Rcs Introduction V 2

Introduction: Sensors and RCS
(Chapter 1)
EC4630 Radar and Laser Cross Section
Fall AY2010
Prof. D. Jenn
jenn@nps.edu
AY2011v2 1
Naval Postgraduate School Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering Monterey, California
Sensors and Signatures

• Sensors collect data
• Sensor categories:
1. Active (has a transmitter) vs. passive (only listens)
2. Imaging (determines target features) vs. nonimaging (measures presence and
movement)
• Sensor performance measures and attributes
1. Detection range
2. Resolution
3. Field of view (FOV)
4. Data collection rate
5. Operating frequency band or regime: electromagnetic (IR, UV, MM, or radar),
visual (as it relates to human vision), or acoustic
• Related issues
1. Target signatures
2. Probability of intercept (“quietness” of a system, covertness)
3. Jamming and countermeasures to jamming
4. Data fusing (network centric approaches)
5. Background and clutter
AY2011v2 2
Sensor System Components

• Antennas serve as transitions from guided wave structures to free space
• A generic block diagram of an active system is shown
BACKGROUND
ENVIRONMENT AND CLUTTER
SCATTERED
RECEIVER POWER
DISPLAY DATA
DETECTOR
PROCESSOR
ANTENNAS
REFERENCE OBJECT WITH
SIGNAL SOURCE SIGNATURE
TRANSMITTED
POWER
AY2011v2 3
Non-imaging vs. Imaging Sensors

Non-imaging Sensors Imaging Sensors
• Unresolved signatures are easiest to • Difficult to describe sensor due to spatial
describe properties and numerous performance
• Very coarse background separation variables
• Long detection ranges – all signal • Ability to recognize pattern-related
concentrated on a single detector features (shape & edges; texture within
• Spatially integrated total target emission shape)
important Suppression:
• Spatial distribution of target emission not • Make target invisible to threat sensor
important (stealth)
Suppression: • If signature reduction not practical then
• Replace radiation occluded by target to use camouflage (disguise shapes, blend
blend in with background shape into background, pattern deception)
Examples: Examples:
• Most radars • Forward-looking infrared (FLIR)
• Reticle missile seekers • Television
• Infrared search & track (IRST) • Human eye
AY2011v2 4
Fraction of Imaging Sensors
100%
FRACTION OF SENSORS UV search & track
NON-IMAGING
IMAGING radar
infrared
radio
human eye telescopes
0
nm micron mm m km
WAVELENGTH
From Prof. A. E. Fuhs
AY2011v2 5
Naval Postgraduate School Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Monterey, California
Performance Tradeoffs for Sensors
Sensor Advantages Issues

Forward looking • High target to background contrast • False alarms from background clutter
Infrared (FLIR) • Day or night operation • Range uncertainty
• Penetrates fog, haze and dust • Occlusions from terrain and vegetation
• Aspect angle dependence
Millimeter wave • All weather operation • False alarms from background clutter, rocks,
(MMW) radar • Day and night operation building, etc.
• Terrain occlusions
• Signature varies with aspect angle
Synthetic aperture • All weather operation • False alarms from background clutter, rocks,
radar (SAR) • Day and night operation building, etc.
• Large target to background contrast • Terrain occlusions
• Signature varies with aspect angle
Laser radar • High range resolution • Signature varies with aspect angle
• Doppler measurement • Complex system and technology
• Imaging capability • Requires long dwell time
• Penetrates fog, haze and dust • Requires precise tracking and stabilization
Passive electro- • Lightweight • Relatively low target to background contrast
optic (EO) • Inexpensive • No night or all weather capability
• High resolution
• Reliable
AY2011v2 6
Camouflage and Stealth

Camouflage is the military art of concealment and deception.
Stealth does not reveal itself by impairing enemy sensor operation.
Countermeasures impair the ability of sensors to “sense.” We may be unconcerned with

the enemy’s awareness of the use of a countermeasure so long as the ability to sense is
denied (e.g., chaff).
Stealth, or low observability
(LO) = undetectable to all
sensors, both active and
passive
CONCEALMENT • optical/visible
Stealth
Others • electromagnetic
DECEPTION o laser
o microwave/RF
o passive infrared
Prevent recognition • acoustic
Induce false recognition
Prevent detection • low emissions in all bands
From Prof. A. E. Fuhs
AY2011v2 7
Sensors and Low Observables (Stealth)

