FE Vol.

1 - Chapter(1)

Circuit Configuration of ALU

(Combination Circuit)

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 Circuit Configuration of ALU

• ALU (Arithmetic and Logical Unit) is a unit that performs arithmetic operations and logical
operations.

• This unit is composed of various circuits.

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 Logic Circuit

• A logic gate is a basic building block of a digital circuit, which is used to implement a
Boolean function.

• Computers often chain logic gates together, by taking the output from one gate and using
it as the input to another gate are called a logic circuit.

• Logical circuit that performs logical operations for logical processing of instructions by
computers.

• Logical operations refer to arithmetic operations that have only two truth values of True (1)
and False (0).

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 Logic operation

• Logical product operation (AND)

• Logical sum operation (OR)

• Negation operation (NOT)

• Exclusive logical sum (Exclusive OR) operation (XOR or EOR)

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 Truth Table

• The table used to represent the boolean expression of a logic gate function is commonly
called a Truth Table.

• A logic gate truth table shows each possible input combination to the gate or circuit with
the resultant output depending upon the combination of these input(s).

• The total number of possible combinations of binary inputs to a gate is determined by the
following formula: N = 2n

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 MIL Symbol Logic gate and Truth table

BUFFER

Note:
The electric circuit is often represented using the US army MIL symbol
(US MILitary standard, MIL-STD).
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 Types of logic circuit

There are two main types of logic circuit

1. Sequential circuit

2. Combination circuit

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 Combination circuit

• Combinational circuit is a circuit in which we combine the different gates in the circuit.

• There are various types of combination circuits, from basic circuits for implementing basic
logical operations (logical product, logical sum, negation) to circuits formed by combining
these basic circuits.

• Some of the characteristics of combination circuits are:

Combination circuit is a logic circuit where the output is decided on the basis of the
input at that time.
The combinational circuit do not use any memory. The previous state of input does
not have any effect on the present state of the circuit.

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 Different types of Combination circuit

• There are three main types of combination circuits.

• Arithmetic and logical combination circuits

 Adders, Subtractors, Multipliers, Comparators.

• Data handling combination circuits

 Multiplexers, Demultiplexers, Priority encoders, Decoders.

• Code converting combination circuits

 Binary to Gray, Gray to Binary, Binary to Excess 3, Seven-segment, etc.

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 AND circuit

• AND circuit of a switch and a light bulb.

Switch A Switch B Light bulb

Opens (0) Opens (0) Does not light (0)

Opens (0) Closes (1) Does not light (0)

Closes (1) Opens (0) Does not light (0)

Closes (1) Closes (1) Light (1)

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 OR circuit

• OR circuit of a switch and a light bulb.

Switch A Switch B Light bulb

Opens (0) Opens (0) Does not light (0)

Opens (0) Closes (1) Light (1)

Closes (1) Opens (0) Light (1)

Closes (1) Closes (1) Light (1)

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 NOT circuit

• NOT circuit of a switch and a light bulb.

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 Combination of the basic circuits - NAND circuit

• This circuit performs negative logical product (negative AND) operation (NAND).
• NAND operation is the arithmetic operation that negates the results of AND operation.

X Y X NAND Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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 Combination of the basic circuits - NOR circuit

• This circuit performs negative logical sum operation (NOR). NOR operation is the arithmetic
operation that negates the results of OR operation.

X Y X NOR Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
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 Exclusive-OR (XOR) circuit

• XOR circuit is also formed by combining the basic circuits that are used extensively in building
arithmetic logic circuits, computational logic comparators and error detection circuit.

X Y X xor Y

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

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 Logical design of XOR circuit

• Focus on the parts where the output of the truth table is 1 and determine AND operation
where the result is 1 on the basis of the input at that time.

X Y X xor Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

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 Logical design of XOR circuit

• Create a circuit where the output will be 1 when either of the AND operations you
determined is 1. In order to design such a circuit, determine logical expression F where
two AND operations are combined with OR operation.

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 Logical design of XOR circuit

• Determine the circuit diagram by combining the basic circuits such that it represents
logical expression F.

(¬X . Y) + (X .¬ Y)

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 Logical design of XOR circuit

• By expanding the logical expression F determined in [Logical design of XOR circuit]

using logical laws, we can determine different logical circuits.

(X + Y) . ( ¬X + ¬Y)

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 Universal gates

• A gate which can be used to create any Logic gate is called Universal Gate.

