Fire-Fighting Agents: Manual

MANUAL
FIRE-FIGHTING AGENTS
DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
DESIGN AND ENGINEERING PRACTICE
USED BY
COMPANIES OF THE ROYAL DUTCH/SHELL GROUP
This document is confidential. Neither the whole nor any part of this document may be disclosed to any third party without the prior written consent of Shell
Internationale Petroleum Maatschappij B.V., The Hague, the Netherlands. The copyright of this document is vested in Shell Internationale Petroleum Maatschappij
B.V., The Hague, the Netherlands. All rights reserved. Neither the whole nor any part of this document may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, reprographic, recording or otherwise) without the prior written consent of the copyright owner.

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 2
PREFACE
DEP (Design and Engineering Practice) publications reflect the views, at the time of publication, of:
Shell International Oil Products B.V. (SIOP)
and
Shell International Exploration and Production B.V. (SIEP)
and
Shell International Chemicals B.V. (SIC)
The Hague, The Netherlands,
and other Service Companies.
They are based on the experience acquired during their involvement with the design, construction, operation and
maintenance of processing units and facilities, and they are supplemented with the experience of Group Operating
companies. Where appropriate they are based on, or reference is made to, national and international standards and
codes of practice.
The objective is to set the recommended standard for good design and engineering practice applied by Group
companies operating an oil refinery, gas handling installation, chemical plant, oil and gas production facility, or any other
such facility, and thereby to achieve maximum technical and economic benefit from standardization.
The information set forth in these publications is provided to users for their consideration and decision to implement.
This is of particular importance where DEPs may not cover every requirement or diversity of condition at each locality.
The system of DEPs is expected to be sufficiently flexible to allow individual operating companies to adapt the
information set forth in DEPs to their own environment and requirements.
When Contractors or Manufacturers/Suppliers use DEPs they shall be solely responsible for the quality of work and the
attainment of the required design and engineering standards. In particular, for those requirements not specifically
covered, the Principal will expect them to follow those design and engineering practices which will achieve the same
level of integrity as reflected in the DEPs. If in doubt, the Contractor or Manufacturer/Supplier shall, without detracting
from his own responsibility, consult the Principal or its technical advisor.
The right to use DEPs is granted by SIOP, SIEP or SIC, in most cases under Service Agreements primarily with
companies of the Royal Dutch/Shell Group and other companies receiving technical advice and services from SIOP,
SIEP or SIC. Consequently, three categories of users of DEPs can be distinguished:
1) Operating companies having a Service Agreement with SIOP, SIEP, SIC or other Service Company. The use of
DEPs by these Operating companies is subject in all respects to the terms and conditions of the relevant
Service Agreement.
2) Other parties who are authorized to use DEPs subject to appropriate contractual arrangements.
3) Contractors/subcontractors and Manufacturers/Suppliers under a contract with users referred to under 1) or 2)
which requires that tenders for projects, materials supplied or - generally - work performed on behalf of the said
users comply with the relevant standards.
Subject to any particular terms and conditions as may be set forth in specific agreements with users, SIOP, SIEP and
SIC disclaim any liability of whatsoever nature for any damage (including injury or death) suffered by any company or
person whomsoever as a result of or in connection with the use, application or implementation of any DEP, combination
of DEPs or any part thereof. The benefit of this disclaimer shall inure in all respects to SIOP, SIEP, SIC and/or any
company affiliated to these companies that may issue DEPs or require the use of DEPs.
Without prejudice to any specific terms in respect of confidentiality under relevant contractual arrangements, DEPs shall
not, without the prior written consent of SIOP and SIEP, be disclosed by users to any company or person whomsoever
and the DEPs shall be used exclusively for the purpose for which they have been provided to the user. They shall be
returned after use, including any copies which shall only be made by users with the express prior written consent of
SIOP and SIEP. The copyright of DEPs vests in SIOP and SIEP. Users shall arrange for DEPs to be held in safe
custody and SIOP or SIEP may at any time require information satisfactory to them in order to ascertain how users
implement this requirement.
All administrative queries should be directed to the DEP Administrator in SIOP.
NOTE: In addition to DEP publications there are Standard Specifications and Draft DEPs for Development (DDDs).
DDDs generally introduce new procedures or techniques that will probably need updating as further experience
develops during their use. The above requirements for distribution and use of DEPs are also applicable to
Standard Specifications and DDDs. Standard Specifications and DDDs will gradually be replaced by DEPs.

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 5
1.1 SCOPE ...................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 DISTRIBUTION, APPLICABILITY and REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS ............ 5
1.3 CROSS REFERENCES............................................................................................. 5
1.4 DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................................ 6
1.5 TERMINOLOGY ........................................................................................................ 6
1.6 ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................... 8
2. FIRE-FIGHTING AGENTS ........................................................................................ 9
2.1 FOAM ........................................................................................................................ 9
2.1.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.2 Functioning of foam ................................................................................................... 9
2.1.3 Limitations ................................................................................................................ 10
2.1.4 Expansion ratio of foam ........................................................................................... 11
2.1.4.1 Low expansion foam................................................................................................ 11
2.1.4.2 Medium expansion foam.......................................................................................... 11
2.1.4.3 High expansion (hi-ex) foam .................................................................................... 11
2.1.5 Travel distance of foam ........................................................................................... 11
2.1.6 Types of foam .......................................................................................................... 11
2.1.6.1 Protein foam ............................................................................................................ 11
2.1.6.2 Fluoro protein foam.................................................................................................. 12
2.1.6.3 Film forming fluoro protein foam .............................................................................. 12
2.1.6.4 Aqueous film forming foam ...................................................................................... 12
2.1.6.5 Aqueous film forming foam, alcohol type concentrate (AFFF-AR) ........................... 12
2.1.6.6 Fluoro protein alcohol resistant foam....................................................................... 13
2.1.6.7 Synthetic detergent foam ......................................................................................... 13
2.1.7 Application rate of foam ........................................................................................... 13
2.1.8 Properties of foam ................................................................................................... 14
2.1.8.1 Physical properties .................................................................................................. 14
2.1.8.2 Fuel tolerance .......................................................................................................... 14
2.1.8.3 Burnback resistance ................................................................................................ 14
2.1.8.4 Heat resistance ........................................................................................................ 14
2.1.8.5 Drainage time .......................................................................................................... 14
2.1.8.6 Critical shear stress ................................................................................................. 15
2.1.8.7 Shelf life ................................................................................................................... 15
2.1.8.8 Performance and quality .......................................................................................... 15
2.1.9 Compatibility ............................................................................................................ 15
2.1.9.1 Foam concentrates .................................................................................................. 15
2.1.9.2 Finished foam types ................................................................................................. 15
2.1.9.3 Foam and dry chemical powder ............................................................................... 16
2.1.10 Quantity of foam concentrate required..................................................................... 16
2.1.11 Storage of foam concentrate ................................................................................... 16
2.1.11.1 General .................................................................................................................... 16
2.1.11.2 Foam sampling ........................................................................................................ 16
2.1.12 Specification, testing and procurement of foam ....................................................... 16
2.1.12.1 Standards ................................................................................................................ 16
2.1.12.2 Testing ..................................................................................................................... 17
2.1.12.3 Procurement ............................................................................................................ 17
2.1.13 Safety and environmental effects of foam concentrates .......................................... 17
2.2 DRY CHEMICAL POWDER..................................................................................... 18
2.2.1 Fire classification ..................................................................................................... 18
2.2.2 Functioning of powder ............................................................................................. 18
2.2.3 Advantages and limitations of powder ..................................................................... 18
2.2.4 Types of dry chemical powder ................................................................................. 19
2.2.4.1 Sodium bicarbonate ................................................................................................. 19

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 4
2.2.4.2 Potassium bicarbonate ............................................................................................ 19

