with a temperature of about 3000
degrees C. In some places, anomalous geologic conditions cause the magma
to be pushed up towards the surface where the heat of the magma is being
conducted upward through an overlying rock layer. The figure shows a
typical geothermal field.
The hot magma near the surface (A) solidifies into igneous rock (D). The
heal of the magma is conducted upward to this igneous rock. Ground waler
which finds its way down to this rock through cracks is healed by the heat of
the rock or by mixing with hot gases and steam coming from magma. Then
the heated water convectively rises upward and into a porous and permeable
reservoir (C) above flit igneous rock. The reservoir is capped by a layer of
the impermeable solid rock (D) which traps the hot water in the reservoir.
The solid rock has fissures (E) which act as vents of the giant underground
boiler. The vents show up at the surface as geysers fumaroles (I ) or hot
spring (G). A well (H) traps steam from fissures for the use in a geothermal
power plant. At any place on the planet, there is a normal temperature
gradient of 30 degrees C. per km dug into the earth. Therefore, if in one dig
20000 feet the temperature will be about 190-degree c above the surface
temperature, this difference will be enough to produce electricity. However,
no useful and economical technologies have been developed to extract this
large source of energy.
Geothermal Energy Sources
The basic kinds of geothermal sources are as follows.

1. Hydrothermal
(a) Vapour dominated or dry steam fields
(b) Liquid dominated system
(c) Hot -water fields

2. Geopressured
3. Hot dry rock or Petrothermal
4. Magma resources
5. Volcanoes

Hydrothermal resources contain superheated water, steam, or both in

fractures or porous rock but further trapped by a layer of impermeable rock.

Hot dry rock or petrothermal resources consist of high-temperature rocks

ranging from 90°C to 65O degree C. The rocks can be fractured and water
may be circulated through the rocks to extract thermal energy.

Direct Uses of Geothermal Energy

It is more appropriate for sources below 150 degrees C. It is used for.

1. Space heating
2. Air conditioning
3. Industrial processes
4. Drying
5. Greenhouses
6. Aquaculture
7. Hot water
8. Resorts and pools
9. melting snow.

Types of Geothermal Power Plants :

1. Dry steam or Vapor -Dominated geothermal power plant.
2. Liquid -dominated geothermal power plant.
Liquid -dominated geothermal power plant is further classified as
 • Flashed-steam system
• Binary-cycle system.

Working Of Geothermal Energy – Working

Of Geothermal Power Plants
1.Dry steam Or Vapour-dominated geothermal power
plant
The figure shows a schematic and T-s diagram of a vapor-dominated power
system. Dry steam from wells is collected, filtered to remove abrasive
particles, and passed through turbines that drive electric generators in the
usual manner. The essential difference between this system and a
conventional steam turbine-generator system using fossil or unclear fuel is
that the geothermal steam is supplied at much lower temperature and
pressure.

The essential difference between this system and a conventional steam

turbine-generator system using fossil fuel is that the geothermal steam is
supplied at much lower temperature and pressure.

The dry steam from the well at (1) perhaps 200°C is used. It is nearly
saturated at the bottom of the well and it may have o shut off pressure
about 35 bar. The pressure drop through the well is slightly the superheat at
well head (2).

The steam after expansion in the turbine (3) enters the condenser at 4.

The condensation of steam continuously increases the volume of the cooling

water.

A part of this heat is lost by evaporation in the cooling tower (6) and the
remaining heat is injected deep into the ground (7) for disposal.

The turbine exhaust steam at (4) mixes with the cooling water (7) coming
from the cooling tower. The mixture of cooling water coming from the
cooling tower and turbine exhaust is saturated vapor at (5) and it is pumped
to the cooling tower (6).

Geothermal Power plant Diagram :

 geothermal power plant diagram

2. Liquid-dominated geothermal power plant

In the liquid dominated reservoir, the water temperature is above the
normal boiling point 100 degrees C. However, it does not boil but it remains
in a liquid state because the water in the reservoir is under pressure. When
the water comes to the surface, the pressure is reduced, then rapid boiling
occurs and the liquid water “flashes” into a mixture of hot water and steam.
The steam can be separated and used to generate electric power or to
provide space and process heat or it may be distilled to yield the purified
water.

