History of IR, Questions For The Exam 1. Modern Diplomacy - Definition and Historical Context of The Phenomenon

History of IR, questions for the exam
1. Modern diplomacy –definition and historical context of the phenomenon.
Intensive interconnection and mutual interdependence are the main distinctive features of
modern diplomacy. It appeared to be possible thanks to globalization, spreading over the globe in
decades after the end of the Cold War. All these changes resulted in the adjustment of the
definition of diplomacy. The following features pose grounds for the new definition:
 New intergovernmental organizations > New actors > The role of state is decreasing
 New information reality > States can now use media as a tool of enhancing its image
abroad
 Modern diplomacy has many sides > New forms of diplomacy: public diplomacy
Public diplomacy: It was widespread during the times of the Cold War, but now it has gained
new dimensions. Ex.: attitude to propaganda (from negative to neutral and even positive). There
are certain features which have attributed to the shifts in the definition of PD:
 PD is no longer an instrument that belongs to governments only : nongovernmental

organizations, transnational corporations, new actors
 Concept of soft power: attractiveness and reputation > desired outcomes
 The boundaries between domestic and foreign policy are blurred: domestic policy is
visible by other actors and may provoke changes in a foreign policy
 New information Age > new opportunities for non-state actors and politicians
In other words, new reality forced world actors to answer new questions, such as: Is our image
positive? How are we being perceived? According to Alan Henrikson, public diplomacy is the
conduct of international relations by governments through public communications media and
through dealing with a large number of nongovernmental entities in order to influence the
politics and actions of other governments. It has three main pillars:
 Cooperation with ordinary people and non-governmental organizations: increasing

people’s familiarity with one’s country, appreciation, and later on engaging (positive
image helps to encourage more people to travel, study, buy its products, etc.)
 Sphere of intergovernmental communication:
o Hegemonic > strengthen their position, acting in the name of all nations
o Medium-scale actors > deny the hegemony, act with each other to be bound
o Poorer and less-developed > they tend to cooperate with both groups
 Communication:
o Daily communication: press and mass media > provide explanations for
everybody by explaining the essence of the ongoing events
o Strategic communication: make people aware of what is going on at the level of
official summits, meetings and events.
o Development of lasting relationships: relies on social and cultural spheres and
may include a wide range of activities, such as exchange programs between
universities, grant programs, etc.
Understanding of soft power is also extremely important for new public diplomacy. Soft power
means the ability of a country to shape the preferences of others and get desired outcomes
through attraction and seduction rather than coercion or payments, as hard power does.
The concept of soft power relies on three pillars: Culture (high culture – theatre, literature and
popular culture – pop-music, movies), Political values and institutions (democratic regime,
freedom of speech, etc.), Foreign policy (propaganda of international peace, providing
humanitarian and other aid).
At this point it is worth saying that public’s attention has become especially important. However,
now we are overwhelmed with the abundance of news and different points of view: it makes us
less attentive and receptive to it. A large number of media > competition for their attention >
governments use media to enhance their own credibility and weaken their opponents.
Nowadays each person may be involved in international dialogue (bloggers, members of social
networks, journalists and so on). Politics in an information age: those whose story wins may get
more benefits that those who is more influential in terms of military or economic power.
Digital diplomacy: building a dialogue on the basis of popular social websites > ordinary people
are becoming closer to the ‘mightiest’ of the world. For instance, Twitter may become a platform
for ‘publishing’ new policies. The main purpose of digital diplomacy is to explain certain
decision! Even nowadays a lot of decisions are taken behind the close doors.
To sum up, above mentioned developments can be a helpful tool assisting diplomacy to achieve
desired outcomes. But it can also be a dangerous weapon, which can intervene in the process of
relations building.
2. Frozen conflicts on the territory of the former USSR: cases, status quo and
future prospects for peaceful solutions.
Frozen conflicts in the territories of the former Soviet republics pose a great challenge to
establishing international ties in Eastern Europe and the South Caucasus. Owing to the lack of
full sovereignty over their provinces, countries such as Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine cannot
pursue an independent foreign policy. They are all within the control of so-called “proto-states”
tasked with introducing Russian-imposed policies as the Kremlin secures their safety
(Neorealism!!!).
Although in my answer I will pay special attention to the conflicts in Georgia and Ukraine, this
kind of tensions is common also in the regions of Central Asia. Borders of countries were set by
the directives of Stalin, often neglecting national perspectives. In my opinion, this poses a
background for frozen conflicts (refer to colonialism!!!).
Georgia, Ukraine, Moldova: tell about each.
Future prospects for peaceful solutions:
 Often reasons are hidden in ethnic background > significantly harder to solve
o E.g. borders in Central Asia were originally set by Stalin in order to pause the
development of the region
 No willingness to find compromises
 Russia’s aim to keep their borders safe (as they perceive NATO as a threat)
 Democratization, in particular in Russia (democratic states rarely go on war with each
other – liberalism)
 Admitting neutrality of Ukraine and setting its status as federation
 Sanctions are not effective – do not solve the real reason.

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History of IR, questions for the exam

1. Modern diplomacy –definition and historical context of the phenomenon.

 PD is no longer an instrument that belongs to governments only : nongovernmental

 Cooperation with ordinary people and non-governmental organizations: increasing

Georgia, Ukraine, Moldova: tell about each.

Future prospects for peaceful solutions:

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