2.2.4.3 Ammonium phosphate ............................................................................................. 19
2.2.4.4 Urea-based potassium bicarbonate ......................................................................... 19
2.2.4.5 Special powders for chemical or metal fires ............................................................ 20
2.2.5 Application rate ........................................................................................................ 20
2.2.6 Properties of powder................................................................................................ 20
2.2.6.1 Flowability ................................................................................................................ 20
2.2.6.2 Hygroscopic behaviour ............................................................................................ 20
2.2.6.3 Resistance to packing.............................................................................................. 20
2.2.6.4 Particle size ............................................................................................................. 21
2.2.7 Compatibility ............................................................................................................ 21
2.2.7.1 Compatibility of powder types .................................................................................. 21
2.2.7.2 Compatibility of powder and foam............................................................................ 21
2.2.8 Quantity required ..................................................................................................... 21
2.2.9 Storage of powder ................................................................................................... 21
2.2.9.1 Storage conditions ................................................................................................... 21
2.2.9.2 Periodic inspection ................................................................................................... 21
2.2.10 Specification, testing and procurement of powder ................................................... 21
2.2.10.1 Standards ................................................................................................................ 21
2.2.10.2 Testing ..................................................................................................................... 22
2.2.10.3 Procurement ............................................................................................................ 22
2.2.11 Powder systems ...................................................................................................... 22
2.2.11.1 General description .................................................................................................. 22
2.2.11.2 Safety aspects ......................................................................................................... 22
2.3 HALON COMPOUNDS ............................................................................................ 23
2.3.1 General .................................................................................................................... 23
2.3.2 Functioning .............................................................................................................. 23
2.3.3 Restrictions .............................................................................................................. 23
2.3.4 Types of Halon and their applications ...................................................................... 23
2.3.4.1 Halon 1211 - BCF (bromochlorodifluoromethane) ................................................... 23
2.3.4.2 Halon 1301 - BTM (bromotrifluoromethane) ............................................................ 23
2.3.5 Physical properties of Halon .................................................................................... 24
2.3.6 Health and environmental aspects........................................................................... 24
2.3.7 Quantity required ..................................................................................................... 24
2.3.8 Storage .................................................................................................................... 24
2.4 CARBON DIOXIDE .................................................................................................. 25
2.4.1 Advantages .............................................................................................................. 25
2.4.2 Restrictions .............................................................................................................. 25
2.4.3 Safety ...................................................................................................................... 25
2.4.4 Storage .................................................................................................................... 25
2.4.5 Carbon dioxide systems .......................................................................................... 26
2.5 STEAM .................................................................................................................... 27
2.6 SAND....................................................................................................................... 28
2.7 WATER.................................................................................................................... 29
2.7.1 General .................................................................................................................... 29
2.7.2 Use .......................................................................................................................... 29
2.7.3 Heat absorption ....................................................................................................... 29
2.7.4 Vaporization ............................................................................................................. 29
2.7.5 Restrictions .............................................................................................................. 30
2.7.6 Compatibility ............................................................................................................ 30
2.7.6.1 Water and foam ....................................................................................................... 30
2.7.6.2 Water and powder ................................................................................................... 30
3. REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 31

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 5
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 SCOPE
This manual provides information and, where applicable, gives minimum requirements for
the various types of fire fighting agents, which should be used for the design and
engineering of fire protection and related facilities for application in onshore oil and gas
processing and petrochemical installations, storage facilities, jetties, terminals, loading and
unloading facilities.
Although primarily intended for new construction, the requirements of this manual can also
be applied for existing plants when the evaluation of safety audits indicates the need for
improvements to fire protection systems. When modifications and extensions to existing
plants are envisaged, fire protection shall always be considered and existing facilities
improved where necessary. In addition the updating of fire-fighting training grounds is
strongly recommended when they no longer provide the facilities for the required level of
training.
Foams which suppress toxic vapours are not covered in this manual.
For matters not covered in this manual, the code of the 'National Fire Protection
Association' (NFPA) shall be consulted.
1.2 DISTRIBUTION, APPLICABILITY and REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS

Unless otherwise authorised by SIPM, the distribution of this manual is confined to
companies forming part of or managed by the Royal Dutch/Shell Group, and to contractors
and when applicable, manufacturers/suppliers nominated by them.
This manual is intended to be used by contractors and Group companies for the selection
of fire fighting agents.
This manual is intended for use in oil refineries, chemical plants, gas plants and where
applicable, in marketing, exploration and production locations and new ventures.
National and/or local regulations may exist in which some of the requirements are more
stringent than in this manual. The contractor shall determine by careful scrutiny which of the
requirements are the more stringent and which combination of requirements will be
acceptable as regards safety, environmental, economic and legal aspects.
In all cases the contractor shall inform Principal of any deviation from the requirements of
this manual which is considered to be necessary in order to comply with national and/or
local regulations. The Principal may then negotiate with the authorities concerned with the
object of obtaining agreement to follow this manual as closely as possible.
1.3 CROSS REFERENCES

Where cross-references are made, the number of the referenced section or sub-section is
shown in brackets.
All publications referred to in this manual are listed in (3.).

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 6
1.4 DEFINITIONS
For the purpose of this manual, the following definitions shall hold:
Shall and Should - the word 'shall' is to be understood as mandatory and the word 'should'
as strongly recommended to comply with the requirements of this manual.
The Principal is the party which initiates the project and ultimately pays for its design and
construction. The Principal will generally specify the technical requirements. The Principal
may also include a consultant or a contractor authorised to act for the Principal.
The Contractor is the party which carries out all or part of the design, engineering,
procurement, construction and commissioning for the project. The Principal may sometimes
undertake all or part of the duties of the Contractor.
The Manufacturer/Supplier is the party which manufactures or supplies equipment and
services to perform the duties specified by the Contractor.
1.5 TERMINOLOGY
AFFF (Aqueous Film Forming Foam) Concentrate - A synthetic foam concentrate
containing fluorocarbon surfactants that influence the physical properties of the foam
solution so that it can float and spread across the surface of a hydrocarbon fuel.
"Alcohol Resistant" Foam Concentrate (ARFC) - A specially formulated foam for use on
water miscible fuels, such as alcohols and other polar solvents.
Application Rate - The rate at which solution should be applied on a fire. This is normally
expressed in terms of a solution flow in dm3/min. per square metre.
Burnback Resistance - The ability of a foam blanket to resist direct flame contact such as
would be evident in a partially extinguished (petroleum) fire.
Critical Application Rate - The lowest application rate at which a foam will extinguish a
fire under laboratory conditions.
Critical Shear Stress - A measure of the stiffness of a foam.
Drainage Time - The rate at which foam solution liquid drains from an expanded foam (i.e.
a measure of the foam's stability and an indication of the foam's viscosity). It is normally
expressed as "25% Drainage Time" ("Quarter-Life"), which is the time (minutes) required to
drain 25% of the solution liquid contained in the foam sample.
Dry Chemical Powder (DCP) - A powder composed of small particles, with an
approximate size band between 20 and 100 micron, usually of sodium bicarbonate,
potassium bicarbonate, urea based potassium bicarbonate, potassium chloride, or
monoammonium phosphate with added particulate material supplemented by special
treatment to provide resistance to packing, resistance to moisture (caking) and to provide
the proper flow capabilities.
Dry Chemical Powder System - A supply system of dry chemical powder which can be
automatically or manually activated to discharge through a distribution system onto or into
the protected hazard by means of (hand) nozzles or monitors.
Expansion - The ratio of the volume of the expanded foam formed to the volume of the
foam solution used to generate that foam. Expansion can be categorised further into low,
medium or high expansion. There are no rigourous definitions of these terms but generally
they can be taken as follows:
- Low expansion - Up to 20 to 1,
- Medium expansion - Between 20 and 100 to 1,
- High expansion - Between 100 and 1000 to 1.

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 7
Fluoroprotein Foam (FP) - A protein based foam with additional selected fluorinated
surfactants which are loosely bonded to the protein to provide the foam with fuel resistance
properties.
Foam (Finished foam, expanded foam) - The product of mixing air with the foam solution
homogeneously.
Foam branchpipe - A hand-held air aspirating foam nozzle.
Foam concentrate (Liquid) - The medium which is added to water to make a foam
solution. This solution mixed with air will form the expanded foam. Foam concentrates can
be purchased for mixing with water into solutions of 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 percent by volume.
Foam concentrate is also called foam agent.
Foam generator - The device in which air is mixed with foam solution to form foam.
Suitable for back pressures of maximum 0.5 bar.
Foam premix - A liquid (foam solution) in which foam concentrate and water are already
mixed in the correct ratio; thus ready for immediate use in the appropriate foam generator.
Foam solution - The liquid formed when foam concentrate is mixed with water. This
solution, mixed with air, gives a (fire-fighting) foam.
Fuel resistance - The ability of foam to restrict fuel penetration between expanded air
bubbles, thus withstanding foam breakdown by fuel.
Fuel tolerance - The ability of a foam to withstand fuel pick-up so that the air-filled foam
bubble will not become saturated with fuel and thus supports flames.
Heat resistance - The ability of foam to withstand the effects of exposure to heat through
radiation or contact with a hot surface.
High Back Pressure Foam Generator (HBPG) - The device, used in selected foam
applications, in which air is mixed with foam solution. The max. allowable backpressure is
expressed as a percentage of the generator's inlet pressure. Min. inlet pressure 7 bar.
Inductor - A type of jet mixer operated by fire water, in which the foam concentrate, by
means of suction, is entrained with firewater thereby forming foam solution. Only at
specified flow is an inductor able to deliver foam solution of the required concentration.
Typical inductor pressure loss is 30 percent of the inlet pressure.
Knockdown - The ability of an agent to extinguish a fire.
Manned Area/Room - A space which will be normally occupied 24 hours per day or can be
reached by people within 10 minutes.
Monitor - A device, normally either portable, fixed, trailer-mounted or truck-installed, to
which a large throughput nozzle is attached to allow the operator to direct the fire fighting
agent as required.
Multipurpose Dry Chemical Powder - Usually ammonium phosphate-based. Effective on
fires involving both ordinary combustibles, such as wood or paper, and fires involving
flammable liquids.
Non-aspirated foam - A foam solution, discharged through a nozzle, in which no air is
entrained intentionally.
Pick-up rate - The percentage at which foam concentrate is proportioned into the water
flow. Normally this is either 3% or 6%, but may differ for certain types of fire, or type of
foam concentrate or depends on the viscosity of the concentrate.
Proportioner - The device in which foam concentrate and water are mixed to form a
solution. It is suitable for varying flow rates, e.g. between 10 - 100 percent, with a pressure
loss of 10 percent of the inlet pressure.

