Chapter 3 Crystal Growth, Wafer Fabrication and Basic Properties of Silicon Wafers
Chapter 3 Crystal Growth, Wafer Fabrication and Basic Properties of Silicon Wafers
Chapter 3 Crystal Growth, Wafer Fabrication and Basic Properties of Silicon Wafers
basic properties of silicon wafers
1. Silicon crystal structure and defects.
2. Czochralski single crystal growth.
3. Growth rate and dopant incorporation for CZ method.
4. Float zone single crystal growth and doping.
5. Wafer fabrication.
6. Measurement methods.
ECE 433: Semiconductor Device Technology
Instructor: Bo Cui, ECE, University of Waterloo; http://ece.uwaterloo.ca/~bcui/ 1
Textbook: Silicon VLSI Technology by Plummer, Deal and Griffin
Single crystal silicon
• Three types of solids ‐ amorphous, polycrystalline, mono‐crystalline (single‐crystal).
• Semiconductor devices and VLSI (very large scale integrated) circuits require high‐
purity single‐crystal semiconductors. Because:
o Difficult to control properties of amorphous or poly‐crystals.
o By doping, electronic properties (carrier density, mobility, conductivity, carrier
B d i l t i ti ( i d it bilit d ti it i
lifetime) of a single crystal can be controlled more precisely.
• Amorphous silicon is used in photovoltaic cells, electronic displays (large‐area).
• Polycrystalline silicon is used as a gate contact in MOSFETs (VLSI circuits).
Polycrystalline silicon is used as a gate contact in MOSFETs (VLSI circuits)
Single crystal Si wafers
Diameters: currently up to 300mm
(500mm?)
Wafer thickness: ∼650μm
Wafer thickness: 650μm
Wafer purity: 150 parts/trillion
Impurities: 99.99999999% Si
2
Microstructure of electronic materials
Polycrystalline
materials
SiO2
gate oxide
3
Crystallography ‐ introduction
z z
z
a a a
Crystals are characterized B
by a unit cell which
C y
repeats in the x, y, z y y
directions.
A
Planes and directions are x x x
d fi d i
defined using an x, y, z Cubic BCC FCC
coordinate system. z z z
[111] direction is defined by a (100) plane a (110) plane a [111]
a vector having components
a vector having components
of 1 unit in x, y and z. y y y
Planes are defined by Miller
indices ‐ reciprocals
p of the
[110]
intercepts of the plane with (111) plane
the x, y and z axes. x [100] x x
For the (110) plane, it has intercepts with x, y, z‐axis of 1, 1, ∞ (i.e. no intercept with z‐
axis). So its Miller indices are (1/1, 1/1, 1/∞)=(1,1,0).
For any plane (l, m, n), it is always perpendicular to the direction [l, m, n].
E.g. [111] direction is perpendicular to (111) plane. 4
Diamond Structure of Si
Silicon has the basic diamond crystal structure:
Two merged FCC cells offset by a/4 in x, y and z.
http://jas.eng.buffalo.edu/education/solid/unitCell/home.html
This website has a 3D structure at various viewing angles. 5
Defect in crystals
Point defects: vacancy, interstitial, substitutional, Frankel defects
y
Linear defects: edge and screw dislocations
Planar defects: stacking fault, grain boundaries, surfaces
Bulk defects: cracks and pores precipitate
Bulk defects: cracks and pores, precipitate
Stacking Fault
V
V: vacancy
I : interstitial
I Dislocation Precipitate
6
Point defects
Point defects.
a) Substitutional.
b) Interstitial.
Interstitial
c) Vacancy (Schottky defect).
d) Frenkel‐type defect
(interstitial ‐ vacancy pair).
Point defects dictate most dopant
Point defects dictate most dopant
diffusion mechanisms, and thus
determine the impurity profile.
7
Chapter 3 Crystal growth, wafer fabrication and
basic properties of silicon wafers
1. Silicon crystal structure and defects.
2. Czochralski single crystal growth.
3. Growth rate and dopant incorporation for CZ method.
4. Float zone single crystal growth and doping.
5. Wafer fabrication.
6. Measurement methods.
8
Raw material preparation
9
Economical value
10
Metallurgical grade silicon
Quartzite (sand, SiO2) is placed in a hot (∼1800oC) furnace with carbon releasing
materials, and reacts as shown, forming metallurgic grade silicon (MGS):
2SiO2(solid) + 2C(solid) → Si(liquid) + 2CO(gas)
Metallurgical grade silicon (~98% pure) production and typical impurity levels.
