CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Conventional energy sources based on oil, coal, and natural gas have proven to
be highly effective drivers of economic progress, but at the same time damaging to
the environment and to human health. These traditional fossil fuel-based energy
sources are facing increasing pressure on a host of environmental fronts, with
perhaps the most serious challenge confronting the future use of coal being the Kyoto
Protocol greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction targets. Any effort to maintain
atmospheric levels of CO2 below even 550 ppm cannot be based fundamentally on an
oil and coal-powered global economy, barring radical carbon sequestration efforts.
Thus, Renewable Energy is the alternative to conventional sources.

1.1 Renewable Energy

Renewable Energy comes from natural sources that are constantly and
sustainably replenished. It is the best alternative to cover the world's increasing
demand for electricity in view of the increasing fossil fuel prices and expected
negative climate impact due to increased burning fossil fuels. It is more economic to
harvest the good resources and convert them to electricity to be transported to the
regions where electricity is needed, rather than using poor resources found near the
demand.  Renewables contributed 19 percent to our energy consumption and 22
percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013, respectively.

The potential of renewable energy sources is enormous as they can in principle

meet many times the world’s energy demand. Renewable Energy sources such as
biomass, wind, solar, hydropower, and geothermal can provide sustainable energy
services, based on the use of routinely available, indigenous resources. A transition
to renewables-based energy systems is looking increasingly likely as the costs of

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solar and wind power systems have dropped substantially in the past 30 years, and
continue to decline, while the price of oil and gas continue to fluctuate.

1.1.1 Goal of using Renewable energy

The goal in using renewable energy sources is to reduce the negative
environmental effects associated with non-renewable energy sources such as coal and
natural gas.Opting to use a renewable energy source will not only translate into cost
savings over the long haul, but will also help protect the environment from the risks
of fossil fuel emissions of non-renewable energy sources.

1.1.2 Advantages of Renewable energy

The advantages of Renewable energy are
 One major advantage with the use of renewable energy is that as it is
renewable it is therefore sustainable and so will never run out.
 It produces little or no waste products such as carbon dioxide or other
chemical pollutants, so it has minimal impact on the environment.
 Renewable energy facilities generally require less maintenance than traditional
generators. Their fuel being derived from natural and available resources
reduces the costs of operation.

1.1.3 Types of Renewable energy

The types of Renewable energy are
 Solar energy
 Wind energy
 Biogas energy
 Geothermal energy
 Hydropower
 Biomass energy and cellulosic ethanol

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  Wave and tidal energy

1.2 Solar Energy

Every day, the sun radiates an enormous amount of energy called Solar energy.
Only a small part of the visible radiant energy (light) that the sun emits into space
ever reaches the Earth, but that is more than enough to supply all our energy needs.
Every hour enough Solar energy reaches the Earth to supply our energy needs. Solar
energy is considered a renewable energy source due to this fact. Solar energy is a
clean and renewable energy source, which produces neither greenhouse effect gases
nor hazardous wastes through its utilization. It is clean, inexhaustible, and abundant
in nature. Wide installation of renewable energy systems helps to keep our
environment clean and healthy. World energy demand has been increasing in the past
few years due to the world economic growth and population increase, especially in
developing countries.
Conventional methods of generating electricity can produce pollutants such as
Carbon dioxide, the main gas responsible for global warming. Thus, Solar energy is
used to produce electricity. Two ways to make electricity from Solar energy are
Photovoltaics and Solar thermal systems. The sun is a constant natural source of heat
and light, and its radiation can be converted to electricity. According to estimates, 35
MW of power could be generated from 1 sq km.

1.2.1 Advantages of Solar energy

The advantages of Solar energy are
1.  Solar energy is free although there is a cost in the building of ‘collectors’ and
other equipment required to convert solar energy into electricity or hot water.
2.  Solar energy does not cause pollution.

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3.  Solar energy can be used in remote areas where it is too expensive to extend the
electricity power grid.
4.  Many everyday items such as calculators and other low power consuming
devices can be powered by solar energy effectively.
5.  It is estimated that the world’s oil reserves will last for 30 to 40 years. On the
other hand, solar energy is infinite.

Solar energy is more readily available than wind or other forms of renewable
energy. Therefore, use of Solar energy will increase countries’ energy security
through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import independent
resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of
mitigating global warming, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise.

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 CHAPTER 2
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

The sun's light energy can be converted directly into electricity in a single
process using Photovoltaic (PV) cells.  These cells are made of semiconductor
materials, such as silicon, which exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect
that causes them to absorb photons of light and release electrons.

2.1 Photoelectric effect

It is the ability of some semiconductors to convert electromagnetic radiation
directly into electrical current. The charged particles generated by the incident
radiation are separated conveniently to create an electrical current.  This effect can be
attributed to the transfer of energy from the light to an electron in the metal.

2.2 Photovoltaic (PV) cell

Photovoltaic (PV) cells convert sun's light energy directly into electricity. A
PV cell is a thin plate of light sensitive material made primarily of silicon. They have
a working life of 20 -30 years. Individual PV cells vary in size from about 1 cm to
about 10 cm across. A cell of this size can only produce 1 or 2 watts, which is not
enough power for most applications. To increase power output, cells are electrically
connected into a module. Modules are connected to form an array. The term "array"
refers to the entire generating plant, whether it is made up of one or several thousand
modules.The performance of a photovoltaic array is dependent upon sunlight.
Climate (e.g. clouds, fog) has a significant effect on the amount of solar energy
received by a PV array and, in turn, its performance. Local defects, such as a locally
reduced diffusion length, a strong local shunt resistance or a high local series
resistance will adversely influence the cell’s global properties. Most commercial
photovoltaic modules are about 10 - 15% percent efficient in converting sunlight to

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electricity with further research being conducted to raise this efficiency.
Experimental cells with conversion efficiencies in excess of 30 per cent are now
possible.

2.3 Advantages of photovoltaic conversion for power generation

The advantages of photovoltaic conversion for power generation are
 Conversion from sunlight to electricity is direct, so that bulky mechanical
generator systems are unnecessary.
 The modular characteristic of photovoltaic energy allows arrays to be installed
quickly and in any size required or allowed.
 Environmental impact of a photovoltaic system is minimal, requiring no water
for system cooling and generating no by-products.
 The sitting of numerous small-scale generators in electric distribution feeders
could improve the economics and reliability of the distribution system.

2.4 Construction of Photovoltaic cell

A PV cell is a p-n junction which is made from two different layers of silicon
doped with a small quantity of impurity atoms: in the case of the n-layer, atoms with
one more valence electron, called donors, and in the case of the p-layer, with one less
valence electron, known as acceptors. When the two layers are joined together, near
the interface the free electrons of the n-layer are diffused in the p-side, leaving
behind an area positively charged by the donors. Similarly, free holes in the p-layer
are diffused in the n-side, leaving behind a region negatively charged by the
acceptors. This creates an electrical field between the two sides that is a potential
barrier to further flow. Equilibrium is reached in the junction when electrons and
holes cannot surpass that potential barrier and consequently they cannot move. This
electric field pulls the electrons and holes in opposite directions. So the current can

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flow in one way only:Electrons can move from the p-side to the n-side and the holes
in the opposite direction.