• LO = low observable, ULO = ultra-low observable
RADAR
• Radar, visible and
infrared signatures are ACOUSTIC
INFRARED EM VISIBLE
coupled to a degree. (SOUND)
ASW: DOMINANT METHOD

AIR WARFARE: SECONDARY
EFFECTS OF CHANGES
• Acoustics: why bother? The radar detection ranges of stealth aircraft have been
reduced to the point where they are comparable to, or less than, those of acoustic
sensors. (Circles represent detection envelopes.) WWII vintage acoustic direction finder
ACOUSTIC
RADAR
CONVENTIONAL STEALTH
(OLDER) AIRCRAFT AIRCRAFT
AY2011v2 8
Bistatic vs. Monostatic Radar
SCATTERED
WAVE FRONTS β is the bistatic angle
RECEIVER
(RX) β = 0 direction is
Rr
β
backscattering
TARGET
TRANSMITTER Rt β = 180 direction is forward
(TX) scattering
INCIDENT
WAVE FRONTS
Bistatic: the transmit and receive antennas are at different locations as viewed from the
target (e.g., ground transmitter and airborne receiver, β ≠ 0 )
Monostatic: the transmitter and receiver are co-located as viewed from the target (i.e., the
same antenna is used to transmit and receive, β = 0 )
Quasi-monostatic: the transmit and receive antennas are slightly separated but still
appear to be at the same location as viewed from the target (e.g., separate transmit and
receive antennas on the same aircraft, β ≈ 0 )
AY2011v2 9
Basic Radar Range Equation (1)

TX Gt
“Quasi-monostatic” geometry
Pt R
RX Gr σ
Pr
σ = radar cross section (RCS) in square meters

Pt = transmitter power, watts
Pr = received power, watts
Gt = transmit antenna gain in the direction of the target (assumed to be the maximum)
Gr = receive antenna gain in the direction of the target (assumed to be the maximum)
Pt Gt = effective radiated power (ERP)
4πAer
From antenna theory: Gr = (for an aperture type antenna)
λ2
= eA
Aer = effective area of the receive antenna
A = physical aperture area of the antenna
λ = wavelength ( = c / f )
e = antenna efficiency
AY2011v2 10

Power density incident on the target
POWER DENSITY
AT RANGE R
R
Pt Gt
Wi = (W / m 2 )
Pt Gt 4 πR 2
Power collected by the target and scattered back towards the radar is Ps
TARGET EFFECTIVE
INCIDENT WAVE FRONT COLLECTION AREA IS σ
IS APPROXIMATELY PLANAR
AT THE TARGET
Pt Gt σ
Ps = σ Wi = 2
4 πR
AY2011v2 11

The RCS gives the fraction of incident power that is scattered back toward the radar.
Therefore, the scattered power density at the radar is obtained by dividing Ps by 4πR2 .
RECEIVER
(RX)
TARGET
SCATTERED POWER RCS σ
DENSITY AT RANGE Ps
R FROM THE TARGET Ws =
4π R2
The target scattered power collected by the receiving antenna is Ws Aer . Thus the
maximum target scattered power that is available to the radar is
Pt GtσAer Pt Gt Gr σλ2
Pr = =
(4πR 2 )2 (4π )3 R 4
This is the classic form of the radar range equation (RRE).
AY2011v2 12
Characteristics of the Radar Range Equation

Pt GtσAer Pt Gt Gr σλ2
Pr = =
(4πR 2 )2 (4π )3 R 4
For monostatic systems a single antenna is generally used to transmit and receive so that
Gt = Gr ≡ G . This form of the RRE is too crude to use as a design tool. Factors have
been neglected that have a significant impact on radar performance:
o noise
o system losses
o propagation behavior
o clutter
o waveform limitations,
o receiver characteristics,
o etc.
The above form of the RRE does give some insight into the tradeoffs involved in radar
design. The dominant feature of the RRE is the 1/ R4 factor. Even for targets with
relatively large RCS, high transmit powers must be used to overcome the 1/ R4 when the
range becomes large.
AY2011v2 13
Maximum Detection Range

