DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.

71049

Provisional chapter

Chapter 2

A Review: Remote Sensing Sensors

A Review: Remote Sensing Sensors
Lingli Zhu, Juha Suomalainen, Jingbin Liu,
Juha Hyyppä,
Lingli Harri
Zhu, Juha Kaartinen and
Suomalainen, Henrik
Jingbin Liu,Haggren
Juha Hyyppä, Harri Kaartinen and Henrik Haggren
Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.71049

Abstract
The cost of launching satellites is getting lower and lower due to the reusability of rockets
(NASA, 2015) and using single missions to launch multiple satellites (up to 37, Russia,
2014). In addition, low-orbit satellite constellations have been employed in recent years.
These trends indicate that satellite remote sensing has a promising future in acquiring
high-resolution data with a low cost and in integrating high-resolution satellite imagery
with ground-based sensor data for new applications. These facts have motivated us to
develop a comprehensive survey of remote sensing sensor development, including the
characteristics of sensors with respect to electromagnetic spectrums (EMSs), imaging and
non-imaging sensors, potential research areas, current practices, and the future develop-
ment of remote sensors.

Keywords: remote sensing, satellite, sensors, electromagnetic spectrum, spectrum of

materials, imaging sensors, non-imaging sensors

1. Introduction

In 2015, one of the most remarkable events in the space industry was when SpaceX realized
the reusability of its rocket for the first time. Additionally, in June 2014, Russia used 1 rocket
to launch 37 satellites at the same time. At present, many countries have the capability to
launch multiple satellites in one mission. For example, NASA and the US Air Force launched
29 satellites in a single mission in 2013. At that time, the mission represented the most satel-
lites ever launched at one time [1]. In 2015 and 2016, China and India launched 20 satellites
in single mission, respectively. At present, six organizations have the capability to launch
multiple satellites in a single mission: Russia, USA, China, India, Japan, and ESA. This trend
indicates that in the future, the cost of sending satellites to space will greatly decrease. More
and more remote sensing resources are becoming available. It is of great importance to have

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20 Multi-purposeful Application of Geospatial Data

a comprehensive survey of the available remote sensing technology and to utilize inter- or
trans-disciplinary knowledge and technology to create new applications.

Remote sensing is considered a primary means of acquiring spatial data. Remote sensing mea-
sures electromagnetic radiation that interacts with the atmosphere and objects. Interactions of
electromagnetic radiation with the surface of the Earth can provide information not only on
the distance between the sensor and the object but also on the direction, intensity, wavelength,
and polarization of the electromagnetic radiation [2]. These measurements can offer posi-
tional information about the objects and clues as to the characteristics of the surface materials.

Satellite remote sensing consists of one or multiple remote sensing instruments located on a
satellite or satellite constellation collecting information about an object or phenomenon on
the Earth surface without being in direct physical contact with the object or phenomenon.
Compared to airborne and terrestrial platforms, spaceborne platforms are the most stable
carrier. Satellites can be classified by their orbital geometry and timing. Three types of orbits
are typically used in remote sensing satellites, such as geostationary, equatorial, and sun-
synchronous orbits. A geostationary satellite has a period of rotation equal to that of Earth
(24 hours) so the satellite always stays over the same location on Earth. Communications and
weather satellites often use geostationary orbits with many of them located over the equa-
tor. In an equatorial orbit, a satellite circles the Earth at a low inclination (the angle between
the orbital plane and the equatorial plane). The Space Shuttle uses an equatorial orbit with
an inclination of 57°. Sun-synchronous satellites have orbits with high inclination angles,
passing nearly over the poles. Orbits are timed so that the satellite always passes over the
equator at the same local sun time. In this way, these satellites maintain the same relative
position with the sun for all of its orbits. Many remote sensing satellites are sun synchro-
nous, which ensures repeatable sun illumination conditions during specific seasons. Because
a sun-synchronous orbit does not pass directly over the poles, it is not always possible to
acquire data for the extreme polar regions. The frequency at which a satellite sensor can
acquire data of the entire Earth depends on the sensor and orbital characteristics [3]. For most
remote sensing satellites, the total coverage frequency ranges from twice a day to once every
16 days. Another orbital characteristic is altitude. The space shuttle has a low orbital altitude
of 300 km, whereas other common remote sensing satellites typically maintain higher orbits
ranging from 600 to 1000 km.

The interaction between a sensor and the surface of the Earth has two modes: active or pas-
sive. Passive sensors utilize solar radiation to illuminate the Earth’s surface and detect the
reflection from the surface. They typically record electromagnetic waves in the range of vis-
ible (~430–720 nm) and near-infrared (NIR) (~750–950 nm) light. Some systems, such as SPOT
5, are also designed to acquire images in middle-infrared (MIR) wavelengths (1580–1750 nm).
The power measured by passive sensors is a function of the surface composition, physical
temperature, surface roughness, and other physical characteristics of the Earth [4]. Examples
of passive satellite sensors are those aboard the Landsat, SPOT, Pléiades, EROS, GeoEye, and
WorldView satellites. Active sensors provide their own source of energy to illuminate the
objects and measure the observations. These sensors use electromagnetic waves in the range
of visible light and near-infrared (e.g., a laser rangefinder or a laser altimeter) and radar waves
 A Review: Remote Sensing Sensors 21
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(e.g., synthetic aperture radar (SAR)). A laser rangefinder uses a laser beam to determine the
distance between the sensor and the object and is typically used in airborne and ground-based
laser scanning. A laser altimeter uses a laser beam to determine the altitude of an object above
a fixed level and is typically utilized in satellite and aerial platforms. SAR uses microwaves
to illuminate a ground target with a side-looking geometry and measures the backscatter and
travel time of the transmitted waves reflected by objects on the ground. The distance that the
SAR device travels over a target in the time taken for the radar pulses to return to the antenna
produces the SAR image. SAR can be mounted on a moving platform, such as spaceborne and
airborne platforms. According to the combination of frequency bands and polarization modes
used in data acquisition, sensors can be categorized as single frequency (L-band, C-band, or
X-band), multiple frequency (a combination of two or more frequency bands), single polariza-
tion (VV, HH, or HV), and multiple polarization (a combination of two or more polarization
modes). Currently, there are three commercial SAR missions in space: Germany’s TerraSAR-X
and TanDEM-X (X-band with a ~3.5 cm wavelength), Italy’s COSMO-SkyMed (X-band with
~3.5 cm wavelength), and Canada’s RADARSAT-2 (C-band with ~6 cm wavelength). In addi-
tion, ESA’s ERS-1, ERS-2, and Envisat also carried SAR, although these missions have ended.
The latest SAR satellites from ESA include Sentinel-1A, Sentinel-1B, and Sentinel-3A. Typical
SAR parameters are repeat frequency, pulse repetition frequency, bandwidth, polarization,
incidence angle, imaging mode, and orbit direction [5].