Fig.2.1.Photovoltaic cell [4]

2.5 Working of Photovoltaic cell

Fig.2.2. Working principle

Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of radiant solar energy. These

photons contain various amounts of energy depending on the wavelength of the solar
spectrum. When the photons strike a PV cell, some are absorbed while others are
reflected. When the material absorbs sufficient photon energy, electrons within the

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cell material dislodge from their atoms. Only those with energy level above the band
gap of the silicon can create an electron-hole pair.
Electrons migrate to the front surface of the PV cell, which is manufactured to
be more receptive to the free electrons. When many electrons, each carrying a
negative charge, travel towards the front surface of the cell, the resulting imbalance
of charges between the cell's front and back surfaces creates a voltage potential like
the negative and positive terminals of a battery. When the two surfaces are connected
through an external load, current flows. The PV array produces direct current (DC)
electricity.  The light-generated current depends directly on the irradiation: if it is
higher, then it contains more photons with enough energy to create more electron-
hole pairs and consequently more current is generated by the PV cell.

2.6 Modelling of Photovoltaic cell

Photovoltaic cell can be represented by the electrical model shown. Its current-
voltage characteristic is expressed by the following equation:

Fig.2.3. Equivalent circuit of a PV cell [4]

q ( V − I R S)

I =I −I {e } V −I R S
L o
AkT
−1 – (2.1)
R SH

where ‘I’and ‘V’are the PV cell output current and voltage respectively, ‘Io’is
the darksaturation current,‘q’is the charge of an electron, ‘A’is the diode quality

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(ideality) factor, ‘k’is the Boltzmann constant, ‘T’is the absolute temperature and
‘RS’and ‘RSH’are the seriesand shunt resistances of the PV cell.

‘RS’is the resistance offered by the contacts and bulk semiconductor material
of the solar cell. Shunt resistance ‘RSH’is related to the non ideal nature of the p–n
junction andthe presence of impurities near the edges of the cell that provide a short-
circuit patharound the junction. In an ideal case ‘RS’would be zero and ‘RSH’infinite.
However, this ideal scenario is not possible and manufacturers try to minimize the
effect of bothresistances to improve their products.
The effect of the shunt resistance is notconsidered, i.e. is ‘RSH’ infinite, and so
the last term is not considered in the above equation. A PV panel is composed of
many cells, which are connected in series and parallel. So the output current and
voltage of the PV panel are high enough to the requirements ofthe grid or equipment.
Taking into account the simplification mentioned above, theoutput current-voltage
characteristic of a PV panel is expressed by following equation, where ‘np’ and
‘ns’are the number of PV cells in parallel and series respectively.
q (V −I RS )
{
I ≈ n p I L −n p I o e AkT n s
−1 } (2.2)

2.6.1 Open circuit voltage and short circuit current

Two important points of the current-voltage characteristics are: Open circuit
voltage ‘VOC’and the short circuit current ‘ISC’. At both points the power generated is
zero.‘VOC’ can be approximated from (1) when the output current of the cell is zero,
i.e. I = 0 and the shunt resistance ‘RSH’is neglected. It is represented by equation
(2.3). The short circuit current ‘ISC’ is the current at V=0 and is approximately equal
to the light generated current ‘IL’as shown in equation(2.4).

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 AkT IL
V OC ≈ ln ⁡{ +1} (2.3)
q Io
I SC ≈ I L (2.4)

Maximum power is generated by the PV cell at a point of the current-

voltagecharacteristic where the product ‘VI’ is maximum. This point is known as the
Maximum Power Point and isunique.

2.6.2 Fill factor

Fill factor is defined as the ratio of the actual maximum power (IMPPVMPP) to
the theoretical one (ISCVOC).
I MPP V MPP
FF= (2.5)
I SC V OC

The MPP voltage and current are always below theopen circuit voltage and the
short circuit current respectively, because of the series andshunt resistances and the
diode. The typical fill factor for commercial solar cells is usually over 0.70.

2.7 Nonlinear characteristics of Photovoltaic cell

Photovoltaic cells have insolation and temperature dependent nonlinear V-I
characteristics. Their operating point corresponding to maximum power changes
nonlinearly with the environmental conditions (e.g., insolation, temperature and
degradation levels).The main reasons for the low electrical efficiency of photovoltaic
systems are the nonlinear variation of output voltage and current. Two important
factors that have to be taken into account are the irradiation and the temperature.
Maximum Power Point varies during the day and that is the main reason why it must

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constantly be tracked and ensured that the maximum available power is obtained
from the PV system. Two nonlinear characteristics that can be plotted for a
Photovoltaic cell are P-V and I-V characteristics, which are shown in Fig.2.4.

Fig.2.4. P-V & I-V characteristics [4]

2.7.1 Effect of Irradiation
Two curves, I-V and P-V characteristics are shown in Fig.2.5 and Fig.2.6. For
example, consider four levels of irradiation: 300W/ m 2, 500W/ m2, 700W/ m2,
1000W/m2. The photo-generated current is directly proportional to the irradiance
level, so an increment in the irradiation leads to a higher photo-generated current.
Moreover, the short circuit current is directly proportional to the photo generated
current; therefore it is directly proportional to the irradiance. Hence, an increase in
irradiation shifts the curves upwards. Maximum Power Point is also shifted upwards.
Irradiation mainly affects the PV current. It has negligible effect on open circuit PV
voltage, due to logarithmic dependence of light generated current.
Hence, the overall effect is positive. Increase in irradiation causes positive
increase in current and hence increase in power extracted, resulting in enhanced
Maximum Power Point.

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Fig. 2.5 P-V characteristics with varying irradiation.[21]

Fig.2.6. I-V characteristics with varying irradiation.[21]

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2.7.2 Effect of Temperature

Two curves, I-V and P-V characteristics are shown in Fig.2.7 and Fig.2.8
respectively. Consider three temperatures 0°C, 25 °C and 50 °C. When the
temperature rises, the voltage decreases. The current increaseswith the temperature
but very little and it does not compensate the decrease in thevoltage caused by a
given temperature rise. That is why the power also decreases.
In these figures, Maximum Power Point for 0°C is given at extreme right and
for 50 °C, at extreme left, showing a decreasing trend with increase in temperature.

Fig. 2.7. I-V characteristics with varying temperature.[21]

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 Fig.2.8. P-V characteristics with varying temperature[21]
Temperature and irradiation depend on the atmospheric conditions, which are
not constant during the year and not even during a single day. They can vary rapidly
due to fast changing conditions such as clouds. This causes the Maximum Power
Point to move constantly, depending on the irradiation and temperature conditions. If
the operating point is not close to the Maximum Power Point, great power losses
occur. Hence it is essential to track the Maximum Power Point in any condition to
assure that the maximum available power is obtained from the PV panel. In a modern
solar power converter, this task is entrusted to the MPPT algorithms.

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 CHAPTER 3
MPPT BASED PV SYSTEM

Maximum Power Point Tracking techniques are used in Photovoltaic systems to

extract maximum available power under any atmospheric condition. This algorithm
involves tracking the voltage at which maximum power occurs.

