steam nozzle

The steam nozzle is a passage of varying cross section by means of which the thermal energy of steam is
converted into kinetic energy. When a fluid flows through a nozzle, its velocity increases continuously
and pressure decreases continuously.

Some Applications of a Nozzle:

1. Nozzles are used in steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines and in jet engines, Jet
propulsion.

2. Nozzles are used for flow measurement e.g. in venturimeter.

3. Nozzles are used to remove air from a condenser.

4. Injectors for pumping feed water to boilers.

5. Artificial fountains

Three types of nozzles

Convergent nozzle: If the cross-section of the nozzle decreases continuously from entrance to
exit, it is called a convergent nozzle.

Divergent nozzle: If the cross-section of the nozzle increases continuously from entrance to exit,
it is called a divergent nozzle.

Convergent-Divergent nozzle.

If the cross-section of the nozzle first decreases and then increases, it is called a convergent-
divergent nozzle. The section where cross-sectional area is minimum is called ‘throat’ of the
nozzle.

Diffuser:

When a steadily flowing fluid is decelerated in a duct causing rise in pressure along the stream,
then the duct is called a diffuser.

So in a diffuser, velocity of the fluid decreases continuously and pressure increases continuously.

Similar to nozzle, there are three types of diffusers:

1. Convergent diffuser

2. Divergent diffuser
3. Convergent-divergent diffuser.

The given duct will work as a diffuser or a nozzle depending upon the fluid velocity at the inlet
of a duct.

Applications:

1. Diffusers are used in centrifugal compressor.

2. Diffusers are used in ram-jet engines to increase the pressure of incoming fresh-air.

This equation gives information whether the given duct will act as a nozzle or a diffuser if the
inlet fluid velocity is known. It also gives information which type of duct should be used for a
particular application.

For a nozzle, velocity of the fluid should increase continuously from entrance to exit.

So if the inlet fluid condition is known, we can select the nozzle as below:

1. When the velocity of fluid is less than sonic velocity (i.e. when the flow is sub-sonic), the
match no. (M) is less than 1,

i.e. change in across sectional area along the duct should be negative.

This tells that, for sub-sonic flow, the duct must be convergent. By using this convergent nozzle,
the flow of the fluid can be increased to sonic velocity.

But by using convergent nozzle we cannot obtain super-sonic flow.

2. When the flow is super-sonic, M > 1

i.e. for super-sonic flow, the duct must be divergent.

In the convergent part the velocity of fluid is increased from sub-sonic to sonic condition. At
throat, the velocity is sonic. In the divergent part, the velocity is increased from sonic to super-
sonic.

So only in convergent-divergent nozzle, the sub-sonic flow is converted into super-sonic flow.

For diffuser the velocity should decrease continuously so a diffuser is selected as below:

1. For sub-sonic flow-

2. For super-sonic flow – M > 1-

The convergent-diffuser will decrease the velocity of fluid to sonic velocity.

3. The convergent-divergent diffuser is used to convert super-sonic flow into sub-sonic flow.
Steam Velocity for reversible adiabatic or isentropic expansion of steam in a Nozzle:

Expansion is governed by pvϒ=constant

For unit mass,

The steady flow equation is,

q – w = Δ h + Δ PE + Δ KE

For a horizontal nozzle, Δ PE = 0

There is no work-done in nozzle therefore W = 0. In the nozzle, the velocity of the fluid is so
high that there is hardly any time available for fluid to exchange heat with the surroundings.
Therefore for nozzle, it is assumed that heat transfer is zero i.e., flow in Isentropic

Where, ht = specific enthalpy at the throat conditions.

For steam nozzles the values of enthalpy (h1, h2, ht etc.) are normally obtained by using Mollier
Chart. If C1, the initial or approach velocity is neglected, then

Mass-Flow Rate in a Nozzle:

The steady flow energy equation is:

The flow of steam through nozzle is assumed to be isentropic. The Mollier Chart shows the
isentropic flow (1 -1 – 2) of steam through a convergent-divergent nozzle. But in actual case, the
friction losses occur.

The frictional losses are due to:

(i) Friction between sides of nozzle (wall of nozzle) and fluid.

(iii) Due to eddies in the flow.

