BOILER AND FEEDWATER LIMITS

The EPRI Standards provide guidance on the relative

need for corrective action in the event of cycle
chemistry excursions. These action levels may be
revised based on a periodic review of experience.

Four action levels were established based on the

following criteria:
* Maximum Annual Exposure to Contaminant
• Normal. Values are consistent with long-term system Conditions are used for Annual Benchmarking.
reliability. A safety margin has been provided to avoid
concentration of contaminants at surfaces and under RATIONALE FOR SAMPLE POINTS AND LIMITS
deposits. Main Steam and / or Reheat Steam
• Action Level 1. There is a potential for the * Monitoring of superheated steam is critical for
accumulation of contaminants and corrosion. Return knowledge of the steam quality being supplied to the
values to normal levels within 1 week. turbine.
• Action Level 2. The accumulation of impurities and * Monitoring of key contaminants at this sample point
corrosion will occur. Return values to normal levels provides an indication of the actual impurity levels in
within 24 hours. the steam.
• Action Level 3. Experience indicates that rapid SATURATED STEAM
corrosion could occur, which can be avoided by
shutdown of the unit within 4 hours. - is steam that is in equilibrium with heated
water at the same pressure. It has not been heated
• Immediate Shutdown. There is clear evidence of rapid above the boiling point for its pressure.
boiler and / or turbine damage when severe
contamination enters the unit. - Immediate shutdown DRY STEAM
of the unit is required to avoid such damage. - is a saturated steam that has been very
* In drum boilers having the capability of sliding slightly superheated. This is not sufficient to change its
pressure operation, one way to respond to an action energy appreciably, but is a sufficient rise in
level condition is to reduce boiler pressure. temperature to avoid condensation problems.

The following criteria were used for most of the SUPERHEATED STEAM
parameters: - is steam at a temperature higher than its
• Action Level 1 Value: 2 x [Normal Target Value] vaporization point at the absolute pressure where the
temperature is measured.
• Action Level 2 Value: 2 x [Action Level 1 Value]
* Superheated steam can therefore cool (lose internal
• Action Level 3 Value: > [Action Level 2 Value] energy) by some amount. Resulting in a lowering of its
• Immediate Shutdown: Boiler water pH (drum units) temperature without changing state (i.e., condensing)
and feedwater cation conductivity and / or sodium from a gas, to a mixture of saturated vapor and liquid.
(once-through units) indicate a serious contamination * If unsaturated steam (a mixture which contains both
event and the unit should be shutdown. water vapor and liquid water droplets) is heated at
constant pressure. Its temperature will also remain
constant as the vapor quality (think dryness, or percent
saturated vapor) increases towards 100%, and becomes
dry.
* These condensation droplets are a cause of damage * For most species, particularly for sodium, chloride
to steam turbine blades, the reason why such turbines and sulfate, mechanical carryover is the major
rely on a supply of dry, superheated steam. component of the total carryover.

Sodium Target Values in Steam For silica, Volatile Carryover

* Turbine materials cannot withstand the corrosive or - is very significant, even at lower pressures.
stress corrosion effects of concentrated caustic
* A knowledge of carryover is important, and as such is
solutions that can form in turbines.
a core parameter which should be routinely checked
* Sodium hydroxide has probably damaged more (every three to six months).
turbines than any other single contaminant.
Boiler Drum Water (Blowdown)
Chloride / Sulfate Target Values in Steam
The boiler drum water, blowdown sample point
* Target values are set to minimize the potential of monitors drum boiler water chemistry to minimize
chloride and sulfate-based salts depositing in the Phase deposition and corrosion in the boiler tubes.
Transition Zone (PTZ) of the LP Turbine which can lead
* Many plants are equipped with a sample point in the
to pitting.
Boiler Downcomers.
* As chloride is more aggressive and more commonly
* Boiler corrosion mechanisms are a function of boiler
present, routine checks are required as a part of core
pH at operating temperature.
monitoring. These salts concentrate to extreme levels
during unit shutdown. * Boiler pH target values measured at 25°C. Combined
with cation conductivity target values are set to
* Pit formation has been demonstrated to be a
minimize the potential for boiler corrosion to occur.
precursor to stress corrosion cracking (SCC) and
corrosion fatigue (CF) cracking in the LP turbine. * Additionally, rapid loss of pH control to values of pH
8.0 or lower is an indication of corrosive damage
Silica Target Value in Steam
mechanisms.
* The target value is based on the solubility of silica in
CATION CONDUCTIVITY
superheated steam.
- provides an indirect continuous measurement
* Silica deposits in the LP turbine cause losses in turbine
of the concentration of anions within the boiler drum
capacity and efficiency. Under extreme condition
water.
increase the turbine thrust or lead to deformation of
the rotating blades. Sodium Target Values in Drum Boiler Water
CARRYOVER * In units operating with AVT chemistry in the boiler
water, sodium monitoring is a core parameter.
- is defined as the ratio of concentration of a
chemical species in the saturated steam exiting the * Core monitoring of sodium in phosphate (PT) treated
boiler drum to the concentration in the boiler water units similarly assures the maintenance of sufficient
(usually measured in the blowdown). solid alkali to neutralize chlorides and sulfates.
* Excessive carryover generally indicates either poor Chloride and Sulfate Target Values in Drum Boiler Water
moisture separator performance or operation with a
higher than intended water level in the steam drum. * As chloride is more aggressive and more commonly
present than sulfate, it is designated a core monitoring
Mechanical Carryover parameter.
- has the greatest impact upon steam chemistry
at boiler drum operating pressures below 2500 psi
(17.2 MPa).
Silica Target Values in Drum Boiler Water Specific Conductivity Measurement

