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Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you will be able to

l state the meaning and need for accounting

l understand the various types of accounting
l understand the basic terms used while doing accounting
l identify the various users of accounting information
l comprehend the meaning of Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP)
l explain the various concepts and conventions
l understand the different types of accounts, and
l comprehend the rules of Debit and Credit.

Evolution of accounting is spread over several centuries. It is as old as money itself. The modern system
of accounting based on the principles of Double Entry System owes its origin to Luco Pacioli, who first
published the principles of Double Entry System in 1494 at Venice in Italy. Over centuries, accounting has
remained confined to the financial record keeping functions of the accountant. But in today’s fast changing
business environment, the role of an accountant has changed from that of a mere recorder of the financial
transactions to that of the member providing information to the decision-making team. Accountants are now
working in newer and newer areas such as financial planning, forensic accounting, e-commerce, environmental
accounting etc. This has happened because of the fact that present day accounting is capable of providing
information that managers and other interested persons need in order to make decisions concerning a business
enterprise. Accounting now is regarded as an information system and has become an integral part of the
Management Information System. As an information system, accounting collects data and communicates
economic information about a business enterprise or about any other entity to a wide variety of persons
whose decisions and actions are related to the performance of the business enterprise or any other entity.
This introductory chapter deals with the meaning, nature, types and limitations of accounting.

1.1 Meaning of Accounting

The main purpose of accounting is to ascertain the profit or loss incurred during a specified period, generally
one year, to show the financial condition of the business on a particular date and to have control over the
property of the enterprise. Accounting records are required to be maintained to measure the income of the
business and communicate the information so that the same may be used by the managers, owners and
other parties. Accounting as a discipline records, classifies, summarizes and interprets financial information
about the activities of an enterprise so that intelligent decisions can be made about the enterprise. The
American Institute of Certified Public Accountants has defined financial accounting as ” the art of recording,
classifying and summarizing, in a significant manner and in terms of money, transactions and events which
are in part, at least, of a financial character, and interpreting the results thereof ”. American Accounting Association

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has defined accounting as “ the process of identifying, measuring and communicating economic information
to permit informed judgments and decisions by users of the information”.

Accounting can, therefore, be defined as the process of identifying, measuring, recording and communicating
the required information relating to the economic events of an organisation to the interested users of the
information. From the above, the following attributes of accounting emerge

(i) It is the art of recording and classifying business transactions and events
(ii) The transactions or events of a business must be recorded in monetary terms
(iii) It is the art of making summaries, analysis and interpretation of the business financial transactions.
(iv) The result of such analysis must be communicated to the persons who are to make decisions or form
judgments.

1.2 Types of Accounting

There are three important types or branches of accounting

(i) Financial Accounting : The most important branch of accounting it is concerned with the recording,
classifying, summarizing and analysing of business transactions. It is directed towards the preparation
of profit and loss account, and balance sheet. With the help of these financial statements business
results are communicated to the interested parties or users for decision-making.

(ii) Cost Accounting : Cost accounting is the process of accounting for costs. It is a systematic procedure
for determining the unit cost of output produced or services rendered. The basic functions of cost
accounting are to ascertain the cost of a product and to help the management in the control of cost.
It is that branch of accounting which deals with the classification, recording, allocation, summarization
and reporting of current and prospective costs. Through analysis of the expenses of operating a
business, it helps in controlling the cost of products or services provided.

(iii) Management Accounting : Management accounting is concerned with the supply of information which
is useful to management in decision-making for the efficient functioning of the enterprise and, thus,
in maximising profits. It is the reproduction of financial statements (Profit and Loss Account and Balance
Sheet) in such a way as will enable the management to take decisions and to control activities.