As sensor technology has advanced, the integration of passive and active sensors into one sys-
tem has emerged. This trend makes it unclear difficult to categorize sensors in the traditional
way, into passive sensors and active sensors. In this paper, we introduce the sensors in terms of
imaging or non-imaging functionality. Imaging sensors typically employ optical imaging sys-
tems, thermal imaging systems, or SAR. Optical imaging systems use the visible, near-infrared,
and shortwave infrared spectrums and typically produce panchromatic, multispectral, and
hyperspectral imagery. Thermal imaging systems employ mid to longwave infrared wave-
lengths. Non-imaging sensors include microwave radiometers, microwave altimeters, mag-
netic sensors, gravimeters, Fourier spectrometers, laser rangefinders, and laser altimeters [6].
It has been decades since Landsat-1, the first Earth resources technology satellite, was launched
in 1972. Satellite platforms have evolved from a single satellite to multi-satellite constellations.
Sensors have experienced unprecedented development over the years, from 1972 with the first
multispectral satellite, Landsat-1, with four spectral bands to 1997 with the first hyperspectral
satellite, Lewis, with 384 spectral bands. Spatial resolution has also significantly improved over
the decades, from 80 m in Landsat-1 to 31 cm in Worldview-3. A number of studies on satellite
imagery processing methods and applications have been conducted. A few papers providing
sensor overviews have been published, including [7–9]. Blais [7] reviewed the range sensors
developed over the past two decades. The studied range sensors include single point and laser
scanners, slit scanners, pattern projections, and time-of-flight systems. In addition, commercial
systems related to range sensors were reviewed. Melesse et al. [18] provided a survey of remote
sensing sensors for typical environmental and natural resources mapping purposes, such as
urban studies, hydrological modeling, land-cover and floodplain mapping, fractional vegeta-
tion cover and impervious surface area mapping, surface energy flux and micro-topography
correlation, remotely sensed-based rainfall, and potential evapotranspiration for estimating
22 Multi-purposeful Application of Geospatial Data

crop water requirement satisfaction indexes. Recently, a survey on remote sensing platforms
and sensors was provided by Toth and Jóźków [9]. The authors gave a general review in cur-
rent remote sensing platforms, including satellites, airborne platforms, UAVs, ground-based
mobile and static platforms, sensor georeferencing and supporting navigation infrastructure,
and provided a short summary of imaging sensors.

In the literature, we found that overviews of remote sensing sensors were quite rare. One
reason for this finding was that this topic is fairly broad. Usually, one can find detailed knowl-
edge from thick books or a very simple overview from some webpages. As most readers need
to obtain relevant knowledge within a reasonable time period and with a modest depth, the
contribution of our paper is valuable. In this paper, we review the history of remote sensing,
the interaction of the electromagnetic spectrum (EMS) and objects, imaging sensors and non-
imaging sensors (e.g., laser rangefinders/altimeters), and commonly used satellites and their
characteristics. In addition, future trends and potential applications are addressed. Although
this paper is mainly about satellite sensors, there is no apparent boundary between satellite
sensors and airborne, UAV-based, or ground-based sensors except that satellite sensors have
more interaction with the atmosphere. Therefore, we use the term “remote sensing sensors”
generally.

2. Remarkable development in spaceborne remote sensing

Although the term ‘remote sensing’ was introduced in 1960. However, in practice, remote
sensing has a long history. In the 1600s, Galileo used optical enhancements to survey celes-
tial bodies [10]. An early exploration of prisms was conducted by Sir Isaac Newton in 1666.
Newton discovered that a prism dispersed light into a spectrum of red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, and violet and recombined the spectrum into white light. One hundred years
later, in 1800, Sir William Herschel explored the thermal infrared electromagnetic radiation
for the first time in the world. Herschel measured the temperature of light that had been split
with a prism into the spectrum of visible colors. In the following decades, some attempts were
made with aerial photographs using cameras attached to balloons. However, the results were
not satisfactory until 1858, when Gasper Felix Tournachon took the first aerial photograph
successfully from a captive balloon from an altitude of 1200 feet over Paris. Later, in 1889 in
Labruguiere, France, Arthur Batut attached a camera and an altimeter to kites for the first time
so that the image scale could be determined. Therefore, he is considered to be the father of
kite aerial photography. Then, at the beginning of the twentieth century, the camera was able
to be miniaturized (e.g., 70 g) so that it was easily carried by pigeons. The Bavarian Pigeon
Corps took the first aerial photos using a camera attached to a pigeon in 1903. During the First
World War, the use of aerial photography grew. Later, in 1936, Albert W. Stevens took the first
photograph of the actual curvature of the earth from a free balloon at an altitude of 72,000 feet.
The first space photograph from V-2 rockets was acquired in 1946. Table 1 addresses the evo-
lution of the remote sensing, excluding the early development stage. The table starts with the
use of aerial photographs for surveying and mapping as well for military use. The milestones
in this evolution (see Table 1) were referenced to [7, 10]. Additionally, recent developments in
microsatellites and satellite constellations are also listed in Table 1.
 A Review: Remote Sensing Sensors 23
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Phases Time series Remarks

Airborne remote During the First The use of photographs for surveying, mapping, reconnaissance and military
sensing and Second surveillance
World Wars

Rudimentary In the late 1950s The launch of Sputnik 1 by Russia in 1957 and Explorer 1 by US in 1958
spaceborne
satellite remote
sensing

Spy satellite During the Cold Remote sensing for military use spilled over into mapping and environment
remote sensing War (1947–1991) applications