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 8
Protein Foam Concentrate - A concentrated solution of hydrolysed protein to which

chemicals are added to obtain vapour suppression, freezing point depression and other
desirable characteristics.
Semi-subsurface foam injection - The discharge of foam at the liquid surface in a tank by
means of a foldable hose, through a rupture disc from an inlet near the bottom of the tank
to avoid submerging foam in the liquid.
Subsurface foam injection - The discharge of foam into a tank near the tank bottom
(above the free water layer), allowing the foam to travel through the product to the surface.
Synthetic Detergent ("Syndet") Foam Concentrate - A detergent-based foam
concentrate that can be used for low, medium and high expansion, but offers relatively poor
burnback and heat resistance at any expansion.
Universal foam concentrate - An alcohol-resistant foam concentrate that may be applied
on hydrocarbons and water-miscible fuels.
Unmanned Area/Room - A space which is intended for unoccupied use and cannot be
reached by personnel within 10 minutes.
Vapour suppression - The ability to suppress the formation of flammable vapours, thus
minimizing the risk of re-ignition.
Water branch pipe - A hand-held water nozzle, with a typical application rate of 200-400
dm3/min. at 7 bar.
1.6 ABBREVIATIONS
BS British Standard
EN European Norm
MESC Material and Equipment Standards and Code
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
UL Underwriters Laboratories Incorporated.

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 9
2. FIRE-FIGHTING AGENTS
2.1 FOAM
2.1.1 General
Foam is medium which can be applied on a flat service to form a blanket. Foam is generally
used for suppressing and extinguishing pool fires, and as such it is called fire fighting foam.
However it can also be applied on non-ignited liquids to suppress vapour emission.
The currently used fire fighting foams are of the mechanical (physical), not chemical, foam
type. Foam concentrate is added to water in small quantities (between 1 and 6 percent) to
form a foam solution. This is mixed with air to form the final fire fighting foam. Thus
(expanded) foam is an aggregate of air filled bubbles and a small percentage of foam
solution.
Foams can be divided in three types: Low, medium and high expansion foam (Refer to
2.1.4).
Prevention of a fire may be achieved by applying a foam blanket to fuel spills, reducing the
evaporation rate. Foam shall not be applied to water reactive products. Fire fighting foams
are particularly suited for extinguishing fires in storage tanks. They are also used for spill
fires, fires in process areas, at truck or rail car loading facilities and at jetties.
Commercially available fire fighting foams can be divided into two main groups:
- protein based foams,
- synthetic based foams.
Foam concentrates possessing components of both groups are available. See (2.1.6).
2.1.2 Functioning of foam

Foam, when applied continuously at the required foam application rate, establishes and
maintains a sealing blanket over a burning or non-ignited material.
Foam can only function as a fire extinguishing medium when the vapour release from the
liquid is reduced such that the vapour/air mixture becomes leaner than the Lower
Flammable Limit (LFL) of the vapour.
Foam acts differently on non-ignited and ignited fuels depending on the nature of the fuel.
On a non-ignited pool of fuel distinction can be made between:
a) hydrocarbon liquid fuels,
b) refrigerated LNG,
c) refrigerated LPG/NGL.
a) Hydrocarbon liquid fuels
Foam reduces the formation of vapour by:
(1) Shielding the liquid surface from the air, thus reducing vapour pick-up.
(2) Forming an insulating layer between any radiation from the environment into the fuel,
thus reducing evaporation due to heat ingress.
(3) Producing water (result of foam drainage), which will reduce the temperature of the
fuel surface (and adjacent materials) when the liquid fuel is above the water
temperature.
b) Refrigerated LNG
LNG vapour is warmed as it rises through a thick (minimum 1.5 m.) layer of foam. The
resultant buoyancy of the vapour leads to reduced vapour concentrations down wind at
grade level.
However water, resulting from foam drainage, will act as a heat source and it has the
undesirable effect of increasing vaporisation.
If high expansion foam (refer to 2.1.4.3), with long drainage time (typically 15 minutes or
more), is used the overall effect on down wind vapour concentration at grade level is

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 10
favourable.
c) Refrigerated LPG/NGL
Pools of LPG/NGL will be at their (cold) atmospheric boiling point.
Water, resulting from foam drainage, would act as a heat source and it has the undesirable
effect of increasing vaporisation. As LPG/NGL vapours remain heavier than air the down
wind LPG/NGL concentrations would increase. Therefore foam shall not be applied on non-
ignited pools of LPG/NGL.
On an ignited (burning) pool of fuel distinction shall be made between:
a) hydrocarbon liquid fuels,
b) refrigerated LNG, NGL and LPG.
a) Hydrocarbon liquid fuels
Foam reduces the formation of vapour and reduces the intensity of the fire by:
(1) Forming an insulating layer between the flames and the fuel, thus reducing the heat
ingress, via the liquid surface, into the fuel; this results in a reduction of the flammable
vapour release which in turn decreases the size of the fire.
(2) Producing water (result of foam drainage), which will reduce the temperature of the
fuel surface (and adjacent materials) when the liquid fuel is above the water
temperature.
(3) Water evaporation out of the foam, thus:
- keeping the temperature at the top of the foam layer to maximum 100 °C, which restricts
heat ingress into the fuel:
- forming steam, lowering the (relative) concentration of fuel vapour which reduces the
intensity of the fire, resulting in lower radiation levels.
b) Refrigerated LNG, NGL and LPG
Foam reduces the formation of vapour by forming an insulating layer between the flames
and the fuel, thus reducing the heat ingress from the fire, via the liquid surface, into the
refrigerated fuel. This results in a reduction of the flammable vapour release which in turn
decreases the size of the fire. For this purpose a thick (approx. 1.5 metres) foam blanket is
required.
Water, resulting from foam drainage, will act as a heat source which will cause some
increase in vaporisation. Therefore special high expansion foams (refer to 2.1.4.3) shall be
used, having long drainage times (typically 15 minutes or more), which limit free water
resulting in minimum increase of vaporisation.
As long as the foam blanket is present it will result in a smaller fire size (no extinguishment
will be achieved) with radiation levels reduced to 10 %.
2.1.3 Limitations
From the foregoing it can be concluded that not all types of fire fighting foams can be used
for any type of fuel fire.
Foams are not effective in extinguishing fires involving jetting or falling fuels and flowing
liquid fires.
From a release of pressurised LPG the formation of a liquid pool is unlikely, and anyhow its
presence of very short duration, due to flashing of the liquid. Therefore the use of foam is
not effective.
Foams have a limited throwing distance, due to their low density. Wind force and direction
may influence this distance as well.
Because foams have conductive properties, they shall not be used on live electrical
equipment unless specially approved. If the bulk temperature of the liquid is high (>100 °C)
this will restrict the use of foam, and may even cause violent frothing or slop-over.
The water required for producing foam should not be contaminated with water miscible
componants e.g. alcohols etc.

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 11
2.1.4 Expansion ratio of foam

Depending on the type of foam concentrate and the foam producing equipment used, the
expansion ratio will vary widely. The expansion ratio is also governed by the nozzle
pressure and impurities in the fire water. Generally the following terminology is used:
Low expansion foam : Up to 20 to 1,
Medium expansion foam: Between 20 and 100 to 1,
High expansion foam : Between 100 and 1000 to 1.
2.1.4.1 Low expansion foam
Low expansion foam is mostly used in the petrochemical industry. It has a good throwing
range due to its density (typically: hand nozzles: max. 20 metres; monitors: over 30 metres)
and good flowing properties (fluidity).
Its expansion ratio varies between 6 and 10 to 1 for over-the-top applications. For
subsurface applications the expansion ratio varies between 3 and 4 to 1. Non-aspirated
application has a ratio of 2 to 1.
2.1.4.2 Medium expansion foam

Medium expansion foam has a limited throwing range (approximately 10 metres) due to its
low density. However with properly designed equipment it is particularly suitable for fires in
enclosed or contained locations such as pump rooms and engine rooms.
2.1.4.3 High expansion (hi-ex) foam

Hi-ex. foam is a synthetic foam, which has no throwing range due to its very low density. It
travels over the fuel by gravity. With properly designed equipment it is suitable for fires in
enclosed or contained locations such as buildings and warehouses.
By placing a high expansion foam generator at an opening into a confined space and to
ensure that clean air (without smoke particles) is present at the point where air is sucked in,
a fire can be brought under control without personnel having to enter a potentially
hazardous space.
Hi-ex foam, with an expansion ratio of about 200-500 to 1 and with a long 25% drainage
time (typically: at least 15 min.), is used to cover (non) ignited LNG pools, to minimise
vaporization. It requires foam blankets between 1.5 and 2.0 metres thick. It reduces flame
size by approximately 90 percent.
There is an indication that selected alcohol resistant type foam compound can be used as
an hi-ex application in e.g. chemical warehouses.
2.1.5 Travel distance of foam

Travel distance is the ability of foam to flow over a liquid by gravity from the application
point over a certain distance. Regardless of continuing foam supply, when the maximum
travel distance is reached, foam has the property that it will not travel (spread) any further.
Travel distance is a function of surface properties, foam expansion ratio, static foam head
and viscosity.
Foam spread dominates fire control time. Good quality foam will travel 12 to 15 metres.
2.1.6 Types of foam

In the following sections different types of foams are discussed, addressing: composition,
purpose of the foam, application method and price ratio.
2.1.6.1 Protein foam

Protein foam is mainly manufactured from waste animal material (such as hooves, horns,
skins, blood or fish) or soya beans. Metal salts (such as aluminium, zinc or magnesium) are

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 12
added to act as the framework for the bubbles (reinforcement).

