Visualizing Research

A Guide to the Research Process in

Art and Design

Carole Gray and Julian Malins

ASHGATE
 These methods are particularly useful if your own practice forms part of the research
Vehicles for research: inventing new 'wheels' for artists and
methodology.
designers! Other methods described come from Social Science research, for example
In the absence of an established and validated set of research methods in Art and www.sos ig.ac.uk (accessed 15 August 2003); Denzin and Lincoln (1994); and some
Design, we have had to be similarly adaptive and inventive; for example, a participatory specifically from educational research, for example Cohen and MaOion (1994),
3D 'game' as a means of externalizing teaching styles (Gray, 1988); experimental object McKernan (1998) . These are particularly relevant for human inqUIry related to Art and
making in exploring issues of 'chance' and 'choice' in sculpture (Watson, 1992); site- Design, for example the study of an individual's practice, and user feedback for deSIgned
specific commissioned artworks for investigating the feasibility of architectural ceram- roducts. In some circumstances, particular areas of deSIgn, for example Industnal
ics (Wheeler, 1996); curation of a major exhibition on interactive art, and the ~eSign, a more scientific approach may be appropriate, in which case 'design methods'
production of an interactive artwork in order to allow the audience/user direct experi- may be useful. Documented examples of projects using design methods can be found In
ence of the research concepts (Graham, 1997). Although these methods have been the journal Design Studies - www.elsevier.nl/locate/destud (accessed 16 June 2003).
adapted or invented and may appear idiosyncratic they have been validated, at least The range of methods outlined is by no means definitive or completely comprehen-
within the framework of formal research, and in most cases with user groups. They have sive, and they cannot be described here in any great detail. If you think that a particu-
all been carefully documented and described, and some of them applied in other lar method described in this book would be useful in your project then you should
research, for example use of exhibition projects (Silver, 1999), participatory action discuss it with your supervisor. You should always follow up the references and exam-
research (Ross, 2001), use of experimental object making (Bunnell, 1998). New methods, ples given in order to appreciate the context in which the method was used. As you
as with any new product design, need to be used widely in different contexts and their become more familiar with various methods you will realize the kind of tasks mvolved
rigour and robustness tested in order to become a validated research tool. in applying them. Once you have identified these tasks, build them into your plan of
In summary, the critical considerations for the application of any research method work. Research methods development relies on researchers (including you!) addmg
are that the method should be: further detail and modifying as a method is tried and evaluated.
The methods information is presented in tabular format and follows a pattern:
• responsive to the research context and appropriate for use in it (relevant and ethical);
• valid - acceptable to other researchers; useful in reality; meaningful to users within a • Definition/function: a description of the method and its purpose.
particular context ('internal validity'); wherever possible generalizable to wider • Context for use: examples of research situations where/when the method has been or
contexts ('external validity'); as dependable and trustworthy as possible (for details could be used.
on these issues please see Robson, 1993, part 2, pp. 66-75); • Tools: specific equipment, techniques and processes - consideratiOns involved in
• used with the utmost rigour (applied conSisten tly, with diSCipline and care); using the method.
• documented and described thoroughly and clearly in any report of the research, so • Advantages: possible benefits and positive aspects of the method.
that it might be usable by other researchers (accessible, explicit and transparent). • Disadvantages: possible limitations and negative aspects of the m~thod. . ..
• Ethical considerations: good research conduct, avoidance of questIonable actIVItIes.
• Further references: usually key texts/sources, and examples of validated research in
Crossing the terrain: some useful research methods which the method has been used.
To date, there is no definitive published single source on research methods for artists • Where appropriate, a visual example of the method/tools.
and designers. The following methods are drawn from a range of sources, most impor-
tantly from validated completed formal research in Art and Design (main sources: You might like to set up a similar structure for the description of your chosen/adapted
. ARiAD - www.ariad.co.uk; British Library'S Index to Theses - www.theses.com, Higher methods.
Education institutes' published information), as well as useful examples of research
projects in non-formal frameworks (for example, industry, commerce, education, and so Research methods: from validated completed formal research in
on) as reported in various journals and professional publications. An examination of
some of these examples would no doubt lead to 'classic' references to various 'design Art and Design
methods' publications by, for example, Archer (1965), Jones (1980), Cross (1984), and It is likely that you will be conducting part of your research through some element of
so on; and important research by Cornock (1978, 1983, 1984) on Fine Art methodology. practice, and so we start our description of methods here. . .
During recent years, many more examples of practice-based research have become acces- Practice usually initiates research questions, provides the context for mvestIga-
sible. Many have already been cited in previous chapters and more are cited in this one. tion, may provide various research methods, and is usually involved in the creative
 Advantages A means of generating new data through real experiential. activity - res~~rching
visualization and dissemination of the research. 'Practice' could have a range of and learning through doing to develop 'deep' understanding; the practitIOner·
interpretations, for example: researcher has an informed perspective on issues relating to practice.