Meteorological 1960~ The launch of the first meteorological satellite (TIROS-1) by the US in 1960.
satellite sensor Since then, data in digital formats and the use of computer hardware and
remote sensing software

Landsat 1972~ Landsat 1, 2, and 3 carrying a multispectral scanner; Landsat 4 and 5 carried
a Thematic Mapper sensor; Landsat 7 carries an Enhanced Thematic Mapper;
Landsat 8 carries the Operational Land Imager. Landsat satellites have high
resolution and global coverage. Applications were initially local and have
become global since then

European Space 1991~ The European Space Agency launched the first satellite ERS-1 in 1991, which
Agency’s first carried a variety of earth observation instruments: a radar altimeter, ATSR-1,
Earth observing SAR, wind scatterometer, and microwave radiometer. A successor, ERS-2,
satellite program was launched in 1995

Earth observing Since the launch Terra/Aqua satellites carrying sensors, such as MODIS and taking
system (EOS) of the Terra measurements of pollution in the troposphere (MOPITT). Global coverage,
satellite in 1999 frequent repeat coverage, a high level of processing, easy and mostly free
access to data

New millennium Around the Next generation of satellites and sensors, such as Earth Observing-1,
same time as acquiring the first spaceborne hyperspectral data
EOS

Private industry/ 2000~ 1. Very high-resolution data, such as IKONOS and Quickbird satellites
commercial 2. A revolutionary means of data acquisition: daily coverage of any spot on
satellite systems earth at a high resolution, such as Rapideye
3. Google streaming technology allows rapid data access to very high-
resolution images
4. The launch of GeoEye-1 in 2008 for very high-resolution imagery (0.41 m)

Microsatellite 2008~ 1. Small satellites and satellite constellation (RapidEye and Terra Bella,
era and satellite formerly Skybox): RapidEye was launched in August, 2008, with five
constellations EOS. These are the first commercial satellites to include the Red-Edge
band, which is sensitive to changes in chlorophyll content. On March 8,
2016, Skybox imaging was renamed to Terra Bella. Satellites provided the
ability to capture the first-ever commercial high-resolution video of Earth
from a satellite and the ability to capture high-resolution color and near-
infrared imagery
2. For the first time, Russia carried out a single mission to launch 37 satellites
in June of 2014
3. ESA launched the first satellite of the Sentinel constellation in April of 2014.
4. SpaceX reusable rocket capacity since December of 2015
5. Current satellites in high revisiting period, large coverage, and high spatial
resolution, up to 31 cm

Table 1. Evolution and advancement in remote sensing satellites and sensors.

24 Multi-purposeful Application of Geospatial Data

3. Characteristics of materials in electromagnetic spectrum (EMS)

Remote sensors remotely interact with objects on the surface of the Earth. Objects on the sur-
face of the Earth generally include terrain, buildings, road, vegetation, and water. The typical
materials of these objects that interact with the EMS are categorized into groups: transparent
and opaque (partly or fully absorbed).

3.1. Electromagnetic spectrum

Figure 1 contains the EMS range from gamma rays to radio waves. In remote sensing, typical
applications include the visible light (380–780 nm), infrared (780 nm–0.1 mm), and microwave
(0.1 mm–1 m) ranges. This paper treats the terahertz (0.1–1 mm) range as an independent spec-
tral band separate from microwaves. Remote sensing sensors interact with objects remotely.
Between sensors and the earth surface, there is atmosphere. It is estimated that only 67% of
sunlight directly heats the Earth [11]. The remainder of the light is absorbed and reflected by
the atmosphere. The Earth’s atmosphere strongly absorbs infrared and UV radiation. In visible
light, typical remote sensing applications include the blue (450–495 nm), green (495–570 nm),
and red (620–750 nm) spectral bands for panchromatic or multispectral or hyperspectral imag-
ing. Current bathymetric and ice LIDAR generally uses green light (e.g., NASA’s HSRL-1
LIDAR, with a spectrum of 532 nm). However, new experiments have shown that in the blue
spectrum, such as at 440 nm, the absorption coefficient for water is approximately an order of

Figure 1. The electromagnetic spectrum. Image from UC Davis ChemWiki, CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0.

 A Review: Remote Sensing Sensors 25
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magnitude smaller than at 532 nm, and 420–460 nm light can penetrate relatively clear water
and ice much deeper, offering substantial improvements in sensing through water for the same
optical power output, thus reducing power requirements [11]. The red spectrum together with
near-infrared (NIR) is typically used for vegetation applications. For example, the Normalized
Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is used to evaluate targets that may or may not contain
live green vegetation. Infrared is invisible radiant energy. Usually, infrared is divided into
different regions: near IR (NIR, 0.75–1.4 μm), shortwave IR (SWIR, 1.4–3 μm), mid-IR (MIR,
3–8 μm), longwave IR (LWIR, 8–15 μm), and far IR (FIR, 15–1000 μm). Alternatively, according
to the ISO 20473 scheme, another division is proposed as NIR (0.78–3 μm), MIR (3–50 μm),
and FIR (50–1000 μm). Most of the infrared radiation in sunlight is in the NIR range. Most of
the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared [14]. In nature, on
the surface of the Earth, almost all thermal radiation consists of infrared in the mid-infrared
region, which is a much longer wavelength than that in sunlight. Of these natural thermal
radiation processes, only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible
energy, and fires produce far more infrared than visible light energy. NIR is mainly used in
medical imaging and physiological diagnostics. One typical application of MIR and FIR is
thermal imaging, for example, night vision devices. In the MIR and FIR spectrum bands, water
shows high absorption, and biological systems are highly transmissive.

With regard to the terahertz spectrum band, terahertz frequencies are useful for investigat-
ing biological molecules. Unlike more commonly used forms of radiated energy, this range
has rarely been studied, partly because no one knew how to make these frequencies bright
enough [12] and because practical applications have been impeded by the fact that ambi-
ent moisture interferes with wave transmission [13]. Nevertheless, terahertz light (also called
T-rays) has remarkable properties. T-rays are safe, non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation.
This light poses little or no health threat and can pass through clothing, paper, cardboard,
wood, masonry, plastic, and ceramics. This light can also penetrate fog and clouds. THz radia-
tion transmits through almost anything except for not metal and liquid (e.g., water). T-rays
can be used to reveal explosives or other dangerous substances in packaging, corrugated
cardboard, clothing, shoes, backpacks, and book bags. However, the technique cannot detect
materials that might be concealed in body cavities [14].