The minimum received power that the radar receiver can “sense” is referred to as the
minimum detectable signal (MDS) and is denoted Smin .
Pr
Pr ∝1 / R 4
Smin
R
Rmax
Given the MDS, the maximum detection range can be obtained:

1/4
Pt Gt Gr σλ2  Pt Gt Gr σλ2 
Pr = Smin = ⇒ Rmax = 
(4π )3 R 4  (4π ) Smin 
3
The maximum detection range can be reduced by reducing the target RCS.
AY2011v2 14
Other Radar System Factors

Radars typically operate in a “noise limited” condition. The target’s received power must
be greater than the receiver noise power. The noise power is generally modeled as Gaussian
white noise
N o = k B Ts B
The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is
Pr Pr G p L
= =
SNR
N o k B Ts B
where: kB = 1.38 × 10−23 =Boltzman’s constant (J/K)
B = bandwidth (Hz)
Ts = TA + Te = system noise temperature (K)
TA = antenna temperature (K)
Te = effective noise temperature of the receiver (K)
G p = processing gain (resulting from integration, correlation, or signal
processing, etc.)
L = loss factor ( ≤ 1) for system hardware and processing losses
Typically SNRs of 10 to 20 dB are required for acceptable detection and tracking.
AY2011v2 15
Search Radar Example (1)

Example 1.1: AN/SPS-10 radar has the following parameters:
peak transmitter power = 500 kW receiver noise bandwidth = 1 MHz
antenna gain = 33.0 dB receiver effective temperature = 2900 K
frequency = 5.6 GHz system losses ahead of the receiver = 5 dB
pulse width = 1.4 µs false alarm time (FAT) − average time between
PRF = 625 Hz false alarms = 2 days
antenna scan rate = 16 rpm plan position indicator (PPI) display and operator
azimuth half-power beamwidth minimum SNR for the specified FAT = 16 dB
= 1.5 degrees processing gain (integration of 10 pulses) = 9 dB
antenna noise temperature = 75 K
1. What is the thermal noise power in the receiver?
No = (1.38 × 10−23 )(75 + 2900)(106 ) =
k B Ts B = 4.1× 10−14 W =
−133.9 dBW
2. Calculate the MDS in dBW. Note: dBW is decibels relative to 1 W, so that Pr in dBW =
10log ( Pr in watts ) . Convert the SNR from dB: SNR
= =
min Prmin =
/ N o 1016 /10
39.8 .
The MDS is where the signal equals the noise, SNR min = 0 dB
(39.8)(4.1× 10−14 ) =
Prmin = 1.6 × 10−12 W =
−118 dBW
AY2011v2 16
Search Radar Example (2)

3. Calculate the peak effective radiated power in dBW.
ERP =t t =
PG (500 × 103 )(1033/10 ) =
997.6 MW
4. Calculate the effective area of the antenna in square meters.
Gλ 2 (1995.3)(0.054) 2
=
Aer = = 0.46 m 2
4π 4π
5. Calculate the maximum free space detection range on a 0 dBsm target.
Convert the loss from dB (note that “loss” implies a negative sign in the exponent):
−5/10
= L 10 = 0.316 . Convert the processing gain from dB:= G p 10 =9 /10
7.9 . The dB
unit of RCS is dBsm (decibels relative to a square meter), which is defined as:
( ) is σ 10
σ in dBsm = 10log σ in m 2 . Therefore, the target RCS= = 0 /10
1 m 2 . Thus,
1/ 4 1/ 4
 PG t
2
σλ 2 LG p   500 × 103 (1995.3) 2 (1)(0.054) 2 (0.316)(7.9) 
Rmax =   =  46 km
 ( 4π ) N oSNR min  ( 4π ) (4.1×10 )(39.8)
−
 
3 3 14
AY2011v2 17
Antenna as a Radar Target

Example 1.4: Antenna with gain Ga , effective area, Aea and RCS σ has its terminals
shorted (i.e., all of the received radar signal is sent back out the antenna). The scattered
signal back at the radar receiver (monostatic) is
PG 1 λ 2G PG λ
2 2
=Pr = t A G t AeaGa