• There are two important methods of liquid-dominated systems as follows,

• Flashed – steam system
• Binary-cycle system
Prime Movers for geothermal energy
Conversion :
The prime movers can be classified used in geothermal power plants are,

1.Impulse/Reaction machines:

• Axial flow – Curtis, Rateau steam

• Radial inflow – Francis turbine, multiple disk drag turbine
• Radial outflow – Rotating nozzle, Hero’s turbine
• Multiple disc turbine – Bladeless impulse or reaction drag turbine.
2. Positive displacement machines :

• Helical screw expander

• Rotating oscillating vane machine.
3. Impulse machines :

• Tangential flow – Pelton wheel, Re-entry type turbine.

• Arial Flow, De-laval turbine, and Curtis turbine.
Advantage and Disadvantage of
geothermal energy :
Advantages of Geothermal energy :
1. It is versatile in its use and reliable source of energy.
2. It is cheaper compared to energies obtained from other sources both zero
fuels and fossil fuels.
3. Geothermal plants require little land area.
4. Using geothermal energy directly for heating applications can be up to
70% more efficient.
5. Its availability is independent of the weather.
6. It has an inherent storage feature and hence no extra storage systems are
necessary.
7. It delivers a greater amount of net energy from its system than other
alternative or conventional systems.
8. It has the highest annual load factor of 85 % to 90 % compared to 45% to
50% for fossil fuel plants.
9. It leads to minimum pollution compared to other conventional energy
sources.
10. Using geothermal energy directly for heating applications can be up to 70
% more efficient.
11. Once built, geothermal power station operating costs are small making
geothermal generated electricity much cheaper.
12. Ground-based geothermal heat pumps for heating and cooling can be used
almost anywhere.

Disadvantages of geothermal energy :

1. Overall efficiency for power production is low about 15% when compared
to 35-40% for fossil fuel plants.
2. The steam and hot water gushing out of the earth may contain H2S , CO2
,NH3, and radon gas, etc. These gases are to be removed by chemical
action before they are discharged.
3. Drilling operation is noisy
4. Large area is required for the exploitation of geothermal energy as much
diffused.
 5. Continuous extraction of heated groundwater may lead to subsidence of
land.
6. The corrosive and abrasive geothermal fluid reduces the life of plants.
7. Thermal energy cannot be distributed easily over a long distance ( longer
than 30 km )
8. Initial capital and installation costs are high.

Applications of Geothermal Energy :

• It is used in generating electric power.
• It is used in industrial process heat.
• It is used in space heating for various kinds of buildings.
• It is used in agricultural and related applications.
 Fuel Cell Basics

Through this website we are seeking historical materials relating to fuel

cells. We have constructed the site to gather information from people
already familiar with the technology–people such as inventors, researchers,
manufacturers, electricians, and marketers. This Basics section presents a
general overview of fuel cells for casual visitors.

What is a fuel cell?

A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by a chemical reaction.
Every fuel cell has two electrodes called, respectively, the anode and
cathode. The reactions that produce electricity take place at the electrodes.

Every fuel cell also has an electrolyte, which carries electrically charged
particles from one electrode to the other, and a catalyst, which speeds the
reactions at the electrodes.

Hydrogen is the basic fuel, but fuel cells also require oxygen. One great
appeal of fuel cells is that they generate electricity with very little pollution–
much of the hydrogen and oxygen used in generating electricity ultimately
combine to form a harmless byproduct, namely water.

One detail of terminology: a single fuel cell generates a tiny amount of

direct current (DC) electricity. In practice, many fuel cells are usually
assembled into a stack. Cell or stack, the principles are the same.

How do fuel cells work?

The purpose of a fuel cell is to produce an electrical current that can be directed outside
the cell to do work, such as powering an electric motor or illuminating a light bulb or a
city. Because of the way electricity behaves, this current returns to the fuel cell,
completing an electrical circuit. The chemical reactions that produce this current are the
key to how a fuel cell works.

There are several kinds of fuel cells, and each operates a bit differently. But in general
terms, hydrogen atoms enter a fuel cell at the anode where a chemical reaction strips
them of their electrons. The hydrogen atoms are now "ionized," and carry a positive
electrical charge. The negatively charged electrons provide the current through wires to
do work. If alternating current (AC) is needed, the DC output of the fuel cell must be
routed through a conversion device called an inverter.