The terahertz region is technically the boundary between electronics and opt-photonics [15].
The wavelengths of T-rays—shorter than microwaves, longer than infrared—correspond with
biomolecular vibrations. This light can provide imaging and sensing technologies not available
through conventional technologies, such as microwaves [16]. For example, T-rays can penetrate
fabrics. Many common materials and living tissues are semi-transparent and have ‘terahertz
fingerprints’, permitting them to be imaged, identified, and analyzed [17]. In addition, terahertz
radiation has the unique ability to non-destructively image physical structures and perform
spectroscopic analysis without any contact with valuable and delicate paintings, manuscripts,
and artifacts. In addition, terahertz radiation can be utilized to measure objects that are opaque
in the visible and near-infrared regions. Terahertz pulsed imaging techniques operate in much
the same way as ultrasound and radar to accurately locate embedded or distant objects [18].
Current commercial terahertz instruments include Terahertz 3D ­medical imaging, security
scanning systems, and terahertz spectroscopy. The latest breakthrough research (9.2016) on
26 Multi-purposeful Application of Geospatial Data

terahertz applications was that MIT invented a terahertz camera that can read a closed book.
This camera can distinguish ink from a blank region on paper. The article indicates that ‘In
its current form the terahertz camera can accurately calculate distance to a depth of about 20
pages’ [19]. It is expected that in the future, this technology can be used to explore and catalog
historical documents without actually having to touch or open them and risk damage.

Regarding microwaves, shorter microwaves are typically used in remote sensing. For exam-
ple, this region is used for radar, and the wavelength is just a few inches long. Microwaves are
typically used for obtaining information on the atmosphere, land, and ocean, such as Doppler
radar, which is used in weather forecasts, and for gathering unique information on sea wind
and wave direction, which are derived from frequency characteristics, including the Doppler
effect, polarization, back scattering, that cannot be observed by visible and infrared sensors
[20]. In addition, microwave energy can penetrate haze, light rain and snow, clouds, and
smoke [21]. Microwave sensors work in any weather condition and at any time.

3.2. Objects and spectrum

When light encounters an object, they can interact in several different ways: transmission,
reflection, and absorption. The interaction depends on the wavelength of the light and the
nature of the material of the object.

Most materials exhibit all three properties when interacting with light: partly transmission,
partly reflection, and partly absorption. According to the dominant optical property, we cat-
egorize objects into two typical types: transparent materials and opaque materials.

Transparent material allows light to pass through the material without being scattered or
absorbed. Typical transparent objects include plate glass and clean water. Figure 2 shows the
transmission spectrum of soda-lime glass with a 2-mm thickness. Soda-lime glass is typically
used in windows (also called flat glass) and glass containers. From Figure 2, it can be seen
that soda-lime glass nearly blocks UV radiation. Nevertheless, it has high transmittance in the

Figure 2. Transmission spectrum of soda-lime glass with a 2-mm thickness. Obtained from Wikipedia [22].
 A Review: Remote Sensing Sensors 27
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visible light and NIR wavelengths. It is easy to understand that when a laser scanner with a
wavelength of 905, 1064, or 1550 nm hits a flat glass window or a glassy balcony, over 80%
of the laser energy passes through the glass and hits the objects behind the window. Another
typical example of transmissive material is clear water. Water transmittance is very high in the
blue-green part of the spectrum but diminishes rapidly in the near-infrared wavelengths (see
Figure 3). Absorption, on the other hand, is notably low in the shorter visible wavelengths
(less than 418 nm) but increases abruptly in the range of 418–742 nm. A laser beam with a
wavelength of 532 nm (green laser) is typically applied in bathymetric measurements as this
wavelength has a high water transmittance. According to the Beer-Lambert law, the relation
between absorbance and transmittance is as follows: Absorbance = −log (Transmittance).
Opacity occurs because of the reflection and absorption of light waves off the surface of an
object. The reflectance of light depends on the material of the surface that the light encounters.
There are two types of reflection: one is specular reflection and another is diffuse reflection.
Specular reflection is when light from a single incoming direction is reflected in a single outgo-
ing direction. Diffuse reflection is the reflection of light from a surface such that an incident ray
is reflected at many angles rather than at just one angle, as in the case of specular reflection.
Most objects have mixed reflective properties [24]. Representative reflective materials include
metals, such as aluminum, gold, and silver. From Figure 4, it can be seen that aluminum has a
high reflectivity over various wavelengths. In the visible light and NIR wavelengths, the reflec-
tance of aluminum reaches up to 92%, while this value increases to 98% in MIR and FIR. Silver
has a higher reflectance than aluminum when the wavelength is longer than 450  nm. At a

Figure 3. Liquid water absorption spectrum. Obtained from Wikipedia [23].

28 Multi-purposeful Application of Geospatial Data

Figure 4. Reflective spectrum of metals: aluminum, gold, and silver.

wavelength of 310 nm, the reflectance of aluminum is zero [25]. The reflectance of gold sig-
nificantly increases at a wavelength of approximately 500 nm, reaching a very high reflectance
starting in the infrared. This figure indicates that regardless of the wavelength at which the
sensor operates, it is inevitable to encounter high reflection from aluminum surfaces.

The physical characteristics of the material determine what type of electromagnetic waves
will and will not pass through it. Figure 5 shows examples of the reflection spectrums of
dry bare soil, green vegetation, and clear water. The reflection of dry bare soil increase as the
wavelength increases from 400 to 1800 nm. Green vegetation has a high reflectance in the red
light and near-infrared regions. These characteristics have been applied for distinguishing
green vegetation from other objects. In addition, the previous figure shows that water has a
low absorbance in the visible light region. Figure 5 shows that water reflects visible light at a
low rate (<5%). Indirectly, the figure indicates that water has a high transmittance in the vis-
ible light range.

Figure 5. Examples of reflective materials. Image referenced from Wikimedia [26].

