INGLES I

TP3_READING AND COMPREHENSION

UNIDAD DIDACTICA 3
TEMA 7

The Nervous System

The basic unit of the nervous system is the neurone, or nerve cell. It consists of a cell body
and its processes. Each neurone has two types of process: a number of short, freely
branching fibres called dendrites, and a single process called the axon, which may or may
not give off branches along its course. The dendrites convey impulses to the cell body; the
axon, which is the main conducting fibre, conveys impulses away from the cell body. The
axon varies in length in different kinds of neurone. In a motor neurone it can be very long,
running, for example, from a cell body in the spinal cord to a muscle in the foot. Axons of
the internuncial neurones, which provide links between other neurones, are often short and
difficult to distinguish from the dendrites.
An inactivated nerve fibre maintains a state of chemical stability with concentrations of
potassium inside and outside the lining membrane in a ratio of 30:1. Thus the nerve fibre at
rest is electrically charged. A nerve impulse is a wave of depolarization created by a
chemical imbalance. Sodium passes through the membrane, releasing potassium. The
depolarization of any part of the nerve cell causes the depolarization of the next segment,
and so on to the end of a fibre. The end of a nerve fibre is not structurally joined to the next
cell, but the small gap between them can be bridged chemically. This functional junction is
known as a synapse. Not all the chemicals, which act as transmitters are known, but among
the most important are acetylcholine and noradrenalin. Once the synapse has been made,
these chemicals are rapidly destroyed by enzymes. The nerve fibre itself recharges within
milliseconds.
The brain and spine together form the central nervous system. Arising from the central
nervous system and supplying all parts of the body are the peripheral nerves, commonly
referred to simply as nerves. A nerve is a cord-like structure, usually containing bundles of
conducting fibres, which may be sensory or motor.
Twelve pairs of nerves arise from the brain and thirty-one pairs of nerves arise from the
spine. These are known as the cranial nerves and the spinal nerves respectively. Of the
twelve cranial nerves, five contain both sensory and motor fibres. The most important of
these is the vagus, or tenth nerve, which supplies the heart, most of the digestive organs,
the pharynx and the larynx. Of the remaining seven pairs of nerves, four contain motor
fibres only, and three are entirely sensory. The fourth and sixth nerves, for example, control
the movement of the eyeball, and the first nerve records smells.
In contrast, all the spinal nerves contain both sensory and motor fibres. These are eight
pairs of cervical nerves, twelve thoracic, five lumbar, five sacral, and one coccygeal. The
spinal nerves divide into two branches. The posterior branches serve the muscles and skin
of the back of their own region. The anterior branches of the thoracic nerves circle the
thorax, supplying the intercostal muscles and skin. All other anterior branches form
plexuses, or networks of nerve fibres, from which pass out to supply the cervical and pelvic
regions and the upper and lower limbs. Thus each limb nerve contains fibres from several
spinal nerves. The sciatic nerve, which emerges from the sacral plexus to serve the back of
the thigh and the leg, contains fibres from five nerves: the fourth and fifth lumbar nerves,
and the first, second and third sacral nerves.

Decide if the following sentences are true or false:

a. A neurone consists of a cell body, dendrites and an axon. True

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b. The axon is a freely branching fibre. False
El axón puede dar ramificaciones libres o no darlas.

c. The main conducting fibre of a neurone is very long. False

Las fibras de conducción pueden ser muy largas o pueden ser cortas.

d. Other neurones can be difficult to distinguish from the dendrites. False

Los que son difíciles de distinguir de las dendritas, son los axones de las neuronas
internunciales.

e. An inactive nerve fibre contains thirty times more potassium than its surrounding
tissue. True

f. A nerve impulse is a chemical imbalance. True

g. A synapse is a connection that is made over the small gap between the end of a
nerve fibre and the next cell. True

h. Acetylcholine is known to transmit impulses. True

i. Transmitters are destroyed by enzymes. True

j. The peripheral nerves arise from the brain and the spine. True

k. Nerves may contain axons from both sensory and motor neurones. True

l. Most of the cranial nerves contain both sensory and motor nerve fibres. False
No todos los nervios craneales contienen fibras que sean tanto motoras como
sensitivas.

m. The thirty-one pairs of nerves, which arise from the spine, are known as the cranial
nerves and the spinal nerves respectively. False
Doce pares de nervios surgen del cerebro y treinta y un pares de nervios surgen de
la columna vertebral.

n. The cranial nerves supply the head and neck only. False
Los nervios craneales no inervan solamente la cabeza y el cuello.

Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the underlined words with the expressions of
the text:

1. About 100.000 sensory fibres carry impulses from the eye to the brain.
About 100.000 sensory fibres convey impulses from the eye to the brain.

2. An inactivated nerve fibre is in a state of chemical equilibrium.

An inactivated nerve fibre is in a state of chemical stability.