Over 50% MGS is used to make Al alloys.
The fraction used for semiconductors is very small. 11
Electrical grade silicon (polycrystalline)
Basically, the solid Si is first converted into a liquid form (SiHCl3) for purification, then
converted back into solid Si.
Both reactions occur at high temperatures.
h i hi h
Metallurgical grade silicon is treated with hydrogen chloride to form trichlorosilane:
Si + 3HCl → SiHCl3(g) + H2(g) (use catalyst)
SiHCl3 is liquid at room temperature, boiling point 32oC. Multiple distillation of the liquid
removes the unwanted impurities (99.9999% pure).
The purified SiHCl3 is then used in a hydrogen reduction reaction to prepare the
electronic grade Si (EGS):
l i d Si (EGS)
SiHCl3(g) + H2(g) → Si(s) + 3HCl(g)
(this is the reverse reaction of the above reaction)
EGS is the raw material for Si single crystal production.
12
Si single crystal growth
Two methods used: Czochralski (CZ) and float zone (FZ).
14
Czochralski method (CZ)
15
Czochralski growth of silicon
A commercial CZ puller Early in the growth process Later in the growth process
16
Oxygen and carbon in CZ silicon
• The CZ growth process inherently introduces O (from SiO2 crucible) and C
(from graphite susceptor/supporter).
• Typically, CO ≈ 1018 cm‐3 and CC ≈ 1016 cm‐3.
• The O in CZ silicon often forms small SiO2 precipitates in the Si crystal
under normal processing conditions.
• O and these precipitates can actually be very useful: provide mechanical
strength internal gettering
strength, internal gettering.
Stacking V I
Fault OI
Figure 3‐25 Point defect and OI
OI SiO2
diffusion mechanisms that
contribute to the growth or
contribute to the growth or OI OI
shrinkage of SiO2 precipitates in
[OI]
silicon.
Critical size is about 1nm: stable SiO2 OI Diffusion
precipitates above 1nm, may
shrink and disappear below 1nm.
17
Chapter 3 Crystal growth, wafer fabrication and
basic properties of silicon wafers
1. Silicon crystal structure and defects.
2. Czochralski single crystal growth.
3. Growth rate and dopant incorporation for CZ method.
4. Float zone single crystal growth and doping.
5. Wafer fabrication.
ECE 433: Semiconductor Device Technology
Instructor: Bo Cui, ECE, University of Waterloo; http://ece.uwaterloo.ca/~bcui/ 18
Textbook: Silicon VLSI Technology by Plummer, Deal and Griffin
Czochralski process ‐ crystal growth rate
We wish to find a relationship between pull rate and crystal diameter.
Heat balance: Seed
latent heat of fusion
latent heat of fusion heat
heat heat
heat
C
conducted
(i.e. crystalization) + radiated dx
= =
heat conducted from through the away
B Isotherm X2
melt to crystal crystal (C). Solid Si
( )
(A) (B) A
Liquid Si Isotherm X1
In order to replace dT/dx2, we need to consider the heat transfer processes.
Heat radiation from the crystal (C)
Seed
is given by the Stefan‐Boltzmann law*:
C
(
dQ = (2π rdx ) σε T 4 ) (4)
dx
Heat conduction up the crystal is
given by
( ) dT
B Isotherm X2
Solid Si Q = k S πr 2 (5)
A dx
2πrdx = radiation surface.
Liquid Si Isotherm X1 σ = Boltzman constant (NOT kB)
kS = thermal conductivity of the solid.
ε=1 for perfect blackbody.
*Stephen‐Boltzmann law:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan%E2%80%93Boltzmann_law ε<1 for “grey‐body”. 20
Czochralski process ‐ crystal growth rate
2 2
2 dT dk S
• Differentiating (5), we have dQ
dx
= k S πr ( )
2 d T
dx 2
+ πr ( )
dx dx
≅ k S πr ( )
2 d T
dx 2
(6)
d2 T 2 2σε 4
• Substituting (6) into (4), we have 2
− T =0 (7)
dx k Sr
•• kkS varies roughly as 1/T, so if k
varies roughly as 1/T so if kM is the
is the TM
kS = kM (8)
thermal conductivity at the melting point, T
d2 T 2σε
∴ − T5 = 0 (9)
dx 2 k M rT
TM
• Solving this differential equation, evaluating it at x = 0 and substituting the
result into (3), we obtain (see text):
( ), ( )
5
1 2σεk M TM (10)
v PMAX =
LN 3r
Vpmax = maximum pull rate, inversely proportional to the square root of crystal radius.