3.1 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is an algorithm that is included in
controllers used for extracting maximum available power from PV module under
certain conditions. The voltage at which PV module can produce maximum power is
called ‘Maximum Power Point’, VMP. Maximum power varies with solar radiation
(sunshine & cloud), ambient temperature and cell temperature. MPPT is used to
automatically find the voltage (VMPP) orcurrent (IMPP) at which a PV array should
operate to obtain the maximum power output (P MPP)under a given temperature and
irradiance.

3.1.1 MPPT controller

The basic principle of Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is electronic
tracking. In order to get the maximum out of a PV panel, a controller should be able
to choose the optimum current-voltage point on the current-voltage curve: the
Maximum Power Point. An MPPT controller does exactly that. The MPPT controller
is more sophisticated i.e. it will adjust its input voltage to harvest the maximum
power from the PV array and then transform this power to supply the varying voltage
requirement of the battery and load.
Thus, it essentially decouples the array and battery voltages so that there can
be high output power. Besides performing the function of a basic controller, an

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MPPT controller also includes a DC to DC voltage converter, converting the voltage
of the array to that required by the batteries, with very little loss of power.

3.1.2 Working of MPPT

Maximum Power Point is estimated from (a) Voltage (b) Current (c) Irradiance
(d) Using empirical data (e) Mathematical expressions of numerical approximation.
The estimation is carried out for a specific PV generator installed in the system. The
MPPT controller is a DC to DC transformer that can transform power from a higher
voltage to power at a lower voltage. The amount of power does not change (except
for a small loss in the transformation process). Therefore, if the output voltage is
lower than the input voltage, the output current will be higher than the input current,
so that the product P = V x I remains constant.

3.1.3 Necessity of MPPT

MPPT is used to automatically find the voltage (V MPP) or current (IMPP) at
which a PV array should operate to obtain the maximum power output (MPP) under
a given temperature and irradiance. Under partial shading conditions it is possible to
have multiple local maxima, but overall there is still only one true MPP. This
increases the PV power which is connected to grids in large scale and small scale and
also for efficient use of PV cells.
To understand more clearly how MPPT works, let us first consider the
operation of a conventional controller. When a conventional controller is charging a
discharged battery, it connects the modules directly to the battery. This forces the
modules to operate at battery voltage, typically not the ideal operating voltage at
which the modules are able to produce their maximum available power. The PV
Module Power/Voltage/Current graph shows the traditional Current/Voltage curve
for a typical 75W module at standard test conditions of 25°C cell temperature and

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1000W/m2 of insolation. The graph shown in Fig.3.1 also shows PV module power
verses module voltage curve.

Fig.3.1. Typical 75W PV module Power/Voltage/Current at standard test

conditions. [7]

For the example shown, a conventional controller simply connects the module
to the battery and therefore forces the module to operate at 12V. By forcing the 75W
module to operate at 12V the conventional controller artificially limits power
production to nearly 53W.

Rather than simply connecting the module to the battery, MPPT system
calculates the voltage at which the module is able to produce maximum power. In
this example, the maximum power voltage of the module (V MP) is 17V. The MPPT
system then operates the modules at 17V to extract the full 75W, regardless of
present battery voltage. A high efficiency DC-to-DC power converter converts the
17V module voltage at the controller input to battery voltage at the output.

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3.2 Partial shading and its causes
Partial shading on a PV panel occurs when only a part of the panel’s surface is
shaded. Partial shading on a panel string may occur when some panels are shaded
and the others are fully illuminated. Partial shading refers to the surface of the PV
array that is under shading and it can exist due to core or partial shade. Core shade
and partial shade relate to the severity of the shade that hits the panels (not the
surface). If the shadow casting object is situated close to the array, the panel is hit by
the core shadow which reduces energy incident by approximately 60-80%. 
Partial shade is brighter than core shadow and develops when greater distances
are reached between the shadow casting object and the panel. The reduction of
energy incident on the PV panel is about 30-40%. 
For example, assume irradiance on non shaded PV cells at 1000 W/m 2. Core
shadow effect implies irradiance values in the range of 400-200 W/m 2 and partial
shade an irradiance value of 700 W/m2. Shading due to trees, nearby panels, tall
buildings, towers, clouds, dust etc are causes of partial shading conditions. 

3.2.1 Causes of power loss

Inside the solar panel, the cells are connected in series. Due to the presence of
bypass diodes, cell groups are formed, defined as the amount of cells connected anti -
parallel to the same diode. Bypass diodes are there to create an alternative way for
the current of the illuminated cells, when group cells cannot produce the same
current (for example, when shaded). Therefore, if a cell group is shaded and the
illuminated cells produce 5A, then the solar panel will produce 5A.
Power output reduction will occur but due to the short circuit on the shaded
cell group and the reduction of Maximum Power Point voltage. 
Solar strings are formed by PV panels that are connected in series. Series
connection of the PV panels means that all panels produce the same current which is

18
the string current. But, for the panels to produce the same current, they must be
subjected to the same irradiance.

If all the panels within a string produce 5A and the shaded panel cannot
conduct these 5A, the string will produce less than 5A leading to power loss. When
partial shading occurs in a small surface inside a cell group (i.e. shade hits only a few
solar cells from those connected to a bypass diode inside the cell) bypass diodes may
not be able to protect the shaded cells. So, these PV cells are forced to operate with
increased current, causing them to heat up. Constant operation under these conditions
may lead to fast degradation of the shaded cells, minimizing the module's output.

The installation manual of the majority of solar panels states that partial
shading should be avoided. When PV cells are under partial shading there is a
mismatch of solar cell and panel characteristics. The P-V present complex multiple
peaks and as a result the MPPT algorithm of the inverter cannot find the optimum
operation point. There is a global maximum, but there may be many local ones. If the
inverter tracks a local maximum the respective power loss can be significant, leading
to poor performance for the whole system.

3.3 Block diagram of MPPT based PV system

The block diagram of MPPT based PV system is shown in Fig.3.2. The basic
components are:

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 Fig.3.2. PV system with MPPT
1. PV module
2. DC-DC boost converter
3. Controller implementing MPPT
4. Load/ Battery

PV module is connected to the input of boost converter. Load is connected to the

output of the converter. A controller generates appropriate duty cycle based on the
MPPT algorithm implemented in the system. The controller takes up PV voltage and
current as inputs to generate the required duty cycle. This is used to control the
gating of switches used in the converter. Thus according to variation in the
environmental conditions, MPP is tracked by the controller.

3.3.1 DC-DC Boost Converter

The maximum power point tracking is basically a load matching problem. In
order to change the input resistance of the panel to match the load resistance (by
varying the duty cycle), a DC to DC converter is required. It basically carries out
DC-DC conversion, i.e., changing one DC voltage level to another DC voltage level.
The converter used in this project is a DC-DC boost converter, which gives stepped
up DC voltage as the output (an output voltage greater than its input voltage). Filters
made of capacitors are normally added to the output to the output of the converter to

20
reduce voltage ripple. This output voltage is given to a load or battery. Operation of
boost converter is as follows:
• When switch S is closed- Current flows through Inductor L and switch S and
back to the source. The polarity of L is +ve on left side and –ve on the right
side. It stores energy in the form of magnetic field.
• When switch S is open- There is reversal of polarity across the Inductor. Thus
right side becomes +ve and left becomes –ve. Current, now flows through L,
diode and the capacitor. Capacitor sees two sources, the first source and L in
series, hence perceives voltage greater than input voltage. Hence, it gets
charged to a stepped up voltage. Thus, energy stored in the L is transferred to
Capacitor C.
• During the period when switch S is closed, capacitor discharges through the
load because right side of the circuit is shorted out. Hence, energy is
transferred to the load. Diode prevents the capacitor from discharging through
the switch.