3. A nerve impulse is due to sodium passing through the membrane and

releasing potassium.
A nerve impulse is causes sodium passing through the membrane and
releasing potassium.

4. A spinal nerve passes out from the central nervous system through the space
between two vertebrae.
A spinal nerve passes out from the central nervous system through the gap
between two vertebrae.

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 5. A synapse may be formed with more than one intern uncial neurone.
A synapse may be form with more than one intern uncial neurone.

6. After the chemical transmitters have contacted the next cell, they are
destroyed.
Once the chemical transmitters have contacted the next cell, they are
destroyed.

7. The Vagus nerve includes both sensory and motor fibres.

The Vagus nerve contains both sensory and motor fibres.

8. The sciatic nerve serves the back of the thigh and the leg.
The sciatic nerve supplies the back of the thigh and the leg.

9. The nerve passes out from the brachial plexus to supply the upper arm.
The nerve arises from the brachial plexus to supply the upper arm.

10. In the lumbar region, a network of nerve fibres is located in the Psoas muscle.
In the lumbar region, a plexus is located in the Psoas muscle.

UNIDAD DIDACTICA 3
TEMA 8

The Process of Digestion

The process of digestion begins when food is taken into the mouth. Chewing breaks the
food into smaller pieces, thereby exposing more surfaces to the saliva. Saliva itself has a
double function. It moistens the food, so facilitating swallowing, and it contains ptyalin,
which begins the conversion of starch into simple sugar.
Although enzymatic action begins in the mouth, the major processes of digestion do not
occur until the food passes down through the oesophagus into the stomach. The stomach
has both a chemical and a physical function. The walls of the stomach, which are protected
by a layer of mucus, secrete gastric juices composed of several enzymes and hydrochloric
acid. The most powerful enzyme is pepsin, which begins the process of converting proteins
into amino acids. In addition, during these chemical reactions waves of contraction and
relaxing, known as peristalsis, sweep the walls of the stomach. They churn the food
particles into a semi-solid mass known as chime.
From the stomach the chime passes into the small intestine through the pyloric sphincter.
Much undigested material is still present. Proteins have not been completely broken down,
starches are still being converted into simple sugars, and fats remain in large globules. In
the small intestine the process of digestion is composed by the action of bile, which is
secreted by the liver and released by the gall bladder, and by the action of various
enzymes, such as lipase and diastase, which are secreted by pancreas, and erepsin and
invertase, secreted by the walls of the small intestine. Foods, which are still undigested,
pass in a liquid state into the large intestine, and now called faeces.
Absorption of the products of digestion takes place mainly through the wall of the small
intestine. Its inner surface is covered with minute hair-like projections called villi. Each villus
contains several blood capillaries and a specialized lymphatic vessel, known as a lacteal.
Glucose, fructose, galactose and the amino acids are all absorbed directly into the blood by
entering the blood capillaries inside the villi. Glycerol and the fatty acids, on the other hand,
pass into the lacteal. The lymph then carries the fat up to the left internal jugular vein, where
it enters the bloodstream.

Answer the questions in Spanish:

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1. Where does the process of digestion and enzymatic action begin?
El proceso de digestión y acción enzimática comienza en la boca.

2. What is the function of chewing?

La masticación tiene como función romper en pedazos más pequeño los alimentos y
exponerlos a la saliva.

3. What are the two functions of saliva?

La función de la saliva es facilitar la deglución y comenzar la conversión del almidón en
azucares simples, ya que contiene ptyalin.

4. Where does the major process of digestion occur?

El mayor proceso de la digestión ocurre en el estómago.

5. What is the chemical function of the stomach?

La función química del estómago se debe a que las paredes de éste están cubiertas
por una capa de moco que segregan jugos gástricos, enzimas y ácido clorhídrico.

6. What is the physical function of the stomach?

La función física del estómago está dada por la peristalsis que son los movimientos de
contracción y relajación que este órgano produce.

7. What is the function of the bile? Where is it secreted?

La bilis es secretada por el hígado y liberada por la vesícula biliar, por acción de varias
enzimas hacen que los alimentos que todavía están solidos pasen al estado líquido.

8. What is a “lacteal”?
Es una microvellosidad que tiene capilares sanguíneos y un vaso linfático
especializado.

9. Which products of digestion are not absorbed directly into the bloodstream?
El glicerol y los ácidos grasos.

10. Make a table with the different stages of the process of digestion and summaries what
happen into them (IN ENGLISH).

Stages of the digestion process

Mouth ingestion: the Stomach: It has a Small intestine: acts Large intestine:
food is brought to chemical function bile and action of faeces are formed
the mouth to chew, (enzymes and several enzymes with undigested
becoming smaller hydrochloric acid) (lipases, diastases, products.
and mixed with the and a mechanical erepsin, invertase).
saliva function (peristaltic Absorption of the
movements). The products of digestion
chyme is formed. by intestinal villi
occurs.