Protein foam is mainly used for oil spills and tank fires. Foam concentration is normally 3
percent; it is used as a low expansion foam (2.1.4.1).
However, protein foam is no longer recommended because of its poor fuel tolerance. For
this reason it cannot be used for sub-surface application.
2.1.6.2 Fluoro protein foam

Fluoro protein foam is similar to protein foam, but has a fluorinated surfactant added. This
gives the foam a higher fluidity, without losing the cohesiveness of the foam blanket, i.e. the
foam spreads easier over a surface fire but the resulting blanket is still tough enough to
seal objects protruding from the fire. It has an excellent fuel tolerance. It is therefore
suitable for subsurface injection.
The foam concentrate is normally added to water as a 3 percent concentrate; though also 5
and 6 percent concentrates are available. Mixed with the appropriate amount of air it results
in a low expansion foam (2.1.4.1).
For rim areas of floating roof tanks it should be applied with an expansion ratio varying
between 3 and 4 to 1. This will provide better fluidity around metal obstructions.
It is about twice as expensive as protein foam but it has a far better performance.
2.1.6.3 Film forming fluoro protein foam

Film forming fluoro protein foam (FFFP) is essentially a mixture of fluoro protein foam and
aqueous film forming foam (AFFF). As a "hybrid" product it does not necessarily combine
most of the good properties of both individual fluoro protein foam and AFFF. FFFP has the
same expansion ratio as fluoroprotein foam.
This type of foam is only available from specific sources.
2.1.6.4 Aqueous film forming foam

Aqueous film forming foam, AFFF (A-triple-F) is a synthetic, foaming liquid. This type of
synthetic foam consists of fluorochemical and hydrocarbon surfactants, combined with high
boiling point solvents. The foam forms an aqueous film on the fuel surface.The AFFF has
the ability to create a film of solution that floats on top of non-polar flammable liquids. Its
high fluidity results in rapid fire knock down. In non-aspirating applications the expansion
ratio is typically between 2 and 4 to 1. The foam is used for shallow spill fires.
Normally the concentrate is added as a 3 percent concentrate to water. It is also available
as a 1.0 percent foam concentrate. The latter concentrate has the same expansion ratio as
a 3 percent concentrate. This is particularly attractive where there are weight/space
restrictions, as the storage capacity is reduced to 33%.
AFFF concentrate is more expensive than fluoro protein type foams. Typically 2.5 times the
price of fluoro protein foam of the same concentration.
2.1.6.5 Aqueous film forming foam, alcohol type concentrate (AFFF-AR)

This synthetic foam has water soluble polymers added to it. This foam in contact with a
polar solvent forms a cohesive polymeric membrane between the foam and the water
soluble fuel. This thick membrane protects the foam and its aqueous layer from breakdown
by polar solvents. If the protective layer should become disrupted by agitation or wind, more
of the layer is produced by means of a regenerative action known as "self healing".
Most of these foams are a versatile AFFF foam type for the protection of a wide range of
Class B (i.e. flammable liquid) hazards. It is available as a, UL-listed, 6 percent
concentration for polar solvents. The thick polymeric membrane may cause sewers to
block.
This type of foam concentrate is a non-Newtonian, jelly type liquid. Behaviour as a
Newtonian liquid is only guaranteed above certain minimum flow velocities. Therefore all
foam proportioning equipment requires specific calibration. This will avoid proportioning
rates in error of some 50% (e.g. at a 6% setting the proportioning rate may only be 3%).

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 13
The foam concentrate shall not remain in permanent contact with mild steel as the
presence of iron ions will create a polymer film. The resulting sludge may block filters,
inductors etc.
AFFF-AR shall always be applied in a "gentle" manner, to avoid submersion, and to ensure
that the already formed film is not disturbed and thus remains effective. This implies that
AFFF-AR shall never be applied sub-surface; however it may be applied in a semi sub-
surface application.
AFFF-AR can also be applied on non-water-miscible (non-polar) fuels (e.g. normal
hydrocarbons), and as such it is called "Universal" type foam. Universal concentrate added
as a 6% addition is suitable for fires containing polar solvents. It can also be used on non
water miscible hydrocarbons, added as a 3% concentrate. On hydrocarbons it functions like
AFFF foam.
Only Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL)-listed concentrates shall be used.
AFFF-AR, applied in medium and high expansion equipment for e.g. chemical warehouses,
shall only be used after actual tests of concentrate, equipment and fuel have proven
positive. (Test protocol to be agreed.)
Typical price: two times the price of fluoro protein foam of the same concentration.
2.1.6.6 Fluoro protein alcohol resistant foam

This foam type consists mainly of hydrolised proteins, glycol solvents, fluorosurfactants and
polymers. Its resistance against water miscibility is achieved by the formation of a polymeric
layer between the foam blanket and the liquid fuel.
This foam compound is used as a 6% concentrate with low expansion equipment on water
miscible fuels.
Though currently not recommended the foam compound type can also be used on non
water miscible fuels; for low expansion application a 3% concentrate is used, while for
medium expansion a 6% concentrate is applied.
Typical price: approximately 1.5 times fluoro protein of the same concentration.
2.1.6.7 Synthetic detergent foam

Synthetic detergent foam is manufactured from chemical foaming agents with additional
stabilisers (high boiling solvents). These foam concentrates have a high fluidity and are
applied in solutions with a typical concentration of approximately 2 percent. These foam
concentrates can be used to produce low, medium and high expansion foam.
The ordinary type has poor burnback resistance and poor fuel resistance and therefore this
foam has limited extinguishing properties. It is used for extinguishing fires in buildings,
warehouses, etc.
Special Hi-ex foams with a typical expansion ratio of 200-500:1 can be used for covering
LNG spills However, before this foam is selected for this purpose advice from the principal
should be sought.
Typical price: approximately 0.5 times fluoro protein foam of the same concentration.
2.1.7 Application rate of foam

To be effective, foam must be applied at a rate greater than the "critical application rate"
which is the minimum recommended application rate that has been found by laboratory
tests to be the most practical in terms of speed of control of the fire and the amount of
agent required. A typical minimum recommended application rate for effective control of
non-water-miscible fuel fires is 4-6 dm3/min/m 2 fuel area.
Increasing foam application over the minimum recommended rate generally reduces the
time required for extinguishment. Rates greatly exceeding recommended minima, waste
foam supplies with no appreciable shorter extinguishing time advantage. If the application
rate is lower than the recommended minimum, extinguishment may not be reached.

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 14
The relation between extinguishing time and application rate depends on fuel, foam type
and method of application. For hydrocarbon products a standardised application rate is
used. Polar solvents and chemicals require individually confirmed application rates to be
obtained from the foam concentrate supplier.
The actual generated application rate is influenced by losses during throw. These losses
can be in the order of 50 to 100%. This phenomenon should be considered when
engineering fire fighting systems.

