GEOMORPHOLOGY

GEOMORPHOLOGIE

International Association of Geomorphologists

Association Internationale des Geomorphologues

DELHI 2017
6 -11 November 2017 | Vigyan Bhawan, New Delhi, India

Organised by
Indian Institute of Geomorphologists (IGI)

B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book on

KASHMIR HIMALAYA

Convener Editor
Prof. M. Sultan Bhat M. N. Koul
Dept of Geography & Regional Development Formerly of Department of Geography
University of Kashmir, Srinagar University of Jammu

New Delhi, 2017

B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

Published by:
Indian Institute of Geomorphologists (IGI),
Allahabad

On the occasion of:

9th International Conference on Geomorphology
of the International Association of Geomorphologists (IAG),
New Delhi (6-11 November, 2017)

Citation:
Bhat, M. S. 2017. Geomorphological Field Guide Book on
Kashmir Himalaya (Edited by M.N. Koul).
Indian Institute of Geomorphologists, Allahabad.

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B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

Image-map of India, showing some places of interest for the 9th International
Conference on Geomorphology, 2017 (Map prepared by A. Kar through processing
of relevant ETM+ FCC mosaics and SRTM 1km DEM, both sourced from the US
Geological Survey site). Boundaries are approximate.

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B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

Geomorphological Field Guide Book on Kashmir Himalaya

(12-18 November, 2017)
Itinerary
Travel Driving dist.
Day Date Place
From To in km
12 November
Day 1 Delhi Srinagar 600 (aerial) Arrival in Srinagar (Stay)
2017
– Breakfast, Srinagar
Srinagar Sonamarg 87
– – – Spot-1 Sonamarg valley
13 November
Day 2 – – – Lunch, Sonamarg
2017
Sonamarg Thajwas 7
– – – Spot-2 Thajwas Glacier
Thajwas Sonamarg 7 Sonamarg (Stay)
– – – Breakfast, Sonamarg
Sonamarg Machoi 30 Spot-1 Machoi Glacier
14 November – – – Machoi Glacier
Day 3
2017 – – – Lunch, Machoi
– – – Machoi Glacier
Machoi Srinagar 127 Srinagar (Stay)
– – – Breakfast, Srinagar
Srinagar Wular Lake 50
15 November – – – Wular Lake
Day 4
2017 – – – Lunch, Wular Lake
Wular Lake
Wular Lake Srinagar 50 Srinagar (Stay)
– – — Breakfast, Srinagar
Srinagar Hirpur 60
– – – Spot-1 Hirpur
16 November – – – Lunch, Hirpur
Day 5
2017 Hirpur Pampore 45
– -- – Spot-2 Pampore
Pampore Srinagar 15
– – – Spot-3 Srinagar (and stay)
17 November – – – Breakfast, Srinagar
Day 6
2017 Srinagar Pahalgam 90 Spot-1, Pahalgam
18 November – – – Breakfast, Srinagar
Day 7
2017 Srinagar Delhi 600 (aerial) Departure

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B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

Notes

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B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

A. Kashmir Himalaya:
An Introduction

The field guide book is a part of the 9th conference of International Association of
Geomorphologists to be held at New Delhi, India, from 6-11th November 2017. The
guidebook consists of brief descriptions of the geomorphic sites to be visited during
the conference field trip to Kashmir Himalaya, (Fig. 1 and 2). Since the participants
would be visiting various locations in Kashmir Himalaya, a brief geomorphic
description is provided on the landscape evolution related to the history (geology),
structural setup and to geomorphic features.

Fig. 1.
Locations to be visited in Kashmir Himalaya.

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B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

Fig. 2.
Landsat-ETM image subsets showing the major spots to be visited during
the excursion (a) Sonamarg and Thajwas, (b) Machoi Glacier, (c) Wular Lake,
(d) Hirpur (Shopian), (e) Pampore and (f) Srinagar.