 A Review: Remote Sensing Sensors 29
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4. Spaceborne sensors

Spaceborne sensors have been developed for over 40  years. Currently, approximately 50
countries are operating remote sensing satellites [9]. There are more than 1000 remote sensing
satellites available in space, and among these, approximately 593 are from the USA, over 135
are from Russia, and approximately 192 are from China [27].

Conventionally, remote sensors are divided into two groups: passive sensors and active sen-
sors, as we described in the first section. However, as sensor technology has advanced, nothing
has been absolute. For example, an imaging camera is usually regarded as a passive sensor.
However, in 2013, a new approach that integrates active and passive infrared imaging capability
into a single chip was developed. This sensor enables lighter, simpler dual-mode active/passive
cameras with lower power dissipation [28]. Alternatively, remote sensing sensors can be classi-
fied into imaging sensors and non-imaging sensors. In terms of their spectral characteristics, the
imaging sensors include optical imaging sensors, thermal imaging sensors, and radar imaging
sensors. Figure 6 illustrates the category in terms of imaging sensors and non-imaging sensors.

4.1. Optical imaging sensors

Optical imaging sensors operate in the visible and reflective IR ranges. Typical optical imag-
ing systems on space platform include panchromatic systems, multispectral systems, and
hyperspectral systems. In a panchromatic system, the sensor is a monospectral channel detec-
tor that is sensitive to radiation within a broad wavelength range. The image is black and
white or gray scale. A multispectral sensor is a multichannel detector with a few spectral
bands. Each channel is sensitive to radiation within a narrow wavelength band. The resulting
image is a multilayer image that contains both the brightness and spectral (color) information
of the targets being observed. A hyperspectral sensor collects and processes information from
10 to 100 of spectral bands. A hyperspectral image consists of a set of images. Each narrow
spectral band forms an image. The resulting images can be utilized to recognize objects, iden-
tify materials, and detect elemental components. Table 2 gives a more detailed description of

Figure 6. Spaceborne remote sensing sensors.

30 Multi-purposeful Application of Geospatial Data

Panchromatic systems Multispectral systems Hyperspectral systems

Spectral range ~430–720 ~430–720 ~470–2000
(nm) ~750–950

Satellites QuickBird, SPOT, IKONOS SPOT, QuickBird, IKONOS TRW Lewis, EO-1

Spectral band Monospectral, black and Several spectral bands 10 to 100 of spectral bands
white, gray-scale image

Spatial Submeter Up to 1–2 m Up to 2 m

resolution

Applications Earth observation and Red-green-blue (true color): visual (i) Agriculture; (ii) eye care;
reconnaissance applications analysis; Green-red-infrared: (iii) food processing; (iv)
vegetation and camouflage detection; mineralogy; (v) surveillance;
Blue-NIR-MIR: visualizing water (vi) physics; (vii) astronomy;
depth, vegetation coverage, soil (viii) chemical imaging; (ix)
moisture content, and the presence of environment
fires, all in a single image

Advantages High applicability in (i) imaging multiple targets; (ii) mosaic strips to large area; (iii) stereo and
tristereo acquisition; (iv) linear feature acquisition, such as coastlines, pipelines, roads, and borders

Disadvantages Affected by sun illumination and cloud coverage. Polar areas with seasonal changes in sun
illumination and the equatorial belt with persistent cloud coverage

Table 2. Satellite optical imaging systems.

these optical imaging systems. It can be seen that when a light is split into multiple spectrums,
the greater the number of spectrums is, the lower the imaging resolution will be. That is, a
panchromatic image usually presents a higher resolution than a multispectral/hyperspectral
image. Pan-sharpening technique was introduced by Padwick et al. in 2010 [29] for improv-
ing the quality of multispectral images. This method combines the visual information of the
multispectral data with the spatial information of the panchromatic data, resulting in a higher
resolution color product equal to the panchromatic resolution.

4.2. Thermal IR imaging sensors

A thermal sensor typically operates in the electromagnetic spectrum between the mid-
to-far-infrared and microwave ranges, roughly between 9 and 14  μm. Any object with a
temperature above zero can emit infrared radiation and produce a thermal image. A warm
object emits more thermal energy than a cooler object. Therefore, the object becomes more
visible in an image. This is especially useful in tracking a living creature, including animals
and the human body, and detecting volcanos and forest fires because a thermal image is
independent from the lights in a scene and is available whether it is daytime or night-
time. Commonly used thermal imaging sensors include IR imaging radiometers, imag-
ing spectroradiometers, and IR imaging cameras. Currently, the satellite IR sensors in use
include ASTER, MODIS, ASAA, and IRIS. Table 3 lists the thermal IR sensors and their
applications.
 A Review: Remote Sensing Sensors 31
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Sensor Operational Definition Satellites Applications

wave band sensors
IR imaging UV, mid-to- Measures the intensity ASTER Volcanological, mineralogical,
radiometer far-infrared, or of electromagnetic and hydrothermal studies, forest
microwave radiation fires, glacier, limnological and
climatological studies and DEM

Imaging Infrared Measure the intensity MODIS, Sea surface temperature, cloud
spectroradiometer of radiation in multiple ASAS, characteristics, ocean color,
spectrums IRIS vegetation, trace chemical species in
the atmosphere

Infrared imaging Mid-far infrared Measure reflected Volcanology, determining

camera energy from the surface thunderstorm intensity, identifying
fog and low clouds

Table 3. Thermal IR sensors.

4.3. Radar imaging sensors

A radar (microwave) imaging sensor is usually an active sensor, operating in an electromag-

netic spectrum range of 1 mm–1 m. The sensor transmits light to the ground, and the energy is
reflected from the target to the radar antenna to produce an image at microwave wavelengths.
The radar moves along a flight path, and the area illuminated by the radar, or footprint, is
moved along the surface in a swath. Each pixel in the radar image represents the radar back-
scatter for that area on the ground. A microwave instrument can operate in cloudy or foggy
weather and can also penetrate sand, water, and walls. Unlike infrared data that help us iden-
tify different minerals and vegetation types from reflected sunlight, radar only shows the
difference in the surface roughness and geometry and the moisture content of the ground
(the complex dielectric constant). Radar and infrared sensors are complimentary instruments
and are often used together to study the same types of Earth surfaces [30]. Frequently used
microwave spectrum bands for remote sensing include the X-band, C-band, S-band, L-band,
and P-band. Specific characteristics of each band can be found in Table 4.