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 15
When foam is used it requires constant supply until:

- the fire is extinguished and the liquid is cooled down to below its flash point,
or
- the liquid has totally evaporated or has been transferred (pumped) to another container
(tank).
For the application of (low expansion) foam the following aspects shall be adhered to:
- Plunging of foam into fuel should be avoided to reduce: free area of evaporation and
breaking the foam blanket. Preferably foam shall be applied against a vertical "wall" or
by spreading the foam from the application point.
- Recommended pressure ranges should be observed for all foam making equipment.
Foam quality generally deteriorates outside these pressure ranges.
2.1.8 Properties of foam
2.1.8.1 Physical properties

Like all liquids, foam concentrates can be characterised by their physical properties, e.g.:
specific gravity, pH, total solids, viscosity, and the minimum use temperature. These
absolute values are used in engineering foam systems. These values may change over
time, and their trend may adversely affect the properties described in this section.
2.1.8.2 Fuel tolerance

Good foam exhibits a high fuel tolerance; minimising fuel pick-up prevents the foam from
emitting fuel vapours and supporting the fire. Fuel tolerance is vital for sub-surface and
forceful surface applications. Foam can pick up fuel by two mechanisms:
- low interfacial tension can cause it to mix with the fuel (common with detergent based
solutions),
- the combination of surface and interfacial values may cause fuel to spread over the
foam bubbles. This is a common problem with protein foams.
2.1.8.3 Burnback resistance

The burnback resistance depends on the chemical make up of the foam concentrate.
Protein based foams leave behind a charred residue which delays their destruction by the
fire. Synthetic foams, in general, have a poor burnback resistance.
2.1.8.4 Heat resistance

The degree of heat resistance determines to a certain extent the ability to form an effective
seal against hot obstacles protruding through the foam blanket.
2.1.8.5 Drainage time

With time, foam bubbles will collapse, depending upon surface tension characteristics, and
foam solution will drop out of the foam. This will cause a considerable reduction of the
effective thickness of the aerated foam blanket. Drainage time usually improves with
expansion and viscosity. Obviously, long drainage time is a desirable feature for
cold/refrigerated fuels. With film forming foams, a controlled drainage rate is required in
order to maintain a well spread film. Sometimes the "50%" drainage time is used for
commercial reasons. However typical minimum 25% drainage times for various types of
foam are:
Fluoro Protein using the UL-162 test method and a cylinder of1000
cc with a height of 352 mm: 8 minutes,
AFFF using the UL-162 test method and a cylinder of
1000 cc with a height of 352 mm: 5 minutes,
High Expansion (for standard applications): using a 200 litre

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 16
container with a height of about 1 metre : 10

minutes,
High Expansion (for LNG applications) : using a 200 litre container
with a height of about 1 metre : 15 minutes.
2.1.8.6 Critical shear stress
A foam having a high critical shear stress will be stiff and not flow over a burning fuel
surface as readily as one with a low critical shear stress and therefore it will not exhibit such
good fire knockdown properties.
2.1.8.7 Shelf life

Shelf life is the foam concentrate manufacturer`s guaranteed time during which a particular
foam concentrate will perform as specified, if applied correctly. Shelf life differs to each
manufacturer: it should be at least 5 years under the storage conditions at the particular
location. Foam concentrate can deteriorate in storage, due to e.g. sludging, oxidation, high
storage temperature, loss of stability, dilution, evaporation or contamination. To assist in
maintaining and extending shelf life, measures shall be taken to minimize contact of foam
concentrate and air, e.g. storage tanks shall be equipped with domes. High temperatures
can be avoided by installing a sun roof. During regular training exercises foam shall be
checked for a possible change in performance using a fire tray. In addition stocks shall be
checked annually by returning a sample to the supplier or preferably to an independent
laboratory. See section (10.2). (A test kit is commercially available.)
2.1.8.8 Performance and quality

The performance of a foam is influenced by the aforementioned properties. Some of these
properties counteract each other. The effectiveness of a good foam blanket in a fire
situation will depend upon the type of fuel, quality, quantity and pressure of the fire fighting
water, the foam making equipment and the foam concentrate. In order to achieve a good
extinguishment there are six qualities that a foam must exhibit:
- Cohesion; must be such that the foam bubbles cling together and form a tough cohesive
blanket,
- Vapour Suppression; the foam must be capable of suppressing flammable vapours and
so minimise the risk of re-ignition,
- Stability/Water Retention; it must have the ability to retain water in order to perform its
cooling function,
- Heat Resistance; the foam must be able to resist the destructive effects of heat radiated
from any remaining fire or hot objects. In addition, it must be able to form an effective
seal against any hot metal surface such as a storage tank wall,
- Flowability; in order to extinguish a fire rapidly the foam must flow freely around any
obstructions present in the fire. This property is, of course, particularly important when
dealing with crash fire situations; typically at loading stations where personnel may be
present,
- Fuel Tolerance; a good foam exhibits a high fuel tolerance.
2.1.9 Compatibility
2.1.9.1 Foam concentrates

Different types of foam concentrate shall not be mixed.
Different makes of the same type foam concentrate or foam solution (premix) shall not be
mixed in common storage facilities, unless both manufacturers guarantee the good
performance of their foam concentrate when mixed together.
Equally if the concentrates are not compatible, resulting solutions shall not be mixed.

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 17
2.1.9.2 Finished foam types

Different makes of the same type of (finished) foams can be used simultaneously on the
same fire.
2.1.9.3 Foam and dry chemical powder

Foams have to be tested and specified for their compatibility with dry chemical powder, and
vice versa. Some dry chemical powders will destroy the finished foam, e.g. when the last
flames are treated with dry chemical powder.
2.1.10 Quantity of foam concentrate required

To determine the maximum required amount of foam concentrate, fire plans shall be made.
The largest credible fire scenario which may be expected dictates the amount of foam
concentrate to be available. Though the largest credible fire scenario may last less than
one hour the stock quantity should allow for foam application being maintained for one
hour. In addition, a spare stock of the same amount should be kept unless it is assured that
such an amount will be available within 60 minutes.
2.1.11 Storage of foam concentrate
2.1.11.1 General
Foam concentrate shall be stored in a dedicated storage tank, manufactured of a suitable
material; or in manufacturer's non-metallic drums. The manufacturer of the foam
concentrate shall be consulted for suitable foam concentrate resistant material.
Following materials are recommended for:
Fluoro Protein (slightly corrosive): Glass-Fibre Reinforced Polyester or Carbon
Steel with an internal amine cured epoxy
paint coating.
AFFF (corrosive): Glass-Fibre Reinforced Polyester or

Stainless Steel, type AISI 316L or agreed
alternative.
Alcohol Resistant: Glass-Fibre Reinforced Polyester or stainless

steel type AISI 316L or agreed alternative
(Polymer film will form when in contact with
mild steel).
2.1.11.2 Foam sampling
Annually at least one bottom sample of foam concentrate shall be examined and tested (to
determine specific gravity, pH and viscosity at 20°C) to verify the quality of the foam
concentrate and the produced foam. The following collection schemes for foam concentrate
samples can be used:
Collect one sample - bottom only (mandatory)
Collect two samples - one top, one bottom
Collect three samples - one top, one bottom, one middle (preferably)
Collect one sample - after recirculating contents
Care shall be taken with bottom samples: taking in consideration sediments, such as layers
of dirt and degradation products. When samples contain rust or scale, the contaminated
concentrate shall be drained and filtered. Samples of about one litre shall be representative
of the bulk stock and they shall be sealed in clean non-metallic containers, accompanied by
a label stating type and history.

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 18
2.1.12 Specification, testing and procurement of foam
2.1.12.1 Standards
Standardization organizations which deal with the quality of foam are:
National Fire Protection Association - NFPA,
Underwriters Laboratories Inc. - UL,
Factory Mutual - FM,
Their specifications and standards include requirements for foam concentrate and foam
quality.
The UL-162 test correlates to realistic fires in the oil and chemical industry and is SIPM's
preferred test method.
2.1.12.2 Testing
Independent testing authorities, such as Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL) are the
customers' guarantee that the foam concentrate manufacturer has demonstrated, through
extensive fire testing and evaluations, that the product complies with the rigid requirements
and specifications of the testing authority.
In addition a UL-listed manufacturing source will be checked at regular intervals to confirm
the quality of product and manufacturing process in the factory. Any deviation from these
standards can lead to the foam concentrate manufacturer being removed from the approval
listings.
Foam types and/or applications not covered in the UL standards shall be tested to an
agreed protocol before acceptance by the principal.
2.1.12.3 Procurement
To obtain a high quality foam concentrate stock, fully UL-162 approved or listed foam
concentrates are recommended for purchase. The requisition shall describe that a
certification document is required stating that the particular batch conforms to UL listing.
Additionally, the requisition should stipulate that a condensed UL test is to be performed on
samples, taken from the manufactured batch, at the moment of delivery. This test shall
determine the following values: pH (acidity), viscosity, 25 percent drainage time and
specific gravity. Condensed test to be performed by manufacturer, and results to be
forwarded to purchaser.
The foam concentrate manufacturer or supplier shall guarantee that the foam concentrates
are biodegradable and non-toxic. For this purpose manufacturers shall supply data on
chemical oxygen demand and biological oxygen demand.
It is recommended to include a "return" clause in any purchase order to dispose of
redundant/deteriorated foam concentrate stock.
2.1.13 Safety and environmental effects of foam concentrates

Manufacturer's Material Safety Sheets for each foam concentrate type shall be available.
The manufacturer shall confirm that the product meets the legal requirements of the country
of destination.
Normally the various types of foam concentrates are complex mixtures. Foam concentrates
can contain phosphates, mercury or other materials identified as contaminants or
pollutants. Protein based foams may contain added freezing point depressants and organic
and inorganic stabilisers. Synthetic foams may contain freezing point depressants and, in
some cases, a surface-active fluorocarbon.