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B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

HIMALAYA
Mountain belts created by continental collision represent the most dominant
geologic features on the surface of the Earth. The Rockies and the Appalachian belt in
North America, the Andes in the South America, the Ural mountains in central
Eurasia, the Alps of Europe and the Himalayas are some of the best examples, each
extending for thousands of kilometers. A great deal of attention has been paid to the
evolution of these mountain belts since the advent of plate tectonics. The youngest
and perhaps the most impressing of all the continent-continent collisional belts on
the Earth is the Himalayan orogen; its evolution has long been subject of discussions
(Gansser, 1964; Molnar and Tapponnier, 1975; Bhat, 1987; Treloar and Searle, 1993).
The Himalayan mountain building is the product of collision between India and
Eurasian plate that began during the Eocene epoch and is considered to be one of the
major tectonic events in the Cenozoic era and a live example of collision mountain
belt as the process of mountain building is still active, forming the highest range and
plateau in the world (Molnar and Tapponier, 1975; Molnar and Chen, 1977).

The Himalayan mountain belt extends over ~2500 Km from northwest to northeast
with a variable width of 230 to 330 km, terminating at both east and west ends with
syntaxial bends. Based on the works of Burrard and Hayden (1932), Wadia (1931),
Bordet (1961), Gansser (1964), Le Fort (1975), Windley (1985), Hodges (2000), Steck
(2003), DiPietro and Pouge (2004), the Himalayan terrain from south to north has
been conventionally divided into sub parallel tectono-stratigraphic subdivisions:
Sub-Himalaya or Outer Himalaya, Lower Himalaya or Lesser Himalaya, Higher
Himalaya or Greater Himalaya, and Trans Himalaya or Tibetan Himalaya.

The dividing planes between these subdivisions are the thrusts of regional dimension
with varying tectonic activity (Gansser, 1964; Valdiya, 2002) and each subdivision has
a characteristic stratigraphy which is hardly co-relatable with adjacent zones
(DiPietro and Pouge, 2004). From south to north, the classic bounding faults are: the
Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) between the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plain in south to the
Outer Himalaya in north, the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) between the Outer
Himalayas and the Lesser Himalayan sedimentary zone (LHSZ), the Main Central
Thrust (MCT) between the Lesser Himalayas and the Higher Himalayan Crystallines
(HHC); the South Tibetan detachment system (STD) between the Higher Himalayas
and the Tethys Himalaya, and finally the Indus-Tsangpo suture zone (ITSZ), which
marks the northern limit of exposed Indian plate rocks. Along each of these thrusts,
tens to hundreds of kilometers of the displacement between India and Asia have
been accommodated (Gansser, 1964; Powell and Conaghan, 1973; Seeber and
Armbruster, 1981; Schelling, 1992; Treloar et al., 1992; Srivastava and Mitra, 1994).
All three zones exert a major influence on the creation of the unique geomorphic
architecture of the Himalaya.

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B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

Kashmir Himalaya
Neogene–Quaternary intermontane basins occur throughout the Himalaya and
southern Tibet. Of the numerous intermountain basins in the Himalaya, the Kashmir
basin with distinct NW-SE asymmetric disposition, juxtaposed between Zanskar
mountain range in the east-northeast and Pir Panjal range in the west-southwest
(Fig. 3), forms a larger segment of the NW Himalaya with basin and range topography.
The Kashmir basin is believed to have evolved in the late Miocene by shifting of the
NE thrust complex from the base of the Zanskar Himalayan side to the southwest
forefront of the Pir Panjal range (Burbank, 1983; Burbank and Johnson, 1983); as a
result, the NE thrust complex was replaced by the existing structural system
(basement complex-MBT/MCT). This was followed by accumulation of low energy
fluvio-lacustrine sediments (Karewa) that constrain initial timing of valley formation
to ~5–4 Ma (Burbank and Johnson, 1983; Burbank and Raynolds, 1984). Bhat (1982)
proposed a rift-reactivation model to explain the formation of the Kashmir basin
along two deep-seated faults, i.e., the Panjal thrust from the west and Zanskar thrust
from the east. However, recent work suggests that the Kashmir basin evolved as a
result of movement along basement dextral strike-slip fault (Alam et al., 2015a,b).