Graphic by Marc Marshall, Schatz Energy Research Center

Oxygen enters the fuel cell at the cathode and, in some cell types (like the
one illustrated above), it there combines with electrons returning from the
electrical circuit and hydrogen ions that have traveled through the
electrolyte from the anode. In other cell types the oxygen picks up electrons
and then travels through the electrolyte to the anode, where it combines
with hydrogen ions.

The electrolyte plays a key role. It must permit only the appropriate ions to
pass between the anode and cathode. If free electrons or other substances
could travel through the electrolyte, they would disrupt the chemical
reaction.

Whether they combine at anode or cathode, together hydrogen and oxygen

form water, which drains from the cell. As long as a fuel cell is supplied with
hydrogen and oxygen, it will generate electricity.

Even better, since fuel cells create electricity chemically, rather than by
combustion, they are not subject to the thermodynamic laws that limit a
conventional power plant (see "Carnot Limit" in the glossary). Therefore,
fuel cells are more efficient in extracting energy from a fuel. Waste heat
from some cells can also be harnessed, boosting system efficiency still
further.

The basic workings of a fuel cell may not be difficult to illustrate. But
building inexpensive, efficient, reliable fuel cells is a far more complicated
business.

Scientists and inventors have designed many different types and sizes of fuel cells in
the search for greater efficiency, and the technical details of each kind vary. Many of the
choices facing fuel cell developers are constrained by the choice of electrolyte. The
design of electrodes, for example, and the materials used to make them depend on the
electrolyte. Today, the main electrolyte types are alkali, molten carbonate, phosphoric
acid, proton exchange membrane (PEM) and solid oxide. The first three are liquid
electrolytes; the last two are solids.

The type of fuel also depends on the electrolyte. Some cells need pure hydrogen, and
therefore demand extra equipment such as a "reformer" to purify the fuel. Other cells
can tolerate some impurities, but might need higher temperatures to run efficiently.
Liquid electrolytes circulate in some cells, which requires pumps. The type of electrolyte
also dictates a cell's operating temperature–"molten" carbonate cells run hot, just as the
name implies.

Each type of fuel cell has advantages and drawbacks compared to the others, and none
is yet cheap and efficient enough to widely replace traditional ways of generating power,
such coal-fired, hydroelectric, or even nuclear power plants.

The following list describes the five main types of fuel cells. More detailed information
can be found in those specific areas of this site.
 Different types of fuel
cells.
1.Alkali fuel cells

operate on compressed hydrogen and

oxygen. They generally use a solution of
potassium hydroxide (chemically, KOH) in
water as their electrolyte. Efficiency is
about 70 percent, and operating
temperature is 150 to 200 degrees C,
(about 300 to 400 degrees F). Cell output
ranges from 300 watts (W) to 5 kilowatts
(kW). Alkali cells were used in Apollo
spacecraft to provide both electricity and
drinking water. They require pure hydrogen
fuel, however, and their platinum electrode Drawing of an alkali cell.
catalysts are expensive. And like any container filled with liquid, they can leak.

2.Molten Carbonate fuel cells

(MCFC) use high-temperature
compounds of salt (like sodium or
magnesium) carbonates (chemically, CO3)
as the electrolyte. Efficiency ranges from
60 to 80 percent, and operating
temperature is about 650 degrees C (1,200
degrees F). Units with output up to 2
megawatts (MW) have been constructed,
and designs exist for units up to 100 MW.
The high temperature limits damage from
carbon monoxide "poisoning" of the cell
and waste heat can be recycled to make
additional electricity. Their nickel electrode-
Drawing of a molten carbonate cell catalysts are inexpensive compared to the
platinum used in other cells. But the high
temperature also limits the materials and safe uses of MCFCs–they would probably be
too hot for home use. Also, carbonate ions from the electrolyte are used up in the
reactions, making it necessary to inject carbon dioxide to compensate.

3.Phosphoric Acid fuel cells (PAFC) use phosphoric acid as the electrolyte.
Efficiency ranges from 40 to 80 percent, and operating temperature is between 150 to
200 degrees C (about 300 to 400 degrees F). Existing phosphoric acid cells have
outputs up to 200 kW, and 11 MW units have been tested. PAFCs tolerate a carbon
monoxide concentration of about 1.5 percent, which broadens the choice of fuels they
can use. If gasoline is used, the sulfur must be removed. Platinum electrode-catalysts
are needed, and internal parts must be able to withstand the corrosive acid.