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 19
2.2 DRY CHEMICAL POWDER
2.2.1 Fire classification

Dry chemical powders are divided depending on the types of fires for which they are
suitable. Fires are classified into groups in accordance with the flammable materials
involved:
American (UL-711) Material involved European (EN-2)
class class
A Wood, paper, rubber A

(glowing embers)
B Liquids like petroleum B

products, varnish,
lacquer thinners, etc.
B Vapours and gases C
C Energized electrical None

equipment
D Metals like magnesium, D

sodium, titanium,
potassium, lithium,
zirconium
In order to avoid misunderstanding the UL-711 classification is followed in this publication.
2.2.2 Functioning of powder

The detailed mechanisms by which dry chemical agents extinguish fires have not been
completely determined. However, it is generally accepted that the primary extinguishing
mechanisms include:
- interruption of the chain reaction sequence in chemical reactions,
- reduction of liquid fuel evaporation rates by reduction of flame radiation at the liquid
surface,
- inert effects due to reduction of oxygen concentration within the active fire zone.
Secondary extinguishing mechanisms may include:
- heat absorption effects (particularly at high dry chemical concentrations),
- cooling effects, due to the formation of water vapour by the pyrolysis processes, in the
flame. (This reduces the heat radiated back into the product on fire.)
- additional inert effects due to the formation of carbon dioxide by the pyrolysis of the dry
chemical,
- fire retardant effects due to surface coatings.
The effectiveness of the chemical reaction mechanisms differs with each chemical agent
and is believed to be the primary reason for the differences in overall effectiveness of the
different agents at critical extinguishing flow rates. The physical mechanisms, such as
reduction of oxygen concentrations, are significantly influenced by dry chemical
concentrations in the flame zone as well as the dry chemical agent physical properties.
2.2.3 Advantages and limitations of powder

Dry chemical powders give an instantaneous extinguishment of the flames of a fire. The
agent gives very rapid fire control and it is particular useful against running flammable liquid
fires, which foam cannot readily extinguish. Dry chemical powders are highly efficient in

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 20
extinguishing fires, provided they can reach all areas of the fire without interruption.

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 21
The use of dry chemical agents shall not be considered satisfactory protection for the
following:
- chemicals containing their own oxygen supply, such as cellulose nitrate.
- combustible metals such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, titanium, and zirconium.
- deep seated fires in ordinary combustibles where the dry powder cannot reach the point
of combustion.
Although dry chemical powders are electrically non-conductive, they should preferably not
be used for instrumentation and electrical equipment, due to the corrosion after being
exposed to moisture. Their use in fixed installations requires specialist's designs. They shall
be designed according to NFPA and the manufacturer's specifications. Dry chemical
powders do not cover and cool oil surfaces.
Dry chemical powders have limitations in extinguishing performance. Therefore the
appropriate powder shall be used for a particular fire (see 2.2.4).
Dry chemical powders do not cool the product on fire. After extinguishment a flash fire may
occur instantly; this can only be avoided by cooling with water.
2.2.4 Types of dry chemical powder

The common dry chemical powders are listed below. These materials are treated to gain
proper flow capabilities and to provide resistance against packing and moisture absorption
(caking). The type of dry chemical powder used as one of the factors determining the fire
extinguishing rating as described in UL-711 and EN 3-1.
2.2.4.1 Sodium bicarbonate

This agent consist primarily of sodium bicarbonate and it is a basic dry chemical powder
extinguishing agent. It consists of small particles which do not penetrate deeply into the fire.
It is suitable for use on all types of hydrocarbon flammable liquid and gas fires (Class B)
and also for fires involving energized electrical equipment (Class C). It is not recommended
for Class A fires. A fire extinguisher rating of 60 (based on UL-711) is typical for 12 kg of
sodium bicarbonate for class B and C fires.
2.2.4.2 Potassium bicarbonate

This agent consists primarily of potassium bicarbonate. It consists of larger particles which
penetrate deeper into the fire. As a result it has a better UL rating than sodium bicarbonate.
A UL-711 rating of 120 is typical for 12 kg of potassium bicarbonate for class B and C fires.
It is suitable for use on all types of flammable liquid and gas fires (Class B) and also for
fires involving energized electrical equipment (Class C).
Generally dry chemical powders, based on salts of potassium, are not recommended for
Class A fires.
2.2.4.3 Ammonium phosphate

This agent consists of a mixture of ammonium phosphate (min. 40%) and ammonium
sulphate. Mono-ammonium phosphate powders, referred to as multi-purpose powders, are
suitable for Class A,B and C fires. The agent, when heated, decomposes to form a molten
residue which will adhere to heated surfaces. Therefore they are less appropriate for
processing and storage facilities. On combustible solid surfaces (Class A), the molten
residue excludes the oxygen necessary for propagation of the fire. As a result it has a good
extinguishing effect in Class A fires.
2.2.4.4 Urea-based potassium bicarbonate

This material is denser than sodium bicarbonate. Due to the resulting improved throw, urea-
based potassium bicarbonate has a better fire penetration capability in all types of
flammable liquid and gas fires (Class B) and also in fires involving energized electrical

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 22
equipment (Class C). As a result the fire extinguishing rating is better than of potassium
bicarbonate. Urea-based potassium bicarbonate particles have a larger volume than
potassium bicarbonate particles. The filling ratio of urea-based potassium bicarbonate to
potassium bicarbonate is 0.7. A nominal 12 kg portable extinguisher filled with 8 kg urea-
based potassium bicarbonate has the same extinguishing rating for B,C fires as when filled
with 12 kg potassium bicarbonate. Though more expensive, urea-based potassium
bicarbonate is the most powerful dry chemical powder on a weight basis and therefore the
preferred powder for use in our installations.
The urea-based dry chemical powders are not recommended for the extinguishment of
Class A fires.
2.2.4.5 Special powders for chemical or metal fires

These dry chemical powders are generally based on sodium chloride, graphite or sodium
bicarbonate. Standard types of dry chemical powders should not be used to extinguish
chemical or metal type fires because in most cases there is danger of increasing the
intensity of the fire due to chemical reaction between some extinguishing agents and the
burning chemical or metal. When using special powders for chemical or metal fires, special
safety equipment, including breathing apparatus, may be required to protect operators.
With these special powders care should be taken to use the appropriate type of dry
chemical powder for the particular type of fire.
2.2.5 Application rate

Dry chemical powder is used to achieve fast extinguishment of any fire which may occur in
the protected area.
Specification for the application rate of dry chemical powders is a function of:
- the flow characteristics of the particular dry chemical powder,
and - the equipment used in the system.
The following minimum application rates for dry chemical powders can be used for
guidance:
- sodium bicarbonate : 1.1 kg.s-1 m-2.
- potassium bicarbonate : 1.1 kg.s-1 m-2
- urea-based potassium bicarbonate : 0.8 kg.s-1 m-2.
- ammonium phosphate : 1.6 kg.s-1 m-2.
Typical discharge time is at least 30 seconds.
Performance rating of an extinguisher is typically expressed as a fire area which can be
extinguished under test conditions e.g. a UL 711 rating of 60 indicates an area of 14 m2
2.2.6 Properties of powder
2.2.6.1 Flowability
In this context flowability is the ability of the dry chemical powder to pass through piping
systems (incl. hoses, fittings and nozzles) without blocking of the extinguishing system.
2.2.6.2 Hygroscopic behaviour

Dry chemical powder has the tendency to absorb moisture; this is called hygroscopic
behaviour. Most powders have a silicon coating which may resist absorption. When the
moisture content is too high, the dry chemical powder will cake. The moisture content shall

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 23
not exceed 0.2%.
2.2.6.3 Resistance to packing

Resistance to packing of the dry chemical powder particles is important when the dry
chemical powder is stored in sacks or in fire-fighting vehicles. The storage of sacks shall
not exceed a height of 1.2 metre. The silicon coating, which is on most powders, may be
broken by crushing; this will cause the extinguishing performance of the dry chemical
powder to deteriorate.
In portable, wheeled, mobile and fixed systems powders may be subject to vibration.
Therefore provisions shall be made to fluidize the powder upon pressurisation.
2.2.6.4 Particle size

The particle size of dry chemical powders is important to its extinguishing performance. The
smaller the particle size, the greater the relative particle surface and the lighter the particle.
The lighter the particle the lesser the throwing capacity. Particles smaller than 14 µm are
too light for sufficient throwing capacity.
2.2.7 Compatibility
2.2.7.1 Compatibility of powder types

Dry chemical powders shall not be mixed. Mixtures of certain dry chemicals may generate
dangerous pressures and the mixtures may form lumps. When dry chemical powders of the
ABC type (ammonium phosphate) are mixed with dry chemical powders of the BC type
(potassium or sodium bicarbonate), ammonia and carbon dioxide gases will be released.
2.2.7.2 Compatibility of powder and foam

Dry chemical powders shall only be used with foam when the manufacturer of the dry
chemical powder provides proof, by an independent testing authority, that the powder is
compatible with the particular foam type. Generally, silicone-coated dry chemical powders
are compatible with foam.
2.2.8 Quantity required

To determine the amount of readily available dry chemical powder, fire plans shall be
established. The largest credible fire hazard, which may be expected, dictates the amount
of dry chemical powder to be available for immediate use. A 100 percent spare capacity
shall be kept in stock.
2.2.9 Storage of powder
2.2.9.1 Storage conditions

Stocks of dry chemical powder shall be stored in a continuously dry area. Dry chemical
powders are unaffected by temperature extremes. Dry chemical powder shall be
shipped/stored in containers which will prevent the entrance of moisture. For stacking see
(2.2.6.3).
2.2.9.2 Periodic inspection

At regular time intervals, dry chemical powder stocks should be inspected for flowability and
caking. They shall be laboratory-tested in accordance with UL-299. Powder contained in
portable, wheeled and mobile units shall be checked regularly to ensure the powder is still
free-flowing.