Several thrust faults have been delineated in southwest of the Pir Panjal range
including the MCT/Panjal, MBT/Murree, Riasi, and Kotli thrusts (Thakur et al., 2010);
as a result, the zone has a complex pattern of faulting (Fig. 3). The southern-most
deformation front of Kashmir Himalaya is defined by an active fold belt known as
Surin-Mustgarh anticline that extends from river Beas in southeast to Jhelum in the
northwest. Furthermore,
several out-of-sequence
faults have been identified
and delineated between
Himalayan Frontal thrust
(HFT) and Main Boundary
thrust (MBT). These include
the Riasi thrust (RT), the
Kotli thrust (KT) and the
Bagh-Balakot fault (BBF).
The latter was the source of
Oct-2005 Mw 7.6
Muzzafarabad earthquake
(Kaneda et al., 2008;
Hussain et al., 2009; Thakur
et al., 2010), which claimed
more than 80,000 lives. No Fig. 3.
faulting was known north of Kashmir Himalaya and its structural setup.

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B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

the MCT/Panjal thrust or MBT/Murree thrust except a high angle thrust fault
(reverse) with an average northeast 60o dip and NW-SE strike length of ~100 km
(Madden et al., 2010, 2011; Ahmad and Bhat, 2012; Ahmad et al., 2013, 2015;
Ahmad, 2014). The unrelenting competition between deposition, erosion and
tectonic activity produced most of the geomorphic features in the Kashmir basin.

Kashmir basin is spread over an elevation ranging from the minimum of ~1560
meters to the maximum of 5550m amsl. The maximum hydrographic dimensions of
the Kashmir basin are 185 km (length) and 120 km (width). Only outlet for the
drainage system is Baramulla-gorge, where the Jhelum River exits the Kashmir basin.
The bordering transverse tributaries flowing across the Pir Panjal and Zanskar ranges
have brought enormous amount of fan deposits consisting of boulders, sand and silt
over extensive areas at their confluence. The tributaries of Jhelum River are also
responsible for changing the shape of the landform through degradation and
aggradations processes.

The basin has diverse geological record ranging from Precambrian to Recent
(Middlemiss, 1911; Wadia 1975; Raza et al., 1978; Bhatt, 1989). With Salkhala series
(Precambrian) and Dogra slates (lower Cambrian) as oldest stratigraphic basement
floor (Wadia, 1975; Krishnan, 1982), the basin has a more or less full sequence of
fossiliferous Paleozoic such as Panjal Volcanic series (Panjal trap and Agglomeratic
slate), gneissose granite, Gondwana shale, Fenestella shale, Syringothyris limestone,
Permo - Triassic rocks, conglomerate beds, and varved clays in various parts of
Kashmir (Lydekker, 1883, Middlemiss, 1910; Wadia, 1975; Krishnan, 1982). The
exposed bedrock units of the valley consist of Panjal Volcanic series (Panjal trap and
Agglomeratic slate), gneiss or gneissose granite and metamorphic schists, and
Triassic limestone.

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B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

Geomorphological Evolution Kashmir Himalaya

Kashmir Himalaya has youngest mountain range possessing a dramatic landscape
with snow, glaciers surging river system spreading between the Pirpanjal and the
Zanskar and establishment of Indus water shed (Jehlum-Suru Zanskar) .The Orogen is
marked by two tectonic episodes. The first episode is related to collision between
India and Asia that resulted crustal shortening, thickening and initiation of
metamorphic impact on sedimentary series of Indian continental margin. The
second episode lead to extensional tectonic structure related to exhumation of high-
grade metamorphic rock of High Himalayan Crystalline that lead to compression of
beds due to ductile normal shearing, doming and normal faulting. The geological
events go back to 60 Million years to attain its present elevation and since 15 Million
years has lead to initiation and establishment of monsoon system in the region.
Pleistocene has been the time period when pulsating uplifts resulted in pushing
Himalaya further up causing precipitation in the form of snow around the year giving
rise to large glaciers (Valdiya, 1993).Cold conditions were set in Kashmir Himalaya
and its adjoining valleys as early as 2.5million years ago. The glaciations period was
followed by time de-glaciation that resulted in formation of huge lakes, this period
was followed by extreme dry condition when fierce dry wind blew Kashmir valley
(Pant et al.1978). The temperature of ice plays major role in movement and
morphological activity resulting in staggering geomorphological diversity,
exceptionally rich field for study of glacial, fluvial and arid cold landscapes.