21
Crystal growth rate: example
For perfect blackbody: ε=1
For “grey” body: ε<1
∼4 hours to pull one meter long boule.
However, this equation is not so accurate, and in practice feedback is used to adjust
the pulling rate in order to maintain constant diameter. 22
Dopant incorporation during crystal growth
• Dopants are added to the melt to provide a controlled N or P doping level in the wafers.
• However, the dopant incorporation process is complicated by dopant segregation.
• Generally, impurities “prefer to stay in the liquid” as opposed to being incorporated into
the solid.
• This process is known as segregation. The degree of segregation is characterized by the
segregation coefficient, ko, for the impurity. C
kO = S
CL
CS and CL are the impurity
concentration just on the either side
VS, CS
of the solid/liquid interface
of the solid/liquid interface. CS
VO, IO, CO
CL IL, CL
23
Dopant behavior during crystal growth
CS
kO =
CL
Most k0 values are <1 which means the impurity prefers to stay in the liquid.
Thus as the crystal is pulled, dopant concentration will increase.
In other words, the distribution of dopant along the ingot will be graded.
24
Distribution coefficient: example
=1.019×10‐4mol
25
Dopant incorporation during crystal growth
VO = initial volume
IO = number of impurities
CL = impurity concentration in the melt
VS, CS
C0 = initial impurity concentration in the melt
i iti l i it t ti i th lt
C0 = I0/V0
By definition: CS/CL=k0
VO, IO, CO IL, CL
If during growth, an additional volume dV freezes, the impurities incorporated
into dV are given by:
g y
k0
I 0 ⎛⎜1 − S ⎞⎟
V
I 0 (1 − f ) 0
k
CL =
IL
= ⎝ V0 ⎠
= = C0 (1 − f ) 0
k −1
VL V0 − VS V0 1 − f
10
Boron
1
CS/CO
Phosphorus, Arsenic
0.1
Antimony
0.01
0 02
0.2 04
0.4 06
0.6 08
0.8 1
Fraction of Melt Solidified
Note the relatively flat profile produced by
boron with a ko close to 1.
Dopants with ko << 1 produce much more
Dopants with k << 1 produce much more Doping concentration in a solid as a
Doping concentration in a solid as a
doping variation along the crystal. function of the fraction solidified.
(but no dopant has ko>1)
27
Chapter 3 Crystal growth, wafer fabrication and
basic properties of silicon wafers
1. Silicon crystal structure and defects.
2. Czochralski single crystal growth.
3. Growth rate and dopant incorporation for CZ method.
4. Float zone single crystal growth and doping.
5. Wafer fabrication.
6. Measurement methods.
28
Float‐zone crystal growth: overview
• For CZ‐grown Si, impurities (O and C) can be introduced from the melt contacting
the SiO2 crucible and from graphite susceptor/supporter.
• This limits the resistivity to ∼20Ωcm, while intrinsic Si is 230kΩcm.
• These crystals are more expensive and have very low oxygen and carbon and thus,
are not suitable for the majority of silicon IC technology.
• Carrier concentrations down to 1011 atoms/cm3 have been achieved.
• It is far less common, and is reserved for situations where oxygen and carbon
impurities cannot be tolerated.
• Float‐zone does not allow as large Si wafers as CZ does (200mm and 300mm) and
radial distribution of dopant in FZ wafer is not as uniform as in CZ wafer.
• It is good for solar cells, power electronic devices (thyristors and rectifiers) that
use the entire volume of the wafer not just a thin surface layer, etc.
h i l f h f j hi f l
29
Float‐zone crystal growth process
• Polycrystalline silicon is converted into single‐crystal by zone heating (zone melting).
y y g y y g( g)
• The entire poly‐Si rod from the EGS process is extracted as a whole.
• The rod is clamped at each end, with one end in contact with a single crystal seed.
• An RF heating coil induces eddy currents (power I2R) in the silicon, heating it beyond its
melting point in the vicinity of the coil
melting point in the vicinity of the coil.
• The "floating" melt zone is about 2cm wide/high.
• The seed crystal touches the melt zone and is pulled away, along with a solidifying Si boule
following the seed. The crystalline direction follows that of the seed single crystal.
• Limited to about a 4" wafer, as the melt zone will collapse ‐ it is only held together by
surface tension (and RF field levitation).