Conventional passive microwave imaging instruments (such as cameras or imaging radiom-

eters) provide imagery with a relatively coarse spatial resolution when compared to an opti-
cal instrument. The diffraction-limited angular resolution of a camera aperture is directly
proportional to the wavelength and inversely proportional to the aperture dimension [33].
To achieve a similar spatial resolution as optical instruments, a large antenna aperture
(e.g., tens of kilometers) is needed. Clearly, it is not feasible to carry such a large antenna on a
space platform. SAR is an active microwave instrument that resolves the above problem. SAR
utilizes the motion of the spacecraft to emulate a large antenna from the small craft itself. The
longer the antenna is, the narrower the beam is. A fine ground resolution usually results from
a narrow beam width. At present, a synthesized aperture can be several orders of magnitude
larger than the transmitter and receiver antenna. It has become possible to produce an SAR
image with a half meter of accuracy [32].
32 Multi-purposeful Application of Geospatial Data

Band Frequency Wavelength Key characteristics

(GHz) (cm)
Ka 40–27 0.75–1.11 Usually for astronomical observations

K 27–18 1.11–1.67 Used for radar, satellite communications, astronomical observations,

automotive radar

Ku 18–12 1.67–2.5 Typically used for satellite communications

X 12.5–8 2.4–3.75 Widely used for military reconnaissance, mapping and surveillance

C 4–8 3.75–7.5 Penetration capability of vegetation or solids is limited and restricted to the top
layers. Useful for sea-ice surveillance

S 4–2 7.5–15 Used for medium-range meteorological applications, for example, rainfall
measurement, airport surveillance

L 2–1 15–30 Penetrates vegetation to support observation applications over vegetated

surfaces and for monitoring ice sheet and glacier dynamics

P 1–0.3 30–100 So far, only for research and experimental applications. Significant penetration
capabilities regarding vegetation canopy, sea ice, soil, and glaciers

Referenced from Born and Wolf [31].

Table 4. Commonly used frequency and spectrum bands of radar imaging sensors.

Specifically, SAR uses microwaves to illuminate a ground target with a side-looking geometry
and measures the backscatter and traveling time of the transmitted waves reflected by objects
on the ground. The distance the SAR device travels over a target in the time taken for the
radar pulses to return to the antenna produces the SAR image. Typically, SAR is mounted on
a moving platform, such as a spaceborne or airborne platform. According to the combination
of frequency bands and polarization modes used in data acquisition, SAR can be categorized
into [33]:
• Single frequency (L-band, C-band, or X-band);

• Multiple frequency (Combination of two or more frequency bands);

• Single polarization (VV, HH, or HV);
• Multiple polarization (Combination of two or more polarization modes).

The main parameters of designing and operating SAR include the power of electromagnetic
energy, frequency, phase, polarization, incident angle, spatial resolution, and swath width.
There are different types of SAR techniques, including ultra-wideband SAR, terahertz SAR,
differential interferometry (D-InSAR), and interferometric SAR (InSAR). Ultra-wideband SAR
utilizes a very wide range of frequencies of radio waves. This method results in a better reso-
lution and more spectral information on target reflectivity. Therefore, this approach can be
applied for scanning a smaller object or a closer area. Terahertz radiation works in the spectral
range from 0.3 to 10 THz, typically between infrared and microwave. Typical characteristics
of this wavelength range include its transmission through plastics, ceramics, and even papers.
Terahertz radiation is extraordinarily sensitive to water content. If the material has even a small
 A Review: Remote Sensing Sensors 33
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.71049

amount of water content, it will be fairly absorptive to terahertz light. Therefore, this radiation
can be applied in detecting lake shores or coastlines. InSAR, also called interferometric SAR,
is a technique that produces measurements from two or more SAR images. This technique is
widely applied in DEM production and monitoring glaciers, earthquakes, and volcanic erup-
tions [34]. D-InSAR requires taking at least two images with the addition of a DEM. The DEM
can be acquired from GPS measurements. This method is mainly used for monitoring subsid-
ence movements, slope stability analysis, landslides, glacier movement, and 3D ground move-
ment [35]. Doppler radar is used to acquire a distant object’s velocity relative to the radar. The
main applications of this technique include aviation, sounding satellites, and meteorology. In
general, SAR can reach a spatial resolution on the order of a millimeter.

Sensor Operational Definition Application

wave band
Radiometer Ultraviolet, To measure the amount of electromagnetic Calculating various surface and
IR, energy present within a specific atmospheric parameters
microwave wavelength range

Altimeter IR, To measure the altitude of an object above Mapping ocean-surface topography
microwave/ a fixed level and the hills and valleys of the sea
radiowave, surface
sonic

Spectrometer Visible, IR, To measure the spectral content of the Multispectral and hyperspectral
microwave incident electromagnetic radiation imaging

Spectro- Visible, IR, To measure the intensity of radiation in Monitoring sea surface temperature,
radiometer microwave multiple spectrums cloud characteristics, ocean color,
vegetation, trace chemical species in
the atmosphere

LIDAR Ultraviolet, To measure distance and intensity Ocean, land, 3D topographic

visible, NIR mapping

Doppler LIDAR: measure the wave Meteorology, cloud measurements,

number for speed; Polarization effects of wind profiling and air quality
LIDAR: shape monitoring

Sonar Acoustic Measure the distance to an object; Navigation, communication

determine the depth of water beneath and security (e.g., vessels) and
ships and boats underwater object detection. For
example, handheld sonar for a diver

Sodar Acoustic As a wind profiler, sodar systems measure Meteorology: atmospheric research,
wind speeds at various heights above the wind monitoring (typically in a range
ground and the thermodynamic structure from 50 to 200 m above ground level)
of the lower layer of the atmosphere

A radio acoustic Radio wave Measuring the atmospheric lapse rate Is added to a radar wind profiler or
sounding and acoustic using backscattering of radio waves from to a sodar system
system (RASS) wave an acoustic wave front to measure the
speed of sound at various heights above
the ground