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B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

B. Description of the Field Sites

During this program participants would have an overview of the general geomorphic
setup of the major landforms of Kashmir and Karakorum Himalaya particularly with
regard to the landform characteristics of beautiful Kashmir Valley and Drass valley
(Ladakh) enclosed by Pir Panjal and Zanskar ranges. These youngest mountain ranges
have dramatic landscape with snow, glaciers and surging river system of Jhelum, Sind
and deposition rim land along the basin floor produced by hill slope process. The
landscape presents wide range of changes in land form due to forces related
geomorphic environment related to cold climate, humid climate and dry climate
geomorphology related to different processes and their landforms association with
Glacial, Fluvial, and Aeolian actions, that are available at every new step; however,
during this program following geomorphic sites have been selected to observe them
in context of process geomorphology.

DAY 1: FROM SRINAGAR TO MACHOI GLACIER (120 km)

Spot 1: Sonamarg
Sonamarg meaning ‘golden meadow’ is an alpine valley that evolved from glacial
action. Sonamarg is situated at an altitude of 2800 m, ~87 km northeast of Srinagar.
Sonamarg representing one of the preferred tourist destinations remains
inaccessible during winters due to heavy snowfall and is usually open for visitors in
late April. The drive to Sonamarg is through the spectacular facets, deep rock-cut
gorges, grassy meadows, and forested slopes along the banks of River Sind. The river
originating below the lofty peaks near Zojila (3256m) and joined by number of other
head streams from Amaranth (5003m), Kolahoi (5425m) and Panjtarni snow fields,
flows throw Sonamarg. Sonamarg also serves as a base camp for major tourist routes
leading to several mountain lakes, e.g., Vishansar, Kishansar, Gadsar, Satsar and
Gangabal, including holy cave of Amarnath for religious pilgrimage. It is also the take
off point for a drive to Ladakh across Zojila, a major pass in the Great Himalayan
Range, through which the Srinagar-Leh Road passes. Sind basin in general and
Sonamarg in particular is an appropriate area to observe the last glacial remnants.
Dainelli in 1922 made detailed observations on the glacial sequences in the Sind
valley and recognized four glaciations:

(a) First interglacial: the cemented conglomerate of Malshahibagh rests on the

glacially molded hill slope and underlies the Karewa clays laid down as the
Karewa lake began to form.

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B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

(b) Second glacial: the fluvio-glacial deposits and glacial trough below Gund are
given in evidence.
(c) Second interglacial: it was suggested that the upper Karewa clays were laid
down in the lower Sind.
(d) Third glacial: the striations, roches moutonnees, glacially scooped floor and
moraine deposits at Gund in the Sind valley.
(e) Third interglacial: it was not discussed
(f) Fourth glacial: the upper Sind was covered with ice and the while Sonamarg,
producing moraines there. Dainelli (1922) also noted two terraces in the
Sonamarg, which he correlated with fourth glaciations.

However, De Terra and Patterson (1939) have disagreed with the lower glacially
molded hill of Malshahibagh interglacial unit of Dainelli (1922). De terra and
Paterson (1939), on the basis of general physiography divided the whole Sind into
three parts:

1. The lower Sind is a mature pre-Pleistocene form, extending from the outlet
to a point near Hari and carrying the evidences of oldest glaciations only.
The region has large and thick deposits of outwash and of lake clays.
2. The middle Sind extends from the Hari to the natural boundary formed by
Gagangiyer gorge. The third glacial advance alone has produced moraines
and evidence for earlier glaciations lies well above the present valley floor,
truncated by erosion into a rising block at Hari.
3. The upper Sind carries the moraines of the fourth and later ice advances
above Gagangiyer gorge, which can be divided into the Sonamarg meadow
and the Baltal valley.

Spot 2: After breakfast whole day tour on the Thajwas glacier

Thajwas is an ideal and easily accessible spot to understand large scale glacial retreat
and preserved features. Thajwas Glacier is located about 7 Km from the Sonamarg
valley. The adjoining area remains permanently covered with snow throughout the
year. Several small streams are gushing out from the Thajwas Glacier to join Sind via
Sonamarg. Thajwas Glacier occupied about 2.99 Km2 in 1962 and has reduced to
mere 1.07 Km2 in 2001, which indicates that the glacier has lost 1.92 Km2 (~63%) of its
aerial extent within the span of 40 years. The drastic retreat of the Thajwas Glacier
can be attributed to the prevailing climatic variability. During the last four decades of
20th century, mean maximum temperature has increased by 0.40C while as the mean
minimum temperature has registered an increase of 0.10C.