2 ea a
4πR 4π
4π R 2  ( 4π )3
R 4
Pra = Aer
Based on the antenna’s RCS, the received power is
PG λ σa
2 2
Pr = t
( 4π )3 R 4
4π Aea 4π Aea
2
4π e 2 A2
σ a A=
Comparing gives: = ea Ga Aea = =
2 2
λ2
λ λ
where Aea = eA (A is the physical area; e is the aperture efficiency). For an electrically large
uniformly illuminated aperture we can use Aea ≈ A and get the well-known formula
4π A2
σ= (flat surface backscatter)
λ 2
AY2011v2 18
Flat Surface Backscatter Formula

The “flat surface backscatter formula” applies to any arbitrary contoured flat surface of area
4π A2 2
A. Normal incidence on a plane surface gives σ = m . The decibel unit is decibels
2
λ
relative to a square meter (dBsm) defined as: σ , dBsm = 10log10 (σ , m 2 )
Example 1.5: Normal incidence on a L by L square plate with L = 1 m

2
4π (1) 2 
=
At 300 MHz, λ = 1 m: σ = 2
=12.56 m 2
11 dBsm
1
2
4π (1) 2 
At 3= GHz, λ = 0.1m: σ = 2
=1256 m 2
31 dBsm
0.1
Note the “gain” effect with increasing frequency (similar to an aperture antenna). A 1 m 2
area plate has a much higher RCS than 1 m 2 at these frequencies. This is because the plate
scattering has some directivity (i.e., it does not scatter isotropically).
AY2011v2 19
Wavelength Dimensions
A wavelength dimension is often used for targets. At a frequency with wavelength λ the
plate edge length L can be expressed as a constant  times wavelength, L = λ .
For example, at 300 MHz a 1 m by 1 m plate is 1λ is 1λ ( = 1).
The RCS is often expressed in the dimensionless quantity σ / λ 2

2
4π (λ ) 2 
=σ =4π  4λ 2 → σ / λ 2 =4π  4
λ2
and in decibels, σ / λ 2 , dB = 10log10 (σ / λ 2 ) .
Example: The RCS of a 5λ square plate is

σ / λ 2 =4π
= = 39 dB
54 7850
To obtain the RCS in dBsm at 600 MHz ( λ = 0.5 m)
=σ (σ / λ 2 ) λ 2 =(7850)(0.5)
= 2
=
1962.5 m 2 32.9 dBsm
AY2011v2 20
Scattering Nomenclature
 
SCATTERED Incident fields ( Ei , H i )
SPHERICAL • Fields that exist in the absence of the object
WAVE
• For RCS they are assumed to be plane wave.
R
 
Total fields ( E , H )
• Fields that exist with the object present
INDUCED  
CURRENTS Scattered fields ( Es , H s )
TARGET
• The difference between the incident and total field
due to the radiation of the induced currents
     
( Es , H s ) =
( E − Ei , H − H i )
INCIDENT
PLANE WAVE Typical integral for the far-scattered field for electric
currents (k = 2π / λ ) :
 e − jkR 
Note: surface currents are shown, Es ( R ) ~ ∫∫ J s  ds′
but there may also be volume R S
currents in V.
AY2011v2 21
Definition of RCS
Formal definition of RCS:
 2
power reflected to receiver per unit solid angle E
σ = lim 4π R 2 s 2
incident power density/4π R →∞
Ei
• In the definition we could also use the ratio of scattered and incident magnetic field
intensities squared or power densities.

• In the far scattered field of the target Es  1/ R 2 so RCS is range independent.
• Functional dependencies: σ pq ( f ,θi ,φi ,θ s ,φs )
o (p,q) denote polarizations of the scattered and incident fields, respectively
o f is frequency
o (θi ,φi ) incident wave (source) direction
o (θ s ,φs ) scattered wave (observation) direction
0.0001 0.01 1 100 10000 2
m
Typical values:
-40 -20 0 20 40 dBsm