1.3 Basic Terms

(i) Financial Transaction: It is an event which involves the exchange or transfer of some value between
two or more entities,for e.g, purchase of goods, sale of goods, amount lent to another firm, payment
of expenses, receipt of commission, dividends etc. A transaction may be a credit transaction or a
cash transaction. When the party does not give cash immediately on entering into a transaction but
agrees to pay later, it is called a credit transaction. When the payment is received in cash immediately
on entering into the transaction then it is called cash transaction.
(ii) Capital: It refers to the amount invested by the owner(s) in the enterprise. It may be brought by the
owners in cash or in the from of assets. It indicates the interest of the owner(s) in the assets of the
enterprise.
(iii) Assets: These are economic resources of an enterprise that can be usefully expressed in monetary
terms. Assets consist of tangible objects or intangible rights owned by the enterprise and carrying
probable future benefits. Examples of tangible assets are cash, bank balance, inventories, machinery,
furniture, and building. Examples of intangible assets are goodwill, patents, copyrights, trade marks.
Assets can also be broadly classified into two types: fixed assets and current assets. Fixed assets
are held for long use in business itself for the purpose of providing or producing goods or services
and are not held for re-sale purpose in the normal course of business, for e.g., land, building, machinery,

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furniture and fixtures. Current assets are held on a short-term basis; normally short-term refers to
an accounting year. Examples of current assets are cash, bank balance, debtors, bills receivable,
investment etc. These are expected to be converted into cash or consumed in the production of
goods, or rendering of services in the normal course of business.
(iv) Liability: These are the obligations or debts that the enterprise must pay in money or services at
some time in the future. Liabilities are debts, for e.g, amount due to creditors, bank overdrafts, bills
payable, loans etc. Like assets, liabilities can also be broadly classified into two categories: fixed or
long-term liabilities and current or short-term liabilities. Long-term liabilities are those that are payable
after a period of one year, for e.g, a term loan from a financial institution, debentures etc. issued by
a company. Short-term liabilities are such obligations of the enterprise that are payable within a year
e.g. creditors (accounts payables), bills payable (notes payable), cash credit, overdraft, short-term
loans etc.
(v) Revenue: These are the amounts that the business earns by selling its products or providing services
to customers. Other items of revenue common to many businesses are commission, interest, dividends,
royalties, rent received etc. Revenue is also called income. It is measured by the charges made to
customers, or clients, for goods supplied and services rendered to them and by the charges and
records arising from the use of resources of the enterprise by them.
(vi) Debtors: They are persons and/or other entities to whom goods have been sold or services provided
on credit and who thus owe certain amount to the enterprise. They are also referred to as accounts
receivable or trade debtors. Debtors are assets for an enterprise and the total of debtors on the
closing date is shown on the assets side of the balance sheet as “sundry debtors”.
(vii) Creditors: These are persons and/or other entities who have to be paid by an enterprise an amount
for providing goods and services on credit. They are also referred to as accounts receivable or trade
creditors. The total amount standing to the favour of creditors on the closing date is shown in the
balance sheet as ‘sundry creditors’ on the liability side.
(viii) Goods : Articles or items purshased for sales purpose at profit or procassing by the bussiness or
for use in the manufacturing process as raw material are known as goods. In other words, goods are
commodities in which the business deals, for e.g., tables, chairs, desks etc are goods for a firm
dealing in furniture. Americans use the term ‘merchandise’ for goods.
(ix) Expenses: These are the costs incurred by a business in the process of earning revenues. Generally,
expenses are the cost of assets consumed or service used during an accounting period. Some
examples of expenses are wages, salary, rent, interest, depreciation, telephone charges etc.
(x) Purchases: These are the total amount of goods procured by a business on credit or for cash for
use or for resale. In a trading concern goods are purchased for resale with or without processing
whereas in a manufacturing concern, raw materials are purchased, processed further into finished
goods, and then sold.
(xi) Sales: Total revenues from goods sold and/or services rendered to the customers are called sales.
They may be in cash or on credit.
(xii) Depreciation : It is a measure of the wearing out, consumption or other loss of value of a fixed asset
arising from use, afflux of time or obsolescence through technology and market changes. Depreciation
is allocated so as to charge a fair proportion of the depreciable amount in each accounting period
during the expected useful life of the asset.

1.4. Users of Accounting Information

The basic objective of accounting is to provide information to its users. These users of are classified
into the following two categories.
(i) External users of accounting information
(ii) Internal users of accounting information.

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1.4.1 External users of accounting information
External users are those persons or groups who are outside the organisation for whom the accounting function
is being performed. Following are the important external users of accounting information.