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B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

DAY 2: FROM SONMARG TO MACHOI GLACIER (30 km)

Spot 1: Machoi Glacier
Machoi is a small transverse valley glacier housed in Kanipathar ranges located SE of
Zojila that separates it from westerly Sind Valley. It is 4.19km long and 1.5km to 3 km
wide has been named after the highest peak (Machoi Peak ~5458m amsl) that lies at
the eastern end of the glacier. Baltal and Zojila are two important points on the 30 km
road stretch from Sonamarg to Machoi; the former represents the base station of
Hindu pilgrimage to Amarnath Cave, while as later one Zoji-La pass is a gateway to
Drass-Ladakh situated on National Highway 1-a road, connecting Srinagar to Kargil
and Leh. The Srinagar-Kargil road remains closed to vehicular traffic during winter
season due to closure of Zojila pass as result of heavy snowfall. The valley has a
distinct climatic characteristic due to its location in the shadow zone of Great
Himalaya having an aerodynamic link with the air mass of westerly air flow and
westerly disturbances (originating from Mediterranean and Caspian ocean) moving
aloft the Pamir Range giving rise to cold anticyclone leading to production of thermal
gradient during winter season (October to May) that is responsible for anchoring
southerly jet. The study region has cold sub arid type of climate. The winters are long
chilly (mean minimum temperature −15˚C to −25˚C), lasting November to May.
Summers are short (June to September) mild (temperature varies between −8˚C to
25˚C). Nearly 72% of its annual precipitation is received by Western Disturbances
that is confined to November to May which sometimes prolongs to summers as well
otherwise summers get scanty rains

Machoi glacier is selected as benchmark glacier in Drass basin, Kargil, Ladakh

Himalaya (Karakorum) been monitored and studied by many geologists/glaciologists
in the past 130 years (Lawrence 1895 ; Oldham1895 ;La Touche 1910;Raina 1975;
Koul et al 2016).The glacier has experienced a marginal change in glacier extension
and volume. The glacier is about one kilometer from the road head, has evidently
extended almost down to where road now runs and is shown by heaps of moraines
material. The research team of university of Jammu extensively monitored the
glacier from the snout(4350m) to the altitude of 4800 m (accumulation zone) by GPS
survey and carried continuous field mass balance measurements during 2011 to
2014. The glacier has a positive net balance with cumulative specific balance of 0.16
m w.e./km/yr. This has resulted in shifting ELA from 4540 m asl in the year 2011-2012
to 4509 m asl 2013-2014 (Table 5) and the glacier snout to advance 4 meters in
central part (3656 m to 3652 m), but along the sides there has been deformation
squeezing and retreat (0.56 m).

The climatic data of Drass reveals that there has been a small increase in annual mean
temperature at Drass of −0.426˚C per decade prior to year 1995. However, since 1996

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B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

the rate of increase has accelerated to 0.375˚C per decade. The analysis of mean
monthly temperature (Maximum and Minimum) trend line for period 28 years was
lack of fit of lower portion of data (1988-2000) to upper portion of data (2001-2013);
hence it is attributed to phase transition threshold. It indicates that winter is cooler,
late winter warm humid, and summer cool and wet during time series 2001-2013 in
comparison to cold winters (November-March), mild late winter (March-May) and
warm and dry summer during 1988-2000. Further, the decrease in mean maximum
as well mean minimum temperature during 2004-2013 is associated with change
with inter-decadently of Pacific Oscillation and with increase in El Nino/southern
Oscillation events that resulted in lower ablation season temperature particularly
during summers of 2004-2014 (Yasunari, 1987). These trends in weather conditions
have undoubtedly leaded a favorable environment for decelerated retreat to the
extent of no change in glacier area to slow retreat of glacier snout and marginal loss in
Machoi glacier area

Fig. 4.
Location map of Drass glacier sub-basin and Machoi Glacier,
Kargil Ladakh (after Koul et al., 2016).