Table 5. Non-imaging sensors.
34 Multi-purposeful Application of Geospatial Data

4.4. Non-imaging sensors

A non-imaging sensor measures a signal based on the intensity of the whole field of view,
mainly as a profile recorder. In contrast with imaging sensors, this type of sensor does
not record how the input varies across the field of view. In the remote sensing field, the
commonly used non-imaging sensors include radiometers, altimeters, spectrometers, spec-
troradiometers, and LIDAR. Table 5 provides detailed information about conventional
non-imaging sensors. In the remote sensing field, non-imaging sensors typically work
in the visible, IR, and microwave spectral bands. The applications for non-imaging sen-
sors mainly focus on height, temperature, wind speed, and other atmospheric parameter
measurements.
Lasers have been applied in measuring the distance and height of targets in the remote sens-
ing field. We generally call a laser scanning system as LIDAR (light detection and ranging)
system. Satellite LIDAR, airborne LIDAR, mobile mapping LIDAR, and terrestrial LIDAR are
different carrier platforms. Laser sources include solid-state lasers, liquid lasers, gas lasers,
semiconductor lasers, and chemical lasers (see Table 6). Typical laser sources for laser range-
finders and laser altimeters include semiconductor laser and solid-state lasers. Semiconductor
lasers typically produce light sources at wavelengths of 400–500 nm and 850–1500 nm. Solid-
state lasers generate light at wavelengths of 700–820 nm, 1064 nm, and 2000 nm. Satellite or
airborne LIDAR systems are typically operated at wavelengths of 905 , 1064 and 1550 nm. One
of the main considerations for wavelength selection is the atmospheric transmission between
the sensor and the surface of the Earth. Lower transmittance at a given wavelength means less
solar radiation at that wavelength. The transmittance at 905 nm is approximately 0.6, while the
wavelengths of 1064 and 1550 nm have similar transmittances of approximately 0.85. In addi-
tion, wavelength selection can also be a cost issue. Diode lasers at 905 nm are inexpensive com-
pared to Nd:YAG solid-state lasers at 1064 nm and diode lasers at 1550 nm. In 2007, the cost of
diode lasers at 1550 nm was 2.5 times higher than lasers at 905 nm. However, the wavelength

Laser types Pump source Typical applications

Gas laser Electrical discharge Interferometry, holography, spectroscopy, material processing

Chemical laser Chemical reaction Military use

Dye laser Other laser, flashlamp Research, laser medicine

Metal-vapor laser Electrical discharge Printing and typesetting applications, fluorescence excitation
examination, scientific research

Solid-state laser Flashlamp, laser diode, Fiber Material processing, rangefinding, laser target designation
laser, Nd: YAG.

Semiconductor Electrical current Telecommunications, holography, printing, weapons,

laser machining

Table 6. Typical laser sources.

 A Review: Remote Sensing Sensors 35
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.71049

Name wavelength Laser sources Typical applications

(nm)
UV laser 355 Gas laser Cutting and drilling

Violet laser 405 Semiconductor laser or Laser printing, data recording, laser microscopy, laser
solid-state laser projection displays, spectroscopic measurements

Blue laser 488 Solid-state laser Environmental monitoring, medical diagnostics,

handheld projectors and displays, telecommunications

Green laser 532 Solid-state laser (Nd:YAG) Bathymetric measurement

Red laser 640 Semiconductor laser Vegetation measurement

NIR laser 1064 Semiconductor laser or Airborne laser scanning

solid-state laser (fiber laser)

NIR laser 1550 Semiconductor laser or Airborne laser scanning

solid-state laser (fiber laser)

Referenced from Hey [36].

Table 7. Commonly used laser wavelength.

of 1550 nm is a good candidate for use in invisible wavelength eye-safe LIDAR. The higher
absorption of 1550 nm light by water makes it eye safe, and this absorption is approximately
175 times greater than that of 905 nm light. In addition, the solar background level of light at
1550 nm is approximately 50% lower than that of light at 905 nm. Making measurements at
1550 nm also results in a higher signal to noise ratio compared to using a beam at 905 nm. All
in all, when ignoring the cost issue, a wavelength of 1550 nm has a clear advantage over light
at 905 nm [36].

In general, at a wavelength of 1064 nm, vegetation has stronger reflectance than soil, while at
a wavelength of 1550 nm, soil shows greater a reflectance than vegetation. Taking measure-
ments with different wavelengths is beneficial for object classification. Green lasers with a
wavelength of 532 nm are usually pumped by a solid-state laser (Nd:YAG). This type of laser
is widely used for bathymetric measurement. Table 7 lists the typical applications of different
laser light wavelengths.

4.5. Commonly used remote sensing satellites

So far, more than 1000 remote sensing satellites have been launched. These satellites have
been updated with new generation satellites. The few spectral sensors from the earliest mis-
sions have been upgraded to hyperspectral sensors with hundreds of spectral bands. The
spatial and spectral resolutions have been improved on the order of 100-fold. Revisit times
have been shortened from months to daily. In addition, more and more remote sensing data
are available as open data sources. Table 8 gives an overview of the commonly used remote
sensing satellites and their parameters.
 36

Mission Country Launch year Sensors Height Swath (km) Revisit Channels Spatial resolution
of orbit (day)
(km)
Landsat USA 1972, 1975, Panchromatic and 705 185, 183 16 7–11 120 m, 100 m, 60 m, 30 m,
1978,1982, multispectral sensor 15 m
1984,1993,
1999,2013, 2020

SPOT USA 1986, 1990, 1993, Imaging spectroradiometer 694 60 1–3 Panchromatic, B, G, R, 2.5 m, 5 m, 10 m, 20 m
1998, 2002, 2012 NIR

ERS ESA 1991, 1995 IR radiometer, microwave 782–785 5–100 km 3, 35, SAR 26 m across track and
sounder, Radiometer, SAR (AMI) - 336 6–30 m along track
500 km
(ATSR)

RADARSAT Canada 1995, 2007, 2018 SAR 793– 45–100, 1 SAR 8–100 m, 3–100 m,
Multi-purposeful Application of Geospatial Data

821, 18–500, 3–100 m

798, 5–500
592.7

MODIS USA 1999, 2002 Imaging spectroradiometer 705 2330 1 36 1000 m, 500 m, 250 m