(i) Investors: Those who are interested in investing money in an organisation are interested in knowing
the financial health of the organisation, how safe the investment already made is, and how safe the
future investment will be. Thus, investors, for making investment decisions, are dependent upon
accounting information available in financial statements. They can know the profitability and financial
position of the enterprise by making a study of the accounting information given in the financial statements
of the enterprise.
(ii) Creditors : Suppliers of goods and services on credit, bankers and other lenders of money are creditors.
They are interested in knowing the short-term financial position of the enterprise before giving loans
or granting credit. They want to be sure that the enterprise will not experience difficulty in making their
payment in time i.e. the liquid position of the concern is satisfactory. To know the liquid position, they
need accounting information relating to current assets and current liabilities which is available in the
financial statements.
(iii) Government: Central and state governments are interested in accounting information since they
want to know the earnings or sales of a particular period for the purpose of taxation. Governments
also require accounting information for compiling statistics concerning business which, in turn, helps
in compiling national income account.
(iv) Consumers: Consumers need accounting information so as to know the cost of goods and to ascertain
that they are being charged reasonable price of the goods they are buying for their satisfaction.

1.4.2. Internal users of accounting information

Internal users of accounting information are those persons or groups which are within the enterprise. Following
are the important internal users of accounting information.
(i) Owners: Owners provide capital for the operations of the business and want to ascertain whether
their funds are being properly used or not. They need accounting information to know the profitability
and the financial position of the enterprise in which they have invested their funds. The financial
statements provide such information for better investment and future planing.
(ii) Management: The most important function of management is decision making. Management needs
accounting information in selecting alternative proposals, for e.g., whether to buy or produce a product.
It also requires the same for controlling acquisition and maintenance of inventories, receipts and
payments of cash, purchases of sales etc. Accounting information is also important for the management
for planning or budgeting for the future. Managers require it for appraising performance and devising
remedial measures for the deviations of the actual results from the budgeted targets.
(iii) Employees: Employees are interested in the financial position of the enterprise, particularly for the
payment of bonus when it depends upon the amounts of profits earned. They require accounting
information for settling disputes relating to their wages.

1.5 Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP)

Concepts and Conventions
Evolution of accounting is spread over several centuries and during this period certain rules, procedures
and conventions have come to be accepted as useful. These rules etc. represent a consensus view
of the profession for good accounting practices and procedures and are commonly referred to as
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP). It means the set of rules and practices followed
in recording transactions and preparing the financial statements (profit and loss account and balance
sheet). The GAAP provide a set of guidelines to be observed by the accounting profession for preparing
and reporting the accounting information and can be broadly classified into two categories – concepts
and conventions.
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1.5.1 Accounting concepts
Basic accounting concepts are referred to as the fundamental ideas or basic assumptions underlying the
theory and practice of accounting and are broad working rules for all accounting activities. Accounting is the
language of business and to make this language convey the same meaning to all people, as far as practicable,
and to make it meaningful, accountants have agreed on a number of concepts which are followed in the
preparations of financial statements. These concepts are discussed below.