Drawing of how both phosphoric acid and PEM fuel

cells operate.

4.Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells work with a polymer electrolyte
in the form of a thin, permeable sheet. Efficiency is about 40 to 50 percent, and
operating temperature is about 80 degrees C (about 175 degrees F). Cell outputs
generally range from 50 to 250 kW. The solid, flexible electrolyte will not leak or crack,
and these cells operate at a low enough temperature to make them suitable for homes
and cars. But their fuels must be purified, and a platinum catalyst is used on both sides
of the membrane, raising costs.

Solid Oxide fuel cells (SOFC) use a hard,

ceramic compound of metal (like calcium or
zirconium) oxides (chemically, O2) as
electrolyte. Efficiency is about 60 percent,
and operating temperatures are about
1,000 degrees C (about 1,800 degrees F).
Cells output is up to 100 kW. At such high
temperatures a reformer is not required to
extract hydrogen from the fuel, and waste
heat can be recycled to make additional
electricity. However, the high temperature
limits applications of SOFC units and they
tend to be rather large. While solid
electrolytes cannot leak, they can crack.
Drawing of a solid oxide cell
Applications of fuel cell

Fuel cell technology has a wide range of applications. Currently,

heavy research is being conducted in order to manufacture a
cost-efficient automobile which is powered by a fuel cell. A few
applications of this technology are listed below.

• Fuel cell electric vehicles, or FCEVs, use clean fuels and are
therefore more eco-friendly than internal combustion
engine-based vehicles.
• They have been used to power many space expeditions
including the Appolo space program.
• Generally, the byproducts produced from these cells are heat
and water.
• The portability of some fuel cells is extremely useful in some
military applications.
• These electrochemical cells can also be used to power
several electronic devices.
• Fuel cells are also used as primary or backup sources of
electricity in many remote areas.
• Applications of Fuel Cell Technology:
• 1. Transportation
• 2. Stationary Power Stations
• 3. Telecommunications
• 4. Micro Power
• Transportation
• a. All major automakers are working to commercialize a fuel cell car b.
Automakers and experts speculate that a fuel cell vehicle will be
commercialized by 2010 c. 50 fuel cell buses are currently in use in North
and South America, Europe, Asia and Australia d. Trains, planes, boats,
scooters, forklifts and even bicycles are utilizing fuel cell technology as well
• Stationary Power Stations
• a. Over 2,500 fuel cell systems have been installed all over the world in
hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, ofice buildings, schools and utility power
plants b. Most of these systems are either connected to the electric grid to
provide supplemental power and backup assurance or as a
grid independent generator for locations that are inaccessible by power
lines
• Telecommunications

a. Due to computers, the Internet and sophisticated communication

networks there is a need for an incredibly reliable power source b. Fuel
Cells have been proven to be 99.999% reliable

Micro Power • Consumer electronics could gain drastically longer battery

power with Fuel Cell technology • Cell phones can be powered for 30 days
without recharging

• Laptops can be powered for 20 hours without recharging

Benefts of Fuel Cell Technology:

1. Reliability:

a) More reliable power from fuel cells would prevent loss of Business b)
Properly confgured fuel cells would result in less than one minute of down
time in a six year period

2. Efficiency:

a) Because no fuel is burned to make energy, fuel cells are fundamentally

more eficient than combustion systems b) Additionally when the heat
comes of of the fuel cell system it can be captured for benefcial purposes.
This is called Cogeneration c) The gasoline engine in a conventional car is
less than 20% eficient in converting the chemical energy in gasoline into
power d) Fuel Cell motors are much more eficient and use 40-60% of the
hydrogen’s energy e) Fuel Cell cars would lead to a 50% reduction in fuel
consumption f) Fuel Cell vehicles can be up to 3 times more eficient than
internal combustion engines g) Fuel Cell power generation systems in
operation today achieve 40% to 50% fuel-to-electricity eficiency h) In
combination with a turbine, electrical eficiencies can exceed 60% i) When
Cogeneration is used, fuel utilization can exceed 85%