• NAND and NOR are called Universal Gates because all the other gates can be created by
using these two gates.

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 Universal gates

NAND Result

X
Y

Y
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 Universal gates

NAND NOR Result

X X

X X
Y
Y

X
X
Y Y

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 Timing diagram

• A timing diagram is the graphical representation of input and output signals as functions of
time.
• A timing diagram plots voltage (vertical) with respect to time (horizontal).

AND Gate Timing Diagram

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 Boolean algebra

• Boolean Algebra is the mathematical foundation of digital circuits.

• Boolean Algebra specifies the relationship between Boolean variables which is used to
design combinational logic circuits using Logic Gates.

• A Boolean Variable takes the value of either 0 (False) or 1 (True).

• Symbols are used to represent Boolean variables e.g. A, B, C, X, Y, Z

• There are three basic logic operations AND, OR, NOT
• The Boolean Operators are • + ‾
• A + B means A OR B
• A • B means A AND B
•  A means NOT A
• Nodes in a circuit are represented by Boolean Variables
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 Main logical laws

Idempotent laws Commutative laws

Others
A+A=A A+B=B+A
A+ 0=A
A.A=A A.B=B.A
A+A=A
A+1=1
Absorption laws Associative laws
A + 𝐴ഥ = 1
A + (A . B) = A A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C A.0=0
A . (A + B) = A A . (B . C) = (A . B) . C A . 𝐴ഥ = 0
A.A=A
De Morgan’s laws Distributive laws A .1 = A

𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴ഥ . 𝐵ഥ A + (B . C) = (A + B) . (A + C)
A =A
A . (B + C) = (A . B) + (A . C)
𝐴 . 𝐵 = 𝐴ഥ + 𝐵ഥ

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 Q1. Which of the following is equivalent to the logic circuit below?

X Y X  (X + Y) Z X Y X
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1

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 Q1. Which of the following is equivalent to the logic circuit below?

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 Karnaugh Maps

• Karnaugh Maps offer a graphical method of reducing a digital circuit to its minimum
number of gates.

• The map is a simple table containing 1s and 0s that can express a truth table or complex
Boolean expression describing the operation of a digital circuit.

• The map needs one cell for each possible binary word applied to the inputs.

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 Constructing Karnaugh Maps

Figure 1. 2 input circuits with inputs A and B require maps with 22 = 4 cells

Figure 2. 3 input circuits with inputs A, B and C require maps with 23 = 8 cells

BC
B
A 0 1 00 01 11 10
A

0 0

1 1

Figure 1 Figure 2 31
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 Constructing Karnaugh Maps

Figure 3. 4 input circuits with inputs A, B, C and D require maps with 24 = 16 cells

CD
00 01 11 10
AB

00

01

11

Figure 3 10
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 Karnaugh Maps-Rules of Simplification

• Groups may not include any cell containing a zero.

• Groups may be horizontal or vertical, but not diagonal.

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 Karnaugh Maps-Rules of Simplification

• Groups must contain 1, 2, 4, 8, or in general 2n cells.

• That is if n = 1, a group will contain two 1's since 21 = 2. If n = 2, a group will contain four
1's since 22 = 4.

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 Karnaugh Maps-Rules of Simplification

• Each group should be as large as possible.

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 Karnaugh Maps-Rules of Simplification

• Each cell containing a one must be in at least one group.

• Groups may overlap.

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 Karnaugh Maps-Rules of Simplification

• Groups may wrap around the table. The leftmost cell in a row may be grouped with the
rightmost cell and the top cell in a column may be grouped with the bottom cell.

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 SOP (Sum of Product) and POS (Product of Sum)Form

A B C Output
SOP (Sum of Product)
0 0 0 1
A.B.C+A.B.C+A.B.C+A.B.C+A.B.C
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
POS (Product of Sum)
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 (A + B + C) . (A + B + C ) . (A + B + C)

1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
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 Logical Sum (OR)

B
A 0 1

0 0 1 Group 1

1 1 1

Group 2
Group 1 = B

Group 2 = A

A+B

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 Karnaugh Maps Exercise

A B C Output
BC
0 0 0 1 00 01 11 10
A
0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 0

0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0

1 0 1 1
Group 1 =
1 1 0 0
Group 2 =
1 1 1 0
Group 3 =
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Thanks for watching