(i) Separate Entity Concept: According to this concept, also known as business entity concept, business
is treated as a separate unit or entity from its owners. This concept implies that a business is separate
and distinct from the persons who supplied capital to it. All transactions of the business are recorded
in the books of the firm. If the business affairs and the private affairs of the owners are mixed, the
true picture of the business will not be available. The proprietor is treated as a creditor of the firm to
the extent of his capital. Capital is thus a liability to the firm and the proprietor is the creditor as the
business. The proprietors – sole trader, partners of a partnership firm etc. may draw an amount out
of the business for their personal use and, to that extent, it reduces the liability of the firm. Because
of this concept, financial position of the business can be easily found out and earning capacity of the
firm can be easily ascertained. It is important to note that transactions of the business affairs and
private affairs are separated for reporting only and in law no such distinction is recognised except of
an incorporated company.
(ii) Going Concern Concept: This concept assumes that a business entity will continue to operate
indefinitely and that it will not be liquidated in the immediate future and the financial statements are
prepared on this assumption. The business is called ‘going concern’ which means that it will remain
in operation in the foreseeable future unless it is to be liquidated in the near future. Since this concept
believes in the continuity of the business over an indefinite period, it is also known as continuity concept.
It is because of the going concern concept that distinction between (a) fixed assets and current assets
(b) short-term and long-term liabilities and (c) capital and revenue expenditure is made.
(iii) Money Measurement Concept: This concept states that only those transactions which can be expressed
in money terms are recorded in accounting though their quantitative records may also be kept. Thus
means that all business transactions are expressed only in money. Thus, transactions which cannot
be expressed in money will not be recorded in accounting books however important they may be for
the business. For example, labour-management relations, sales policies, labour unrest, effectiveness
of competition etc, which are of vital importance to the business enterprise, do not find any place in
accounting. Since money is the only practical unit of measurement that can be employed to achieve
homogeneity of financial data, money measurement concept helps in making the accounting records
clear, simple, comparable and understandable.
The acceptability of money as a unit of measurement suffers from certain limitations such as the
comparison of financial statements over a period of time because of difference in prices. It needs
to be noted that the money measurement concept implies stability of measuring unit over a period
of time. This may not be true because, over a period of time, prices of goods and services may
change, and hence the purchasing power of money may undergo a change. But these changes are
usually not recorded. This affects the comparability of financial statements at different time periods.
(iv) Accounting Period Concept: Accounting period refers to the time period at the end of which the
financial statements of a business enterprise are prepared so as to know the amount of profit earned
or loss incurred by it during that period of time as well as the position of its assets and liabilities at
the end of that period of time. Normally, accounting period adopted is one year as it helps to take any
corrective action, pay income tax, absorb the seasonal fluctuations, and for reporting to outsiders.
The principle of segregating capital expenditure from revenue expenditure is based on the accounting
period concept. The revenue expenditure for a particular period is transferred to the profit and loss
account of that period whereas capital expenditure is carried forward to the extent that its benefits will
be utilised in future accounting period and are shown as assets in the balance sheet of the enterprise
prepared at the end of that period.

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(v) Dual Aspect Concept or Accounting Equation Concept: This is the basic concept of accounting
and provides the very basis of recording transactions in the books of accounts. According to this
concept, every financial transaction involves a two-fold aspect (a) yielding of a benefit and (b) the
giving of benefit. For example, if a business has acquired an asset, it must have given up an asset
such as cash or incurred obligation to pay for it in the future. Thus a giver necessarily implies a
receiver and a receiver necessarily implies a giver. There must be a double entry to have a complete
record of each business transaction, an entry being made in the receiving account and an entry of
the same amount in the giving account. The receiving account is called the ‘debtor’ and the giving
account is called the ‘creditor’. Thus every debit must have a corresponding credit and vice versa.
It is upon the dual aspect concept that the whole superstructure of ‘Double Entry System’ of accounting
has been raised. The ‘accounting equation’ (i.e. Assets = Capital+Liabilities) is based upon the dual
aspect concept and that is why this concept is also called as accounting equations concept. The
term ‘assets’ denotes the resources owned by the business while ‘equities’ (Capital + Liabilities) denotes
the claims of various claimants including the proprietors of the business against assets. The accounting
equation has been explained as follows: Suppose A (the proprietor) invested Rs 1,00,000 to start the
business. The accounting equation will be as follows.

Assets = Capital + Laibilities

Cash(Rs1,00,000)=Capital(Rs1,00,000)+Liabilities (0)

Subsequently, if the business purchased machinery worth Rs 40,000 and furniture worth Rs 10,000,
the accounting equation will be as follows

Cash + Machinery + Furniture = Capital + Liability

(Rs1,00,000) Rs 40,000 + Rs.10,000 = (Rs 1,00,000) + (0)
(Rs 40,000)
(Rs 10,000)
or

Cash(Rs 50,000) + Machinary(Rs 40,000) + Furniture(Rs 10,000) = Capital(Rs 1,00,000) + Liabilities(0)

Thus the accounting equation demonstrates that for every debit there is an equal credit.

(vi) Accrual Concept : The essence of accrual concept is that revenue is recognised when it is occurred
or realised i.e. when sale is complete or services are given and it is immaterial whether cash is
received or not. Similarly, according to this concept, expenses are recognised in the accounting
period in which they help in earning the revenues whether cash is paid or not. Thus, to ascertain
correct profit or loss for an accounting period we must take into account all expenses and incomes
relating to the accounting period whether actual cash has been paid or received or not. It is because
of this concept that outstanding expenses and accrued incomes are taken into account.