Fig.3.3. DC-DC boost converter

3.3.2 Load/ Battery
The output voltage of boost converter can be given to load or a battery. Battery
is a storage unit. Load can be DC or AC load application. For AC loads, inverters are
required to convert DC to AC.

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3.3.3 MPPT controller
MPPT controller provides the DC-DC converter the required pulse by using
MPPT algorithm and it takes PV voltage and current as inputs. This control circuit
may be of any form. It implements the MPPT algorithm to increase the efficiency of
PV system operation and hence helps in extracting maximum available power.

Therefore, a PV system uses a controller implementing MPPT to change the

duty cycle of the converter according to varying atmospheric conditions.

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 CHAPTER 4
CONVENTIONAL MPPT TECHNIQUES

Various Conventional MPPT techniques exist. Some of them are detailed

below.
Conventional Perturb & Observe has been described in detail.

4.1 Temperature method

Temperature method is one of the conventional methods based on the
environmental conditions. The PV cell's parameters are not constant and change with
the environmental condition. The cell's temperature depends on various parameters
such as the case material, thermal dissipation, amount of absorption and the cell's
environmental condition, e.g., ambient temperature. The output characteristic of
a cell is highly nonlinear. Due to increase in the cell's temperature, as a result of
reduction in the PV cell's gap, short circuit current increases approximately 0.1%. On
the other hand, open circuit voltage reduces by about2 mV. Therefore, some
parameters of the model are strongly related to the cell's temperature. Hence, the
cell's temperature is required to predict its characteristics. This MPPT method
employs temperature sensor in order to obtain a sample of the photovoltaic
module surface temperature and, from it, calculates the optimal voltage to be
imposed across the photovoltaic device.

4.1.1 Limitations of Temperature method

The irradiance or temperature sensors are very expensive and uncommon.

4.2 Constant Voltage method (CV)

The Constant Voltage (CV) algorithm is the simplest MPPT control method.
The operating point of the PV array is, each nth step, kept near the Maximum Power

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Point by regulating the array voltage and matching it to a fixed reference voltage
VREF equal to the VMPP of the characteristic PV module or another pre-valuated best
voltage value. The CV method needs the measurement of the PV array voltage in
order to set up the duty-cycle of the DC/DC boost converter. It is important that
when the PV panel is in low insulation conditions, the CV technique is, generally,
more effective than either the P&O method or the InC method.

4.2.1 Limitations of CV method

The CV method assumes that insulation and temperature variations on the array
are insignificant on the VMPP, and that the constant reference voltage VREF is an
adequate approximation of the real MPP. Therefore, the operating point is never
exactly at the MPP and different data have to be adopted for different geographical
regions.

4.3 Fractional Short Circuit Current(SC)

It is required to periodically short the PV array so that ISC can be measured using a
current sensor. The optimum operating current for maximum output power is
proportional to the short circuit current I SC under various conditions of irradiance
level. The SCC method needs the measurement of the PV array current (I PV) linearly
related to the ISC of the PV array in order to set up the duty-cycle of the DC/DC boost
converter.

4.3.1 Limitations of SC method

This method requires an additional static switch, yet they provide low energy
supply. It does not follow the instantaneous time trend, because change in irradiance
causes change in step size between two consecutive electronic switching. This
method cannot calculate the new Maximum Power Point, until the new level of solar
insulation is measured. It is an approximate method.

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4.4Fractional Open Circuit Voltage (FOCV)
The near linear relationship between VMPP and VOC of the PV array, under varying
irradiance and temperature levels, has given rise to the FVOC method. VMPP can be
computed with VOC measured periodically by momentarily shutting down the power
converter. It is necessary to introduce a static switch into the PV system to open the
circuit for the OCV method.

4.4.1 Limitations of FOCV method

This method causes temporary loss of power. It does not follow the instantaneous
time trend. These techniques cannot calculate the new Maximum Power Point, until
the new level of solar insulation is measured. It is an approximate method.

4.5 Sliding Mode Control

Sliding Mode Control is a powerful and nonlinear control technique. The sliding
mode controller drives the system state to a ‘custom-built’ sliding (switching) surface
and constrains the state to this surface thereafter. A system motion on a sliding
surface, named a sliding mode, is robust with respect to matched disturbances and
uncertainties but may be sensitive to unmatched ones. It is a current-based technique.
The sensing of current in the capacitor placed in parallel with the photovoltaic source
is one of the innovative aspects of this technique. A dual control loop based on the
sliding mode control ensures a very fast tracking of irradiation variations. 

4.5.1 Limitations of Sliding Mode Control

As the maximum power point of a photovoltaic (PV) cell varies mainly with
incident illumination and ambient temperature, the PV cell may generate a wide
range of voltages and currents at the terminals. As a consequence, the PV cell itself
cannot maintain a constant DC voltage and function as a DC voltage power
supply source.

25
4.6 Differential Method
In this method, there are many equations to be solved very quickly in order to
provide accurate operating point. Comparison of Ipv.dVpv+Vpv.dIpv to an equal
perturbation on the opposite side of the operating point or the operating point power
is required.

4.6.1 Limitations of Differential method

The limitation of this method is that it requires more calculation time. This is
done till final sum becomes zero, if not than more calculations are required.

4.7 Curve fitting method

The Curve-fitting method is an offline method where PV module
characteristics, data and manufacturing details are required. Mathematical model and
equations describing the output characteristics are pre-decided.

4.7.1 Limitations of Curve fitting method

The limitation of Curve fitting method is that it requires prior and accurate
knowledge of physical parameters. It requires large memory as number of calculation
is more and speed is less.

4.8Look up table method

In this method, the measured values of the PV generator’s voltage and current are
compared with those stored in the control system, which correspond to the operation
in the maximum point, under concrete climatological conditions.

26
4.8.1 Limitations of Look up table method
The limitation is that a large capacity of memory is required for storage of the
data. Also, it is required that the implementation should be adjusted for a specific
panel PV. In addition, it is difficult to record and store all possible system conditions.

4.9Incremental conductance method

The Incremental Conductance (InC) algorithm was developed to overcome
drawbacks of other conventional methods under rapidly changing weather
conditions. In incremental conductance method the array terminal voltage is always
adjusted according to the Maximum Power Point voltage. It is based on the
incremental and instantaneous conductance of the PV module.
This method exploits the assumption that the ratio of change in output
conductance is equal to the negative output Instantaneous conductance i.e. the PV
module operates at its Maximum Power Point when the InC dI/dV is equal to its
direct conductance -I/V. While, if the PV module dI/dV is greater than the its
conductance -I/V, then the controller would increase the PV module voltage by
adjusting the duty ratio of a DC –DC converter, otherwise, the perturbation would be
in the opposite direction or to increase the duty ratio of the converter in order to
reduce the voltage and shift the operating point back to the Maximum Power Point.

4.9.1 Limitation of Incremental Conductance method

The limitation of InC is that it requires complex control circuits.