3. Environmental Benefts:

a) Fuels cells can reduce air pollution today and ofer the possibility of
eliminating pollution in the future b) A fuel cell power plant may create less
than one ounce of pollution per 1,000 kilowatt-hours of electricity
produced c) Conventional combustion generating systems produce 25
pounds of pollutants for the same electricity d) Fuel Cell Vehicles with
hydrogen stored on-board produce ZERO POLLUTION in the conventional
sense e) The only byproducts of these Fuel Cell vehicles are water and heat
f) Fuel Cell Vehicles with a reformer on board to convert a liquid fuel to
hydrogen would produce a small amount of pollutants, but it would be 90%
less than the pollutants produced from combustion engines g) Fuel Cell
replacements would have an environmental advantage over batteries, since
certain kinds of batteries require special disposal treatment

Challenges to Fuel Cell Technology:

1. Cost: The cost of fuel cells must be reduced to compete with
conventional technologies Conventional internal combustion engines cost
$25-$35/kW; a fuel cell system would need to cost $30/kW to be
competitive

2. Durability and Reliability: a. Researchers must develop PEMFC

membranes that are durable and can operate at temperatures greater than
100 degrees Celsius and still function at sub-zero ambient temperatures. b.
A 100 degrees Celsius temperature target is required in order for a fuel cell
to have a higher tolerance to impurities in fuel. Because you start and stop a
car relatively frequently, it is important for the membrane to remain stable
under cycling conditions. Currently membranes tend to degrade while fuel
cells cycle on and of, particularly as operating temperatures rise. c. For
stationary systems 40,000 hours of reliable operation in a temperature
range of -35 degree Celsius to 40 degrees Celsius will be required for market
acceptance d. Solid oxide systems have issues with material corrosion. e.
SOFC durability sufers after the cell repeatedly heats up to operating
 temperature and then cools down to room temperature System Size f. The
size and weight of current fuel cell systems must be reduced to attain
market acceptance, especially with automobiles.

Storage and Other Considerations

Three hundred miles is a conventional driving range (the distance you can
drive in a car with a full tank of gas). In order to create a comparable result
with a fuel cell vehicle, researchers must overcome hydrogen storage
considerations, vehicle weight and volume, cost, and safety.

Water Electrolysis
Water electrolysis

is a popular method used for different applications in various industries, mainly in

the food industry, metallurgy, and power plants, amongst others. Besides, the
components of water, which include hydrogen and oxygen, have many
applications. For instance, hydrogen obtained through electrolysis is a clean,
renewable and efficient fuel source.

Water electrolysis is mainly carried out to yield pure hydrogen and oxygen gases.
It involves passing an electric current through the water, which results in the
decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen.

Principle of Water Electrolysis

Two electrodes or plates that are made from an inert metal such as platinum
or iridium are placed in the water. A DC electrical power source is connected
to these plates. At the cathode (where electrons enter the water), part
hydrogen will appear. On the anode side, oxygen will appear. If we consider
the ideal faradaic efficiency, hydrogen will be produced twice the amount of
oxygen. On the other hand, both will be proportional to the total electrical
charge conducted by the solution. However, in some cells, side reactions can
occur, and different products are formed with less than ideal faradaic
efficiency.

Electrolyte for Water Electrolysis

It is very important to choose the right electrolyte for water electrolysis. Why is
it important? If we look at the anion from the electrolyte, it usually competes
with the hydroxide ions to release an electron. If an electrolyte anion has a
less standard electrode potential than hydroxide, it will be oxidised instead of
the hydroxide. Therefore, oxygen will not be produced. In the case of a cation,
if it has a greater standard electrode potential than a hydrogen ion, it will be
reduced. In this case, hydrogen gas will not be produced.

Solid Oxide Electrolyzer

Ceramic oxide separates the electrodes. At the cathode, water is reduced to
hydrogen and oxide ions. The oxide ions pass through the ceramic oxide to
the anode to become oxygen gas. This is used at high temperatures of 700 to
800°C to reduce the external voltage needed for electrolysis.

Electrolysis of Pure Water

An excess amount of energy in the form of overpotential (to overcome
various activation barriers) is usually required for the electrolysis of pure
water. This excess energy is extremely important because, without it, the
process occurs very slowly and sometimes not at all. The limited self-
ionization of water is also a reason for this. Moreover, the electrical
conductivity of pure water is about one millionth less than that of seawater. In
such cases, the efficiency of electrolysis can be increased by using a proper
electrolyte such as a salt, an acid or a base along with electrocatalysts.