INSECTS BIRDS CREEPING & FIGHTER BOMBER SHIPS
TRAVELING AIRCRAFT AIRCRAFT
WAVES
AY2011v2 22
Frequency Regions
RCS of a sphere vs. frequency illustrates the common behavior in the three frequency
regions.
= =
a radius, k 2π / λ • Rayleigh region (low frequency):
ka << 1, σ  1/ λ 4
• Mie region (resonance region):

ka ≈ 1, σ vs. frequency oscillates
• Optical region (high frequency):

ka >> 1, σ vs. frequency smooth
and may become independent of
frequency
For other target shapes a can be

replaced by a “characteristic length, L.”
AY2011v2 23
Polarization Dependence
A circular cylinder illustrates RCS polarization dependence with frequency.
a = cylinder radius, L = length Polarization reference:

• Parallel: Ei parallel to cylinder axis

• Perpendicular: Ei perpendicular to
cylinder axis
“Thin wire” behavior when a/λ << 1

• Wire scatters for parallel
polarization
• Wire invisible for perpendicular
polarization
Three frequency regions are observed

for perpendicular polarization.
AY2011v2 24
Coordinate Systems
Radar coordinate systems: spherical polar: (r,θ ,φ )
azimuth/elevation: (Az,El) or (α ,γ ) or (φaz ,θel )
The radar is located at the origin of the coordinate system; the Earth's surface lies
in the x-y plane. Azimuth is generally measured clockwise from a reference (e.g., from
North like a compass) but φ is measured counterclockwise from the x axis
Zenith z
Azimuth:= α 360 − φ
Elevation:=γ 90 − θ
R is the distance between the source

u v and observer. If one of them is at the
origin then R = r.
( R ,θ , φ ) θel Direction cosines (when R = 1)

θ
w
cos α x= u= sin θ cos φ
φ
y cos α y= v= sin θ sin φ
φaz x
cos α z= w= cosθ
North Horizon
AY2011v2 25
Polarization Definitions

• Spherical, cylindrical and Cartesian E Eθ θˆ + Eφφˆ
• Spherical:=
components are shown.
• Horizontal (H) and vertical (V):
• The x-y plane is the horizontal plane 
(parallel to the ground). E= EH φˆ + EV θˆ (when θ ≈ 90 )
z • Transverse electric (TE
 z) andtransverse
PLANE TRANSVERSE
magnetic (TMz):= E ETM + ETE
TO THE z-AXIS z
Eθ
Ez ⊗
Hφ
Eφ θ kk̂ˆi
PLANE
Ey ρ
TRANSVERSE
Ex Eθ TO z z
Eθ = ETM
θ Hθ
y
φ 
Eφ
θ kk̂ˆi
ρ ρ
Eφ = ETE
x
AY2011v2 26
Scattering Mechanisms
 
The scattered fields ( Es , H s ) that arise due to the induced currents determine the RCS. A
bistatic scattering pattern of a generic aircraft is shown. Often the pattern peaks or shape can
be identified with specific scattering mechanisms (or modes) associated with scattering
sources on the target. Examples include: reflections from large (in terms of
wavelength) surfaces, diffraction from
edges, and surface waves.  
θ=i φ=
i 90 ,θ= 90 , f= 1 GHz, TM pol
50
z
40
3
2
z, (m)
30
1
Bistatic RCS, dBsm

0 20
-5 10
10
0 0
y
x φ 15
5 x, (m) -10
y, (m) -20
-30
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Azimuth, degrees
AY2011v2 27
Illustration of Scattering Mechanisms

MULTIPLE
REFLECTIONS
Important scattering
SURFACE mechanisms:
SPECULAR WAVES
• Reflections, multiple
reflections (multipath)
• Diffraction from edges
• Surface waves
CREEPING o Travelling waves
WAVES
EDGE
o Creeping waves
DUCTING, WAVEGUIDE DIFFRACTION o Leaky waves
MODES
• Ducting (waveguide or
cavity modes)
• Hybrid or “mixed” modes
Reduction techniques are dependent on the scattering source and mechanism.
AY2011v2 28
Defeating Radar by Jamming
R GET
UN D TA
AIR GRO
DEFENSE
RADAR
ATTACK
APPROACH
STANDOFF
JAM M ER
RACETRACK
FLIGHT PATTERN
The barrage jammer floods the radar with noise and therefore decreases the SNR.
The radar knows it's being jammed.
AY2011v2 29
Jammer Burnthrough Range (1)