4.10 Fuzzy Logic Algorithm

Microcontrollers have made using fuzzy logic control popular for MPPT over
the last decade. Fuzzy logic controllers have the advantages of working with

27
imprecise inputs, not needing an accurate mathematical model, and handling
nonlinearity. Fuzzy logic was developed to address uncertainty and imprecision
which widely exist in the engineering problems for solving power system problems.

Fuzzy set theory can be considered as a generation of the classical set theory.
In classical set theory an element of the universe either belongs to or does not belong
to the set. Thus, the degree of associations of an element is crisp. In a fuzzy set
theory the association of an element can be continuously varying.

Mathematically, a fuzzy set is a mapping (known as membership function)

from the universe of discourse to the closed interval. The membership function is
usually designed by taking into consideration the requirement and constraints of the
problem. Fuzzy logic implements human experiences and preferences via
membership functions and fuzzy rules.

4.10.1 Limitations of Fuzzy Logic method

Many localized parameters are used. In areas that have good mathematical
descriptions and solutions, the use of fuzzy logic most often may be sensible when
computing power.

4.11 Conventional Perturb and Observe (P&O)

The following section describes the Conventional P&O method in detail.

4.11.1 Introduction
The P&O algorithm is also called “hill-climbing”, but both names refer to the
same algorithm depending on how it is implemented. In the case of a PV system
connected to a power converter, perturbing the duty ratio of power converter perturbs
the PV system current, and consequently perturbs the PV system voltage. P&O

28
involves a perturbation in the operating voltage of the DC link between the PV and
the power converter. The Perturb and Observe (P&O) algorithm is the most
commonly used in practice because of fewer measured parameters and ease of
implementation in its basic form. P&O is an iterative method.

4.11.2 Overview of Conventional P&O

In the P&O algorithm, the operating voltage of the PV system is perturbed by
a small increment, and the resulting change in power, ∆P, is measured. If ∆P is
positive, then the perturbation of the operating voltage moves the PV system’s
operating point closer to the Maximum Power Point (MPP). Thus, further voltage
perturbations in the same direction (that is, with the same algebraic sign) should
move the operating point toward the Maximum Power Point.

If ∆P is negative, the system operating point has moved away from the MPP,
and the algebraic sign of the perturbation should be reversed to move back towards
the MPP. Thus, if the magnitude of power is increasing, the perturbation will
continue in the same direction in the next cycle, otherwise the perturbation direction
is reversed.

29
 Fig.4.1. P-V curve
The above figure shows the variation of output power with PV system
voltage. It shows that the change in power is positive when moving from left side of
the graph to right and it is negative when moving from right side to the left. This
change in power affects the direction of perturbation of the operating voltage during
every cycle.
Flow chart for this technique is shown in Fig.4.2. This flowchart shows that there is
change in the duty cycle of the converter to track the Maximum Power

4.11.3 Advantages of Conventional P&O

The advantages of conventional P&O are
1. This method is relatively simple.
2. The time complexity of this algorithm is very less for calculating the
maximum power.

30
 Start

Read V (k), I (k)

from panel

P (k) =V (k)*I (k)

Find ∆P= P(k)- P(k-1) and

∆V=V (k) - V (k-1)

Yes ∆P<0 No

YesNo Yes
∆V<0 No ∆V<000
0

D=D(k-1) - ∆D D=D(k-1) +∆D D=D(k-1)+ ∆D D=D(k-1) -∆D

To switch

Fig.4.2 Flow chart for P&O

31
 4.11.4 Limitations of Conventional P&O

In Fig.4.3, the case is considered in which the irradiance is such that it generates
the P–V curve characteristics, curve 1. In this way, the operating voltage initially
oscillates around the maximum point, from A to A1. Now, an increase in the power
will be measured because the solar irradiation has increased from curve 1 to curve 2.
Then, if one assumes that being in point A, that it comes from a diminution of the
voltage, and before the following disturbance takes place, the irradiance is increased,
with the curve characteristic being now curve 2, and the operationpoint will occur at
B1. Indeed, since there has been a positive increase in power, thedisturbance will
continue in the same direction. In other words, voltagewill diminish and go to point B.
Furthermore, if the irradiance is increased again quickly tocurve 3, there will be
another increase in positive power, with which the operation point will now be C. That
is, due to two increases of irradiance, the operation point has been transferred from A
to C, moving away from the maximum point. This process remains until the increase
of the irradiance slows or stops.

Fig.4.3 Deviation from MPP under varying irradiance [21]

The disadvantages are as follows:

1. Once the MPP is reached, there are many oscillations around this point.

32
 2. It is a trial and error process.
3. The system may fail to track the MPP under varying atmospheric conditions.
4. Under varying atmospheric conditions, there may be several peaks and the
algorithm may not be able to track the true peak.
5. It is a slow method to find the Maximum Power Point.

Thus, the conventional MPPT techniques are presented. Conventional P&O method
has been described in detail.

33
 CHAPTER 5
OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES

Optimization techniques such as Artificial Neural networks (ANN), Ant

colony optimization (ACO), Genetic Algorithm (GA) and Particle Swarm
Optimization (PSO) are detailed below.

5.1 Artificial Neural networks (ANN)

An artificial neural network (ANN) is a computational device that consists of
many simple connected units (neurons) that work in parallel. The connections
between the units or nodes are usually weighted by real-valued weights. Weights are
the primary means of learning in neural networks, and a learning algorithm is usually
used to adjust the weights. An artificial neural network is a parallel distribution of
linear processing units arranged as layers. Parallelism, modularity and dynamic
adaptation are computational characteristics associated with networks. These
characteristics support FPGA implementation of networks, because parallelism takes
advantage of FPGA concurrency, and modularity and dynamic adaptation benefit
from network reconfiguration. The most important aspects of FPGA
implementation of neural networks are the benefits of reconfiguration, the
representation of internal data and implementation issues like weight precision and
transfer functions.

5.2 Ant colony optimization (ACO)

It is a probabilistic technique. Searching for optimal path in the graph based on
behaviour of ants seeking a path between their colony and source of food. Meta-
heuristic optimization.Heuristic method for solving a very general class of
computational problems by combining user-given heuristics in the hope of obtaining
a more efficient procedure.Soft computing technique for solving hard discrete

34
optimization problems. Artificial Intelligence technique used to develop a new
method to solve problems unsolvable since last many years. Artificial ants implement
a randomized construction heuristic which makes probabilistic decisions ACO shows
great performance with the “ill-structured” problems like network routing.

5.3 Genetic Algorithm (GA)

The basic binary encoded Genetic Algorithm (GA) employs tournament
selection, uniform crossover and low probability mutation rate is employed to solve
the benchmark problems and the space systems design problems. The GA represents
the design variables of each individual design with binary strings of 0’s and 1’s that
are referred to as chromosomes. It is important to note that the GA works with a
coding for the design parameters that allows for a combination of discrete and
continuous parameters in one problem statement. This encoding feature also forces
the design variables to only take values that are within their upper and lower bounds,
i.e., no solutions will ever violate the side constraints and infeasibility can only occur
because of violation of functional constraints. The GA begins its search from a
randomly generated population of designs that evolve over successive generations
(iterations), eliminating the need for a user-supplied starting point. To perform its
optimization-like process, the GA employs three operators to propagate its
population from one generation to another. The first operator is the “Selection”
operator that mimics the principal of “Survival of the Fittest”. The second operator is
the “Crossover” operator, which mimics mating in biological populations. The
crossover operator propagates features of good surviving designs from the current
population into the future population, which will have better fitness value on average.
The last operator is “Mutation”, which promotes diversity in population
characteristics. The mutation operator allows for global search of the design space
and prevents the algorithm from getting trapped in local minima.