HYDROGEN AS A FUEL:
An alternatie fuel must be technically feasible, economically iiable, easily
coniert to another energy form when combusted, be safe to use, and be
potentally harmless to the eniironment. Hydrogen is the most abundant element
on earth.
The key criteria for an IDEAL FUEL are inexhaustibility, cleanliness,
convenience, and independence from foreign control. Hydrogen as a fuel satisfes
all the above requirements. It ofers the highest potential benefts in terms of
diversifed supply and reduced emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases. For
the past 40 years, environmentalists and several industrial organizations have
promoted hydrogen fuel as the solution to the problems of air pollution and
global warming. Similar to electricity, hydrogen is a high-quality energy carrier,
which can be used with a high eficiency and zero or near-zero emissions at the
point of use. The Hydrogen production is increasing by about 10% every year. As
of 2005, the economic value of all hydrogen produced worldwide was about $135
billion per year. The current global hydrogen production is 48% from natural gas,
30% from petroleum, 18% from coal, and 4% from electrolysis. Hydrogen is
primarily consumed in two nonfuel uses: (1) About 60% to produce NH3 by the
Haber process for subsequent use in fertilizer manufacturing. (2) About 40%in
refnery, chemicals, and petrochemical sectors Physical Properties: Hydrogen atom
is the lightest element (Ordinary hydrogen has a density of 0.09 kg/m3.),
consisting of only one proton and one electron. Hydrogen atoms readily form H2
molecules, which are smaller in size when compared to most other molecules.
Hydrogen is colorless, odorless, and tasteless and is about 14 times lighter than
air, and difuses faster than any other gas. On cooling, hydrogen condenses to
liquid at −253°C and to solid at −259°C. Also, the gaseous hydrogen has one of the
highest heat capacity (14.4 kJ/kg K). Chemical Properties: At ordinary
temperatures, H2 is comparatively nonreactive unless it has been activated in
some manner. On the contrary, hydrogen atom is chemically very reactive, and
that is why it is not found chemically free in nature. In fact, very high
temperatures are needed to dissociate molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen.
For example, even at 5000 K, about 5% of the hydrogen remains undissociated. In
nature, mostly the hydrogen is bound to either oxygen or carbon atoms.
Therefore, hydrogen must be considered as an energy carrier—a means to store
and transmit energy derived from a primary energy source. From the safety point
of view, the following are the most important properties of hydrogen when
compared to other conventional fuels: Diffusion: Hydrogen diffueu throfgh air
mfch more rapidly than other gaueofu fuels. With a difusion coeficient in air of .61
cm2/s, the rapid dispersion rate of hydrogen is its greatest safety asset.
Flammability: Flammability of hydrogen iu a ffnction of concentration level and is
much greater than that of methane or other fuels. The limit of flammability of
hydrogen in air at ambient condition is 4755%, methane in air is 4.3715 vol%, and
gasoline in air is 1.475.6 vol%. Fuel Properties: Hydrogen is highly flammable over
a wide range of temperature and concentration. Although its combustion
eficiency is truly outstanding and welcomed as a fuel of the choice for the future,
it inevitably renders several nontrivial technological challenges, such as safety in
production, storage, and transportation
Environmental Aspects The combustion of fossil fuels accounts for a
majority of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Currently, fossil fuel
combustion produces 5 Gtn/year carbon emissions. CO2 emissions in 2050 can be
expected to reach 14 Gtn/year of carbon. Hydrogen, when produced from
reforming of natural gas, petroleum or coal, generates CO2 as a by-product. For
each ton of hydrogen produced from hydrocarbons, approximately 2.5 t of carbon
is vented to the atmosphere. However, for each ton of hydrogen produced from
current coal technology, approximately 5 t of carbon is emitted to the
atmosphere.
PRODUCTION METHODS: Because pure hydrogen does not occur naturally
on Earth in large quantities, it takes a substantial amount of energy in its industrial
production. There are different ways to produce it, such as electrolysis and steam-
methane reforming process. In electrolysis, electricity is run through water to
separate the hydrogen and oxygen atoms. This method can use wind, solar,
geothermal, hydro, fossil fuels, biomass, and many other resources. Obtaining
hydrogen from this process is being studied as a viable way to produce it