* Silica can similarly provide an indication of carryover - is required as a continuous verification of pH

concerns when used in conjunction with steam silica measurements.
values.
* During normal operation, since other ionic impurities
Dissolved Oxygen Target Value in Drum Boiler Water are at relatively low levels (ppb). The specific
(Downcomer) Applies mainly to OT Treatment conductivity is used to validate pH measurements.

* The level of oxygen in the downcomer is determined Cation Conductivity Target Values at Economizer Inlet
by the oxygen at the economizer inlet and the boiler
Cation Conductivity Monitoring
recirculation ratio.
- allows for the determination of
* The increased levels of anionic impurities, namely
contamination levels so that corrective actions be done
chloride and/or sulfate and phosphate.
to minimize potential corrosion and deposition from
* In all other treatments the economizer inlet dissolved anions and carbon dioxide.
oxygen target value is the control point. It prevents
Dissolved Oxygen Target Value in Economizer Inlet
exceedance of the drum boiler water target value. It
prevents exceedance of the drum boiler water target Target Values
value.
- are set to minimize cycle metallurgy corrosion
Economizer Inlet (Attemperation Water) rates and to reduce the propensity for the occurrence
of single phase FAC.
- This sample point allows the direct
measurement of the total contaminant ingress to the * In the reducing environments of AVT(R)
boiler and for feedwater chemistry control. measurement of the ORP is of significant value to
assure minimization of copper corrosion.
* Specifically, this sample point is used to monitor pH,
oxygen and feedwater corrosion product transport. It * High levels of corrosion product transport (CPT) will
also serves as a sampling point for control of ammonia increase the rate of deposition in the boiler and the
feed. likelihood of deposit related damage mechanisms.
pH Target Values at Economizer Inlet * The target values for iron and copper are normal.
- are critical to the minimization and control of Deaerator Inlet
cycle metallurgy corrosion rates and to reduce the
potential of FAC occurring. * For AVT(R), the measurement of oxidation reduction
potential (ORP) at the deaerator inlet is designated as a
* Carbon steel corrosion is not a strong function of pH core parameter to ensure that the feedwater is being
in sufficiently oxidizing, high purity water provided the operated in a reducing mode.
pH is between 7 and 10.
* The target value is only applicable to mixed
* Corrosion rates in the shell side and drains of HP and metallurgy units on AVT(R) and is selected to minimize
LP heaters can depend significantly on feedwater pH copper alloy based corrosion.
regardless of the single phase ORP environment. As in
two phase environments, the potential will be ORP at the Deaerator Inlet
significantly less oxidizing and potentially reducing. - measures the combined effect of the redox
Specific Conductivity Target Values at Economizer Inlet species present in the condensate system which include
Oxygen concentration, reducing agent concentration,
Specific Conductivity at the Economize Inlet and the oxidation state of metals in the condensate.
- is a critical measurement of the ionic activity.
Condensate Polisher Outlet copper alloys will lead to increased copper alloy
corrosion and corrosion product transport.
- This point is critical in units with condensate
polishing to assure the feedwater quality requirement Makeup Treatment System Effluent
for the systems are continuously maintained.
This sample point monitors the performance of
Condensate Pump Discharge the makeup treatment system. The achievable makeup
water purity is dictated by the design of the makeup
- This sample point monitors the quality of the
water treatment equipment and, may also depend on
condensate and provides an early detection of the
the makeup rate.
ingress of contaminants from condenser leakage and
the makeup treatment system. HP Heater Drains / LP Heater Drains

Specific Conductivity Target Values in Condensate These sample points, may allow evaluation of
corrosion control on the shellside of HP and LP heaters.
Specific conductivity
As well as in the heater cascading drain system which
- is a critical measurement of the ionic activity. are both areas of potential single phase and two-phase
For high purity condensate the conductivity FAC.
corresponds directly to the solution pH and ammonia
Condensate Storage Tank Effluent
concentration. During normal operation, the ionic
impurities are at relatively low levels (ppb). Monitoring the effluent from the storage tanks
indicates the quality of the available makeup to the
TOC Target Values in Condensate
condensate.
Total Organic Carbon in the condensate
RATIONALE FOR MONITORED PARAMETERS
- is the measure of the level of organic
pH
molecules or contaminants in purified water.
Monitoring of pH is necessary for the following reasons:
- can lead to impaired condensate polisher
performance. • Corrosion of metals and alloys is a function of pH at
operating temperature.
- may also lead to foaming in boilers which can
increase boiler carryover rates. • Alkaline pH values increase the stability of the oxide
film and reduce oxide solubility in water.
Dissolved Oxygen Target Value at Condensate Pump
Discharge Specific Conductivity