(vii) Matching Concept : This concept requires that the expenses of a period must be matched with the
revenues of that period for the ascertainment of the profit earned or loss suffered by the enterprise
during that period. Matching concept is of great significance since the performance of a business
enterprise in usually measured in terms of income earned by the enterprise. Expense is recognised
not when cash is paid or when a product is produced but when the product actually contributes to
the revenue. This concept requires that part of the cost of fixed assets consumed in the operations
of the business, called depreciation, is treated as expense of the period. Similarly, revenues received
in advance for which services have not been rendered will be treated as unearned income and therefore,
will be carried forward to the next accounting period.

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1.5.2 Accounting conventions
Accounting conventions have been evolved and developed to bring about uniformity in the maintenance
of accounts. Convention denotes customs or traditions or usage which are in use since long. To be
more precise accounting conventions are nothing but unwritten laws. The accountants have to adopt
usage or customs which are used as a guide in the preparation of accounting reports and statements.
Following are the important conventions.

(i) Revenue Recognition Convention : This convention helps in ascertaining the amount and time
of recognising revenues from business activities. Revenue is said to have been earned in the period
in which sales have taken place or services have been rendered to the satisfaction of the customers
and the revenue has been received or has become receivable. However, there are some exceptions
to this rule. For example, in case of contracts of construction works which take a long time
‘say 2-5 years’ to be completed, proportionate amount of revenue based on the part of contract
completed by the end of the accounting period is considered as realised. Similarly, when goods are
sold on hire purchase basis, the amount collected in installments is considered as revenue realised.
(ii) Full Disclosure Convention: According to this convention, all accounting statements should be
honestly prepared and to that end full disclosure of all significant information should be made. All
information which is of material interest to proprietors, creditors and investors should be disclosed
in accounting statements. An obligation is placed on the accounting profession to see that the books
of accounts prepared on behalf of others are as reliable and informative as circumstances permit.
For example SEBI regulations require disclosures to be made by companies to potray true and fair
view of business operations to ensure the discharge of accountability by those who prepare the various
financial statements. Accountability is said to have been discharged when complete information is
delivered with due diligence so that the economic interests of the users of the accounting information
are not adversely affected.

(iii) Conservatism Convention or Prudence: “Anticipate no profit and provide for all possible losses”
is the essence of this convention. Future is uncertain and uncertainties are not uncommon for a
business enterprise also. Conservatism refers to the policy of choosing the procedure that leads to
understatement of resources and income. The consequences of an error of understatement are
likely to be less serious than that of an error of overstatement. For example, closing stock is valued
at cost or market price whichever is less. This convention of caution of playing safe is adhered to
while preparing financial statements. Showing a position better than what it is not permitted. Moreover,
it is not proper to show a position substantially worse than what it is.

• The value of an asset should not be overestimated.

• The value of a liability should not be underestimated.
• Profit should not be overestimated.
• Loss should not be underestimated.

Convention of conservation is generally applied to present a true and fair value of the business in the
financial statement.

1.6. Types of Accounts

Before understanding the different types of accounts one must know the meaning of ‘account’. An
account is the record of an individual, a firm, a thing, an item of expense, or an income. Therefore,
an account is a summarized record of business transactions that affects a particular type of assets,
liability or capital.
The transactions in which a business enterprise may enter can be classified into the following three
categories.

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(i) Transactions relating to persons or individuals
(ii) Transactions relating to property, assets or possessions, or
(iii) Transactions relating to expenses or income.

Corresponding to the above three categories of transactions, the accounts maintained by a business
enterprise are classified into the following three types.

(i) Personal accounts

(ii) Real or property accounts
(iii) Nominal accounts

Real and nominal accounts taken together are also categorised as impersonal accounts.

1.6.1 Personal Accounts

Personal accounts record the dealings of the enterprise with persons or firm. These can be further
sub-divided into the following types.

(i) Natural Persons Accounts : The accounts in the name of natural persons are called natural
persons accounts. For proprietors’ account, supplier,s account, receivers’ account (like Ram’s
account, Shyam’s account, Sohan’s account).

(ii) Artificial Persons and Body of Persons Accounts: Accounts in the name of artificial persons
and body of persons come under this category i.e. any limited company’s accounts ( like Relliance
Ltd account, Maruti Udyog account), bank account (like State Bank of India account), insurance
company’s account (like LIC account), any firm’s account (like Gopal Das Firm account), any
government or institution's account, any clubs account ( like Sports Club of New Delhi account).