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 24
2.2.10 Specification, testing and procurement of powder
2.2.10.1 Standards
Neither Royal Dutch /"Shell" Group nor Oil Industry specifications are available to specify
dry chemical powder.
Available USA specifications are:
Federal spec. O-D-1407 for potassium bicarbonate
and Federal spec. O-F-371B for sodium bicarbonate.
Specifications for other dry chemical powders require Principal's approval.
2.2.10.2 Testing
Independent testing authorities, such as Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL) are the
customer's assurance that the manufacturer of Dry Chemical Powder (systems) has
demonstrated through extensive fire testing and evaluations, that the product complies to
the rigid requirements and specifications of the testing authority.
In addition, a UL-listed manufacturing source will be checked at regular intervals to confirm
production quality in the factory. Any deviation from UL standards can lead to the
manufacturer being removed from the UL approval list.
When witnessing manufacturers' tests, the Dry Chemical Powder shall be applied with
standard equipment, i.e. with mass-produced equipment which is generally available to the
customer.
2.2.10.3 Procurement
To obtain a high quality Dry Chemical Powder, only fully (e.g. UL) approved or listed Dry
Chemical Powder from reliable and reputable Dry Chemical Powder system manufacturers
are recommended for purchase. The requisition shall specify that a certification document
is required stating that the particular batch is suitable for the intended system. Only Dry
Chemical Powder with a test certificate (e.g. UL-299, Part 47: "Extinguishing agent test"),
shall be accepted. Such tests shall be performed by suitable, independent testing
laboratories.
2.2.11 Powder systems
2.2.11.1 General description

Upon manual or automatic activation dry chemical powder systems release a pre-
determined quantity of dry chemical powder through a distribution system onto or into the
protected area.
2.2.11.2 Safety aspects

Discharges of large amounts of dry chemical powder may create a hazard to personnel,
such as reduced visibility and temporary breathing difficulty. In total and local application
systems where there is a possibility that personnel may be exposed to a dry chemical
discharge, suitable safety measures shall be provided to ensure prompt evacuation of such
locations.

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 25
2.3 HALON COMPOUNDS
2.3.1 General
Halons are bromo- (chloro-) fluorocarbons. Halon 1301 is a colourless, odourless,
electrically non-conductive gas. Halon 1211 is a colourless, faintly sweet-smelling,
electrically non-conductive vapourizing liquid. They are both effective media for
extinguishing fires and have become widely used because they are the only known agents
that do not cause agent damage to the protected area.
There has been increasing concern in recent years that the emission of halons into the
atmosphere results in the depletion of the earth's protective layer of stratospheric ozone.
The Royal Dutch /"Shell" Group supports international efforts to phase out Halon 1211 and
1301, which are listed in the Montreal Protocol.
For this reason, halons are not recommended as a fire fighting agent.
HALONS SHALL BE USED ONLY WHEN IT IS CONSIDERED ESSENTIAL AND
ALTERNATIVES ARE NOT SUITABLE.
General guidance on Halon is provided below.
2.3.2 Functioning
The chemical mechanism by which halon extinguishes a fire is based on a chemical
reaction affecting the progress of the fire "anti-catalytically". Finely-distributed halon
interrupts the radical chain and branching reactions which maintain combustion; even small
amounts of halon rapidly produce these breakdown reactions. The extinguishing effect due
to cooling or dilution of oxygen or fuel vapour concentration is minor.
Halons are only effective at temperatures above 482 °C. Halon has a very good
extinguishing performance compared with other types of fire fighting agents.
2.3.3 Restrictions
Halon is not suitable for deep seated or smoldering fires where the temperature does not
exceed 482 °C.
2.3.4 Types of Halon and their applications
2.3.4.1 Halon 1211 - BCF (bromochlorodifluoromethane)

Halon 1211 (BCF) is a halogenated chlorofluorinated carbon, with the chemical formula
CBrClF2.
It is mostly used in portable fire extinguishers and local application fire protection systems,
such as floating roof seals and gas turbine/compressor units.
Due to its boiling point of minus 4 °C and vapour pressure of 2.7 bar (ga) at a temperature
of 21 °C, it can be discharged in a directional manner, i.e. "thrown" at the target. Liquid
particles penetrate deep into the fire before evaporation.
The fundamental purpose of a local application system is to reach and hold the required
concentration for the required time around the hazard.
2.3.4.2 Halon 1301 - BTM (bromotrifluoromethane)

Halon 1301 (BTM) is a halogenated fluorinated carbon, with the chemical formula CBrF3.
It is mostly used in total flooding fire protection systems, for the protection of computer
rooms, telephone exchange rooms, and rooms where special, critical and highly valuable
applications are installed. Due to its boiling point of minus 58 °C and a high vapour
pressure of 14.7 bar (ga) at a temperature of 21 °C, it can be discharged rapidly and it
mixes readily with air. The fundamental purpose of a total flooding system is to create and

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 26
maintain the required extinguishing concentration for the required time in the protected
enclosed hazard area.
2.3.5 Physical properties of Halon

The properties of halon shall be in accordance with MESC Specification 96.13.10/001.
2.3.6 Health and environmental aspects

The discharge of Halon 1301 or Halon 1211 to extinguish a fire may create a hazard to
personnel; particularly chlorides, hydrogen chlorides, fluorochlorides and phosgene that
result from exposure of the agent to fire or hot surfaces.
Halons have a very low toxicity and they are normally not harmful to personnel; as a result
exposure to halon is generally of less concern. However any unnecessary personnel
exposure to high concentrations (e.g. near nozzles) should be avoided. Personnel shall
evacuate an area before any discharge from a fixed halon system. For this purpose an
appropriate warning system shall be installed. Other potential hazards to personnel are
noise, turbulence and, for Halon 1301, cold temperature near nozzles.
The environmental effect of ozone layer depletion is less severe with Halon 1211 than with
Halon 1301.
2.3.7 Quantity required

In fixed systems the minimum design requirement for extinguishment by Halon is 5 percent
of the total volume of the protected enclosure for class A, B and C fires (For typical
information refer to NFPA 12A for Halon 1301 and NFPA 12B for Halon 1211). To ensure
minimum necessary quantities of Halon, the protected enclosure shall be designed air tight.
Moreover, upon Halon system activation, any ventilation system shall shutdown and
dampers shall be closed.
2.3.8 Storage
Halon is stored in transportable containers up to 130 litres, which shall be made according
to the required codes as dictated by country of destination (See MESC 96.13.10/001).

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 27
2.4 CARBON DIOXIDE

Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless, electrically inert gas. It acts as a fire suppressor
by reducing the oxygen- fuel ratio below the necessary concentration to support
combustion. Particularly in enclosed areas, as a gas it will penetrate and spread to all parts
of the hazard (e.g. gas turbine enclosure).
Carbon dioxide is a gas present in the air at an average concentration of about 0.03
percent by volume. Carbon dioxide gas has 1.5 times the density of air.
2.4.1 Advantages
Carbon dioxide is used as an inerting agent in specific hazards or equipment and in
areas/enclosures, where an inert electrically non conductive medium is essential and where
clean up of other agents presents a problem.
Some types of hazards and equipment that carbon dioxide gas may protect are electrical
hazards, rotating equipment and electronic equipment, engines utilising gasoline and other
flammable liquid fuels, unmanned computer rooms, ordinary combustibles such as paper,
wood and textiles.
2.4.2 Restrictions
The discharge of liquid carbon dioxide can produce electrical charges which, under certain
conditions, could create sparks. In addition, vaporizing carbon dioxide (atmospheric boiling
point minus 79° C) may damage sensitive equipment through cold shock on direct impact.
2.4.3 Safety
Carbon dioxide cylinders shall not be exposed to direct sunlight as the vapour pressure
rises sharply under rising temperature.
In enclosed areas the concentration of carbon dioxide as discharged from fire extinguishers
may create serious hazards to personnel, such as suffocation and reduced visibility during
and after the discharge period. A concentration of 30 percent is needed for fire
extinguishing, while a 12 percent concentration creates a risk to personnel.
Other personnel hazards are noise and cold burn.
2.4.4 Storage
Carbon dioxide shall be stored in rechargeable containers designed to hold pressurised
carbon dioxide in liquid form at atmospheric temperatures corresponding to a vapour
pressure of 58.6 bar (ga) at 21 °C. Containers for transport purposes, up to 130 litres, shall
be made according to required codes as stipulated by the country of destination (see
MESC 96.13.10/001).