35
5.4 Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)
The following section describes Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) in detail.

5.4.1 Introduction
The particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm is a population-based
optimization algorithm inspired by the social behaviour of bird flocking and fish
schooling where each individual is referred to as particle and represents a candidate
solution.This method has been inspired by the behaviour of a class of birds, in which
a number of particles are used that constitute a group and move in search space to
find the best solution.

5.4.2 Overview of PSO

In PSO, the potential solutions, called particle, fly through the problem space
by following the current optimum particles. PSO uses several cooperative agents
(particles) and each agent shares the information attained by each individual during
the search process.An important element of PSO is that the members of the
population “interact”, or “influence” each other. Here PSO initializes the variables
randomly in a given space. The number of decision variables determines the
dimension of space. Each optimization problem is to search the solution space of a
particle, each particle runs at a certain speed in the search space, the speed of
particles is in accordance with its own flight experience and flight experience of
other particles. In the optimization space, each particle has decided to adapt the
objective function value, and recorded their own best position ‘Pi’ found so far, and
the entire group of all particles found in the best position ‘Pg’. In PSO, each particle
tries to improve itself by imitating traits from their successful peers.The particles
change its condition according to the following three principles: (1) to keep its inertia
(2) to change the condition according to its most optimist position (3) to change the

36
condition according to the swarm’s most optimist position. Each particle is given
with two vectors of position and velocity.The general formula used is
x ik+1=x ik + v ik+1(5.1)

vik+1=w∗v ik +c 1 r 1 ( pik −x ik ) +c 2 r 2 ( p gk −x ik )(5.2)

where
x ik - Particle position

vik - Particle velocity

pik - Best "remembered" individual particle position

pkg - Best "remembered" swarm position

c 1 , c 2 – learning parameters

r 1 , r 2 - Random numbers between 0 and 1

w- Weight inertia

5.4.3 Algorithm
The general algorithm used for PSO is as follows:
Step 1: Start the process.
Step 2: Generate the initial population randomly by using random initialization
of variables. Set the population, iterations etc.
Step 3: Evaluate the fitness value of every particle.
Step 4: Determine the best positions of the particle and also the global best.
Step 5: Update the velocity and position of each particle according to the above
given equation.
Step 6: Continue until maximum iterations or convergence condition.
Step 7: Result obtained in this step is the optimum solution.
General flow chart for this algorithm is as follows:

37
 Start

Initialize particles randomly

Evaluate fitnessvalue
of eachparticle

Determine best position of

each particle and best
globalposition

Update velocities and

positions of each particle

Convergence criteria satisfied?

No

Yes
Optimum solution
obtained

Fig.5.1 Flowchart for PSO

38
5.4.4 Advantages of PSO over conventional P&O
The advantages of PSO over conventional P&O are
1. It is an optimization process.
2. It is faster than P&O; hence settles to final result faster, with less time delay.
3. It presents almost negligible oscillations under varying atmospheric
conditions.
4. It can be used under partial shading conditions.
5. Its tracking efficiency is higher.
6. Its convergence speed is fast.
7. It can be used in conditions of many local maxima to find the global maxima.

Therefore, various optimization techniques have been presented and PSO has
been detailed. Flow chart, algorithm and advantages of PSO have been given.

39
 CHAPTER 6
SIMULATION OF MPPT BASED PV SYSTEM

MATLAB/SIMULINK models of MPPT based PV system have been done

which implement Conventional P&O and PSO. A comparison of the two techniques
has also been presented based on simulation results.

6.1 MATLAB/SIMULINK

MATLAB stands for MATrix LABoratory. MATLAB was written originally

to provide easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK (linear system
package) and EISPACK (Eigen system package) projects. MATLAB is a high-
performance language for technical computing. It integrates computation,
visualization, and programming environment.

MATLAB is a modern programming language environment: it has

sophisticated data structures, contains built-in editing and debugging tools, and
supports object-oriented programming. These factors make MATLAB an excellent
tool used for teaching and research.

Simulink is a block diagram environment for multi domain simulation and

Model-Based Design. It is integrated with MATLAB, enabling to incorporate
MATLAB algorithms into models and export simulation results to MATLAB for
further analysis.

Simulink provides a graphical editor for building models as block diagrams,

allowing to draw models similar to using pencil and paper. Simulink also includes a

40
comprehensive library of sink, source, linear and nonlinear component, and
connector blocks.
If these blocks do not meet needs, however, provision is there to create own
blocks. The interactive environment simplifies the modeling process, eliminating the
need to formulate differential and difference equations in a language or program.

6.2 Simulation model of MPPT based PV systems

MATLAB/SIMULINK models have been built to simulate the performance of
conventional P&O and PSO algorithms. A comparison has also been made between
the two techniques. Elements of the model are the following:
1. PV model
2. Controlled current source
3. DC-DC boost converter circuit (L, C, IGBT switch, Diode)
4. MPPT controller block- P&O
5. Delay unit at the output of controller block
6. Voltage and Current measurement blocks (VM1, VM2, and CM3)

6.2.1 PV model
A PV model has been built, which takes two inputs, Temperature ‘T’ and
Irradiation ‘S’. It is modeled as a current source. Its output is current ‘I’, which is
given to the Controlled current source block. Across this, Voltage of the PV model is
measured using VM1.

This voltage ‘V’ is given to PV model as feedback to enhance effectively, the

working of PV subsystem. Constant temperature of 25°C and irradiation of 400
W/m2 are set in the PV model. Fig. 6.2 shows the PV model. It shows the PV
subsystem.

41
6.2.2 DC-DC boost converter
DC-DC boost converter is modeled as shown in Fig. 6.1. It is modeled using
L, C, IGBT switch and diode. The gate signal of IGBT switch is controlled by MPPT
controller. Duty cycle is controlled by an MPPT algorithm.

The duty cycle is given to gate via a delay block. The output of boost
converter is the boosted voltage (stepped up). This voltage is measured using VM 2.
The current output is measured using CM3. This output voltage is viewed using
scope.

6.2.3 MPPT Controller

This controller block implements an MPPT algorithm for controlling the duty
cycle of converter. It has four inputs and one output. Inputs: Enable MPPT, MPPT
parameters, V (PV model voltage), I (PV model output current) .It has one output
which is the duty cycle, D.
 Enable MPPT: It is a signal used to enable MPPT. It outputs a step.
 MPPT parameters: Four parameters have been considered:
 Amount of radiation
 Constant current
 Temperature
 Shadow conditions
 V: The voltage generated by PV model is given as input to controller.
 I: Output current of PV model is given as input.
 Duty cycle, D: The MPPT algorithm acts on the duty cycle. This is given to
the gate of IGBT. This is use for switching IGBT accordingly.

42
6.2.4 Display using Scope
Boosted voltage from VM2 is given to the scope to view the output waveform.
Scope is used to view waveforms in MATLAB/SIMULINK. Number of parameter
for which waveforms are required can be set according to the requirement. Using
multiplexer, waveforms for 2 or more parameters can be obtained in the same graph.
This can be used for comparison of parameters.