(iii) Representative Personal Accounts : When an account represents a certain person or persons
it is called a representative personal account. In such accounts, in the books of the firm, the
names of actual individuals appear but since they are of the same nature and large in number,
the balances standing in these accounts are added and put under one common head . For example,
if a business is not able to pay the salary for the last one month to its employees, such employees
will be treated as its creditors (since they have provided their service to the business but in
exchange have not been paid for the same) The amount due to these employees will be put
under one common head called ‘Salaries Outstanding Account’. Thus salaries outstanding account
is a personal account representing the employees of the enterprise. Similarly, we may have ‘ Rent
Outstanding Account’ ‘Rent pre-paid Account’, ‘Interest Outstanding Account’, ‘Interest prepaid
Account’, ‘Interest Received in Advance Account’ ‘Unearned Commission Account’ etc.

1.6.2. Real Accounts

These are also called as property accounts as they are accounts of properties, assets or possessions.
Real accounts represent items which are more or less permanent in nature. A separate account is
kept for each type of asset such as land, building, furniture, plant and machinery, cash, stock etc.
so that by recording each such asset received or disposed off, the firm can ascertain the value of
a particular asset on a give date. Real accounts can be of the following two types.
(i) Tangible Real Accounts: These are accounts of such things which can be touched or felt, measured
etc, for example, land, building, plant, machinery, cash, stock etc.
(ii) Intangible Real Accounts: These are accounts of such things which cannot be touched in the
physical sense but can of course be measured in monetary terms such as goodwill, trade marks,
patent rights etc.

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1.6.3 Nominal Accounts
These are the accounts of expenses or losses and incomes and gains. These accounts are in name
only and are also called as fictitious accounts, for e.g., wages account, salary account, rent account,
interest account, commission account, discount account , insurance premium account, etc. The different
types of accounts can be understood easily with the help of the following diagram.

Accounts

Personal Accounts Impersonal Accounts Nominal Accounts

Natural Artificial Representaive Real Nominal

Persons’ persons’ Personal
Accounts Accounts Accounts

Tangible Intangible Expenses Incomes

1.7 Rules of Debit and Credit

Every business enterprise enters into a large number of transactions. These transactions are
recorded in the books of accounts as per the rules of the system of double entry. According to double
entry system, every transaction has two aspects. One aspect is the receiving or incoming aspect,
also known as debit aspect. Another aspect is the giving or outgoing aspect, also known as the credit
aspect. The debit and credit aspects form the basis of double entry system. There are two approaches
for deciding when to debit an account and when to credit it.

(i) English Approach

(ii) American Approach.

1.7.1 English Approach

According to this approach there are three types of accounts – personal, real and nominal – as
discussed under section 1.6 and there are three rules for recording transactions in them. These rules
are as follows.

(i) For Personal Account: debit the receiver and credit the giver.
(ii) For Real Account : debit what comes in and credit what goes out.
(iii) For Nominal Account: debit all expenses and losses and credit all incomes and gains.

Rule for Personal Accounts: Suppose Ashok gives Rs 50,000/- to the business then it is said that he has
some honour or reputation in the eyes of the business. His account, therefore, will be credited by Rs 50,000/

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The word credit has been derived from the Latin word ‘creder’ which means to ‘believe’. Now suppose Vanshaj
received Rs 30,000/- from the business then it is clear that he owes Rs 30,000/- to the business. Therefore
Vanshaj’s account will be debited by Rs 30,000/-. The word debit has been derived from the Latin word
debere which means ‘to owe’. Thus from this example a simple rule can be derived – debit that person’s
account who received something from the business and credit that person’s account who gives something
to the business.

Rule for Real Accounts: Similarly, if the storekeeper of the business has received furniture, machinery,
goods or some other real thing, then, in accordance with the above rule, storekeeper is the receiver and his
account should be debited. But the storekeeper acts on behalf of the business and does not owe any amount
to the business. Therefore, instead of debiting his personal account the account representing the thing is
debited. A simple rule can thus be derived that in case of real things “debit what comes into the business
and credit what goes out of the business”.