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 28
2.4.5 Carbon dioxide systems

Carbon dioxide extinguishing can be applied through the following methods:
- Portable/Wheeled Extinguishers,
- Total Flooding System,
- Local Application System,
- Standpipe System in combination with mobile supply.
Portable extinguishers shall conform to EN 3-1, 3-2, 3-4 and 3-5 inclusive, or UL-154.
Carbon dioxide systems, for total flooding, local application or standpipes, shall be
designed, commissioned and (performance) tested according recognised codes, such as
NFPA-12. With regard to personnel safety adequate consideration shall be given to safety
precautions for carbon dioxide systems.

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 29
2.5 STEAM
Steam extinguishes fire by exclusion of air or reduction of the oxygen content of the
atmosphere in a manner similar to carbon dioxide or other inert gases.
Steam is generally used for fire fighting purposes in areas where it is readily available in
large quantities such as furnaces. The advantage of using steam in fighting furnace fires is
its lack of generating cold shock. Steam can be applied with the use of a steam lance in
furnace crossover header boxes etc.
Sometimes steam rings are used around flanged connections, in e.g. hydrogen service.
Possible injury from burns to personnel should be considered when steam is used. The use
of steam as a fire fighting agent has often been unsuccessful due to lack of understanding
that it is preventing the supply of oxygen.

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 30
2.6 SAND
Sand can be applied on small surface fires. It can also be used for fire prevention:
absorption, covering, directing of spills. At least 0.5 m3 of sand shall be available:
- in process units,
- in hazardous areas (e.g. pump houses, valve manifolds) of storage facilities,
- at (un)loading stations.
Sand shall be stored in non-metallic containers equipped with a cover. In each container
two scoops shall be readily available. Locations of the containers shall be shown in the fire
fighting system's master plan. For new projects, containers, inclusive sand fills and scoops,
shall form part of the project requirements.

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 31
2.7 WATER
2.7.1 General
Water is the most commonly used agent for:
- cooling adjacent equipment,
- controlling fires and vapour releases.
Water can be used for extinguishing certain fires. As such it is highly effective on fires of
solid materials (class "A" fires) such as wood, paper, natural rubber etc.
In office buildings and warehouses water can be applied by means of fixed installed
sprinkler systems.
Water can only be applied on fires of liquid materials if both the following conditions are
met:
- the product, cooled down by the ambient water, has a high flash point,
- the bulk temperature of the liquid (on fire) is below 100 °C, thus avoiding steam
"explosions". Above 100 °C water shall be applied intermittantly and with low application
rate (typically: 2 dm3/min/m 2) to avoid frothing.
For these applications fixed systems are normally not used; water is applied by mobile
equipment.
Water shall be applied on the target in spray form to obtain effective cooling and to avoid
splashing in case of a liquid fire. Water applied by a jet is only justified to cover long
distances when the water will reach the target in droplets. For cooling purposes of
equipment in an engulfed petrochemical fire a mininum design rate of 8.5 dm3/min/m 2
equipment surface area or 20 dm3/min/m 2 projected area is required for fixed installed
systems.
Water is also used for curtain systems, which are applied as a heat barrier between a fire
and the protected equipment. With a similar water curtain a non-ignited vapour cloud can
be diverted and large volumes of induced air will reduce the (relative) vapour concentration
downwind.
In most cases water is more economic than other fire fighting agents.
2.7.2 Use
Atambient temperature, water can be used for:
- cooling (protection against exposure to fire)
- producing foam to cool fuel surfaces and to extinguish pool fires,
- extinguishing fires of liquid hydrocarbons with a flash point above 38 °C up to flash
points of 93 °C: NFPA Class II and IIIA,
- for directing pools of burning liquids,
- for dispersion of escaping gases and vapours,
- protection of personnel.
2.7.3 Heat absorption

The ability of water to cool hot surfaces is a function of its heat capacity, i.e. the heat
required to raise its temperature to boiling point and to vaporise it into steam. The efficiency
of heat transfer is proportional to the exposed water surface in contact with the heat source.
In practice most cooling is achieved by directing water droplets onto a hot surface. Such
droplets have a relatively large surface area. This implies that water should be applied as a
spray in most cases.
2.7.4 Vaporization
When water is converted from liquid to vapour, its volume at atmospheric pressure

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 32
increases about 1700 times. This large volume of water vapour (saturated steam) displaces
an equal volume of air surrounding a fire, thus reducing the volume of air (oxygen) available
to sustain combustion.
2.7.5 Restrictions
Water can increase corrosion rates particularly if it is salty or contaminated.
Since water is conductive, the use of water for electrical fires should be avoided. Factors
influencing the likelihood of shock from live electrical equipment are:
- electrical loading (voltage and current),
- distance separating water application equipment and live electrical equipment,
- dispersion of the water stream or spray, i.e. the electrical conductivity of the water
stream.
NFPA gives recommendations about safe distances between hose nozzles and electrical
equipment at different voltages.
2.7.6 Compatibility
2.7.6.1 Water and foam

Water shall not be used where foam is applied since water spray will destroy foam bubbles
and water will displace the foam from its desired locations, and a water jet will destroy the
foam blanket.
Water may be used to cool down adjacent/nearby equipment, and simultaneously foam can
be applied on a pool fire.
2.7.6.2 Water and powder

Water shall not be used together with powder as the powder extinguishing efficiency will be
adversely affected. However, immediately after flames have been extinguished by powder,
water shall be instantly applied to cool adjacent hot surfaces to avoid flash fires.

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 33
3. REFERENCES
In this manual reference is made to the following publications.

NOTE: Unless specifically designated by date, the latest issue of each publication shall be used (together with
any amendments/supplements/revisions thereto).
SHELL STANDARDS
Material and Equipment Standards and Code MESC 96.13.10/001

- Fire Fighting Extinguishing Agents: Gases
AMERICA N STANDARDS
Low expansion foam and combined agents systems NFPA 11
Carbon dioxide extinguishing systems NFPA 12
Halon 1301 extinguishing systems NFPA 12A
Halon 1211 extinguishing systems NFPA 12B
Dry chemical extinguishing systems NFPA 17
Issued by:
National Fire Protection Association
Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269
U.S.A.
Carbon-dioxide fire extinguishers UL-154
Foam equipment and liquid concentrates UL-162
Dry chemical fire extinguishers UL-299
Fire Extinguishers, Rating and Fire Testing of UL-711
Issued by:
Underwriters Laboratories Incorporated
333, Pfingsten Road
Northbrook, IL 60062
U.S.A.
Fire extinguishing agent - O-D-1407

Potassium bicarbonate dry chemical
Fire extinguishing agent - O-F-371B

Sodium bicarbonate dry chemical
issued by:
Federal Specifications
Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402
U.S.A.
EUROPEAN STANDARDS

DEP 80.47.10.10-Gen.
March 1991
Page 34
Fire Classifications EN 2
Fire fighting - EN 3-1

Portable fire extinguishers, Part 1

Portable fire extinguishers, Part 2

Portable fire extinguishers, Part 4:
Charges and minimum performances

Portable fire extinguishers, Part 5:
Complementary requirements and tests
issued by:
CEN (European Committee for Standardisation)
Brederostraat 2
B-1000 Brussels
Belgium.
Last page of this DEP

Fire-Fighting Agents: Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fire-Fighting Agents: Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fire-Fighting Agents: Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What is the purpose of this document?

What is the purpose of this document?

What types of fire extinguishing agents are discussed in the document?

What types of fire extinguishing agents are discussed in the document?

MANUAL

DESIGN AND ENGINEERING PRACTICE

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

2.2.4.2 Potassium bicarbonate ............................................................................................ 19

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

1.2 DISTRIBUTION, APPLICABILITY and REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS

1.3 CROSS REFERENCES

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

Protein Foam Concentrate - A concentrated solution of hydrolysed protein to which

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

2.1.2 Functioning of foam

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

2.1.4 Expansion ratio of foam

2.1.4.2 Medium expansion foam

2.1.4.3 High expansion (hi-ex) foam

2.1.5 Travel distance of foam

2.1.6 Types of foam

2.1.6.1 Protein foam

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

added to act as the framework for the bubbles (reinforcement).

2.1.6.2 Fluoro protein foam

2.1.6.3 Film forming fluoro protein foam

2.1.6.4 Aqueous film forming foam

2.1.6.5 Aqueous film forming foam, alcohol type concentrate (AFFF-AR)

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

2.1.6.6 Fluoro protein alcohol resistant foam

2.1.6.7 Synthetic detergent foam

2.1.7 Application rate of foam

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

When foam is used it requires constant supply until:

2.1.8 Properties of foam

2.1.8.1 Physical properties

2.1.8.2 Fuel tolerance

2.1.8.3 Burnback resistance

2.1.8.4 Heat resistance

2.1.8.5 Drainage time

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

container with a height of about 1 metre : 10

2.1.8.7 Shelf life

2.1.8.8 Performance and quality

2.1.9.1 Foam concentrates

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

2.1.9.2 Finished foam types

2.1.9.3 Foam and dry chemical powder

2.1.10 Quantity of foam concentrate required

2.1.11 Storage of foam concentrate

AFFF (corrosive): Glass-Fibre Reinforced Polyester or

Alcohol Resistant: Glass-Fibre Reinforced Polyester or stainless