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DAY 3: FROM SRINAGAR TO WULAR LAKE (50 km)

Spot 1: Wular Lake
Wular Lake is located in northeastern corner of Kashmir basin at a distance of ~50Km
from Srinagar. Wular is the largest freshwater lake in India spread over an area of 189
km² with extensive marshes of emergent and floating vegetation. In view of
tremendous ecological and economic importance, the lake has been declared as
Ramsar site in the year 1990 (no. 461). The area around Wular lake comprises of a
range of geological Formations such as Permian, Panjal trap, Agglomeratic slate,
gneiss or gneissose granite and metamorphic schists, upper and lower Triassic
limestone and Slate with scanty intercalations of black Shale as hard rock units and
recent Alluvium and; however, the area is dominated by the upper Palaeozoic and
Triassic rocks (Middlemiss and Bion, 1910; Thakur and Rawat, 1992). The upper
Palaeozoic rocks (Agglomeratic slates, Panjal Traps, slates and granites), overlain by
Triassic limestone series (blue and dolomitic limestone), cover the maximum area
from NE side of Wular lake. At some places the Triassic rocks are overlain by recent
sediments. Compared to hard rock terrain, Recent Alluvium covers a small portion of
the Wular lake surroundings, which comprises of pebbles, sand silt and clay.

Wular acts as a storage sump for whole drainage of the Kashmir basin; however, with
continuing inflow of the sediment load and solid waste the maximum depth of lake
has reduced to 7 meters from 20 meters in 18th century. Moreover, state of human
interference, in the form of settlement expansion around the lake, farming practices
and encroachment has
resulted in degradation of
the ecologically sensitive
aquatic ecosystem (Fig.
5). This site provides an
opportunity to witness
transformation of natural
landscape and alteration
of aquatic system
because of natural and
anthropogenic reasons
over time.

Fig. 5.
East to west view of the Wular Lake.

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DAY 4: FROM SRINAGAR TO HIRPUR (SHOPIAN) (60 km)

Spot 1: Hirpur (Shopian)
The site has been selected to observe one of the most remarkable geomorphic
features of Kashmir valley, i.e., Karewa (Plio-Pleistocene) deposits. Karewa is fluvio-
glacial and lacustrine sediments, which has been assigned Group status (De terra and
Paterson, 1939; Farooqi and Desai 1974; Bhatt 1989) (Fig. 6; Table 1). These deposits
spread in the form of mounds, terraces, flat lands, dissected plateaus, and pop-ups
from Shopian-Kulgam in the south Kashmir through Badgam in the middle and
extending to Handwara for a stretch of about 120-130km with varying width from 13-
15km (Wadia, 1975). Dominant in SW of the Kashmir basin, the Karewa deposits
occupy nearly an area of 2500 km2. These deposits consist of 1300m thick sequence
of unconsolidated clays, sands, and conglomerates with lignite beds unconformably
lying on the bedrock and are overlain by the recent river alluvium (Bhatt 1975, 1976;
Wadia 1975; Burbank and Johnson 1982; Singh 1982). The Karewa deposits preserve
the record of past four million years in which the sedimentation is controlled by the
tectonic events (Burbank and Johnson 1982). The Karewa deposits also containing
volcanic ash horizons where some of the ashes from Pir Panjal side were found to be
2.4 ± 0.3 Ma old (Burbank and Johnson, 1982). Based on unconformity (a boulder
bed) the Karewa Group has been subdivided into Hirpur and Nagum Formations by
Singh (1982); whereas, Bhatt (1989) divided them further into younger Hirpur,
Nagum, and Dilpur Formations (Fig. 7). The Hirpur Formation broadly consists of gray
to bluish-gray clays, light-gray sandy clays, fine to coarse-grained green to purple
sands, conglomerates, lignite, and lignitic clays. The Nagum Formation is made up of
fine to coarse-grained greenish to purplish sands, gray and ochre sandy clays, ochre
and cream colored marls and gravels, while as the upper Dilpur Formation mostly
consists of brown silts.