Fig. 6.1 DC-DC boost converter model

43
44
Fig. 6.2 Simulink model of PV system
Model used to simulate the performance of conventional P&O is shown in Fig.6.3

Fig. 6.3 Simulink model of P&O

45
Model used to simulate the performance of PSO is shown in Fig. 6.4.

Fig. 6.4 Simulink model of PSO

46
Model used to simulate the comparison of conventional P&O and PSO is shown in
Fig. 6.5

Fig. 6.5 Simulink model for both P&O and PSO

47
6.3 Simulation results for Conventional P&O

Fig.6.6 shows the output waveform for conventional P&O. The inference is
given below.

Fig.6.6 Voltage vs time for P&O

Output voltage = 93V, Settling time= 0.036 sec.

48
6.4 Simulation results for PSO

Fig.6.7 shows the output waveform for PSO. The inference is given below.

Fig.6.7 Voltage vs time for PSO

Output voltage= 96 V, Settling time= 0.028 sec

49
6.5 Simulation results for comparison of conventional P&O and PSO

Fig.6.8 shows the output waveforms for both conventional P&O and PSO.
The inference is given below.

Fig.6.8 Current vs time and Voltage vs time

1. Output current= 7.5A ;Output voltage= 75V

2. Settling time- P&O= 0.15sec; PSO= 0.08 sec

Table 6.1: Simulation results for Conventional P&O and PSO

50
Parameters P&O PSO
Voltage(V) 93 96
Time for final value(sec) 0.036 0.028
Comparison models 7.5A, 75V, 0.15 sec 7.5A, 75V, 0.08sec

From simulation results, PSO gives an output voltage of 96V. Conventional

P&O gives 93V. PSO reaches the final voltage in 0.028sec, faster compared to
conventional P&O which gives the final voltage in 0.035 sec. From the comparison
models, output current of 7.5A and output voltage of 75V are obtained. P&O reaches
the final value in 0.08sec and conventional P&O gives the final value in 0.15sec.

Therefore, PSO is faster than conventional techniques like P&O. It yields

higher output voltage when compared to conventional P&O. It has also has faster
convergence. Thus, PSO is better than other conventional MPPT techniques like
P&O.

CHAPTER 7

51
 HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION OF MPPT BASED PV SYSTEM

Hardware implementation of MPPT based PV system has been done in this

project. The block diagram, components used, miniaturized model and results are
presented below.

7.1 Block diagram

The block diagram and schematic of the hardware model are shown below.

Fig.7.1 Block diagram

52
 7.2 Solar Panel

53
Fig.7.2 Schematic diagram
 A photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel is a packaged interconnected
assembly of photovoltaic cells. The photovoltaic module, known more commonly as
the solar panel, is then used as a component in a larger photovoltaic system to offer
electricity for commercial and residential applications

Fig.7.3. Solar Panel

Because a single photovoltaic module can only produce a certain amount of
wattage, installations intended to produce larger electrical power capacity require an
installation of several modules or panels and this is known as a photovoltaic array.
Solar Panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through
photovoltaic effect (this is the photo-electric effect). For the project, PV module has
been considered.

Table 7.1: Specifications of PV module

Maximum Power 3W
VMPP 8V
IMPP 0.37A
VOC 10.1V
ISC 0.43A

7.3 AT89s52 Microcontroller

54
 AT89s52 Microcontroller is used in this project. The AT89S52 is a low-power,
high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system
programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-
density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the Industry standard
80C51 instruction set and pin out.

Fig.7.4 AT89s52 Microcontroller

Fig 7.4 shows the pin diagram of AT89s52. It is a 40 pin IC.4.0V to 5.5V is
the operating range. Frequency ranges from 0 Hz to 33 MHz.It has 4 ports (Port 0,
Port 1, Port2, Port 3).Port 0 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port.Port 1 is an 8-bit
bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. Similarly Port 2 and Port 3 are also 8-bit
bidirectional I/O ports with internal pull-ups.

7.3.1Pin configuration

55
 The pin configuration is shown below.

Fig.7.5 Pin configuration of AT89s52

It receives information about the temperature, direction of light from ADC0809, and
voltage generated by solar panel. Port 0 is used to receive this information. Port 2 is
connected to the data lines of LCD. Pins P3.2, P3.3, P3.4 of Port 3 are connected to
the control lines of LCD. Port 1 gives generated PWM signals to DC-DC boost
converter. Pin details are given in Appendix 1.

56
Table 7.2: Port 3- Alternate functions

Port Pin Alternate Functions

P3.0 RXD (serial input port)
P3.1 TXD (serial output port)
P3.2
INT0 (external interrupt 0)
P3.3
INT1 (external interrupt 1)
P3.4 T0 (timer 0 external input)
P3.5 T1 (timer 1 external input)
P3.6
WR (external data memory
write strobe)
P3.7
RD (external data memory read
strobe)

7.4ADC 0809
ADC0809 data acquisition component is a monolithic CMOS device with an
8-bit analog-to-digital converter, 8-channel multiplexer and microprocessor
compatible control logic. The 8-bit A/D converter uses successive approximation as
the conversion technique.

Fig.7.6 ADC0809

57
The converter features a high impedance chopper stabilized comparator, a 256R
voltage divider with analog switch tree and a successive approximation register. The
8-channel multiplexer can directly access any of 8-single-ended analog signals.

7.4.1Features
The feature are as follows
 Easy interface to all microprocessors.
 Operates ratio metrically or with 5 VDC or analog span
 8-channel multiplexer with address logic
 0V to 5V input range with single 5V power supply

7.4.2 Pin configuration

Fig 7.7 shows the pin configuration of ADC0809.

Fig 7.7 ADC0809 Pin configuration

ADC0809 receives input from LDR and Temperature sensor regarding the
direction of light and temperature. It receives temperature input at channel 0.It

58
converts analog data to digital and gives the same to microcontroller. 3 more
channels are used to obtain information from 3 LDRs.

7.5 Temperature sensor

LM35 is a precision IC temperature sensor with its output proportional to the
temperature (in oC). The sensor circuitry is sealed and therefore it is not subjected to
oxidation and other processes. With LM35, temperature can be measured more
accurately than with a thermistor. It also possess low self heating and does not cause
more than 0.1 oC temperature rise in still air.

- Fig7.8 LM35.

The operating temperature range is from -55°C to 150°C. The output voltage
varies by 10mV in response to every oC rise/fall in ambient temperature,i.e., its scale
factor is 0.01V/ oC.The LM35's low output impedance, linear output, and precise
inherent calibration make interfacing to readout or control circuitry especially easy.

It is used to detect temperature of the surroundings. Temperature is displayed

on the LCD. Temperature is an analog input. It is converted to digital form by ADC.
It is connected channel 0 of ADC.

59
7.5.1 Features
 Low cost due to wafer-level trimming.
 Operates from 4 to 30 volts.
 Less than 60 µA current drain.
 Low self-heating, 0.08°C in still air.
 Nonlinearity only ±¼°C typical.

7.5.2 Pin description

Pin1 is used for supply ranging from +35V to -2V. Usual supply voltage is 5V.
Pin2 is used as output pin. Pin3 is used for ground.