IKONOS USA 1999 Imaging spectroradiometer 681 11.3 3 Panchromatic, B, G, R, Panchromatic:80 cm

NIR B, G, R, NIR:3.2 m

QuickBird USA 2000, 2001 Imaging spectroradiometer 482, 16.8–18 2.4–5.9 Panchromatic, B, G, R, Panchromatic:65 cm/61 cm
450 NIR B, G, R, NIR:2.62 m/2.44 m

Envisat ESA 2002 ASAR, MERIS, AATSR, RA-2, 790 1150 km, 35 days 15 bands (VIS, NIR), 300 m, 30–150 m
MWR, GOMOS, MIPAS, 100 km, C-band
SCIAMACHY, DORIS, LRR 400 km

GeoEye USA 2008 Imaging spectroradiometer 681 15.2 8.3 Panchromatic, B, G, R, Panchromatic:41 cm
NIR B, G, R, NIR: 1.65 m
Mission Country Launch year Sensors Height Swath (km) Revisit Channels Spatial resolution
of orbit (day)
(km)
WorldView USA 2007 Imaging spectroradiometer, 496, 17.6 km 1.7 Panchromatic; Panchromatic 0.5 m;
2009 Laser altimeter 770, 16.4 km 1.1 Panchromatic and eight Panchromatic and stereo
2014 617, 13.1 km <1 multispectrum; images:0.46 m
2016.9 681 14.5 km 3 Panchromatic and eight multispectral: 1.84 m;
multispectrum; Panchromatic 0.34 m and
Panchromatic, B, G, R, multispectral 1.36 m
NIR

Sentinel ESA 2014, 2015, Radar and super-spectral 693, 250 km 12, 10, C-SAR, 12 bands (VIS, 5–20 m, 5–40 m,
1–6 2016, imaging 786, 290 km, 27 NIR, SWIR), 21 bands 10 m & 20 m & 60 m
2017, 2021 814 250 km, (VIS, NIR), S-band &
X-band

Referenced from Refs. [37–40].

Table 8. Remote sensing satellites.

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.71049
A Review: Remote Sensing Sensors
37
38 Multi-purposeful Application of Geospatial Data

5. Future and discussions

A common expectation from the remote sensing community is the ability to acquire data at
high resolutions (spatial, spectral, radiometric, and temporal), at low cost, with open resource
support and for the creation of new applications by the integration of spatial/aerial and
ground-based sensors.

The development of smaller, cheaper satellite technologies in recent years has led many com-
panies to explore new ways of using low Earth orbit satellites. Many companies have focused
on remote imaging, for example, to gather optical or infrared imagery. In the future, a low-
cost communications network between low Earth orbit satellites can be established to form
a spatial remote sensing network. This network would integrate with a large number of dis-
tributed ground sensors to establish ground-space remote sensing. In addition, satellites can
easily cover large swaths of territory, thereby supplementing ground-based platforms. Thus,
data distribution and sharing would become very easy.

Openness and sharing resources can promote the utilization of remote sensing and maxi-
mize its output. In recent years, open remote sensing resources have made great progress.
Beginning on April 1, 2016, all Earth imagery from a widely used Japanese remote sensing
instrument operating aboard NASA’s Terra spacecraft since late 1999 has been available to
users everywhere at no cost [41]. On April 8, 2016, ESA announced that an amazing 40-cm
resolution WorldView-2 European cities dataset would be available for download through
the Lite Dissemination Server. These data are made available free of charge. This dataset was
collected by ESA, in collaboration with European Space Imaging, over the most populated
areas in Europe at 40-cm resolution. These data products were acquired between February
2011 and October 2013. The dataset is available to ESA member states (including Canada)
and European Union Member states [42]. In open remote sensing resources, NASA (USA)
was a pioneer in sharing its imagery data. NASA has been cooperating with the open source
community, and many NASA projects are also open source. NASA has also set up a special
website to present these projects. In addition, some commercial companies like DigiGlobal
(USA) have also partly opened their data to the public. In the future, more and more open
resources will become available.

Future applications in remote sensing will combine the available resources from space/
aerial/UAV platforms with ground-based data. The prerequisites of such resource inte-
gration are as follows: (i) the spatial resolution of satellite data is high enough to match
ground-based data; for example, both spatial data and ground data are in the same order
of accuracy. WorldView-3 has achieved a 30-cm spatial resolution, which is comparable
with ground-based sub-centimeter data accuracy (e.g., 2 cm in mobile laser point cloud);
(ii) cloud-based calculation supports big datasets from crowd-sourced remote sensing
resources. The current situation shows promising support for the integration of multiple
sources of remote sensing data. We expect to see new applications developing in the com-
ing years.
 A Review: Remote Sensing Sensors 39
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.71049

6. Conclusions

This paper investigated remote sensing sensor technology both broadly and in depth. First,
we reviewed some fundamental knowledge about the electromagnetic spectrum and the
interaction of objects and the spectrum. It helps to understand that when a sensor is oper-
ated in a certain wavelength how environmental objects will react to it. In addition, we also
highlighted the terahertz region of the spectrum. Since little research has been done on this
range, in the future, research efforts on new applications of terahertz radiation may be worth
exploring. On the interaction of sensors with the environment, typical examples in glass,
metal, water, soil, and vegetation were provided. Remote sensors were presented in terms
of imaging sensors and non-imaging sensors. Optical imaging sensors and thermal imaging
sensors, radar imaging sensors, and laser scanning were highlighted. In addition, commonly
used remote sensing satellites, especially those from NASA and ESA, were detailed in terms
of launched time, sensors, swath width, spectrum bands, revisit time and spatial resolution.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank TEKES for its funding support in the project of COMBAT and also the
financial support from EU project 6Aika.

Author details

Lingli Zhu1*, Juha Suomalainen1, Jingbin Liu1,3, Juha Hyyppä1, Harri Kaartinen1 and
Henrik Haggren2
*Address all correspondence to: lingli.zhu@nls.fi
1 Finnish Geospatial Research Institute FGI, National Land Survey of Finland, Masala, Finland
2 Aalto University School of Engineering, Aalto, Finland
3 Wuhan University, Wuhan, China

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