domestically at a low cost. Steam methane reforming, the current leading
technology for producing hydrogen in large quantities, extracts the hydrogen from
methane. However, this reaction causes a side production of carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide, which are greenhouse gases and contribute to global warming.
Hydrogen Production Methods: 1. Production of hydrogen from
hydrocarbons
a) Steam Methane Reforming
b) Partial Oxidation of Hydrocarbons
2. Production of hydrogen by Coal Gasifcation
3. Hydrogen Production from Electrolysis of Water
4. Hydrogen Production from Nuclear Energy
5. Hydrogen Production from Wind Energy
6. Hydrogen Production from Biomass
5. Use of Solar Energy to Produce Hydrogen. There are several methods for
producing hydrogen. We can have a broad classifcation based on whether it is
from a renewable source like wind energy, solar energy or from a non renewable
source like coal, natural gas. Currently Conventional methods of producing
hydrogen are the most widely employed process for hydrogen production
accounting for nearly 90% global hydrogen production. But the problem with
these methods is they liberate large quantities of CO2. Electrolysis of water
accounts for 4% of global production, the advantages of this process is it is having
well established technology & C02 free but Expensive compared to conventional
process. The remaining processes are gaining importance because of their non
polluting nature but technology is still at pilot plant scale level only and cost of
production is also high as evident from the below table.
 HYDROGEN STORAGE: One of the most critical factors in inducting hydrogen
economy is transportation and on-vehicle storage of hydrogen. The major
contribution to the problem is from low gas density of hydrogen. For example, to
store energy equivalent to one gasoline tank, an ambient pressure hydrogen gas
tank would be more than 3000-fold the volume of the gasoline tank. Hydrogen
can be stored as a gas, liquid and metal hydrides.
1. Compressed gas storage: Hydrogen is conveniently stored for many
applications in high pressure cylinders. This method of storage is expensive and
bulky because very large sized vessels are needed for storage of small quantities
of hydrogen.
2. Liquid storage: on a small scale or moderate scale, hydrogen is frequently
stored under high pressure in strong steel cylinders. But this kind of process is too
costly for large storage applications. A more practical approach is to store the
hydrogen as a liquid at a low temperature (cryogenic storage in vacuum insulated
storage tank). Ex: The liquid hydrogen fuel used a rocket propellant. One problem
with storing hydrogen as a liquid is its boiling temperature (20K) is very low, so it
has to be stored under temperatures less than 20K. The storage tank has to be
insulated, to preserve temperature, and needs to be reinforced to store the liquid
hydrogen under some pressure.
3. Storage as metal hydride: Considerable interest has been shown recently
towards storing hydrogen in the form of a metal hydride. A number of metals and
alloys form solid compounds called metal hydrides, by direct reaction with
hydrogen gas. When the hydride is heated the hydrogen will release. Ex: FeTiH1.5,
LaNi5H6, Mg2NiH4. The percentage of gas absorbed to volume of the metal is still
relatively low, but hydrides ofer a valuable solution to hydrogen storage. The
volume of this storage device is only two fold greater than the equivalent gasoline
tank, but unfortunately it is 20-fold heavier. The life of a metal hydride storage
tank is directly related to the purity of the hydrogen it is storing. The alloys act as a
sponge, which absorbs hydrogen, but it also absorbs any impurities introduced
into the tank by the hydrogen. Thus, the hydrogen released from the tank is highly
pure, but the tank’s lifetime and ability to store hydrogen is reduced as the
impurities are deposited in the metal pores.
 Importance of Hydrogen: Fuel Cells require highly purifed hydrogen as a
fuel Researchers are developing a wide range of technologies to produce
hydrogen economically from a variety of resources in environmentally friendly
ways  The biggest challenge regarding hydrogen production is the cost 
Reducing the cost of hydrogen production so as to compete in the transportation
sector with conventional fuels on a per-mile basis is a signifcant hurdle to Fuel
Cell’s success in the commercial marketplace  Developing safe, reliable, compact
and cost-efective hydrogen storage is one of the biggest challenges to widespread
use of fuel cell technology  Hydrogen has physical characteristics that make it
dificult to store large quantities without taking up a great deal of space.