7.6 LDR – Light Dependent Resistor

Fig 7.9 LDR

Light Dependent Resistors are very useful sensor especially in light/dark
circuits. Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as 1000
000 ohms, but when they are illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically.It is
made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device is of high
enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons

60
enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron (and its
hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.
It has a transparent coating over the surface. It has two electrodes. Over the
ceramic covering the CdS track acts like a pathway to detect light. There are two
photoresistor terminals which are soldered to the ceramic covering. Fig.10.9 shows
the parts of an LDR.
In this hardware, LDR is used to sense the direction of light. 3 LDRs are used
in the hardware model, each for left, right and centre. The LDR detects the direction
of light source. This analog input is given to ADC. This information is used to run a
DC gear motor (12V, 100rpm) to position the panel to the direction of the sun.

Fig 7.10 Parts of an LDR

7.7 Relay
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of
the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch
contacts.

61
 Fig 7.11 Relay
The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions. There is
no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits; the link is
magnetic and mechanical.The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current,
typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed
to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a
transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required
for the relay coil.

Table 7.3: Relay pins

Pin Function
1 NC
2 Coil terminal
3 Movable contact
4 Coil terminal
5 NO

Here, the relays receive information from microcontroller for changing states.
Based on the information from LDRs, relays act to position the panel by driving the
DC gear motor. Relays are driven using ULN2003, which is a relay driver, to
enhance the signals from microcontroller.

62
7.7.1 Pin Description
Fig.7.11 shows the pins of a relay. Pin1 has No Connection (normally closed).
Pin 2 and Pin 4 are connected to coil terminals. The pole is a movable contact and
Pin 5 is Normally Open.

7.7.2 Features
 Selection of plastic material for high temperature and better chemical
solution performance. Sealed types available.
 Simple relay magnetic circuit to meet low cost of mass production.
 Onboard relay counting.
 Operating Voltage: 12 Volts DC Nominal.
 Current Draw: 30 milliamps.
 Minimum Pull-in Voltage: 9 Volts DC.

7.8 ULN 2003 (Relay driver circuit)

The ULN2003 is a monolithic high voltage and high current Darlington
transistor arrays. It consists of seven NPN Darlington pairs that features high-voltage
outputs with common – cathode clamp diode for switching inductive loads. The
collector-current rating of a single Darlington pair is 500mA. ULN details are given
in Appendix 2.

63
7.8.1 Pin configuration
The pin configuration of ULN2003 is given below.

Fig 7.12 ULN2003 pin configuration

The Darlington pairs may be paralleled for higher current capability.
Applications includerelay drivers, hamer drivers, lampdrivers, display drivers(LED
gas discharge),line drivers, and logic buffers. The ULN2003 has a 2.7kW series base
resistor for each Darlington pair for operation directly with TTL or 5V
CMOSdevices.

7.8.2 Features
 500mA rated collector current (Single output)
 High-voltage outputs: 50V
 Inputs compatible with various types of logic.
 Relay driver application.

64
 ULN2003 is used as a relay driver in the hardware model. This is because the
output signal from microcontroller is low in magnitude and it is not sufficient enough
to operate the relay. Hence, the signal is boosted to drive the relay.

7.9 DC- DC BOOST CONVERTER

This is a circuit which steps up the input voltage. The output voltage is greater
than the input. The range of boosting used in this circuit is stepping up process from
5V to 12V DC. It is a circuit which has T0-220AB package (MOSFET switch).
MOSFET is used as a switching device. The output is stored in a super capacitor and
is given to a battery. The battery is connected to an inverter unit and voltage is
stepped up to give 180V AC. A lamp (load) can be connected to the output of the
inverter. The circuit has been designed to boost 5V to 12 V. Microcontroller
generates PWM signals which switch the MOSFET accordingly.

7.10 LCD Unit (Liquid Crystal Display)

The LCD model is LM016L. It has 3 control pins, 8 data pins,V SS,VDD,
LED+,LED-, V0. 5 V supply is given to LCD. It has a 16x2 display. Fig.10.13 shows
an LCD model. Pin details are given in Appendix 3.

Fig.7.13 LCD

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 LCD is an output device which is used to display output values. LCD is
connected to Port 2 of microcontroller. Hence Port 2 is used as an output port. It has
two modes: Command mode and data mode. It displays values corresponding to 3
LDRs ( left, right and centre denoted as L,R and C respectively), temperature ( T
from LM35) , Solar panel output ( denoted by S) and battery voltage (B). When the
amount of sunlight that falls on the panel varies, S output varies. Similarly, according
to the direction of light, the values of L, R and C vary.

7.11 Miniaturized model of MPPT based PV system

Fig 7.14 shows the miniaturized model implemented for this project.

Fig.7.14 Hardware model

1. Solar panel
2. LDRs
3. Relay
4. LCD unit

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5. Microcontroller
6. Panel positioning using DC motor
7. 12V Battery

Fig.7.15 Hardware implementation

1. DC-DC boost converter
2. ADC0809
3. Inverter unit

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 This model has the capability to detect the direction of light source to position
the panel accordingly. Temperature of the surrounding is also detected. Partial
shading condition can be detected according to the output of solar panel which can be
seen on the LCD display. The output of boost converter is 12V even under partial
shading conditions. When higher irradiation is received, the model has the capability
to charge the battery directly.

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 CHAPTER 8
RESULTS, CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

The following table shows the simulation results.

Table: Simulation results for MPPT based PV system
Parameters P&O PSO
Voltage(V) 93 96
Settling time (sec) 0.036 0.028
Comparison models 7.5A, 75V, 0.15 sec 7.5A, 75V, 0.08sec

PSO gives an output voltage of 96V. Conventional P&O gives 93V. PSO
reaches the final voltage in 0.028sec, faster compared to conventional P&O which
gives the final voltage in 0.035 sec. From the comparison models, output current of
7.5A and output voltage of 75V are obtained. P&O reaches the final value in 0.08sec
and conventional P&O gives the final value in 0.15sec.
The miniaturized model has the capability to detect the direction of light
source to position the panel accordingly. Temperature of the surrounding is also
detected. Partial shading condition can detected. This is according to the output of
solar panel. This model can display this detail on the LCD display. The output of
boost converter is 12V even under partial shading conditions.

Conclusion
PSO is better than conventional techniques like P&O. PSO is faster and
converges to the final value of output voltage in less time compared to conventional
P&O. PSO yields higher output voltage when compared to conventional P&O. PSO
works even under partial shading conditions. Hence PSO is the MPPT technique to
be used under partial shading conditions for PV systems.

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Future work
This project has shown that PSO is better than conventional techniques like
P&O. Other conventional techniques are Incremental conductance, Fractional Open
Circuit Voltage method, Fractional Short Circuit Current method, etc.
Future scope of this project can be improvising on the existing PSO
algorithms. PSO can be implemented along with P&O or INC to create hybrid
algorithms. These algorithms are becoming popular fields of research.
Improved PSO can be obtained by finding out ways to optimize the parameters
of PSO like weight inertia, acceleration factors, random numbers etc. Dynamic
assignment of constants is also a field of study. Reducing the complexity of existing
methods is also suggested.
Real time implementation of these algorithms is the future work of this project.

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