The southwest Kashmir (Pir Panjal range) hosts significant Karewa deposits,
descending through long gentle slope towards the valley floor as compared to short
and moderately steep slopes on the northeast Kashmir (Zanskar range). The Karewa
deposits are mostly capped by the loess sediments, which is the youngest unit of the
Karewa group and are aeolian in origin (Pant et al., 1978; Bronger et al., 1987). These
loess sediments are characterized by the presence of inter-bedded profiles of
paleosols. The maximum thickness of loess is ~ 22 m on the southwestern side
compared to only ~ 4 m on the northeastern part of the Kashmir basin. The loess
sequence on SW (Pir Panjal) side is superimposed on the gravel bed of the Shopian
Member of the upper Karewa. However, from NE (Zanskar) side, these loessic
sediments cap the upper Karewa laminated silt of the Pampore Member. The loess
deposits along northeastern part are younger than 85 ka years. However, along the
southwestern part entire loess sequence is at least ~300 ka old (Singhvi et al., 1987).

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The whole lower Karewa unit is exposed along the northeast flowing Pir Panjal
tributaries on the southwestern side (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6.
Karewa Formation of Kashmir basin (after Bhatt, 1989).

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Table 1: Stratigraphic succession of Karewa Formation (after Wadia, 1975; Bhatt,

1976, 1989).

Formation/Group Lithology Age

Clay, sandy clay, silt Recent to Sub-

Alluvial deposits
with infrequent gravel recent

Loess-paleosol K Layers of brown silt

Dilpur Upper
succession of vary from calcareous to
Formation A Pleistocene
Dilpur Formation non-calcareous types
R
Shopian Member
Nagum E Gravels, sand, sandy
Formation W clay, marl and silt
Angular unconformity A Angular unconformity
Methawoin
Member G Clay, sandy clay,
Rambiara Hirpur R conglomerate, varve
Pliocene to
O sediment, liginite and
Member Formation Pleistocene
sand
Er.Unconformity U
Dubjan Member
P
Unconformity
Lower, Middle
Triassic Formation Limestones, shales etc. and Upper
Triassic
Panjal Trap Andesite, Basalts etc. Permian
Panjal volcanic
Agglomeratic series Upper
Slates
slate carboniferous

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B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

Fig. 7.
(a) Litho-column of Lower Karewa (Hirpur Formation) (after Bhatt, 1989), (b)
showing exposure of tilted (NE) lower Karewa at Hirpur village in upper Rambiara
valley. Letter A is younger conglomerate marker horizon in Methawoin Member.

Spot 2: Pampore (45 Km)

While returning back from Hirpur the next spot would be the upper Karewa deposits
(Pampore Member) named after nearby town Pampore. Although, Pampore
Member is invariably and abundantly exposed at different locations in the cliff walls
of the numerous Karewa plateau from Anantnag area in the southeast, through
Bijbiara, Tral to Pattan and Baramulla area in the northwest Kashmir; however, the
Member is best developed and easily accessible in Pampore town, where it is ~ 41m
thick (Bhatt, 1989). The Member extends from Pampore in the north to Sambur in
the south (Bhatt, 1989). Pampore Member consists of light grey and orche-coloured
sandy clay and coarse to fine greenish and purple sand, with thin layers of bluish-grey
to cream color clay and marlekor band (Bhatt, 1989). The base of the Pampore
Member is not exposed in the type section, whereas the Triassic limestone is
exposed in the adjacent parts of the section at Sambur. A characteristic lithological
feature of Pampore Member is the sequential occurrence of finely laminated sand-
sandy clay alterations, sand and light gray structure-less muds in vertical successions.
The sand to sandy-clay alterations often show ripple structures; the sands are usually
cross-bedded. The Pampore Member was deposited in a 1-2m deep lake; as a result,
the lake bottom was always within the reach of waves and received enough sunlight
and supported dense subaqueous vegetation. The deeper facies lack sand layers and
mottling by rootlets, suggesting the maximum depth of the lake basin between 5 and
10 m. De terra and Paterson (1939) has recorded an assemblage of Mammalian
vertebrate fossils including Elephas hysudricus from the basal part of Pampore
Member. Moreover, there is a record of fresh water Ostracodes and Molluscs from
the strata of Pampore Member (Bhatia, 1968).