Poly Si
Poly‐Si
Melt is not held in a
container, it is
“float”, thus the
name “float zone”.
c‐Si
RF coil
30
Float‐zone: zone refining
• Dopants/impurities prefer to stay in the liquid than
in the solid.
• Th
Thus, the impurities generally stay in the melt zone,
h i ii ll i h l
and don't solidify in the boule.
• That is, segregation (and evaporation) of impurities
in the melt zone help purify the Si further
in the melt zone help purify the Si further.
• One can "purify" FZ wafers further by successively
passing the coil along the boule. The impurities then
segregate towards the end of the boule.
g g
• Of course, if neglecting impurity evaporation, the
total amount of impurity is the same. Yet the
impurity at the lower part is much lower than, and
at the upper part approaches to, the original
impurity concentration.
31
Doping in FZ growth
(Doping can of course be achieved if the starting material poly‐crystalline Si rod is
doped. But due to zone‐refining, the doping is not uniform along the boule)
Gas doping:
Dopants are introduced in gaseous form during FZ growth.
n‐doping: PH
p g 3 ((Phosphine), AsCl
p ), 3
p‐doping: B2H6 (Diborane), BCl3
Good uniformity along the length of the boule.
Pill doping:
Drill a small hole in the top of the EGS rod, and insert the dopant.
If the dopant has a small segregation coefficient, most of it will be carried with the
If h d h ll i ffi i f i ill b i d ih h
melt as it passes the length of the boule.
Resulting in only a small non‐uniformity.
G and In doping work well this way.
Ga dI d i k ll thi
32
Zone refining
Zone length is L. The rod has initial uniform impurity
Zone length is L The rod has initial uniform impurity
concentration of C0. L
If the molten zone moves upwards by dx, the number of Zone
impurities in the liquid (=I) will change since some will be
p q ( ) g
dissolved into the melting liquid at the top (=C0dx) and CS(x) CO
some will be lost to the freezing solid on the bottom
(=CSdx=k0CLdx). Thus: (assume cross‐sectional area =1)
dI = (C 0 -k 0 C L )dx , but C L = I / L dx
x I dI
∫0
dx = ∫k0 I
I0
C0 − Polysilicon Ingot
L
C0L ⎛ C0L ⎞ −k0 x L
I = − ⎜⎜ − I0 e RF Coil
k0 ⎝ k0 ⎠
I
C S = k 0C L = k 0 ; I0 = C0L Single Crystal Si
L
⎧ k0x
⎫
C S = C 0 ⎨1 − (1 − k 0 )e
−
L
⎬
⎩ ⎭ 33
Floating zone crystal growth – zone refining
Impurity during float‐zone growth or zone Zone refining with multiple
refining. One pass of the molten zone passes, k0=0.1. L is the length
through the solid
through the solid. of the molten zone.
L is the length of the molten zone (∼2cm)
34
Chapter 3 Crystal growth, wafer fabrication and
basic properties of silicon wafers
1. Silicon crystal structure and defects.
2. Czochralski single crystal growth.
3. Growth rate and dopant incorporation for CZ method.
4. Float zone single crystal growth and doping.
5. Wafer fabrication.
35
Steps for wafer preparation
36
Ingot grinding
37
Wafer slicing
The saw blade itself is about 400µm thick, together
with the loss at the seed and tail end of the crystal,
only 50% of the boule ends up in wafer form.
only 50% of the boule ends up in wafer form
After slicing, mechanical lapping and wet chemical
etching is performed before final chemical
mechanical polishing. The wet etching is typically:
3Si + 4HNO3 + 18HF → 3H2SiF6 + 4NO + 8H2O
38
Wafer polishing
Ch i l
Chemical mechanical polishing
h i l li hi
Slurry consists The rotation and
of nano‐ pressure generates
particles heat that drives a
(10nm SiO2 or
(10nm SiO or chemical reaction in
chemical reaction in
Al2O3) and which OH‐ radicals
chemicals from the NaOH oxidize
(NaOH). the silicon. The SiO2
particles abrade the
oxide away.
39
Common (not always) wafer surface orientation
Should
be {110} Another flat configuration
plane for {100} n‐type wafer
{100} wafer usually breaks along {110} plane (actually Si cleaves naturally along {111}
plane, which meet the surface at an angle of 54.7o, the angle between <001> and <111>).
Sometimes (not often) {100} wafers break along {100} plane. ({100} = (100)+(010)+(001)) 40