Rules for Expenses and Incomes: Let us look at one more situation. Suppose the cashier pays salary to
the employee Sohan of the enterprise. Then, as per the second rule, the cashier is not the giver of cash, he
paid cash on behalf of the firm, therefore, instead of his account the cash account of the bussines will be
credited. Further, the account of employee Sohan who has received salary should be debited but this would
mean that Sohan is a debtor whereas actually he is not. Thus instead of debiting Sohan’s account the expense
on account of which cash has been paid will be debited. In this case the salary account will be debited.
Similarly, when interest is received by the cashier the cash account (instead of cashier’s account) will be
debited and interest account will be credited instead of the persons account who paid it. We can thus derive
a simple rule – debit all expenses and losses and credit all incomes and gains.

1.7.2 American Approach

According to this approach, in order to understand the rules of debit and credit, transactions are
divided into the following five categories.
(i) Transactions relating to owner, e.g. capital.
(ii) Transactions relating to other liabilities, e.g. supplier of goods, bankers etc.
(iii) Transactions relating to assets, e.g. land, building, plant, machinery, cash, goodwill, trade marks
etc.
(iv) Transactions relating to expenses, e.g. wages, salaries, commission, discount, purchase of
goods.
(v) Transactions relating to revenues, e.g. sale of goods, interest received, dividend received, rent
received etc.

The rules of debit and credit in relation to these accounts are given below.

• For capital account: Debit means decrease and credit means increase. This means that if
by a transaction the capital of the proprietor increases, for e.g., introduction of capital, profit
of the year etc., the capital account will be credited and if the capital decreases, for e.g.,
withdrawal of capital, loss of the year on any capital account will be debited.

• For any liability account: Increase in liability means credit and decrease in liability means
debit. This means that if because of a transaction there is increase in a liability than liability
account will be credited and if there is decrease in liability than that concerned liability account
will be debited.

• For any asset account: Debit means increase and credit means decrease. This means that
if due to a transaction there is increase in the value of an asset than the concerned asset
account will be debited and if there is decrease in the value of an asset than the concerned
asset account will be credited.

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• For any expense account: Increase means debit and decrease means credit. This means
that if by a transaction there is increase in the account of expense the expense account is
debited and if there is decrease than expense account will be credited.

• For any revenue account: Debit means decrease and credit means increase. Thus means
that if by transactions, the total of the revenue decreases then the concerned revenue account
will be debited and if the amount of revenue increases then the concerned revenue accout will
be credited.

These rules can be easily understood with the help of the following table.

Name of the Account Debit Credit

Capital Decrease Increase

Liability Decrease Increase

Assets Increase Decrease

Expense Increase Decrease

Revenue Decrease Increase

It may be noted that both, English and American, approaches give the same conclusion. For example,
if a plant has been purchased by the enterprise the plant account will be debited. As per the English
Approach, plant has been classified as a ‘real thing’ and the real account is debited when that ‘thing’
comes into the business. As per the American Approach, plant has been classified as an ‘asset’ and
increase in asset is debited.

1.8 Importance of Accounting

Accounting is important as it provides information to interested users, helping them to make business decisions.
The information contained in Income Statements and Position Statements is the outcome of accounting and
is of great importance for external users. Besides this, accounting serves the internal users by providing
additional information for business records.

Thus accounting is necessary for

• Maintenance of business records: Human memory is not adequately programmed to remember
business operations. Business executives need not strain their memory if proper and complete
businessrecords are kept. Proper records facilitate the process of decision-making.
• Assistance in planning and decision-making: Accounting assists the management in planning business
activities for future and taking decisions like whether certain goods should be purchased from the
open market and which goods should be manufactured. It also helps in controlling the business activities
according to the time schedule and production targets.
• Assessment of business results: The main purpose of business is to earn profits. Accounting gives
information about the profit and loss made by the business at the end of a year. The same is calculated
by deducting expenses from associated revenues. Profit is crucial to the business information for the
owner, managers and others.
• Depiction of financial positions: The position statement or balance sheet gives the financial position
of the business by listing assets (possessed resources) and matching them with liabilities (claims)
and capital (owner’s equity). It evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of the business and its financial
position in general. It also helps at the time of sale of assets in the realisation of reasonable prices.