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UNIDAD DIDACTICA 3
TEMA 9

The Kidney and Urinary Tract

Our bodies produce several kinds of waste products, including sweat, carbon dioxide gas,
faeces (stool), and urine. These wastes exit the body in different ways. Sweat is released
through pores in the skin. Water vapours and carbon dioxide are exhaled from the lungs. And
undigested food materials are formed into faeces in the intestines and excreted from the body
as solid waste in bowel movements. Urine, which is produced by the kidneys, contains waste
products of metabolism — salts, toxins, and water — that end up in the blood. The kidneys and
urinary tract (which includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra) filter and eliminate these
waste substances from our blood. Without the kidneys, waste products and toxins would soon
build up in the blood to dangerous levels.
The kidneys and urinary tract also regulate many important body functions. For example, the
kidneys monitor and maintain the body's balance of water, ensuring that our tissues receive
enough water to function properly and be healthy.
In addition to filtering blood, producing urine, and ensuring that body tissues receive enough
water, the kidneys also regulate blood pressure and the level of vital salts in the blood. By
regulating salt levels through production of an enzyme called rennin (as well as other
substances), the kidneys ensure that blood pressure is regulated.
The kidneys also secrete the erythropoietin hormone, which stimulates and controls red blood
cell production (red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body). In addition, the kidneys help
to regulate the acid-base balance (or the pH) of the blood and body fluids, which is necessary
for the body to function normally.
From the kidneys, urine travels down two thin tubes called ureters to the bladder. Muscles in the
ureter walls constantly tighten and relax to force urine downward away from the kidneys. Small
amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters about every 10 to 15 seconds.
The bladder is a hollow muscular organ shaped like a balloon. The bladder stores urine until you
are ready to go to the bathroom to empty it. It swells into a round shape when it is full and gets
smaller when empty. If the urinary system is healthy, the bladder can hold up to 16 ounces (2
cups) of urine comfortably for 2 to 5 hours.
Circular muscles called sphincters help keep urine from leaking. The sphincter muscles close
tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the bladder into the urethra, the tube that allows
urine to pass outside the body.
Nerves in the bladder tell you when it is time to urinate, or empty your bladder. As the bladder
first fills with urine, you may notice a feeling that you need to urinate. The sensation to urinate
becomes stronger as the bladder continues to fill and reaches its limit. At that point, nerves from
the bladder send a message to the brain that the bladder is full, and your urge to empty your
bladder intensifies.
When you urinate, the brain signals the bladder muscles to tighten, squeezing urine out of the
bladder. At the same time, the brain signals the sphincter muscles to relax. As these muscles
relax, urine exits the bladder through the urethra. When all the signals occur in the correct order,
normal urination occurs.

 Select the correct answer to complete the gap into each sentence. There is only one correct
answer.

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1. The human body produces several kinds of waste products, they are sweat, carbon
dioxide, stool and urine.
a. sweat
a. carbon dioxide
b. stool and urine
c. all are correct

2. Waste products exit the body in different ways: sweat is released by the skin.
a. sweat is released by the skin.
b. water exists only in the urine.
c. carbon dioxide is exhaled from the blood.
d. undigested food materials are formed into faeces in the liver and excreted from the
body as solid waste.

3. Urine, which is produced by the kidneys, contains water, salts and toxins.
a. salts and toxins
b. water
c. salts and water
d. water, salts and toxins

4. The urinary tract is composed of kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra.

a. kidneys, ureters and bladder
b. bladder and urethra
c. kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra.
d. only kidneys and ureters

5. The kidneys and urinary tract have many functions; they maintain the body's balance of
water; filter blood, produce urine, and ensure that body tissues receive enough water;
regulate blood pressure and the level of vital salts in the blood and regulate blood
pressure and the level of vital salts in the blood.
a. maintain the body's balance of water.
b. filter blood, produce urine, and ensure that body tissues receive enough water.
c. regulate blood pressure and the level of vital salts in the blood.
d. all are correct.

6. Urine, from the kidneys, travels down ureters to the bladder. Muscles in the ureter walls
constantly tighten and relax to force urine downward away from the kidneys.
a. ureter
b. bladder
c. urethra
d. B and C are correct.

7. The bladder is a hollow muscular organ shaped which stores urine. It swells into a
round shape when it is full and gets smaller when empty.
a. ureter
b. bladder
c. urethra
d. A and B are correct.

8. The sphincter muscles close tightly around the opening of the bladder into the urethra,
the tube that allows urine to pass outside the body.
a. ureter

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 b. bladder
c. urethra
d. all are correct.

9. When bladder fills with urine and reaches its limit, nerves send a message to the brain
that the bladder is full, and is needed to empty it.
a. heart
b. liver
c. kidney
d. brain

10. Urine exits the bladder through the urethra.

a. ureter
b. bladder
c. urethra
d. A and B are correct