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B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

Spot 3: Srinagar
Apart from the longitudinal tectonic belts, existence of transverse lineaments/faults
is characteristic feature of Himalayan tectonics. These transverse faults trend oblique
to the NW-SE grain of the Himalaya and extend northwards from the alluvial plains
through the pediment zone south of foothills of the Tertiary belt into the Lesser
Himalaya (Valdiya, 1979). Many of them confirm to the known deep seated ridges
beneath the accretionary wedge of Indo gigantic plain (Virdi, 1979; Valdiya, 2002);
and behave as wrench or tear faults. Yet little is known about their role in
accommodating N-S shortening between India and Eurasia, and in most cases slip
rates are only estimated from satellite geodesy and GPS. These transverse
lineaments/faults show four prominent trends viz, NNW-SEE, N-S, NNE-SSW, and NE-
SW.

Here, we present one of these transverse structural lineaments known as Srinagar-

Pathankot Fault 'SPF' (suspected). The journey will be devoted to interpretation of
geomorphic features associated with Srinagar-Pathankot Fault 'SPF'. We will explore
the different landform assemblages linked to the northern segment of the 'SPF'.
Srinagar-Pathankot Fault 'SPF'-one of the transverse lineaments of NW Himalaya
which runs N-S across Pir Panjal Range (PPR). This right lateral strike slip starts from
Pathankot cutting across Pir Panjal Range (PPR) running through Kashmir basin for a
distance of more ˃150 Km.
We name this fault as
Srinagar-Pathankot (SPF)
Fault, after the two
prominent cities at its
northern and southern
ends respectively. The
'SPF' consists of two
principal fault strands-the
Southern strand runs from
Pathankot up to Riasi along
Sidhra ridge, the axis along
which the Chenab River
flows. The anticlinal ridge
in fact forms a part of the
NW-SE Upper Siwalik
mountain belt which has Fig. 8.
shifted from its original Upper Siwalik mountain belt in Jammu,
position to N-S orientation indicating N-S orientation instead of NW-SE,
(Fig. 8). against general trend of mountains in
NW Himalayas.

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B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

Here we focus on the northern strand of SPF known as Shopian-Srinagar strand. This
right lateral strike slip fault starts from Rambiara wind gap running across the
Kashmir basin in N-S direction. Its strike varies and is northerly in the northern
segment, north of Kashmir Basin, forcing the axial River Jhelum to make a hairpin
bend in its course at Srinagar and dies out up to at least mouth of Sind River.

The Shopian-Srinagar (SS) fault is characterized by geomorphic expression including

river offset, shutter ridges, sag ponds, and linear, strike-parallel valleys. The obvious
imprint of this S-S strike-slip fault include the first-order, near-fault tectonic
landforms at the southern end of Pir Panjal range where mountain ridges initially
oriented in NW-SE direction, migrate laterally in conjunction with fault motion in a
meridional direction due N-S. Continued slip along S-S fault leads to stream capture
of Dodhganga and Shaliganga rivers which route across the Pir Panjal range forcing
them to flow in northerly direction along the fault instead of northeast. Further
down, the great bend of Srinagar is an excellent offset marker where axial river
Jhelum crosses S-S fault thereby, giving rise to platted structural anomaly. East of this
S-S fault above the great bend of Srinagar (in the upstream direction) the river Jhelum
shows anomalous compressed meanders with high sinuosity index; while as, west of
this N-S fault, the river Jhelum is disposed with deflated meanders with relatively low
sinuosity index.

This is further corroborated by considering the extension of the fault further north
where it marks the elevated part of Srinagar city, which according to archival scribes
has been devastated many times by earthquakes. This strip of elevated upper Karewa
(Pleistocene deposits) sediments lies between the Dal lake on the east and the
Anchar lake on the west, a tectonic situation analogous to separation of Lake Patron
from Lake Vegoritis by a narrow strip of land elevated along Vegoritis fault in
Ptolemais-Florina basin in NW Macedonia (Diamantopoulos et al., 2014).

Day 5 - Pahalgam
Located 95 km from Srinagar at a height of 7200 ft, Pahalgam, known as the “Valley of
Shepherds”, is a famous hill station in Jammu & Kashmir. Pahalgam is surrounded by
thickly wooded pine forests, breathtaking vistas of meadows and snow-clad
Himalayan mountains

Day 6 - Departure from Srinagar to Delhi

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B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

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B4: Geomorphological Field Guide Book KASHMIR HIMALAYA

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