Consider a standoff jammer operating against a radar that is tracking a target
TRANSMIT
ANTENNA TARGET
Go
. R
. θ σ
PrJ , G( θ ), Aer G RJ
JAMMER
G J , PJ
The jammer power received by the radar is
 PJ GJ   λ2G(θ )  PJ GJ λ2G(θ )
PrJ = Wi Aer =  2  =
π π
( )
2
 4 R J   4  4π R J
Defining Go ≡ G(θ = 0) , the target return is
Pt Go2λ2σ
Pr =
(4π )3 R 4
AY2011v2 30
Jammer Burnthrough Range (2)

The signal-to-jam ratio is
S Pr  Pt Go   R2J   σ   Go 
SJR = = =   4
J PrJ  PJ GJ   R   4π   G(θ )
The burnthrough range for the jammer is the range at which its signal is equal to the target
return (SJR=1).
Important points:
o R2J vs R 4 is a big advantage for the jammer.
o G vs G(θ ) is usually a big disadvantage for the jammer. Low sidelobe radar antennas
reduce jammer effectiveness.
o Given the geometry, the only parameter that the jammer has control of is the ERP
( PJ GJ ).
o The radar knows it is being jammed. The jammer can be countered using waveform
selection and signal processing techniques.
AY2011v2 31
Jammer Example
Example 1.3: Radar detection range with and without jamming.
AN/SPS-10 from Example 1.1. Azimuth antenna pattern: SLL = -15, BLL = -80
90 40
Reflector antenna has the pattern shown. 60
120
30
Detection range without jamming is 61 km
20
• Using software RADJAM 150 10 30
•
0
“J” is jammer location (fixed)
-10
• “R” is radar location (center)
• Radar beam is “on target” as it moves from 180 0
0 to 360 degrees in azimuth

• 0 dBsm target
• no multipath 210 330
Note: RADJAM plots in Figures 1.19 and 1.20 240 300

used er = 0.85 not 0.55 as stated in Example 270
1.3.
AY2011v2 32
Jammer Example
Without jamming 10 W jammer
Detection Contour (Ground Range, km) Detection Contour (Ground Range, km)
90 80
90 80
120 60 120 60
60 60
150 40 30 150 40 30
20 20
180 R J 0 180 R J 0 Jammer in

Main Beam
210 330 210 330
240 300 240 300

270 270
• The jammer is ineffective when it is in a pattern null.

• The jammer effectiveness is reduced by low sidelobes.
• A jammer in the main beam can incapacitate the radar.
AY2011v2 33
Ground Bounce (1)

When a radar and target are both operating near the surface of the earth, multipath
(multiple reflections) can cause extremely large angle errors. Assume a flat earth:
• TARGET
R
RADAR . A
θ =0
Ro
ht
• R2
ha B R1
ψ ψ
EARTH'S SURFACE
REFLECTION POINT
At low altitudes the reflection coefficient is approximately constant (Γ ≈ −1) and

GD (θ A ) ≈ GD (θ B ). The difference between the direct and reflected paths is:
∆R = (R1+R

 2) − 

 Ro
 REFLECTED DIRECT
AY2011v2 34
Ground Bounce (2)

The total signal at the target is:
Etot = Eref + Edir = E(θ A ) + Γ E(θ B )e − jk∆R
 
 REFLECTED DIRECT
From the low altitude approximation, Edir = E(θ A ) ≈ E(θ B ) so that

[
Etot ≈ Edir + Γ Edir e − jk∆R = Edir | 1 + Γ e − jk∆R |
 
]
≡F, PATH GAIN
 FACTOR
The path gain factor takes on the values 0 ≤ F ≤ 2 . If F = 0 the direct and reflected
rays cancel (destructive interference); if F = 2 the two waves add (constructive
interference).
An approximate expression for the path difference can be obtained as follows:
1 (ht − ha ) 2
Ro = R + (ht − ha ) ≈ R +
2 2
2 R
1 (ht + ha ) 2
R1 + R2 = R + (ht + ha ) ≈ R +
2 2
2 R
AY2011v2 35
Ground Bounce (3)