Most of the friction in convergent-divergent nozzle is assumed to occur between the throat and
exit. The expansion upto throat is taken to be isentropic. This is due to low initial velocity. In
Mollier Chart, 1 -t- 2′ is the actual expansion of steam through nozzle. Figure 19.5 shows the
actual expansion of steam through nozzle.

Effects:

1. Reduction in actual enthalpy drop.

2. Reduction in exit velocity of fluid.

3. Increase in the dryness-fraction of steam.

4. Increase in the specific volume and

5. Decrease in the mass-flow rate.

Nozzle Efficiency:

The nozzle efficiency is given as-

Phenomenon in Nozzles Operating Off the Design Pressure Ratio:

(a) For Convergent Nozzle:

Consider a convergent nozzle as shown in Fig. 19.8. The initial conditions are kept constant and
exit pressure P2 is reduced gradually from the initial pressure P1 by a valve.

(i) When pressure P2 is equal to Pt, there is no decrease in pressure and therefore mass-flow rate
is zero. This condition is shown by curve (I) in Fig. 19.8.

(ii) When pressure P2 is less than P1, but more than critical pressure; distribution along the axis is
shown by curve (II). The mass low rate increases as pressure P2 is reduced as shown in Fig. 19.8.

(iii) When exit pressure P2 is equal to critical pressure, the nozzle operates with maximum mass
flow rate and the pressure distribution is shown by curve (III).

This state is called as ‘chocked flow’ or the nozzle is said to be ‘chocked’.

(iv) When pressure P2 is less than critical pressure, there is no change in mass-flow through
nozzle and also pressure distribution along the nozzle is same. The pressure-drop from critical
pressure to P2 takes place after the nozzle. This expansion is irreversible and gives rise to
pressure oscillations as shown by curve (IV).
(b) For Convergent-Divergent Nozzle:

Let us consider a convergent-divergent nozzle as shown in Fig. 19.9

1. When pressure Pe is equal to inlet pressure Pr there is no flow. Refer Fig. 19.9 and Fig. 19.10.

2. When Pe is reduced to the pressure denoted by curve (II). So that P e/Pt is less than 1 but greater
than critical pressure ratio, the velocity increases in the convergent region of the nozzle, but
mach number (m) is less than 1 at throat. So the divergent section acts as a sub-sonic diffuser in
which the pressure increases and velocity decreases.

3. In case (IV), pressure is critical at throat and exit pressure P e is design pressure. Therefore the
flow is isentropic throughout the nozzle and velocity continuously increases along the nozzle. At
throat, velocity is equal to sonic velocity. The divergent portion acts as a super-sonic nozzle with
a continuous decrease in pressure and continuous increase in velocity.
4. If the exit pressure is more than the designed pressure but less than critical pressure, the flow
is not isentropic in the divergent part and it is accompanied by highly irreversible phenomena
known as shocks. Shocks occur only when the flow is supersonic and after the shock the flow
becomes sub-sonic and the rest of the diverging portion acts as a diffuser. The condition is
shown by case (a).

5. When the back pressure is increased the shock moves upstream and disappears at the nozzle
throat where pressure Pe has some value P3. Here mach number (m) is equal to one at the throat
but divergent portion acts as a sub-sonic diffuser in which pressure increases and velocity
decreases.
6. If the pressure Pe is less than the design pressure, no further decrease in exit pressure occurs
and drop of pressure from design pressure to Pe occurs outside the nozzle giving pressure
fluctuations as shown by case (V).

Overexpansion and Under-Expansion:

If the area of the exit section of a nozzle is such that the fluid expands to a pressure at this
section less than that of the discharge region. Overexpansion has occurred. As this lower
pressure stream emerges into the higher pressure discharge region, there is a sudden increase in
pressure, an act that sets up compression pressure waves, much stronger than sound waves. This
jump in pressure outside the nozzle occurs when the back-pressure is above the exit pressure.

If on the other hand the area of the exit section is such that the fluid expands to a pressure at this
section greater than that in the discharge region, under-expansion has occurred. Since there is
now a sudden decrease in pressure on the jet, expansion waves are initiated.

Both situations involve an increase in irreversibility’s and loss of efficiency. It is best for the
expansion in the nozzle to occur to just the right (designed) discharge pressure.