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• Prevention of misuse of business properties: Accounting provides protection to business properties
from unjustified and unwarranted use. It also supplies up-to-date information of funds, payables, cash
and bank balances etc. and helps the proprietors or managers in assuring that the funds of business
are not unnecessarily kept idle or underutilised.
• Realisation of debt: Accounting proves useful in realising debt from other persons. The businessman
can produce his accounting books in a court of law as a proof of debt.
• Assistance in payment of taxes: These days many types of taxes like income tax, sales tax, excise
duty etc. are imposed upon business. Properly maintained accounts are important for accurate
computation of taxes and their payment without any difficulty.
• Proof in court of law: When business accounts are kept according to the principles of accounting,
they can be presented in a court of law for giving necessary documentary evidence at the time of
disputes with suppliers, fellow businessmen, taxation authorities etc.

1.9 Role of Accountant

In recent years, evolution of complex and giant establishments has brought a remarkable change in
the field of accounting. Large-scale enterprises have increased the responsibilities of accountants,
they are now required to have a higher level of knowledge, conceptual understanding and analytical
skills. The role of accountants in modern times is as under.
• Protectors of business properties: Accountants have to devise a system of records by
which the assets of business are not put to any unjustified and unwarranted use.
• Summarizers of information: Accountants study a mass of data of an enterprise through
measurement, classification and summarization and reduce it into reports, statements etc.,
to show the financial condition and results of the business operations effectively.
• Communicators of business information: Accountants have to collect and communicate
economic information of the enterprise to a wide variety of interested persons according to
their needs and levels of understanding.
• Analysers and interpreters: Recording of transactions is now the secondary function of
accountants; their primary function is to analyse and interpret the business results.
• Financial advisors: The role of accountants these days is not only of a book-keeper and
auditor but they also have to assume the responsibilities of financial advisor and guide to
the management on financial matters and assist them in taking right decisions at the right
time.
• Legal advisors: Accountants have to assume the responsibilities of filing various statements
like income-tax returns, sales-tax papers etc., with different government authorities and assist
in correct and timely payment of taxes. They have to fulfill all legal requirements of the
business.

Accounting has now become a profession and the role of accountants has changed from that of a
mere recorder of transactions to that of a member of the decision - making team in the management
of business.

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

1. Transaction 2. Events
3. Equity 4. Debt
5. Revenue 6. Expenditure
7. Expense 8. Royalty
9. Cost of goods sold 10. Merchandise
11. Concern 12. Convention
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Summary with reference to Learning Objectives

1. Meaning of Accounting - Accounting is the process of identifying, measuring and communicating
economic information to permit informed judgements and decisions by users of the information.
2. External Users of Accounting Information - Investors, creditors, government, consumers.
3. Internal Users of Accounting Information - Owners, management, employees.
4. GAAP - Generally Accepted Accounting Principles.
5. Accounting Concepts - Separate entity concept, Going concern concept, Money measurement
concept, Accounting period concept, Dual aspect concept or Accounting equation concept, Accrual
concept, Matching concept.
6. Accounting Conventions - Revenue recognition convention, Full disclosure convention, conservation
convention or prudence.
7. Double Entry System - Under this system both the aspects of a financial transaction are recorded.
8. AICPA - The American Institute of certified Public Accountants.
9. AAA - The American Accounting Associations.
10. Accounting Equation - Capital (+) Liabilities = Assets
11. Personal Accounts - These are made up of natural person’s account, artificial person’s account and
representative personal account.
12. Real Accounts - It consists of tangible and intangible real accounts.
13. Nominal Accounts - It consists of income and expense accounts.

Questions for Practice

Short Answer questions

1. Define Accounting.
2. Who are the internal and external users of information?
3. Give any three examples of revenues.
4. Give the meaning of expenditure and expense.
5. State the different types of accounting.
6. State the types of accounts as per the English approach.
7. What are the general rules of revenue recognition?
8. Define the matching principle.
9. What are the rules of debiting and crediting of accounts as per the English approach?
10. What are the rules of debiting and crediting of accounts as per the American approach?

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Long Answer questions
1. Explain the following terms
(i) Financial Transaction (ii) Assets (iii) Liabilities
(iv) Revenue (v) Debtors (vi) Creditors

2. Explain the role of accounting in the modern world.

3. Who are the external users of accounting information? Discuss.
4. Explain the following concepts.
(i) Separate entity concept
(ii) Going concern concept
(iii) Money measurement concept
(iv) Dual aspect concept
(v) Full disclosure convention
(vi) Conservatism convention
5. What are the different branches of Accounting? Explain.

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