• practice as individual creative activity, perhaps the most obvious interpretation _ Disadvantages Open to criticisms of indulgence and over-subjectivity if not placed securely
'making' in its broadest sense; within the formal framework, and if lacking in methodological transparency;
many debates exist against a submission for a higher degree that attempt to
• practice as facilitation and dissemination - activities related to visual arts/design/
present an argument in a purely visual form.
craft/new media, for example education, administration, and activities such as curat-
ing, commissioning, critical writing, and so on; Ethical considerations Ethical considerations: as research is (usually) a publicly funded activity taking
• practice as a collaborative activity, involving other practitioners, participants and place within an academic framework the practitioner-researcher is morally
professionals from other disciplines, and/or external bodies, for example industry, obliged to make the practice publicly accessible; requires a high degree of
integrity and honestly in evaluating and communicating the outcomes from
commerce, vOluntary sectors, and so on. This approach could involve making, facili-
practice (this might be resolved by inviting views from different perspectives).
tating, disseminating, as well as negotiating, fund raising, and so on.
Further references Polanyi, M. (1958) Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-critical Philosophy
Although complex in their own right, the first two interpretations of practice are prob- (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul).
ably well enough understood: as 'makers/creators' (designers, crafts-persons, fine artists, Douglas, A. and Scopa, K. (2000) Research through practice: positioning the
new media practitioners, and so on) and/or as 'facilitators' and 'disseminators' you can practitioner as researcher - http://www.herts.ac.uk/ artdes/conex/ res2prac/
(and other papers on this site about research into practice)
use your practice or aspects of it as a research tool for actually generating new in forma-
Design plus Research conference proceedings (2000) -
tion and gathering and structuring existing information, and use your professiona l situ- http://pcsiwa12. rett.polimi.it/-phddi/uk/01/dprOO/intro.htm
ation for critically evaluating that information. Recent and current debate on practice-based research, for example
Increasingly creative opportunities are structured around collaborations of different http://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/lists/phd-design.html
kinds, and it is almost impossible to carry out research without working with others, to British Library Index to Theses - www.theses.com
Research Training Initiative - http://www.biad.uce.ac.uk/research/index.html-
some degree, on some aspect of research. There are some useful examples of collabora-
case studies of completed research for higher degrees
tion as a research strategy: Ross (2001) examined the changing role of artists operating Completed formal practice-based research cited in previous chapters and this
in various organizational contexts. Working collaboratively with other professionals she one.
used a partiCipatory action research methodology undertaking a number of case study
projects. She adopted different participatory roles in these - sometimes as artist, some- Examples of the role For example, practice - through action and reflection - provides a means of:
times as observer, reporter, evaluator, consultant. In this research the artist acted as a of practice in research • Investigating the subject/content and context of one's own cr~ative activi~ in
for higher degrees - order to advance or innovate; understanding one's own creative process (In
'cultural intermediary'. (See also Scopa's research in the matrix in Section 1.5.) relation to others'); making explicit the practitioner's tacit knowledge; as a
some 'models'
result of greater self-knowledge being able to contribute to the wider
Pradice development and understanding of research methodology involving practice.
Discovering new practices or methods/processes/techniques and materials by
Definition/function Developing and making creative work as an explicit and intentional method for experimentation; re_discovering/revitalizing/revising traditional practices in
specific research purposes, for example gathering and/or generating data, new/contemporary contexts; reconstructing artwork/artefacts to bring about
evaluation, analysis, synthesis, presentation, communication of research findings. new understanding/ insight through the experience of making/ re-making.
Understanding a range of different practiCes - using one's own practice to
Context for use Research for higher degrees, distinct from 'practice as usual' in its use of contrast/compare those of other practitioners.
practice within an academic research framework, which is accessible, transparent Being a catalyst in participatory action research where creative practice can
and transferable (in principle if not specifics); the work might embody research actively involve, inform and inspire others.
concepts, provide visual evidence andlor illustrate research findings in some Using the skills of the artist/ designer to visualize and understand complex
way. processes (perhaps in other fields) - making the invisible visible.
Providing knowledge transfer of mutual benefit between different 'worlds' of
Tools required Any of the tools/techniques used in the development and making art/design practice and research, for example art/design higher education and industry.
work; essential to document the process, for example through a reflective
journal, photography, video, audio, and so on; may involve a range of methods All/any of the following methods could be part of practice-based methodology or inde-
described later; essential to have explicit criteria for evaluation and analysis,
pendently used as a research method.
which relate directly to the research question.
 Observation Visualization
Definition/function . ' ; ma k·109 V1S1
. ·ble ideas through a range of techniques in order to
To watch something/ someone/ an environment/situation closely and accurately Definition/function Visual thinking .
record in some way the activities/situation in order to capture data relevant to roiect
explore researc h P J issues and/ or present research findings.
the research project issues.
Context for use In ractice-based research, making use of visual expertise to ex~ernalize and.
Context for use
A classic research method in Science, Social Science and Art and Design. In Art co~municate concepts, interpretations, evaluations, and so on; In collabor~tlve
and Design, objective, analytical drawing is a core skill and an important research as a means of sharing information, gaining feedback and generating
method for acquiring primary data in order to understand the world. new ideas.
Artists/designers have observed themselves making work (usually through
video) in order to become more aware of their creative processes (self- Tools required Drawing (in all forms, for example objective/ analytical, ex.pressive), diag~amls,
observation - SO). In Social Science there are two kinds of observation: non- concept maps/mind maps, flow charts, storyboards, matrices, network dlspoa:.
participant observation (NPO) and participant observation (PO). In NPO, the and so on; employing colour, tone, line, plane, sh.ape,. s~le, symbol, and s ,
researcher attempts to remain objective (neutral), and detached from the the use of metaphor and analogy can stimulate vls~ahzatlOn, for example.
object/ person/ situation being observed. In PO the researcher engages in the practice-based research is like an elephant;. incr~as.lng use of computer~alded
very activities he/she sets out to observe; becomes involved, empathizes, visualization, for example Inspiration (www.msplratlon.com) and thro~g .
observes through the experience of engagement. interactive multimedia and other applications, for example collaborative mind
mapping using whiteboards.
Tools required
A diverse range of qualitative and quantitative techniques including analytical
and exp ressive drawing, mapping and/or making diagrams of what is being Advantages Visual overviews of complex material (a picture is worth a. thousand words!);
observed, video, photography; taking notes, counting objects/instances, timing encourages discussion between people; encourages creative r~ponse, !or r
events/movements; using checklists/schedules, scorecards, rating scales, and so exam Ie brainstorming/lateral thinking ; use of a range of gra.phl~ techniques to
on; augmented by various instruments for enhancing vision (and also other maki~g visible all stages of the research process; the increasmg Importance of
senses) or experience of the Situation/context, for example optical devices such the visual in 21 st century life.
as binoculars, telescope.
Disadvantages Lack of technical and aesthetic expertise may hinder the communic.ativ~ po;e'~1
Advantages of a visual ; the possible or deliberate ambiguous nature of some VI sua ma en ,
Direct visual experience and capture; relatively easy and unobtrusive; makes use
of developed visual skills. for example abstract work!

Disadvantages All kinds of observation, especially PO and SO can both suffer from being . . II y and technically constructed - visualizations should not
Ethical considerations All Images are socia
obtrusive to 'natural' activities, perhaps causing changes in behaviour because deliberately mislead; should be used with integrity and care.
of the act of being observed (that is, the Hawthorne effect); PO requires trust to
be gained from other participants; self-observation can be too self-conscious, Further references Buzan, T. (1998) The Mind Map Book (BBC 800ks).The use 01 mind maps as
unless it is carried out regularly. a methods of data acquisition, for instance in notation of observation., E e
Spiller, J. (ed.) (1973) The Notebooks of Paul Klee Volume 1: The Seemg y
Ethical considerations Possible invasion of privacy - obtain permission/authorization before you (Lund Humphries). I . (Sa )
observe; ensure confidentiality; ensure permissions have been given for public Miles, M. B. and Huberman, A. M. (1994) .Qualitative Data Anaysls ge .
use of data. Should be used with integrity and care. Information on matrix displays, network diagrams. . .
Tuite, E. (1983) The Visual Display of Quantitative InformatIOn (GraphiCS
Further references McKernan, 1. (1998) Curriculum Action Research: a Handbook of Methods and Press). . '
Resources for the Reflective Practitioner, Chapter 3 Observational and Tuite, E. (1990) Envisioning InformatIOn (GraphiCS Press).. . and
Narrative Research Methods, (Kogan Page). Tufte, E. (1997) Visual Explanations: Images and Quantities, EVidence
Popham, A. E. (1964) The Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci (London: Jonathan Narrative (Graphics Press).
Cape).
Robson, C. (1993) Reol World Research, Chapter 8, Observational Methods; Visual See Figure 4.3
Chapter 2, Ethical Considerations, pp. 29-35 (Sage).
Spradley, J. P. (1980) PartiCipant Observation (London: Holt, Rinehart &
Winston).
Zeisel, J. (1984) Inquiry by Design, Chapter 7, Observing Physical Traces, and
Chapter 8, Observing Environmental Behaviour (Cambridge University Press).
 Advantages Ubiquitous technology - relatively easy to use and cheap; can present complex
methods detail and realistic representation.
oo-vation
lTom

visuall ~
PRACTICE As a research method, needs to go beyond the 'happy snap'! Therefore, as an
Disadvantages
acquisition method (and to aid later analysis) annotation is essential.
visualization t-----~
creative reftective
methods methods Possible invasion of privacy - obtain permission/authorization before you take
Ethical considerations
photographs; ensure confidentiality; ensure permissi.ons have been given f~r

1
Resean:h
Methods public use of data; all images are socially and technically constructed - edited
described
in this book work should not deliberately mislead (editing can present an extremely

_on
audio
reftective
selective, and possibly distorted, view); should be used with integrity and care.

Ball, M. S. and Smith, G.w. H. (1992) Analysing Visual Data (Sage). Use of

other methods
-.
jOurnaJ/
diary
Further references
photography in anthropology.
Banks, M. (2001) Visual Methods in Social Research (Sage).
adopted/ Collier, J. (1967) Visual Anthropology: Photography as a Research Method
adapted from
other research (Holt Rinehart & Wilson). .
disciplines Emmison, M. and Smith P. (2000) Researching the Visual: Images, Objects,
Contexts and Interactions in Social and Cultural Inquiry (Sage).
interview Zeisel, J. (1984) Inquiry by Design (Cambridge University Press). See Chapter
7, Observing Physical Traces, and Chapter 8, Observing Environmental
Behaviour, for Two examples of annotated photographs, p. 125.

questionnaire Visual

Figure 4.3 Mind map providing an overview of methods discussed in this section (,1;1)

Photography

Definition/ function Technology for capturing and producing a static image of an

--0_
'-. ....
;::::.;:O::nooI;: __
1Iloo ...... ~

-.,...,
object/ person/environment, providing evidence of particular significant features ?- '''bEL.a:;:; ,
related to the research project issues.
1--""'_'"
Context for use In practice-based research or other research situations/environments for:
acquisition of visual data, storage/management of visual information, analysis of
visual data, and the presentation of research findings; involves the selection and
...
-......"" ......
--,~
s.. ... ,.. r~
"'W:::

framing of a particular section/aspect of the activity/environment; for research

purposes photos need to be annotated, identifying the kinds of data presented
in order to be useful evidence, for example textual information (as appropriate)
on who (specify key people), what (specify focus of frame/ action/ event), where
(context), when (date/ time), how, why?
-

-....--
o.c...~~_

C),o£ ~ " .....

"""""• .....aut~~
1'bl. 'P ... ""'"

Tools required 35 mm SLR camera and/or digital still camera; tripod essential for long Figure 4.4 Annotated photograph from a PhD project in progress (Q )
exposure shots; appropriate type of film/ output media, for example colour slides
to give greater sense of space; print for drawing on and display purposes;
digital for image manipulation and projection, and for inclusion in multimedia
documents/ web pages; proforma for annotation (standard proformas can help
to make comparisons across a series of photographs - see Chapter 3 topic on
Managing Research Project Information).
 Video Sketchbook

Definit ion/function A visual technology that enables the capture of dynamic information, for Definition/function A portable book or bound collection of sheets that contain the development of
example simultaneous movement and sound and emergent qualities such as ideas over time, and subsequent reflection and analysis; may include a range of
'atmosphere', relevant to the research project issues. visuals and notes, and other contextual references; a 'digital sketchbook' may
be more appropriate for some practices
Context for use In practice-based research where dynamic information is required/ available fa
example kinetic artwork, p~~?rmance, collaborative working. Like Photo9r~Ph;, Context for use In practice-based research , to capture and store a range of visual ideas, data
can be used for data acquIsItion. storage/ management of visual information and information, but not necessarily in an ordered, sequenced way; to
and .analysis of visual data: By editing and the use of spoken commentary a~d encourage visual thinking (ref. Leonardo's 'pensieri '); dating input useful; could
captions, a way of presenting complex and dynamic research findings, for be seen as the artistic/ designerly equivalent to a laboratory log book for
example interactions, sound/ noise, environments, installations, dynamic visual recording experiments.
qualities.
Too ls required Ready made book and various mark-making tools; small computer notebooks,
Tools required Video camera; tapes/ memory cards; tripod essential for most situations to for example PalmPilot, iBook, and relevant software, for instance Painter,
eliminate camera shake; additional lighting and microphone useful in some Illustrator, and so on.
situations; playback equipment and/ or access to editing facilities/ software.
Advantages Availability/accessibility in most situations (handiness); non-preciousness - a
Advantages In its raw state yields more 'objective ' data, that is captures data straight, space for experimental thought; capacity for tracking developments over time;
including things we may unconsciously 'filter out' of our perception, for example reflective/analytical space.
ambient noise, background actions, and so on. Date and time coding is
possible. Play and replay possible of both sound and vision, even frame by Disadvantages Some practitioners may prefer a more haptic/hands-on approach through 3D
frame, forwards and backwards - a good analytical tool , especially digital video; 'sketching' with actual material - there are limits to two dimensions and
multiple sound tracks available (for combined audio information, for example sequential structures!
ambient sound, commentary, music).
Ethical considerations Possible reluctance to make accessible such a personal document, but if used as
Disadvantages Ease of use may lead to the collection of large volumes of visual data, which a research method must be accessible; should be used with integrity and care.
requires time to review, log and edit (2 minutes of video may take 2 hours to
edit!). Further references Burt, I. (2000) The Use of Multimedia for Practitioners in Art & Design, PhD
thesis, The Robert Gordon University. Methodology, section 3.5.0: practice-
Ethical considerations Possible invasion of privacy - obtain permission/authorization before you use based investigations - The Electronic Notebook, 3.5.2.1 - 3.5.2.4.
video; ensure confidentiality; ensure permissions have been given for public use Kemp, M. (1989) Leonardo do Vinci (South Bank: Hayward Gallery).
of data; all images are socially and technically constructed - edited work should Klee, P. (1968) Pedagogical Sketchbook (London: Faber & Faber).
not deliberately mislead (editing can present an extremely selective, and Oldenburg, C. and van Bruggen, C. (1988) A Bottle of Notes and Some
possibly distorted, view); should be used with integrity and care. Voyages (Leeds: Northern Centre for Contemporary Art/Henry Moore Centre).
Renwick, G. (2003) Spatial determinism in the Canadian north: a theoretical
Further references Lozios, P. (2000) Video, film and photographs as research documents, in: overview and practice-based response. PhD thesis, University of Dundee. (Use
G. D. Gaskell, and M. W. Bauer, (eds) Qualitative Researching with Text, Image of 'collaborative sketchbook').
and Sound: A Practical Handbook for Social Research (Sage).
Graham, B. (1997) A Study of the Relationships with Interactive Computer- Visual See Figure 4.5.
based Visual Artworks in Gallery Settings, through Observation, Art Practice
and Curation. PhD thesis, University of Sunderland. CD Rom version includes
video clips from the Serious Games exhibition.
 Disadvantages Models/maquettes take up space! Almost always needs to be documented
(photo, video). Virtual modelling often requires a steep leaming curve and
specialist training in order to manipulate the software confidently; some
software and output technologies can be very expensive.

Ethical considerations Should not deliberately misrepresent, for example through misleading scale
model, manipulated digital model.

Further references Bunnell, K. (1998) The Integration of New Technology into Designer-Maker
Practice. PhD thesis, The Robert Gordon University. (Experiments and
prototypes investigating the integration of new technologies in making.)
Douglas, A. (1992) Structure and Improvisation: The Making Aspect of
Sculpture. PhD thesis, Sunderland University. (Experiments with improvisation
- ref. On the Notion of Test, see Chapter 5, section 5.2.)
Oldenburg, C. and van Bruggen, C. (1988) A Bottle of Notes and Some
Voyages, (Leeds: Northern Centre for Contemporary Art/Henry Moore Centre).
(Documentation of Oldenburg 's maquettes for large scale sculptures.)

Visual

Figure 4.5 Example pages from a sketchbook exploring possible three-dimensional forms (Q)

3D Models/maquettes

Definition/function Three-dimensional experimentation of the research project issues with materials

and processes (3D 'sketching ', envisioning) that may result in a range of
'approximations' (various versions of maquettes) towards a more resolved
construction/object; in some instances a scale model may be required.
Increasing use of technology allows sophisticated computer modelling. Figure 4.6 Examples of a full scale model in 'sketch' materials and the actual sculpture (Q)

Context for use In practice-based research, where two-dimensional information is insufficient for
understanding and communicating complex ideas, structure, form, texture, and
so on. For example product design, architecture, sculpture, fashion , craft.
Increasing use of technology, for instance computer-aided design and The following are practice-based methods that encourage and enable reflection.
manufacture (CAD/CAM) for experimentation with forms impossible to derive by
other methods, and for visualizing large scale objects. Reflective journal/Research diary

Tools required Any relevant material and process, for example paper/card, metal, stone, wood , Reflective journalling goes beyond the use of the sketchbook in that it is a
Definition/function
clay, plastic, and so on; construction, carving , modelling, rapid prototyping, much more structured and deliberate research method. It is a purposeful
simulated modelling using computer software, such as Amapi, Rhino, FormZ, process and framework for helping to expose and explore various models of
ProEngineer, Autocad , and so on. practice, encourage interdisciplinarity and collaboration, extend professionalism
and have more effective conversations with ourselves. The journal/ diary itself is
Advantages Allows the exploration and presentation of spatial and tactile data, for example a store - a repository for a range of information in a range of media - which is
actual material qualities, surface texture, weight, and so on. Virtual models can added to and consulted on a regular basis, and which may be related solely to
be animated, stored in databases and shared over networks, digital information a particular research project. The 'journal ' may contain different types of
can be re-purposed both to document objects and make real objects using information.
rapid prototyping technologies.
 Context for use In practice-based research, to help capture the dynamic and reflexive nature of
practice, for example for planning (reflecting for action), for capturing action Audio reflection
(reflecting in action whilst doing something), and describing and evaluating
(reflecting on action). Invaluable for the regular documentation of the Definition/function Talking out loud to yourself whilst making work/thinking about it, especially in
application of methods and evaluation of their outcomes. relation to research project issues.
Tools required An off-the-shelf large format diary (at least one A4 page a day), or a home- Context for use In practice-based research situations, in order to capture reflection-in-action and
~ade version; alt:rnatively a digital version may be more appropriate, for spontaneous spoken thoughts (stream of consciousness, reflection in action);
In~tance a web diary or some other format, for example a 'video diary', a large can capture expressive qualities of voice - intonation, phrasing, pausing,
foho, a wall map/ chart, for example a 'cyclogram', a 3D 'container'. The 'journal' reactions (for example gasp, laugh), and so on - all possi bly useful data; needs
m~y contain different types of information to provide you with a whole range of to be done regularly so that the process becomes as 'unconscious' and natural
eVidence and examples: for example activity and development log (fact, as possible.
p:ecision a~d ~etail thr~ugh material samples, diagrams, charts, numerical data),
diary (deSCriptive and discursive writing), documentation of work in progress Tools required Small wearable/pocket audio recorder, ideally digital (lor high quality) and
and completed (a sequence of visuals, including 'failures', 35 mm voice-activated ; tapes/disks and batteries.
transparencies), contextual references (visual examples of other artists' and
designers' work as postcards and magazine cuttings and details about the Advantages Capable of capturing spontaneous thoughts 'on the move' at any time.
work, and its significance to your research), information about the pace and
progress of work (as a 'peaks and troughs' chart), video/audio transcripts, key Disadvantages Too self-conscious; could generate hours of tape to review and/ or transcribe;
points from evaluation and analysis, and any other kind of relevant 'life' people may think you are mad!
information. It is essential that all the contents are labelled, dated, sequenced,
and sufficiently 'contained ' so that nothing is lost. Ethical considerations Should not deliberately mislead/ misrepresent.

Advantages A comprehensive store of practice-based thought and action, with evidence and Further references Schon, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner (Basic Books).
example. Could form an important part of a 'portfolio' of research Watson, A. (1992) An exploration of the principle of chance as a stimulus to
evidence/ learning. the creative activity known as sculpture. PhD thesis, The Robert Gordon
University. (Use of audio to capture reflection-in-action and on-action, section
Disadvantages An idiosyncratic (and probably very personal) set of information, possibly of 3.25, Appendix 3, Tape transcripts of Experiment B.)
little use to others in specifics, but of value as an example of a reffective tool.

Ethical considerations Should provide an honest picture of development and progress.

'Sweatbox'
Further references Krause, J. and Lichtenstein, C. (eds) (1999) Your Private Sky: R. Buckminster
Fuller. The Art of Design Science (Lars Muller). (pp. 13- 14 the Dymaxion Definition/function The 'sweatbox' is a studio-based video set-up, used by architects and artists to
Chronofile.) capture 'master class' presentations, that is an eminent practitioner talking
Newbury, D. (2001) Diaries and field notes in the research process, Research about and reflecting on their practice and/ or solving a particular problem, using
Issues in Art, Design and Media, Issue No.1 , Autumn. various visual means, for example drawing, mapping , models.
Eno, B. (1996) A Year With Swollen Appendices (London: Faber & Faber).
Hart, C. (1998) Doing a Literature Review (Sage). (The Research Diary, Context for use In practice-based research (in action, perhaps in response to a particular task) in
Appendix 4, p. 216.) order to capture reflection-in-action and on-action through the sharing and
Renwick, G. (2003) Spatial Determinism in the Canadian North: a theoretical description of process and spontaneous spoken thoughts, sometimes
overview and practice-based response. PhD thesis, University of Dundee. (Use augmented by drawing/ sketching ideas.
of 'visual journal'.)
Tufte, E. (1997) Visual Explanations (Graphics Press). (Example 01 a Tools required Video studio; two video cameras - one focused on the reflecting practitioner,
'cyclogram ' 01 Salyut 6 space flight, pp. 92-95.) and one mounted directly over a drawing table to capture visual outputs;
Chapter 2, section 2.5, A Reflective Journal. wearable microphone to capture audio clearly; mixing desk to inter-cut material
from both cameras.

Advantages Although a formal situation, it does encourage 'off-loading' (ref. McAleese,

1999, Chapter 2, Section 2.5); captures valuable examples of process, perhaps
not usually accessible.
 Disadvantages
Forma.' studio ~:t-up may be difficult to arrange or be too costly to hire;
reflective practitioner may be too self-conscious. RESEARCH METHODS: SOCIAL SCIENCES
Ethical considerations
Pres~nter. ~ust have given permission/authorization before recording; ensure Research methods in Art and Design have been augmented with useful Social Scien ce
co~fldentlallty; ensure permissions have been given for public use of data; methods, usua lly adapted and/or re-contex tualized in some way. These methods are not
edlte~ work shoul~ not ~eliberately mislead - editing can present an extremely described in detail here - numerous texts are available (and referen ced). However, their
selective, and possibly distorted, view; should be used with integrity and care.
application in practice-based research in Art and Design is highlighted . For a good
Further references Schon, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner (Basic Books). overview of qualitative methods see Den zin and Lincoln (1994).
SII~er, S. (1999) The role of artists in the public realm: an investigation into
art~sts ' ~enerative process in context. PhD thesis, The Robert Gordon
University. Case study
Silver, S. and Lucas, M. (1997) Hospitals Talking Art: Recording the Visual
DIalogue (The Robert Gordon University). Definition/function Case - a single instance or example of something. 'A formal collection of
evidence presented as an interpretative position of a unique case ... reports on
Visual a project or innovation or event over a prolonged period of time by telling a ...
story as it has evolved ' (McKernan, 1998, p 74).

Context for use In Social Science research, where a complex something/ someone/ situation
needs to be studied qualitative, intensively, in-depth and comprehensively.
Similarly, in Art and Design research where the case may be a practitioner, an
environment, for example a studio/ workshop, a project, a commission , a
consultancy, a learning setting, and so on.

Tools required May use any/ all of the methods outlined below, and other more visual methods
previously described. Case evidence may include all types of data, for example
Fil"St sweatbox session
tCJ ,UR q, audio/video recordings and transcripts, field notes, diary entries, letters, other
documents, visuals, objects of material culture, artefacts, and so on. Researcher
rw 'I~ stSpU1 0 mom ...
Aben;Seen resewd ::"Ii lhe TarTW'Ig Goliath may take the role of participant observer.
P"'C}CCt I want row to show !oOme of tre
iISped.5 of the dec1S1on-making process;
the network of cootacts and ~latiOnYllp!i Advantages Affords detailed study in depth and breadth - 'strong in reality'; use of multi-
..... hich itave led to me cOfTl/I\g up wM a method aids corroboration and validation ; produces credible and accurate
proposaL I think ail the~ p~es and
~!e ~ png to be Important to ~
account of setting and action.
fM!I'1tuil ~ng refal.:omI'IIp:
Disadvantages Specific and idiosyncratic example/case, therefore generalizations beyond the
specific case cannot be made (unless a reasonable number of cases are
studied); extremely time consuming ; critical view sometimes difficult (researcher
can be influenced by respondents).

Ethical considerations Permission/ authorization required; ensure confidentiality; ensure permissions

have been given for public use of data; should be used with integrity and care.
Figure 4.7 Example of a 'sweatbox' session from Hospitals Talking Art: Recording the Visual Dialogue (Q )
Further references Cohen, L and Manion, L (1994) Research Methods in Education, Chapter 5,
Case Studies (Routledge).
McKernan, J. (1998) Curriculum Action Research: a Handbook of Methods and
Resources for the Reflective Practitioner, Chapter 4 , Observational and
Narrative Research Methods, pp. 74-83 (Kogan Page).
There are no doubt other methods that you use as part of your practice and the reflec-
Wheeler, E. (1996) The role of architectural ceramics in contemporary site-
tIon on It. These should be written up and illustrated as part of your research project. specific art. PhD thesis, University of Northumbria, Newcastle. (Site-specific
Once th e project IS examined and validated the methodes) should be publicly dissemi - commissions as case studies.)
nated. Other researchers may then adopt/adapt or extend the method, thus adding to Yin, R. (1984) Case Study Research (Sage).
the body of knowledge on research methods related to practice.
 Within a case stud y m any different methods may be used, for example:
Questionnaire
Interview A key method in seeking the general opinions. of many others about an
Definition/function
identified research topiC. A purposeful survey In order to gather data at a
Definition/function A key method in seeking the particular opinions of others about an identified particular point in time to (a) describe the nature of existing conditions, or (b)
research topic. A purposeful conversation initiated by the interviewer and identify standards against which existing conditions can be compared, or (c)
focused by him/ her on content specified by research objectives. determine the relationship that exists between specific events.

Context for use In case study research where a particular and in-depth view is required ; helpful In Social Science research , the questionnaire is one of the most commonly used
Context for use
in the exploratory stages of research to elicit views, identify variables, important descriptive methods; useful for identifying trends in large populations; can yield
factors as a method of structuring further research . good generalizations. In Art and Design research, it has been used, for example,
in longitudinal studies to track national graduate career development.
Tools required Recording equipment, for example audio, video , plus tapes/ disks; a quiet space;
interview schedule (identified questions or prompts); notebook or schedule Tools required Paper-based (or increasingly web-based. linked to a database) proforma for
proforma for taking notes on responses (verbal and non-verbal). Several types questions and responses (fax/ e-mail back a good way of eliciting response);
of interview, for example structured, semi-structured, unstructured , focused . most simple form is a tick box or 'yes/ no ', 'true/false'; always take the
Various types of software for content and discourse analysis, for example opportunity to seek clarification/ extension on a simple answer by including a
NUO' IST, ATLAS (visual analysis), NVivo, HyperRESEARCH (text and multimedia 'further comments' section; design should be simple but engaging; sampling
data) - all by Sage publications. and size important - who are involved and why?

Advantages A good way of finding out a person 's values, preferences, attitudes, beliefs and Capacity for a large and widely distributed sample; more economical in time and
Advantages
feelings; opportunity for direct verbal interaction, encouraging in-depth money than interviewing; anonymity of respondents may encourage greater
response - a discursive method, can be done at a distance using telephone or honesty; allows for quantitative data to be collected .
internet 'chat' tools .
Disadvantages The larger the sample the more generalized the response; the larger the sample
Disadvantages Could be prone to subjectivity and bias (leading questions!); the setting for the the more time it will take to analyse; low return rates (20% is considered
interview can influence the quality of the responses, for example formal or good!); no clarification of responses possible; responses :nay b~ qu~tion~ble ,
informal; time-consuming (event itself and transcription); if record ing tools and either because of poor question design or as a result of questionnaire fatigue
notes are not used the interviewer could have poor recall. on the part of the respondent; if quantitative data are selected then statistical
analysis is often required in order to establish whether the results are
Ethical considerations Participant(s) must have given permission/ authorization before recording ; statistically significant.
ensure confidentiality; ensure permissions have been given for public use of
data; edited work should not deliberately mislead - editing can present an Ethical considerations Questionnaire must include information about the purpose of the research and
extremely selective, and possibly distorted, view; should be used with integrity how the resulting data will be used; ensure confidentiality; should be used with
and care. integrity and care.

Further references Cohen, L. and Manion, L. (1994) Research Methods in Education. Chapter 13, Cohen, L. and Manion, L. (1994) Research Methods in Education , Chapter 4 ,
Further references
The Interview (Routledge). Surveys (Routledge).
McKernan, J. (1998) Curriculum Action Research: a Handbook of Methods and McKernan, J. (1998) Curriculum Action Research: a Handbook of Methods and
Resources for the Reflective Practitioner, Chapter 4, Non-Observational. Survey Resources for the Reflective Practitioner, Chapter 4 , Non-Observational, Survey
and Self Report Techniques (Kogan Page). and Self Report Techniques (Kogan Page).
Robson, C. (1993) Real World Research, Chapter 9 , Interviews and Robson , C. (1993) Real World Research, Chapter 9, Interviews and
Questionnaires (Blackwell). Questionnaires (Blackwell).
Keats, D. M. (2000) Interviewing: a Practical Guide for Students and
Professionals (Open University Press).
Used in many practice-based research degrees, for example Scopa (2003),
Wheeler (1996)
 methods in Stonyer's 1978, PhD The development of kinetic sculpture by the utilization of
Personal construds solar energy). Indeed, there are design research areas that require more scientific method-
ologies and methods, for example industrial design. However, it is important for you to
Definition/function Developed by George Kelly in the 1950s, personal constructs are dimensions be aware of the different paradigms of inquiry and what the methodological implica-
that we use ~o conceptualize aspects of our day-to-day world and make sense tions are for each (you may wish to re-read Section 1.3, A route map: the importance of
~ ~urselves In our world(s). Events are only meaningful in relation to the ways
a are construed by the individual. methodology) .
Context for use ~n :S~Cho~ogy, a se~sitive approach in the evaluation of personality or an Further references
In IVldual s perception of their environment, or to map personal relationships. Capra, F. (1983) The Turning Point: Science, Society and the Rising Culture (London:
Personal Flamingo).
Tools required th I ' construct
. Repertory Grid Test (RGT' Ke II y) .IS a met hod of quantifying
. .
Graziano, A. M. and Raulin, M. (1993) Research Methods: A Process of Inquiry (New York:
e re atlonshlP. be.~een ,elicited constructs and illustrating the internal
structu re of an individual s repertoire of constructs - the individual 's HarperCollins College publishers).
phenomenal w~rld is '.eft intact (the idiographic approach) and no attempt is Kuhn, T. S. (1970) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd edn (Chicago: University of
made. to slot him/ her IOto categories determined by a researcher. Various Chicago Press).
~~h;lq.ues have , been dev,el~ped from Kelly's initial RGT, for example Hinkle's popper, K. R. (1991) Conjectures and RefUtations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge
enng technique. In clinical psychology drawing has been used to visu I'
personal constructs and relationships between people _ 'personal sph a Ize (Routledge).
models' (Schmiedeck, 1978). ere
Ziman, j. (1978) Reliable Knowledge: an Exploration of the Grounds for Belief in Science
(Cambridge University Press).
Advantages An adaptable method of encouragi ng people to externalize their understandin s
Of the world or whatever the focus is, for example artistic identity, collaborativ;
re latlonshlps, design values, learning styles , and so on , Convoy! The use of multiple methods
In Chapter 1 (Section 1.5) the concept of 'triangulation' was described as a way of
Disadvantages Use of bi-.pol~r ~onstructs (good- bad , rich-poor, engaged-detached) could be
seen as SimplistiC, reductive and positivistic!
achieving a more meaningful and balanced understanding of a research issue by the use
of two or more research methods. Triangulation helps us to get a 'fix' on something in
Ethical considerations Partjcipant(s~
m,ust have given permission/authorization; ensure confidentiality' order to understand more fully the complexity of issues by examining them from differ-
~nsur~ permiSSions have been given for public use of data' should be used wi'th ent perspectives, and generating data in different ways by using different methods. The
Integnty and care. ' more information we have from varying perspectives, the more able we are to test our
Further references Cohen, L. and Manion, L. (1994) Research Methods in Education , Chapter 14 ideas and eliminate bias that might arise from each method.
Personal Constructs (Routledge). '
The concept of multi-method also suggests multi-media, not only in its information
Hall,. E. (1978) Using Personal Constructs: Rediguide No.9 (University of technology sense (multimedia/hypermedia), but its value in using and integrating
Nottingham School of Education). different kinds of media to provide different kinds of sensory information. The involve-
Gray, C. (1988) Teaching styles in higher art education . PhD thesis, Universi ment of practically all our human senses, as well as other independent sensory instru-
of Ab.erdeen. (Personal construct theory informed the development of Gray';
ments, is more likely to give us a comprehensive and 'rich' perspective on the research
teaching style 'game'.)
Kelly,G . (1955) The Psychology of Personal Constructs (New York: Norton). issue being explored.
Schmledeck, R. A. (1978) The Personal Sphere Model (Grune & Stratton). It is important to state the rationale for using several methods, and to describe clearly
how they interrelate. Some resea rch projects ntight use a developmental methodology
where one research method prompts the next in a simple sequential order. Others might
use several methods almost simultaneously. In both cases, in addition to thoroughly
Research methods: Sciences describing in text the use of each method, it is useful to visualize the use of various
There are many esta blished and validated research methods in the Sciences. It is be ond methods within the methodology as a whole (Figure 4.8).
the scope of thiS book to describe such methods in detail. We simply refer t yf This visualization describes four key methods in a developmental research method-
key texts that provide philosophical and practical information. It will be cre~~ f~O~ ~: ology (Burt, 2000). There are two versions of this - a static 20 version presented here
exammatlOn of early examples of completed formal resea rch in Art and Design that and also a multimedia version with a spoken commentary on the book's website.
more POSItiViSt methods have sometimes been used (for example, quaSi-experimental