The CPD dissolved oxygen level is a measure of the * The specific conductivity values reflect ammonia
combined effect of the air ingress rate into the vacuum concentration / pH, and are relatively insensitive to the
portions of the cycle (LP Turbine exhaust, shell side of level of impurities present.
lowest pressure LP Heater(s), lowest pressure LP
For AVT drum boilers where the contamination levels
Heater(s) drain lines, condenser steam space, piping
may be higher a correction for the cation conductivity
and fitting upstream of the condensate pumps).
contribution must be applied.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
In CT drum units the validation relationship of pH by
- is a measure of the amount of oxygen, usually conductivity is given in the first and second figures
thought of as a gas, that is dissolved in a liquid such as above.
water.
In PT drum units the relationship is only a rough
* The dissolved oxygen has a strong effect on the approximation due to the complexity of the chemistry
oxidation reduction potential of the condensate potentially present.
system, exceedance of the target value in units with
CATION CONDUCTIVITY • Acid sulfate can cause boiler and turbine corrosion

- is a core monitoring parameter in steam, • Sulfate can deposit in re-heaters (and low pressure
boiler water, condensate and feedwater. It can be used superheaters) and subsequently lead to pitting during
to indirectly assess levels of chloride and sulfate for non-protected shutdown periods.
corrosion avoidance purposes.
* Grab Sample Analysis is normally used to assess
* Ammonia salts are used for comparison for carbon sulfate, supplemented by indirect online continuous
dioxide as carbon dioxide is absorbed in the analysis by cation conductivity.
condensate.
SILICA
DEGASSED CATION CONDUCTIVITY
Monitoring of silica is necessary for the
- is a variation on the measurement of cation following reasons:
conductivity. When applied correctly it removes a
• Precipitation of silica forms silicate deposits on the
majority of the CO2 from the measurement, leaving all
turbine that are not soluble in water and are very
other anions present including organic acids.
difficult to remove.
SODIUM
• Silicate deposits cause losses in turbine capacity and
- is a core parameter in steam, condensate, efficiency and under extreme condition increase the
feedwater and boiler water. turbine thrust or lead to deformation of the rotating
blades.
* Monitoring of sodium is necessary because sodium
compounds such as sodium hydroxide and sodium • Significant amounts of silica can enter the
chloride are two major corrodents of concern within condensate / feedwater undetected in the nonreactive
the turbine, especially in relation to stress corrosion colloidal form through the makeup, causing boiler water
cracking of some turbine blades and stainless steel and steam target values to be exceeded in spite of
superheater tubes. apparently good quality makeup.

CHLORIDE DISSOLVE OXYGEN

Monitoring of chloride is core for boiler drum Monitoring of oxygen is necessary for the
water and steam, because chloride contributes to the following reasons:
following:
• The oxygen level at the condensate pump discharge
• Corrosion fatigue, stress corrosion cracking and pitting is an indication of air in-leakage into the cycle.
in LP turbines
• Single-phase flow accelerated corrosion of carbon
• Corrosion, hydrogen damage, and pitting in boilers steel components is eliminated by adding oxygen to
during shutdown high purity feedwater.

• Synergistic effect on drum boiler waterwall corrosion • Many plants with all-ferrous feedwater systems
in the presence of oxygen and copper oxide. operate on AVT(O) and OT, and have significantly
reduced iron transport.
* For steam monitoring, online continuous chloride
measurement may be accomplished with an online ion * Oxygen control is required in the drum boiler, as
chromatograph (IC). oxygen reacts synergistically with chloride, resulting in
hydrogen damage boiler tube failures.
SULFATE
OXIDATION REDUCTION POTENTIAL (ORP)
Monitoring of sulfate is necessary for
troubleshooting purposes for the following reasons: - is a core parameter for mixed metallurgy
units on AVT(R), but is not a core parameter for units
• Sodium sulfate in combination with chloride
with all-ferrous feedwater systems operated with
contributes to turbine corrosion
AVT(O) or OT.
TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON (TOC)

- is typically only required as a troubleshooting

measure when other core parameters are outside of
target values.

* Styrene sulfonic acids released from the oxidation of

strong acid cation resin in condensate polishers
constitute a source of interference for sulfate by ion
chromatography (IC).

AIR IN-LEAKAGE

- is the primary source of oxygen and carbon

dioxide in the condensate and feedwater system.