Therefore,
2ha ht
∆R ≈
R
and
| F |= 1 − e − jk2ha ht / R = e
jkha ht / R
(e − jkh h / R − e jkh h / R ) = 2 sin (kha ht / R)
a t a t
Incorporate the path gain factor into the RRE:

4
4 4  kht ha 
 kh h 
Pr ∝| F | = 16sin ≈ 16 t a
 R   R 
The last form is based on the small angle approximation
kht ha
→ 0.
R
Finally, the RRE can be written as
Pt Gt Gr λ2σ 4 4π Pt Gt Grσ (ht ha )
4
Pr = 3 4 | F| ≈
(4π ) R λ 2 R8
AY2011v2 36
Ground Bounce (4)

Define ψ as the elevation angle from the ground,. Ro
Therefore tanψ = ht / R and ha ht
ψ
| F | = 16sin ( kha tanψ ) .
4 4
R
A coverage diagram consists of a contour plot of
signal in dB for combinations of ht and R, where R is normalized to a reference range R f .
Curves are contours of power equal to that of the free space (direct path) at the reference
range. From the RRE:
constant
SNR =
R 4f
4
 Rf 
× 2  sin ( kha tanψ )
 R  
 
F Rf / R
Coverage diagrams plot contours of
 Rf 
2  sin ( kha tanψ )
 R 
AY2011v2 37
Jamming With Multipath

120
90 15
60
• Sample plot of SNR vs. range with multipath.
10 There are detection gaps between lobes.
150 30 y g
20
5
10
SNR min
180 R J 0 0
-10
-20
210 330
-30
240 300
270
90
• Note that multipath can increase detection range
20
120 60 in some cases.
15
150 10 30
180 R J 0 Radjam
Data
210 330
240 300
270
AY2011v2 38

Rcs Introduction V 2

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Introduction: Sensors and RCS

EC4630 Radar and Laser Cross Section

Sensors and Signatures

Sensor System Components

Non-imaging vs. Imaging Sensors

Fraction of Imaging Sensors

Performance Tradeoffs for Sensors

Sensor Advantages Issues

Camouflage and Stealth

Stealth does not reveal itself by impairing enemy sensor operation.

Countermeasures impair the ability of sensors to “sense.” We may be unconcerned with

Sensors and Low Observables (Stealth)

ASW: DOMINANT METHOD

Bistatic vs. Monostatic Radar

Basic Radar Range Equation (1)

σ = radar cross section (RCS) in square meters

Basic Radar Range Equation (2)

Basic Radar Range Equation (3)

This is the classic form of the radar range equation (RRE).

Characteristics of the Radar Range Equation

Maximum Detection Range

Given the MDS, the maximum detection range can be obtained:

Other Radar System Factors

Search Radar Example (1)

Search Radar Example (2)

Antenna as a Radar Target

Flat Surface Backscatter Formula

Example 1.5: Normal incidence on a L by L square plate with L = 1 m

For example, at 300 MHz a 1 m by 1 m plate is 1λ is 1λ ( = 1).

The RCS is often expressed in the dimensionless quantity σ / λ 2

Example: The RCS of a 5λ square plate is

-40 -20 0 20 40 dBsm

• Mie region (resonance region):

• Optical region (high frequency):

For other target shapes a can be

“Thin wire” behavior when a/λ << 1

Three frequency regions are observed

R is the distance between the source

( R ,θ , φ ) θel Direction cosines (when R = 1)

Bistatic RCS, dBsm

Illustration of Scattering Mechanisms

Reduction techniques are dependent on the scattering source and mechanism.

Defeating Radar by Jamming

The radar knows it's being jammed.

Jammer Burnthrough Range (1)

The jammer power received by the radar is

Jammer Burnthrough Range (2)

• Using software RADJAM 150 10 30

0 to 360 degrees in azimuth

Note: RADJAM plots in Figures 1.19 and 1.20 240 300

180 R J 0 180 R J 0 Jammer in

210 330 210 330

240 300 240 300

• The jammer is ineffective when it is in a pattern null.

Ground Bounce (1)

At low altitudes the reflection coefficient is approximately constant (Γ ≈ −1) and

Ground Bounce (2)

From the low altitude approximation, Edir = E(θ A ) ≈ E(θ B ) so that

An approximate expression for the path difference can be obtained as follows: