Mindanao State University at Naawan

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology

Department of Fisheries Science and Technology

Module on ICHTHYOLOGY
(FISH 120)

Elgen M. Arriesgado
elgen.arriesgado@msunaawan.edu.ph
 Disclaimer
This module does not intend to infringe on any copyright claims and is solely for academic
purposes of MSU-Naawan, Its faculty and its students.

1 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
Course Overview

This course will provide students with an understanding on the introduction to the anatomy,
physiology, behavior, ecology, evolution, and taxonomy of fishes. The course will also cover the ecological
habitat of the fish species in the students’ locality, as well as the commercially important fishes that are
available in their markets. Knowledge will be delivered in the form of module consisting of lecture and
basic laboratory activities. During lecture sessions, students will be introduced to the taxonomy, major
groups, general morphology and natural history/evolution/genetic of fishes. During lab sessions, students
will gain “hands-on”, practical knowledge of material learned in lecture including identification of local
species, analysis of fish anatomy, morphology, and other lab exercises. Specifically, students will become
familiar with fish morphology and anatomy, will learn fish taxonomy and fish identification with emphasis
on commercial fishes particularly around the students’ locality. With the present condition of the COVID-
19 pandemic and the absence of face to face classes, students will have a limited actual hands-on market
survey that will only be conducted at their local public markets. However, students’ knowledge will be
enhanced and complemented with online information based on available wide and comprehensive
studies and discoveries about fishes found at FishBase.org site.

2 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 Contents
Course Overview ......................................................................................................................................... 2
Course Guide ............................................................................................................................................... 4
Learner’s Guide ........................................................................................................................................... 8
Content Discussion ...................................................................................................................................... 9
MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION, EVOLUTION, GENETICS AND ANATOMY ....................................................... 9
UNIT 1: FISH, ANIMALS AND MAN ......................................................................................................... 9
Unit 1, Topic 1: Introduction to Ichthyology and Fishes ..................................................................... 9
Unit 1, Topic 2: History of Ichthyology and Fishes ............................................................................. 11
Unit 1, Topic 3: Evolution and Diversity of Fishes .............................................................................. 14
UNIT 2: FISH GENETICS .......................................................................................................................... 20
Unit 1, Topic 1: Basic Genetics and Evolution.................................................................................... 22
UNIT 3: THE MAJOR GROUP OF FISHES ................................................................................................. 24
Unit 3, Topic 1: Major groups of living and extinct fishes ................................................................. 25
Unit 3, Topic 2: Scope, aims, and methods of classification .............................................................. 27
UNIT 3: BASIC FISH ANATOMY .............................................................................................................. 31
Unit 3, Topic 1: External anatomy of fish .......................................................................................... 32
Unit 3, Topic 2: Internal Anatomy of Fish .............................................................................................. 35
Unit 3, Topic 3: Squamation (Scales), Barbels and Coloration ........................................................... 36
Unit 3, Topic 4: Other Morphological Features: Photoreception and Poisons in Fishes .................... 38
LABORATORY ACTIVITIES ..................................................................................................................... 40
Laboratory Activity 1: Fish Meristics and Morphometrics ................................................................. 40
Laboratory Activity 2: Internal Anatomy of a Fish ............................................................................. 42
Laboratory Activity 3: Identification of Different Body Forms, Types of Mouth and Caudal Fins ...... 45
References ................................................................................................................................................ 47

3 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 Course Guide
Course number: FISH 120
Course name: Ichthyology
Course description: The study of the biology, classification and systematics, and life histories of fishes
with emphasis on commercial species. This will also cover the ecological niches of the
commercially important species and their characteristic behavior and adaptation.
Number of units: 4 units (3 hours lecture and 3 hours laboratory / 6 hours per week)
Prerequisites: Zoology (Zoology), Fish 100 (Introduction to Fisheries), Fish 122 (Physiology of Aquatic
Organisms)
Course outcomes:
▪ Student will be able to familiarize with the world of fishes;
▪ Recognize and have understanding on the different external/ internal parts fish; and
▪ Discern the systematic classification and life histories of commercially important fish species.
Course outline:
MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION, EVOLUTION, GENETICS AND ANATOMY
Unit 1: Fish Animals and Man
Unit 2: Fish Genetics
Unit 3: The Major Group of Fishes
Unit 4: Basic Fish Anatomy
MODULE 2: BASIC FISH PHYSIOLOGY
Unit 1: Food, Digestion, Nutrition and Growth
Unit 2: Skeleton, Build and Movement
Unit 3: Blood Circulation
Unit 4: Respiration
Unit 5: Excretion and Osmotic Regulation
Unit 6: Reproduction
MODULE 3: SYTEMATICS, ECOLOGY AND ZOOGEOGRAPHY
Unit 1: Systematics and Nomenclature
Unit 2: Ecology and Zoogeography

Study schedule

Week Topic Learning Outcomes Topics

Week 1: Sep 1-Sep 5, MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION, ▪ Introduction to Ichthyology
2020 (1.5 hours lec) EVOLUTION, GENETICS AND and Fishes
ANATOMY ▪ History of Ichthyology and
Unit 1: Fish, Animals and Man Fishes
LO1: Define ichthyology and learn ▪ Evolution and Diversity of
about its history Fishes
LO2: Understand general
characteristics of fishes
LO3: Understand how fish evolve in
the evolutionary tree
LO4: Explain how evolution affects
fish diversity in terms of habitat
and population

4 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
Week 1: Aug 31-Sep 5, Unit 2: Fish Genetics ▪ Evolution and Genetics in
2020 LO1: Know the basic concept of fishes
(3 hrs lec) genetics in fishes
LO2: Know the importance of
genetics to fishes
Week 1: Aug 31-Sep 5, Unit 3: The Major Groups of Fishes ▪ Major groups of living and
2020 LO1: Identify the different major extinct fishes
(1.5 hrs lec; 1.5 hrs lab) groups of fishes including the ▪ Scope, aims, and methods of
extinct and living classification
LO2: Describe and explain the
hierarchical system of classifying
fishes
Week 2 to Week 4: Sep Unit 4: Basic Fish Anatomy ▪ External Anatomy of Fishes
7-Sep 25, 2020 LO1: Identify, enumerate, and ▪ Internal Anatomy of Fishes
(6 hrs lec; 10.5 hrs lab) explain the different parts of a fish ▪ Squamation (Scales), Barbels
and their functions and Coloration
▪ Morphological Features:
Photoreception and Poisons
in Fishes
Week 5: Sep 28 – Oct 2, MODULE 2: BASIC FISH PHYSIOLOGY ▪ The digestive system and
2020 Unit 1: Food, Digestion and digestion process in fish
(3 hrs lec; 3 hrs lab) Nutrition ▪ Food, feeding habits and
LO1: Describe how nutrition and nutrition
digestion works in fishes
LO2: Identify the different organs
involved and their functions as
component of the digestive system
Week 6: Oct 5 – Oct 9, Unit 2: Skeleton, Build and ▪ Musculoskeletal system of
2020 Movement the fish
(3 hrs lec; 3 hrs lab LO1: Describe how skeleton is ▪ Body forms of fishes
essential in build and movement of ▪ Types of locomotion
fish ▪ Speed of travel
LO2: Identify the fish bones in the ▪ Migration of fishes
fish skeletal system
LO3: Understand how muscular
system function in locomotion and
bodily movement
Week 7: Oct 12 – Oct Unit 3: Blood and Circulation Heart and circulatory vessels
16, 2020 LO1: Understand how circulatory
(4 hours lec; 2 hours system acts as an internal transport
system
lab)
LO2: Identify the different organs
involved in the circulatory system
Week 8: Oct 19 – Oct 23, Unit 4: Respiration Respiration in Fishes
2020 LO1: Understand how exchange of
(4 hrs lec; 2 hrs lab) gases happens in fish and the
aquatic environment
LO3: Enumerate and describe the
different functions of the
respiratory system
LO4: Identify the different organs
involved in the respiratory process

5 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 including accessory and specialized
and breathing organs
Week 9: Oct 26 – Oct 30, Unit 5: Excretion and Osmotic Excretion and osmotic
2020 Regulation regulation in fishes
(4 hrs lec; 2 hrs lab) LO1: Understand the role of
excretory system in removal of
waste and excess metabolic
products
LO2: Identify the different organs
involved in the excretory system
LO3: Illustrate the process of
osmoregulation in maintaining
organisms’ normal body processes
Week 10 – Week 11: Unit 7: Reproduction ▪ Hormonal Regulation in Fish
Nov 5 – Nov 10, 2020 LO1: Describe the different Reproduction, Gametogenesis
and Fish’s Developmental
(3 hrs lec; 2 hrs lab) reproductive processes and various Stages
mechanisms of reproduction in fish ▪ Types of reproduction
LO2: Identify the parts of the male
and female reproductive organs in
fish and describe their functions
LO3: Explain the hormonal
regulation of reproduction
Week 11 – Week 14: MODULE 3: SYSTEMATICS, ECOLOGY ▪ Binomial Nomenclature of
Nov 11 -Dec 4, 2020 AND ZOOGEOGRAPHY Fishes
Unit 1: Systematics and ▪ (You are to review on the
(3 hrs lec; 18 hrs lab
Nomenclature previous lectures on: Evolution
and diversity of fishes, Major
LO1: Explain the importance of
groups of living and extinct
scientific name and how to write it fishes and Scope, aims, and
properly; methods of classification)
LO2: Describe and enumerate the
different orders of fishes according to
their characteristics
LO3: Enumerate examples of
commercially important organisms
belonging to each order
Week 15: Dec 8 – Dec Unit 2: Ecology and Zoogeography ▪ Aquatic ecosystem
Dec 11, 2020 LO1: Enumerate the structures and functions and structures
(3 hrs lec; 3 hrs lab) functions of aquatic ecosystems. ▪ Zoogeography of fishes
LO2: Discuss the growth and
movement of fish populations in
certain communities

6 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
Laboratory and other activity schedules
Time Laboratory Activity No. Title
Week 2: Sep 7-Sep 11, 2020 1 Fish meristic and
morphometrics
Week 3: Sep 14-Sep 18, 2020 2 Internal anatomy of fish

Week 4 to Week 4: Sep 21- 3 Morphological identification

Sep25, 2020

Week 5: Sep 28 - Oct 2, 2020 4 The digestive system and

feeding habits in fish
Week 6: Oct 5 – Oct 9, 2020 5 The skeletal system in fish
Week 7: Oct 12 – Oct 16, 2020 6 The Circulatory system in fish
Week 8: Oct 19 – Oct 23, 2020 7 Respiration in fishes
Week 9: Nov 3-4, 2020 8 Osmoregulation in fish
Paperwork Activity
Week 1: Sep 1 – Sep 4, 2011 1 Synthesis paper on fish genetic
application
Week 11 – Week 14: Nov 11- 2 Compilation of commercial
Dec 4, 2020 fishes with taxonomic
classification
September 30-October 2, 2020 Prelim

November 4- November 6, 2020 Midterm

December 14 – December 18, 2020 Final

Grading system
Lecture (60%)

➢ Formative assessment (quizzes, activities, papers) 50%

➢ Summative Assessment (major exams: 3 exams for module 1 and 1 exam each for modules 2 and 3)
Laboratory (40%)

➢ Laboratory exam 50%

➢ Laboratory reports/outputs 50%
Total 100%
Passing grade 60%

7 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 Learner’s Guide
Welcome!

This module has been prepared for you to study and explore the world of fishes and probably develop
your passion and love for fishes through flexible blended learning amidst COVID-19 pandemic. To ensure
that you will be guided and be able to gain an in-depth understanding in this explorative study of fishes,
the 5E (Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, Evaluate) learning approaches are applied in this module for
every Unit lesson.

Engage: The purpose of the ENGAGE stage is to get you ready and be personally involved in the
topic/lesson. Some activities are being made for this purpose.

Explore: During the EXPLORE stage you ought to have a grasp already of the topic introduced. You have
to ensure that your presence of mind is already focused on the topic/lessons being presented. You can
connect from previous lessons/learnings and experiences as some sort of background.

Explain: EXPLAIN stage is to provide you with an opportunity to already understand what the topic is all
about. Lectures are provided so you can figure out what the Unit lesson really means. Here you can ask
questions that need further clarification via mobile phone or online messaging through Facebook
messenger chat room and Google classroom.

Elaborate: ELABORATE stage is to allow you to use new knowledge and continue to explore its
implications. Activities and questions inside a highlighted blue text box are given to apply what you have
learned. You are required to submit the output and answer of any activities to me via email within the
time-frame specified in the study schedule.

Evaluate: EVALUATE stage is for both you as student and me as your teacher to determine how much
learning and understanding has been achieved. Either activities, quizzes, essays and assignments inside a
highlighted blue text box are given for this purpose. For essay type of questions, you can explore other
resources via internet searches. You are also required to submit the output and answer of any activity to
me via email within the time-frame specified in the study schedule. You can submit your outputs in both
elaborate and evaluate stages as one file.

Besides this module, discussion enhancements, major exams, announcement, etc. will be
posted/accessed via Facebook messenger chatroom and Google classroom that I will create for Fish 120
students.

For you to complete and pass this subject, you have to answer and submit all the required activities in the
elaborate and evaluate stages, all the eight (8) laboratory activities and two (2) paperwork activities
provided in this module. Equally important is for you to take and pass the major exams. The key to make
your study remarkable is to manage your time well, read and understand the lessons, re-read and further
understand.

REMINDER: A module requires complete reading and understanding of its content! Reading only at the
beginning and at the end of any topic will not give you the knowledge of what this module intends to
provide to you. I simply leave you with this message, “A thorough reading and understanding of this
module is the surest way to comply its requirements and pass this subject”. Stay focused and may God
bless you and grant you the needed wisdom as you study.

Elgen M. Arriesgado
Faculty-SMFT

8 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 Content Discussion

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION, EVOLUTION, GENETICS AND ANATOMY

UNIT 1: FISH, ANIMALS AND MAN

Learning outcomes:
At the end of this session, you should be able to:

▪ Define ichthyology and learn about its history

▪ Understand the general characteristics of fishes
▪ Understand how fish evolve in the evolutionary tree
▪ Explain how evolution affects fish diversity in terms of habitat and population

Let me guess. You love to eat tuna and sardines! Right? But, how well do you know about fishes?

Answer the following questions:

1. What is the most known fish?

2. Where do fishes mostly live? Answer_________
3. Can some fish live in land? Yes/No. Answer________
4. What organ do fishes use in breathing? Answer______
5. What body parts do fishes use for movement? Answer________
6. Fishes do not have a backbone. True/ False. Answer_______
7. All fishes have scales. True/False. Answer_______
8. Sharks are fishes. True/False Answer______
9. Fishes include sting rays. True/False
10. What Phylum do fishes belong? Answer________
11. Give three importance of fishes. Answer__________

Submit your answers to me through emailWhay

Studying fish is interesting. Much can be learned about fish simply by examining its physical
features or by watching it move through the water. In fact, these features and movement form the basis
for most schemes in the classification and identification of fishes. Imagine, how many kinds of fishes have
you seen at the wet market? or in an aquarium? How many kinds of fish have you eaten? How many kinds
of fishes can you mostly remember? What distinct characteristic that makes you easily call a fish by its
local name? Did you know that fishes are classified according to their similarities?

Please read the lecture handouts on the following unit lessons:

▪ Introduction to Ichthyology and Fishes

▪ History of Ichthyology and Fishes
▪ Evolution and Diversity of Fishes
Unit 1, Topic 1: Introduction to Ichthyology and Fishes

9 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 Ichthyology is commonly defined as 'the study of fish' or 'that branch of zoology dealing with fish'
according to Fishbase. A person who dedicates a career on fishes is called an ichthyologist. The areas of
specialization in ichthyology are varied and may include the study of classification, life history, anatomy,
behavior, ecology or physiology, aquarium maintenance, fish breeding, and conservation among others.
Importance of Fishes
▪ Provide food
▪ Provide income
▪ Control disease
▪ Ecological importance
▪ Medicinal
▪ Aesthetic value
▪ Recreation

What are fishes?

Fishbase literally defines fish as a vertebrate (i.e., animal with a backbone) that has gills, a body
covered with scales, and lives in the water. Some species are well known for their ability to leap off the
sea surface and glide long distances using their fins as wings. Other species can live out of the water for
quite sometimes, walk to migrate to other water bodies using auxiliary breathing organs, and some
species do not have bodies covered with scales.
Fishes are the most numerous and diverse of the major vertebrate groups with more classes of fishes
than all other vertebrates combined.

The distinguishing characteristic of fishes:

All fishes …
• have a brain protected by a braincase and an obvious head region with eyes, teeth, and
other sensory organs
• have lateral lines system which respond to relative motion between the body of fish and
the water around it
• are ectothermic & poikilothermic
• Have two chambered heart

Ectothermic

10 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
Most fishes …

• are vertebrates with vertebrae protecting the spinal cord

• live in water
• breathe primarily with gills rather than lungs
• have paired limbs, in the form of fins that aid in locomotion
• are unable to regulate their own internal body temperatures
• are covered with scales that protect their bodies

Exceptions!!! Hagfish aren't vertebrates and don't have scales; mudskippers can live
outside the water; lungfish use lungs to breathe; lampreys don't have paired fins; and
tuna are warm blooded!

Did you know that …..

▪ A seahorse is the only fish to have a

neck

▪ Seahorses engage in an eight-hour

courtship dance which includes
spinning around, swimming side by
side and changing colors.

Unit 1, Topic 2: History of Ichthyology and Fishes

11 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 The history of fish dates back 425-500 million years ago. Early fish were called Ostracoderms
characterized as slow, bottom-dwelling animals covered with thick, bony plates and scales. Ostracoderms
are believed to be the first animal with a backbone. Two (2) groups evolved from the Ostracoderms and
exist today namely; Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes. The Chondrichthyes have cartilage skeletons like
the sharks, rays and skates. The Osteichthyes have bony skeletons and have two (2) subclasses namely;
Sarcopterygii and Actinopterigii. Sarcopterygii fish have fleshy or lobed fins and their skeletons have both
the cartilage and bone parts while Actinopterygii have rayed fins.
Interest in ichthyology began as early as 384-322 BC. It started with Aristotle
who classified several hundred species (II7) of fishes. Less formal ichthyology was
practiced by early hunter-gatherer societies. The ability of fish hunter to locate
certain fishes in certain times allowed for better food opportunities. The
importance of fish to human was highlighted in the time of Jesus where very
prominent disciples were fishermen and fishing activity was notably emphasized.
Even other animals informally practice ichthyology. Grizzly bears for instance
know when and where to catch salmon, which is an important part of their diet.
Peter Artedi and Carolus Linnaeus discovered modern ichthyology in the 18th
century. They gathered all the previously written data on species of fishes and set
up a system to classify fish by species, genus, family, and kingdom (hierarchy). Peter Artedi became the
Father of Ichthyology whose work was published by Carolus Linnaeus. Today, more than 30,000 known
species of fishes are classified according to this system with about 200 new discoveries of fishes each year.
Prominent personalities in the field of ichthyologists are listed
Peter Artedi (1705 – 1734)
▪ Father of Ichthyology” – 1705
▪ Develop the classification system of fishes
▪ Standardized measurements and counts that remain basis of fish taxonomy today
▪ Died by drowning in a canal in Amsterdam after a night of drinking

Carolus Linnaeus (1707 – 1778)

Adapted Artedi’s system to use in his Systema Naturae which
becomes the basis for all future classification systems

Georges Cuvier (1769 – 1832)

▪ Classified all known species of fishes
▪ Conducted detailed studies of fish anatomy
▪ Compiled early history of ichthyology
▪ Produced the first complete list of the fishes of the world

Johannes Muller (1801 – 1858)

Revised Agassiz’s classification system to
include most major groups still used today

David Starr Jordan (1851 – 1931)

▪ Fishes of North and Middle America
▪ Guide to the Study of Fishes

12 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 Albert Gunther (1830 – 1914)
Last person to attempt to describe all species of fishes in the
World.

Louis Agassiz (1807 – 1873)

▪ Develop important volumes on classification based on fossil fishes
▪ Strong non-believer of evolution, but work laid
foundation for evolution studies of fish

Carl Hubbs (1894 – 1979)

▪ 1894-1979 - two important texts
▪ Classification of Fishes (standard reference)
▪ Fishes of the Great Lakes Region

Dr. Albert W.C. Herre

The American who made extensive collections of fish all over the Philippines and
wrote several publication monographs describing the different fishes his group
collected
Dr. Hilario A. Roxas
A Filipino and a zoology graduate from the University of Chicago who wrote the
first report in the family Mugilidae, a first checklist of Philippine fishes and
identification o f marine protozoans.

Dr. Deogracias V. Villadolid

A Filipino graduate from Stanford University who wrote the first reports on
Philippine flatfishes.

Dr. Rafael D. Guererro III

The father of tilapia sex reversal in the Philippines

13 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 Unit 1, Topic 3: Evolution and Diversity of Fishes
Evolution is defined as the process by which different kinds of living organisms are thought to have
developed and diversified from their ancestors during the history of the earth. Phylogeny or he study of
evolutionary linages helps scientists organize species or other groups in ways that represent our
understanding of how they evolved from common ancestors. A common ancestor is an ancestor shared
by two or more descendant species. The evolutionary relationships among organisms is generally
illustrated in a phylogenetic tree diagram or cladogram.
Evolution and diversity result from the interactions between organisms and their environments over
long periods of time. The continuous adaptation of organisms to the existing diverse environments
promotes a diversity of organisms that adapted to them. Below is a scientific scenario of how evolution
resulted to the diversity in organisms;

The repeated evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria

Rare bacterial types containing genes-for-resistance are favored in the presence of the
antibiotic. These rare bacteria eventually displaced the normal sensitive types. The overuse of
inexpensive antibiotics, not only in medicine but in animal feed, fish culture, and agriculture, has
promoted the evolution of antibiotic resistance in a wide spectrum of microorganisms. In many
cases, the resistance genes are contained in mobile genetic elements that can be transmitted from
one organism to the next, and their spread has resulted in the wide dissemination of the resistance
genes among pathogenic and nonpathogenic forms.
The evolution of insecticide resistance in insect populations, antibiotic resistance in
microbial populations, herbicide resistance in plant populations, and heavy-metal tolerance in
plant and bacterial populations has been demonstrated repeatedly. In every case, genetic variation
and natural selection provide an amazingly effective process for promoting the adaptation of
organisms to their environments. The study of evolution and diversity of life on earth is concerned
with the tempo, mode, and patterns of such adaptations.
The present appearance of the Flu virus that causes the covid-19 diseases is also an
example of the evolutionary occurrence of organisms
Such evolution processes are also considered to occur in all organisms including fishes.
Unlike in microorganisms like the bacteria and viruses, the evolution takes a longer period of time.

The Evolution of Fishes

The first fishes are believed to had appeared 510 to 530 million years ago (Parrish, 1998). They
were armored and jawless known as agnatha. Early living agnathan primitive fishes include the hagfish.
About 450 million years ago, fish similar to lampreys evolved to possess partial vertebral column which
later on evolved to have complete vertebral column, have jaws and cartilaginous skeletons similar to
sharks. About 400 million years ago the first bony fish appeared which later on evolved into modern ray-
finned and lobe-finned fishes.
Not too long after hagfish first appeared, fish similar to lampreys evolved a partial vertebral
column. The first fish with a complete vertebral column evolved about 450 million years ago. These fish
also had jaws and may have been similar to living sharks. Up to this point, all early vertebrates had an
endoskeleton made of cartilage rather than bone. About 400 million years ago, the first bony fish
appeared. A bony skeleton could support a larger body. Early bony fish evolved into modern ray-finned
and lobe-finned fish.

14 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 The First Fish: Ostracoderms
Ostracoderms appeared in Cambrian fossils that
belongs to Class Ostracodermi. They were jawless, bony
armored and many with bony endoskeleton. They
mostly inhabited freshwater. They are already extinct.
The Next Fish: Placoderms
Placoderms appeared in Devonian fossils after the
disappearance of Ostracoderms. They belong to Class
Placodermi characterized by having jaws, paired fins,
bony armor and with endoskeleton. They were not
directly ancestral to higher fishes but may have given
rise to cartilaginous fishes. Like Ostracoderms, the
Placoderms are already extinct.
First Chondrichthyes
The first chondrichthyes appeared in late Devonian.
They differed from modern sharks by having a terminal
mouth, pectoral fins broadly joined to body and without
pelvic claspers

Subclass Elasmobranchii: Skates and Rays

The skates and rays appeared in Mesozoic time that
descended from primitive sharks

Subclass Holocephali: Chaemeras

Chaemeras appeared shortly after primitive sharks,
did not arise from them but arose independently from
placoderms.

Osteichthyes – The Bony Fish

The bony fish arose in late Silurian. They were
probably from freshwater followed two lines of
development: Sarcopterygii, the fleshy-finned and,
Actinopterygii, the ray-finned

Sarcopterygii: Crossopterygii
The lobe-finned (Coelacanth) fishes that were
ancestral to first amphibians. They had tetrapod-like
bones in lobe fins. They were thought to be extinct until
being rediscovered in 1939 – the coelocanth in Indian
Ocean

Sarcopterygii: Dipnoi
The lungfishes had their air bladder modified into
“lung”. They peaked in Paleozoic, then declined. Three
living genera of Dipnoi are found in Australia, Africa,
South America.

15 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 Actinopterygii: Chondrostei
The chondrostei were cartilaginous ganoids such as the
paddlefish and sturgeons. They became dominant during
Paleozoic, then declined

Actinopterygii: Holostei
The bony ganoids represented by gars and bowfin.
They became dominant during Mesozoic, then decline.

Actinopterygii: Teleostei
The Teleostei are the higher bony fishes and
common modern fishes. They became dominant during
Cenozoic and up to the present.

Similarities of fish to humans: Humans and all tetrapods are sarcopterygians



Diversity in evolution

The diversity of fishes is brought by changes in their habitats as a result of their adaptation to
survive over the years. For instance, the isolation of freshwater fishes in different habitats resulted to
higher subjection and opportunity of fishes to evolve into different species. The vastness of the marine
environment as affected by changing climates, availability of food and water conditions allowed fishes to
evolve as well. The physical and chemical characteristics of water imposes a number of either constraints
or opportunities on functional design of fishes to evolve. Most fishes are readily recognizable despite
diversity of adaptations.

At present, fish diversity is described as follows:

▪ Most diverse vertebrates (52% taxa)

▪ 58 % of the total number of species thrive in marine environment, 41 % in freshwater and 1 %
move regularly between the two environments.
▪ For the marine species, 13 % are found in the open oceans (1% in the surface, 5 % in the unlighted
sections, and 7 % on the bottom).
▪ About 45 % of all fishes live in the normal band of water 200 m or less.
▪ More than 33,000 named species (120 agnatha, 1000+ chondricthyes, 20,000++ osteichthyes) as
presented in Table 1.
▪ 250 species being discovered every year.

16 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
Table 1. Diversity of Fishes (source: FishBase.org)

Quiz (15 pts):

Study and understand the Figure of phylogenetic tree found in the next page. Follow its
corresponding color indicators and legend to answer the following questions:
1. What is the oldest fish?Give three examples of fishes that are Gnathostomata
2. Give two examples of chondrichthyes fishes
3. What fishes are venomous?
4. Give three examples of percomorph fishes
5. Give three examples of osteichthyes fishes
6. Give three examples of Actinopterygii fishes.

Please submit your answer via email.

17 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 The evolution of fishes is shown in the phylogenetic tree below. The colored lines/arrows and the
numbers will guide you in understanding the relationship among fishes as describe in the legend. For
example, vertebrata include fishes from lampreys to pupperfish, meaning they possess vertebral column.
Gnathostomata includes fishes from sharks and rays to pufferfish meaning they possess jaws.

6
7
1

8
1

Legend:
1 – Fishes are somewhat complicated unlike your usual family tree
2 – Humans and all tetrapods are sarcopterygians
3 – Lineage of fish that have evolved tubular eyes
4 – All fishes are of equal footage and the idea that fishes to the right of the phylogenetic tree is advance than
those to the left is a misconception
5 – Percomorhps (comes from 2 descendants as indicated by forked branching
6 – Fish with bioluminescence
7 – Fishes that survive at -2oC
8 – Gender bending fishes (hermaphroditic)
9 – Venomous fishe

18 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 Please answer the following essay questions:

1. In your own understanding, despite declining fisheries production from the wild, explain why are
there new discoveries of around 250 species every year. (10 pts)

2. Explain how important are fishes to humanity? (5 pts)

3. What is the oldest fish? Discuss.

Please submit your answer to me via email

Did you know that …….

In 2013, a man named Naylor in Blackpool

made a lifejacket for a goldfish named
Einstein that wasn't able to swim after
falling ill.

19 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 UNIT 2: FISH GENETICS

Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

▪ Know the basic concept of genetics in fishes

▪ Know the importance of genetics to fishes

Have you ever wondered why fish of similar species and ageare of different sizes? Some are big while
others are small. Just like in humans, some are tall while others are short. Some have long noses while
others have small noses. What do you think causes those differences? Its because those are the parental
traits that are passed unto their offsprings. A basic background on genetics among fishes will be provided
in this unit. This will simply explain how traits in the form of genetic material known as DNA are passed
from parents and inherited by their offspring. This also explains how genetics affects the evolution in
fishes. The passing of traits from parents to offspring is known as heredity. The study of heredity is known
as genetics.

Genetic studies is the new trend in the field of science, medicine and many others. Well, fishes
becomes the recent fascination of genetic studies. New insights gained from different species and
sequencing projects have recently revealed several peculiar features of fish genomes that might have
played a role in fish evolution and speciation. There is now substantial evidence that a round of
tetraploidization has taken place during the early evolution of the ray-finned fish lineage, meaning that
humans and other land vertebrates probably all share a 360–450 million years old fish ancestor. Quite
intriguing!

Fish genetic studies encompass comparisons from siblings to the

deepest branches in the vertebrate phylogeny

Read carefully and understand some genetic terminologies. Proceed reading on the lecture on,
‘Evolution and Genetics in Fishes’

20 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
Basic genetic terms

▪ Genotype - The genetic makeup of an organism/ gene or allele (BB, Bb, bb)
▪ Phenotype - The external appearance of an organism (color, shape, appearance).
▪ Dominant – The trait that is always displayed (BB, Bb). For example, an organism that is tall can have a
genotype that is pure tall (BB) or hybrid tall (Bb). This is because whenever the dominant trait is
present, the organism expresses (shows) the dominant trait.
▪ Recessive trait - the trait that is always masked and only expressed when homozygous (bb)
▪ Homozygous trait - both genes for that trait are the same. A fish with two genes for big size (BB) or a
fish with two genes of small size (bb).
▪ Heterozygous trait - both genes for that trait are not the same. A fish with one gene for big body size
and one gene for small (Bb)

Genetic information includes:

▪ Gene – basic unit of genetic information. Genes determine
the inherited characters.
▪ Genome – the collection of genetic information.
▪ Chromosomes – storage units of genes.
▪ DNA - is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic
instructions specifying the biological development of all
cellular forms of life
Basic fish inheritance
▪ Most fish are diploid (2N)
▪ ~50 chromosomes typical (range 16-446)
▪ Produce haploid (1N) gametes
▪ Constant chromosome number is usually the characteristic of a species
▪ Some species may display variation i.e. rainbow trout has 58-64 chromosomes
▪ Variation results when chromosome arms rearrange
Basic fish inheritance
▪ Most fish are diploid (2N)
▪ Normal for most vertebrates
▪ ~50 chromosomes typical (range 16-446)
▪ Produce haploid (1N) gametes
▪ Constant chromosome number is usually the characteristic of a species
▪ Some species may display variation i.e. rainbow trout has 58-64 chromosomes
▪ Variation results when chromosome arms rearrange

Did you know that…….

Anemone fishes live in groups where the two largest fish only are sexually mature, the
largest being female and the next largest male. If the female dies, the male changes sex
to female and the next largest fish in the group matures to
male. If the animated film “Finding Nemo,” had been true to
life, Nemo’s dad, Marlin, should have become Nemo’s
mother shortly after his original mother was eaten by a
barracuda.

21 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 Unit 1, Topic 1: Basic Genetics and Evolution
Adopted and condensed from the article of Justin Smith, Stanford University
Available at https://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/hook-resistant-
fish#:~:text=Like%20any%20group%20of%20animals,keep%20them%20small%20at%20maturity.&text=
Now%20the%20individual%20fish%20in,than%20they%20were%20before%20fishing.

A curious reader posted an interesting question, “Will some fishes regularly caught by hook and
line eventually evolve resistance to this type of fishing method?” The answer is… maybe. Human fishing
activities affects the evolution of the species of fish being caught.

How might this happen is discussed in this topic. Imagine, that the hooks use by fishermen require
the fish to have a big mouth. Just like other traits, fishes’ mouths come in lots of different sizes.
What would probably happen are the big mouth fish would be more likely to get caught and are
not likely allowed to spawn. Fish with small mouths are left and over time, would come to dominate.
Because of their small mouths these fish will become resistant to hook and line fishing. Until the
fishermen started to use smaller hooks!
Fishing with hook and line takes advantage of the fish’s feeding behavior too. Fish go after lures
because the lures mimic the food that eat. Now if a fish in the population were
somehow able to distinguish between real food and lures, it would have a great opportunity at becoming
resistant to lures. But it would only matter if there were tons of fishing going on. It takes a whole lot of
pressure to really affect the genetics of a big population

In those scenarios, the act of fishing didn’t introduce new traits into the population. Unlike
antibiotic’s change in a bacterium’s genes to make it resistant. Natural selection usually works on traits
that are already in a population.
There are definitely populations in which human have become the agents of selection. We are
basically wiping out the animals that have the traits we want and allowing the animals we are less
interested in to thrive. Survival of the weakest! What’s worse, we may even have permanently eliminated
some of the genes from the population that lead to a number of desirable traits. If so, then
these traits are gone from the population forever.

Evolution of Smaller Sizes Fish

Fishing hard enough, leads to changes in population that might become permanent.
In the Philippines and in most countries, there are laws that regulate that smaller fishes must not be
caught. But these have some unintended consequences. Like any group of animals, fish come in all sizes.
These sizes are dictated by the genes the fish inherited from their parents. Thus, some fish have the genes
to make them grow big and others have genes that keep them small at maturity.
Sort of like the range of height in people. Some people are tall and some are short. The regulations allow
people to take the larger size fish and left the smaller fish of the same ages. Imagine, only the mature
small size fishes of same ages are left to spawn!
If the fishing is intense enough, the larger fish may be wiped out leaving only
the smaller fish behind. This will result to smaller individual fish in the population than when they were
before.
This is often not seen as a big deal because if people stop fishing, bigger fish will return. Except when
they don’t. Sometimes, because of how the genetics of these traits works, the bigger size of fish can be
lost for the foreseeable future.

22 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
Permanent Gene Loss
Genes cause traits, right? Imagine there is a single gene that determines the size of a fish. This gene
comes in different versions. Let’s say there is a big (B) version and a small (b) one.
This means that the three possible combination of genes (or genotype) are as follows: BB (Big),
Bb(hybrid big) and bb(small).
Big is dominant over being small. In our example here, that means that B is dominant over b. Which
means that the three combinations of genes lead to the following sizes:

Imagine that in an overfished population, all big fish are caught. This would mean that every B
version of the gene was eliminated leaving only b. The end result would be that all fish would have the
bb genotype and all fish would be small.
Left to breed and spawn
X X X X X X =
There is no easy way to get back the big fish (B). Without the B’s, the fish are all small (b). There is
no way to pass the gene of big size fish to their offspring…there simply aren’t any more big genes in the
population. Once wiped out, it is gone. Unless by luck that a fish’s DNA gets a mutation that causes a
new big version to pop up. We will have permanently altered this fish species to be much smaller with
only the occasional larger fish.
It is very important to conserve the traits in fishes, in this case, the big size fish, in order to have
their genes continuously transferred to their offspring. Genetic study is very important in the
conservation, propagation and management of the population fishes.

For further readings and study, search interesting genetic studies about fishes from internet.

Summarize one journal on fish genetic studies . Submit via email

Did you know that. ……….

One reason fish are so diverse is that 70 percent of the planet is

covered by water. The animals in this group live in
a variety of habitats ranging from coral reefs and
kelp forests to rivers, streams, and the open
ocean. Another is that fish are very old on the
evolutionary scale. According to fossil records,
they have been on Earth for more than 500 million
years! The total number of living fish species—
about 33,000— is greater than the total of all
other vertebrate species (amphibians, reptiles,
birds, and mammals) combined.

23 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 UNIT 3: THE MAJOR GROUP OF FISHES

Learning outcomes

At the end of this session, you should be able to:

▪ Identify the different major groups of fishes including the extinct and living
▪ Describe and explain the hierarchical system of classifying fishes

Answer the following:

1. From the previous lessons in Unit 1 what, fishes were considered extinct and give their
description? (5 pts)

2. Who is the father of taxonomy and what did he do in order to established the identification of
fishes? (3 pts)

3. Give five personalities and their contribution to the history of ichthyology (10 pts)

Submit your answer to me via email.

In this Unit you are going to learned the major group of fishes, including those that were already
extinct that you just learned from Unit 1. You will also be taught on the classification of fishes using
taxonomic hierarchy. Taxonomic hierarchy is the process of arranging various organisms into successive
levels of the biological classification either in a decreasing or an increasing order from kingdom to species
and vice versa. Try to remember how are humans classified in taxonomic hierarchy from kingdom to
species.

Please read and understand lecture handouts on the following topics:

▪ Major groups of living and extinct fishes

▪ Scope, aims, and methods of classification

24 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 Unit 3, Topic 1: Major groups of living and extinct fishes

Organisms are shared internationally by classification systems with each organism placed into more
and more inclusive groupings. These organization from larger to smaller, more specific categories is called
a hierarchical system.

There are three major lines of living and extinct fishes:

1. Myxini – the most ancestral; arguments states that these species are not even vertebrates
(example is hagfishes)
2. Cephalospidomorphi – jawless fishes, which gave rise eventually to jawed species (example is
lampreys and they are believed to have lived around 350-500 M years ago)
3. Gnathostomata – jawed vertebrates (modern fishes)
– Placodermi (placoderms) – extinct class
– Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous) – sharks
– Osteichthyes (bony fishes) – bangus, tilapia, etc.

There are three major groups of living fishes

1. Agnatha:
▪ Jaws are absent
▪ Fins are absent
▪ Skeleton is made up of cartilage
▪ Possess round eel like body
▪ Absence of swim bladder and gill covers
▪ Soft skins made up of scales
▪ Oviparous animals
▪ Found in marine and fresh water

Agnatha is subdivided into two sub classes:

1.1. Cephalaspidomorphi were jawless fishes, which gave rise eventually to jawed species.
Example are Lampreys –toothed funnel-like sucking mouth

1.2. Myxini were the most ancestral; arguments states that these species are not even
vertebrates. Example are hagfishes - jawless, eel shaped, slime producing marine fish

25 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
2. Chondrichthyes (sharks, skates, rays, ratfishes)
▪ Jawed fishes
▪ Cartilage make up the skeleton
▪ Body is covered with triangular placoid scales
▪ Possess ventral subterminal mouth
▪ Fins are stiff and non-flexible
▪ Absence of swim bladder
▪ Internal fertilization
▪ Found only in marine water

The Chondrichthyes or cartilaginous fish is further subdivided into two subclasses

2.1. Elasmobranchi – sharks and rays
2. 2. Halocephali – ratfishes and chimaeras

3. Osteichthyes – (Bony fish including lungfishes, lobe-finned fishes, and ray-finned fishes)
▪ Bones make up the skeleton
▪ The gills are covered with operculum
▪ Swim bladder is present
▪ Fins are made up of rays and spines
▪ Species possess different types of scales
▪ External fertilization

The Osteichthyes or bony fish is further

subdivided into two subclasses
3.1. Sarcopterygii: Lobed finned
3.2. Actinopterygii: Ray finned

26 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 Unit 3, Topic 2: Scope, aims, and methods of classification
Why it is important to classify Fish?
Assorting the similarities and differences of characteristics amongst different species of fishes makes
it easy to classify them into sets or groups. It makes studying a wide variety of different organisms easier.
Generally, the goals of classification include;
• To identify and describe all the possible type of species
• To arrange the species in different categories on the basis of their similarities and differences
• To evolve a phylogenetic system indicating the origin and evolution of the species

How are fish classified?

Fishes are generally classified according to their morphometric traits, meristic traits,
anatomical/morphological characteristics, molecular phylogenetics and phylogenetic tree.

A. Morphometric traits - any standard measurement that can be made on a fish i.e. snout length,
total length, width of eye, length of jaw in
body length, etc.

B. Meristic traits - A meristic is a countable trait, such as number of gill rakers or number of dorsal
fin spines, vertebrae, fin rays, scale rows, lateral line pores, brachiostegal rays.

C. Anatomical/morphological characteristics - descriptions of morphological (external) and

anatomical (internal) features (not measurements or counts) i.e. shape or lateral line, special
features (lung, etc), secondary sexual
characters, position of fins and barbels

D. Molecular phylogenetics - examination of traits at the molecular level

27 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
Use the table below as your guide to morphometric and meristic measurements

E. Phylogenetic tree (cladogram) - Goal is to correctly group ancestors and all their descendants.
Displays the inter-relatedness of taxonomic groups, divides them by shared or not-shared traits in a
dichotomous manner, show transition from more primitive to more advanced. A typical cladogram is
presented below

28 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 The phylogenetic tree depicts the relatedness of two species which has a very specific meaning. Two
species are more related if they have a more recent common ancestor, and less related if they have a less
recent common ancestor. In this
method, you start at the branch ends
carrying the two species of interest
and “walk backwards” in the tree
until you find the point where the
species’ lines converge.
For instance, you wanted to
know if A and B or B and C are more
closely related. To do so, you would
follow the lines of both pairs of
species backward in the tree. Since A
and B converge at a common
ancestor first as you move
backwards, and B only converges
with C after its junction point with A, you can say that A and B are more related than B and C)

Phylogenetic tree are developed by comparing and analyzing characteristics of the species
involved. These characteristics can include external morphology, internal anatomy, behaviors,
biochemical pathways, DNA and protein sequences, and even fossils.

Quiz:

1. A data shows four characteristics of three fish species (10 pts):

Fish 1 - has jaw, round body, ctenoid scales, posterior mouth
Fish 2 – jawless, round body, armored, posterior mouth
Fish 3 – has jaw, round body, ctenoid scales, posterior mouth

Illustrate relationship of the three fishes in a phylogenetic tree or in cladogram

Your illustration:

2. In the phylogenetic tree below of venomous fishes, what fishes are most closely related (4
pts).

Your answer:

Submit your answer via email

29 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
Organisms including fishes are shared internationally by classification systems, from larger to smaller
more specific categories called as hierarchical system. Fishes are classified based on their morphometric
traits, meristic traits, anatomy/morphological characteristics, molecular traits and phylogenetic tree that
integrates and demonstrates all the other classification methods. A phylogenetic tree is a diagram that
represents evolutionary relationships among organisms. The branching in a phylogenetic tree reflects how
species or other groups evolved from a series of common ancestors. Two species are more related if they
have a more recent common ancestor and less related if they have a less recent common ancestor.
The hierarchical system of a fish from larger to smaller categories is organized as follows;
Kingdom – Phylum – Class – Order – Family , Genus – Species. The taxonomic heirarchial
classification of fishes follows the standard organization of an organism as shown below;

Taxonomic hierarchy:
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Osteichthyes
Order: Cypriniformes
Family: Cyprinidae
Genus: Cyprinus
Species: carpio (common carp)
Assignment (25 pts):
Write the taxonomic classification using hierarchical system of the following bony fishes from the family of
scombridae (Thunnus albacares, Auxis rochei), Channidae (Chanos chanos) and Siganidae (Siganus guttatus,
Siganus canaliculatus).

Submit your answer via email.

30 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 UNIT 3: BASIC FISH ANATOMY
Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit, you should be able to numerate and explain the different internal and
external anatomy of a fish and their functions

Getting familiar with anatomy words in fish. Study and learn through the drawing

Anterior – The head end

Posterior – The tail end
Dorsal – The back
Ventral – The front or belly
Lateral – The side or flank

Study the sketch/drawing of the external parts of the fish. Using the anatomical diagram in the picture
above, answer the following (10 pts);
1. What part of fish is anterior to its eye?
2. What part is posterior to caudal peduncle?
3. What part of fish is most posterior?
4. What part of fish most anterior?
5. Give two dorsal parts of the fish.
6. Give two dorsal parts of fish.
7. Give two lateral parts of fish.

Please read and understand the lecture on the following topics:

▪ External Anatomy of Fishes

▪ Internal Anatomy of Fishes
▪ Squamation (Scales), Barbels and Coloration
▪ Other Morphological Features: Photoreception and Poisons in Fishes

31 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 Unit 3, Topic 1: External anatomy of fish

Anatomy is the study of the structure of an organism. The wide variety of aquatic habitats that fish
live have pushed their limits to varying adaptations. This results in diverse array of body forms of fishes,
many with special modifications. You needs to understand the significance of the peculiar external
anatomy of the fishes as their appearance is greatly influenced by their environment.
The external anatomy of fish can reveal a great deal about where and how it lives. Basically, the
external structure of fishes includes the body shape, scales, fins, mouth, gill openings, sense organs, and
other miscellaneous structures. A typical external anatomy of the fish is shown below:

Internal part

Functions of body parts

• Anal Fin - Last bottom fin on a fish located near the anal opening; used for balancing and steering.
• Anus – wastes are eliminated
• Barbels – for taste and feel/search for food
• Caudal/Tail Fin - Fin on end of fish; used to propel the fish.
• Dorsal Fin – Backside (top) fin on a fish; used for balance and protection.
• Pectoral Fin – Side (“chest”) fins on a fish; used for balance and steering.
• Pelvic Fin – Paired bottom or belly fins on a fish; used in balance and steering.
• Operculum - Flexible bony plate that covers the gills.
• Lateral Line - Organ a fish uses to “feel” low vibrations; tiny microscopic pores.
• Nares/Nostrils - Organ a fish uses to smell; similar to nostrils but not used for breathing.
• Scales - Protective cover on a fish; similar to skin.
• Slime/mucus covering - Covers scales; layer protects from bacteria, parasites, etc.
• Rays – soft cartilage structures that support the fins
• Vent – gametes (eggs or sperm) are released

32 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
Body Shape

The body form of a fish can give a quick assessment of where they live and how fast they move. The
different forms of fish’s body shape are presented below, but will be discussed in Unit 4 that deals with
the locomotion of fishes.

Mouth types

The positioning of the mouth in fish describes their feeding habits. Most fish-eating fishes have
terminal (at the absolute front of the fish's head) mouths. Suckers and other bottom-feeders have
subterminal mouths (below the absolute front tip of the head). Surface-feeders have upturned, or
supraterminal, mouths. The figure below shows the different positions of mouth in fishes.

33 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
Caudal Fins/Tail

The tail in fishes are highly variable in shape but essentially serve the same function; that being
forward motion, although some do it better than others and some provide additional benefits.
There are two major types of tail: the heterocercal and homocercal.
1. Heterocercal – the upper lobe of fin is usually extended. The heterocercal tail is an ancient form,
possessed by only a few primitive fishes, such as sharks, sturgeon, and paddlefish. It is a necessary
tail shape if fishes has no swim bladders and heavy in the front
2. Homocercal – two lobes of fin are similar or symmetrical in shape. The homocercal tail is a
modern development. It is by far the most common caudal fin shape, shared by most fishes. It
includes the rounded, truncate, square, slightly forked (emarginate), and deeply forked types.
a. Rounded
b. Truncate
c. Emarginate/semi forked
d. Forked
e. Lunate

Homocercal tail Heterocercal cercal tail

The lunate tail is a tail that the tuna and mackerel have refined to an engineer's delight. This
tail provides powerful forward force, with very little turbulence.

Did you know that……

34 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 Unit 3, Topic 2: Internal Anatomy of Fish

The internal anatomy of the fish is shown below:

The functions of internal parts are:

• Brain - The control center of the fish where all sensory information is processed here.
• Spine- The primary structural framework upon which the fish's body is built; house and protect the
delicate body parts
• Spinal Cord - connects the brain to the rest of the body. It relays sensory information from the body to
the brain and relays instructions from the brain to the rest of the body.
• Swim bladder - hollow, gas-filled balance organ that allows fish to conserve energy by maintaining
neutral buoyancy in water.
• Gills – Use to obtain oxygen and allow the fish to breath underwater and supply them with oxygen
• Kidney - filters liquid waste materials from the blood to passed out of the body. It also regulates
water and salt concentrations within the fish body
• Stomach and Intestines - break down (digest) food and absorb nutrients
• Pyloric Caeca - fingerlike projections located near the junction of the stomach and the intestines that
secrete enzymes to aid in digestion
• Gonads - the Reproductive Organs of the fish
• Muscles - provide movement and locomotion. The part of the fish that is usually eaten, and composes
the fillet of the fish.
• Heart - Circulates blood throughout the body
• Liver - assists in digestion by secreting enzymes that break down fats. It also serves as a storage area
for fats and carbohydrates. It maintains proper blood chemistry and plays a role in nitrogen (waste)
excretion.

35 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 Unit 3, Topic 3: Squamation (Scales), Barbels and Coloration

Scales
The scales in fish is composed of its skin and skin derivatives. The structure of the skin in fish is similar
to that of other vertebrates, with two main layers: an outer epidermis and an inner dermis.
Fish scales are hard, sometimes colorful, overlapping plates that provides protection from predators. On
top of these scales is a thin layer of epidermis skin. This epidermis skin contains the pigment cells that
give the fish its color and cells that secrete a slippery mucous layer that covers the entire body. This
mucous layer protects the fish from harmful bacteria, toxins and parasites that can cause diseases or
infection in their aquatic habitat. In a number of species, the scales have developed into bony plates. In
eel species, the scales are minute. In catfish, they are almost absent. The colors, shapes, and patterns of
scales also help the fish to camouflage with its surroundings. The types of scales also correspond to
evolutionary relationships. Fishes are sometimes classified according to the shape and characteristics of
their scales. Although, other types of scales exist, fish have four major basic types of scales namely;
placoid, ganoid, cycloid, and ctenoid.

A. Placoid scales are found in the sharks and rays. They are made of a flattened base with a spine
protruding towards the rear of the fish. These scales are often called dermal denticles because they
are made from dentin and enamel, which is similar to the material teeth are made of.

B. Ganoid scales are flat and do not overlap very much on the body of the fish They are found on gars
and paddleshes. In the sturgeon, ganoid scales are modified into body plates called scutes.

C. Cycloid and Ctenoid scales are found in the vast majority of bony fishes These types of scales can
overlap like shingles on a roof, which gives more flexibility to the fish. These scales also form growth
rings like trees that can be used for determining age.

D. Ctenoid scales are different than cycloid scales in that cycloid scales tend to be more oval in shape.
Ctenoid scales are more clam shaped and have spines over one edge. Cycloid scales are found on
fishes such as eels, goldfishsh, and trout. Ctenoid scales are found on fishes like perches, wrasses, and
parrot fish. Some flatfishes, like flounder, have both cycloid and ctenoid scales.

Barbels

Many fishes, like goatfish and catfish, have fleshy structures called barbels around the chin, mouth,
and nostrils. The barbels, which are whiskers have taste structures. Goatfish
can be seen digging through the sand with their barbels looking for
invertebrate worms to eat and can taste them before they even reach their
mouths. However, in some fishes, these barbels are not equipped for chemical
reception like in catfishes.

36 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
Coloration
Iridophores and chromatophores are the pigment cells that give coloration to fishes. You might
think that red fish would be very easy for a predator to find. However, most fish that have this
coloration live in dark or deep water, or are nocturnal meaning, they are active at night. In deep
water, red light is filtered out quickly so red is a good camouflage. At night red-colored objects
appear gray.

Countershading- Many fish are dark on top and light on the

bottom. Most of these fish are found in open ocean. When
seen from above they "disappear" by blending in with the
dark color of the depths or the bottom. From below the light
belly blends into the sky above. The tuna is countershaded.

Disruptive Coloration- This is a form of camouflage. The patterns

and lines break up the outline of the fish or help it to blend
into the background. The brightly patterned fish of coral reefs
blend in with the corals despite their brilliant colors. The
Moorish idol exhibits disruptive coloration.

Eye Spots- Eye spots are a form of mimicry. The eye spot, usually
found near the tail, draws attention away from the real eye
which is a target that a predator might strike. The eye spot
may cause the predator to attack the wrong end and allow
the fish to escape alive.

Warning Coloration- Many fish use bright colors to "advertise"

the presence of poisonous spines or some other defensive
mechanism. The nave surgeonfish has two orange spots
near the base of the tail that advertise the presence
of razor- sharp spines.

Camouflage- Many fish have colors or patterns that match their

backgrounds. The flounder is a camouflaged fish. It can
change color to match different backgrounds.

37 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 Unit 3, Topic 4: Other Morphological Features: Photoreception and Poisons in Fishes

Photoreception
Fish have a very keen sense of vision, which helps them to find food, shelter, mates, and avoid
predators. Fish vision is on par with our own vision; many can see in color, and some can see in extremely
dim light.
Fish eyes are different from human eyes. Their lenses are perfectly spherical, which enables them to
see underwater because it has a higher refractive index to help them focus. They focus by moving the
lens in and out instead of stretching it like we do. They cannot dilate or contract their pupils because the
lens bulges through the iris. As the depth at which fish are found
increases, the resident fish's eye sizes increase in order to gather the
dimmer light. This process continues until the end of the photic zone,
where eye size drops off as there is no light to see with. Nocturnal fish
tend to have larger eyes than diurnal fish. Some fish have a special eye
structure known as the Tapetum lucidum, which amplifies the incoming
light. It is a layer of guanine crystals which glow at night. Photons which
pass the retina get bounced back to be detected again. If the photons are
still not absorbed, they are reflected back out of the eye. On a night dive,
you may see these reflections as you shine your light around!

Poisonous glands in fishes

Fishes containing poisons are referred as icthyosarcotoxic. Poisons substances from fishes are
known as ichthyotoxin. Poisoning caused by toxins in fish flesh are referred as ichthyosarcotoxism.
Poisons are generally secreted at the site of a venom apparatus such as spines, stings, or teeth of fishes.
Some known toxins in fishes include;

Ciguatera – a particular icthyosarcotoxism caused by eating various marine fishes of tropical and
subtropical areas. It causes Nausea, Vomiting, Abdominal pain, Reversal of hot and cold sensation,
Numbness of the mouth

Scombroid poisoning – an icthyosarcotoxism caused by eating improperly preserved scombroid fishes.

Tetradotoxin – the poison in viscera of puffer fishes

Some poisonous and venomous fishes
▪ Porcupine fishes (family Diodontidae)
▪ Boxfishes (family Ostraciontidae)
▪ Red mullet (family Mullidae)
▪ Stingray (family Dasyatidae)
▪ Scorpion fish or Zebra fish (family Scorpaenidae)
▪ Rabbitfish (family Siganidae)
▪ Stonefish (family Synanceiidae)
▪ Catfish (order Ictaluridae)

38 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 The aquatic environment is indispensable to almost fishes. On the other hand, many structures and
body parts of the fish are adaptations for their aquatic lifestyle. In fact, fish breathe through gills instead
of lungs. Just like all other animals, fish need oxygen to survive. Because they live in water, they have
evolved gills which enable them to remove dissolved oxygen from water. Fish have a stream-lined body
that reduces water resistance while swimming. In addition they have various fins for propelling and
steering their body through water and the list goes on.

Identify the following body parts in the statement below. Proceed to the word puzzle
and encircle those body parts that you were able to answer (30 pts).
__________The fin located on the top or backside fin used for balance and protection.
__________The last bottom fin used in balancing and steering.
__________Another name for the tail fin used for moving forward.
__________The type of fins located on the chest.
__________The type of fin located at the bottom or the belly fins used for balancing and
steering.
__________The organs used to obtain oxygen from water.
__________The part of fish that runs along the body and feels vibrations.
__________Use for smelling, but not breathing.
__________Cover the entire body and protect fish.
__________The layer that is slippery and protects fish from bacteria and parasites.

39 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 LABORATORY ACTIVITIES

Laboratory Activity 1: Fish Meristic and Morphometrics

Objectives:
▪ To know how to measure the body/shape of a fish
▪ To determine the standard/basic measurements of the body and parts of the fish
▪ To become familiar with the meristic and morphological traits of the fish

Tools and things needed:

▪ Sharp filet knife
▪ Newspaper / Paper towels sticks
▪ Sharp scissors
▪ Bucket for entrails
▪ Spoon to scrape kidney
▪ Chopping board
▪ Basin
▪ Gloves (optional)

Procedure:

Step 1: Using the diagram below as your guide measure the different measurement of your specimen.
You should have a total of 12 measurements

Step 2. Examine and describe some meristic and morphological characteristics of your fish specimen
▪ Caudal fin type ___________________________
▪ Mouth type ___________________________
▪ Scale type ______________________________
▪ Bone type _______________________________

40 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 ▪ Body type _______________________________
▪ Number of rays in dorsal fin__________________
▪ Number rays in caudal fin ___________________
▪ Number of rays in ventral fin_________________
▪ Number of rays in the pectoral fin_____________
▪ Indicate presence of distinct morphological markings like spots, stripes, barbels,
etc______,_____________,____________,
Step 3. Explain the importance of studying the meristic and morphological characteristics of fishes.

41 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 Laboratory Activity 2: Internal Anatomy of a Fish

Objectives:
▪ To locate and become familiar with the different internal organs of a fish

Tools and things needed:

▪ Sharp knife
▪ Newspaper / Paper towels sticks
▪ Sharp scissors
▪ Bucket for entrails
▪ Spoon to scrape kidney
▪ Chopping board
▪ Basin
▪ Gloves (optional)

Procedure:
Step 1 – You may proceed with Laboratory activity 2 using the same fish specimen from Laboratory
activity 1, provided your fish is still intact and not spoiled. Otherwise, you will have to use another
fish specimen. Wash and rinse your fish. Fish are slippery and knives are sharp, always use caution
when dissecting fish! Rubber gloves work well to help you get a good hold of the fish.
Step 2 - Rest the fish on a cutting or chopping board. You can place the fish on a newspaper to keep the
table / board clean. Hold the fish upside down. Insert knife or scissors into the anus, and cut forward
to the bottom of the jaw. Do not insert the knife too far in order not to damage the internal anatomy.
Cut around the body cavity so as to expose the internal organs as shown in the picture below. (Note:
Fish with eggs are strongly prohibited, unless it is used for reproductive studies as shown below).

Step 3. Continue in cutting up the dorsal part of the fish until the spines and the whole body cavity are
exposed, as shown in the picture below. Look into the body cavity and you will see internal organs
of the fish.

42 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
Step 4. Cut through the fish’s head behind the gill cover (operculum) as shown below.

Step 5. Hold the head by the nose and place the back of the head down on the cutting board. Remove a
very thin slice 1/3 cm cutting down from the top of the head as shown below.

Step 6. Remove a second slice, again 1/3 cm. and finally a third slice, 1/3 cm. Making three thin slices
down will prevent damage to the brain tissue.

43 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
Step 7. Label the different internal parts of your dissected fish specimen. Take photographs on the fish
with the labelled organs and body parts using your mobile phone. An example has been shown in the
picture below for your guide in labelling. Submit your picture to me through an email

44 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
 Laboratory Activity 3: Identification of Different Body Forms, Types of Mouth and Caudal
Fins

Objectives:

▪ To identify and differentiate the different body shapes of the local fish available in the market
▪ To identify and differentiate the different types of caudal fins of local fish available in the market
▪ To identify and differentiate the different mouth types of local fish available in the market
Tools and things needed:

▪ Mobile phone with camera

▪ Gloves (optional)

Procedure:

Step 1. Volunteer to do the fish market shopping for your family. At the market, observed the different
types of fishes. Take note on the types of body form, mouth and caudal fin.

Step 2. Identify the local names of the fish. Ask the local vendor politely for the local names of the fishes
if you don’t know them. Ask permission to take photos and tell the vendors that it is needed for
your course requirements.

Step 3. For each species type, provide a picture and following information as shown in the sample picture
below. You can have your output digitalized in your mobile phones or in computer. Submit at least
ten species.

Class: Osteichthyes
Sub class: Actinopterygii
Local Name: Milkfish or Bangus
Body form: Fusiform
Type of mouth: Terminal
Types of caudal fin: Forked
Market place: Poblacion, Naawan, Misamis Oriental

Step 4. Narrate what have you learned from this activity.

Step 5. Submit your output on this activity to me through an email.

45 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
46 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado
School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology
References

Barton, M. 2006. Bond’s Biology of Fishes, 3rd ed. Thomson Brooks, CA, USA. 912 pp.

Bond, C.E. 1999. Biology of Fishes, 2nd ed. Brooks/Cole, Philadelphia, USA. 768 pp.

Cailliet, G.M., Love, M.S. and Ebeling, A.W. 1996. Fishes: A Field and Laboratory Manual on their Structure,
Identification, and Natural History. Waveland, Pr Inc.

Carpenter, K.E. and Niem, V. H. (eds.). 1998. FAO Species Identification Guide for Fishery Purposes: The Living Marine
Resources of the Western Central Pacific Volumes 1-6. FAO, Rome. 1396 pp.

Conlu, P.V. Guide to Philippine Flora and Fauna: Fishes (Volume IX). 1996. Natural Resources Management Center,
Department of Natural Resources and University of the Philippines.

FishBase 2004. A Global Information System on Fishes. CD-ROM, WorldFish Center-Philippine Office, Los Baños,
Laguna, Philippines.

Froese, R. and D. Pauly. Editors. 2017. FishBase. World Wide Web electronic publication. www.fishbase.org, version
(06/2017).

Helfman, G., Collette, B.B., Facey, D.E., and Bowen, B.W. 2009. The Diversity of Fishes: Biology, Evolution, and Ecology
2nd ed. Wiley-Blackwell. NJ, USA. 736pp.

Jobling, M. Environmental Biology of Fishes. 1995. Chapman and Hall, New York, USA.

Lagler, K.F., Bardach, J.E., and Miller, R.R. 1998. Ichthyology – The Study of Fishes. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York.

Moyle, P.B. and Cech, J.J. 2003. Fishes: An Introduction to Ichthyology, 5 th ed. Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey, USA.
744pp.

Nelson, J.S., Grande, T.C., and Wilson, M.V.H. 2016. Fishes of the World, 5th ed. John Wiley and Sons, NewJersey, USA.
706pp.

Villoso, E.P. 2000. Fishes of the Philippines: A Guide to the Identification of Families of Fishes Found in Philippine
Waters. UPV-MNS Contribution No. 2. University of the Philippines in the Visayas, Miag-ao, Iloilo, Philippines.

Evans, T. 2015. History of Fishes I Lecture. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=23mNQZ6uhyI>

47 Mindanao State University at Naawan Prepared by: Elgen M. Arriesgado

School of Marine Fisheries and Technology
Department of Fisheries Science and Technology