1.

1 INTRODUCTION

Almost every day, water makes the headlines somewhere in the world. Drought, Flood and

Pollution are all big News, as water becomes the most precious and most contested essential

resources. Man requires water for cooking, drinking, sanitation, agriculture and manufacturing

processes. However, because water is freely available through rainfall, man has, until fairly

recently, taken this unique resource for granted. Although more than 70 percent of the earth’s

surface is water, water has become a scarce commodity in many parts of the world. The threat of

a world water crisis is becoming increasingly real in the face of increasing demand, relative static

supply and deteriorating quality due to pollution (Ayoade and Oyebande, 1978).

Research on water quantity and quality has become very vital, particularly in the developing

countries like Nigeria where water availability continues to be a problem of great concern. Perhaps

more embarrassing is that lack of running water has killed more people in Nigeria in 2015 alone

than the murderous Boko Haram did in its six years insurgency. While the terror has claimed about

17,000 lives, the shortage of potable water and poor sanitation led to about 73,000 deaths

(Wateraid, 2016).

The total amount of water in the earth system and its partition and movement among major earth

realms have been topics of speculation and investigation during more than a century (Chorley,

1964). While the hydrological cycle is well documented, the linkages between the various

interdependent components are less well understood. This is true of those regions that suffers

problem of water scarcity and there remain urgent requirement for regional water resources

assessments especially in arid and semi-arid regions where optimal management of all water

resources is essential (Berven, 2012).

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Flow in open channels has been nature’s way of conveying water on the surface of the earth since

the beginning of the time. Rivers were the arteries for the development of early civilization, and

in modern societies, they remain central to local and global economies. Across the world, quality

of life can be assessed in terms of the availability of freshwater and most of this comes from rivers.

Hence, rivers are of importance to everyone dealing with water resources whether from the

viewpoint of geomorphology or hydrology (Hart, 1992).

Rain falling onto hill slopes generates overland flow, or runoff, in two basic ways. If the amount

of rain arriving at the surface of the soil exceeds the rate at which water can infiltrate the soil

surface, water is stored in small depressions on the hill slope until the depressions are overtopped.

Overtopping causes the water to flow down the hill slope. This is called infiltration excess overland

flow and is common in semi-arid and arid regions (Baird, 1997; Cech, 2005).

Surface runoff, specifically open channel flow is a component of the hydrological cycle that can

be measured for large geographic areas with reasonable accuracy. Flow information is necessary

for water management in many diverse applications including water supply management, pollution

control, irrigation, flood control, energy generation and industrial use (Herschy, 2002). Stream

discharge is an important parameter of stream or channel flow and its measurement usually

involves consideration of both stage and velocity. The discharge of a river relates to the volume of

water flowing through a single point within a channel at a given time (Gregory and Walling, 1973).

Stream flow or discharge is defined as the volumetric rate of flow of water in an open channel

including any sediment or other solids in a fixed unit of time. Stream flow cannot be measured

directly but must be computed from variables that can be measured directly such as stream width,

stream depth and stream flow velocity. Even though stream flow is computed from measurement

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of other variables, the term “Discharge measurement” is generally applied to the final result of the

calculations (Turnipseed and Sauer, 2010).

Understanding the discharge of a stream or river is essential for many important hydrological and

geomorphological uses across a broad range of scales including global water balances, engineering

design, flood forecasting, reservoir operation, water supply, recreation and environmental

managements. Growing population and competing priorities for water including -preservation and

restoration of aquatic habitat are spurring demand for more accurate, high frequency and accessible

water data (Whiting, 2003; Hirsch and Costa, 2004).

Several methods are available for the measurement of river discharge, the choice will depend upon

the magnitude and character of the channel and associated flow, cost and the accuracy required.

Methods such as velocity area techniques, dilution gauging, volumetric gauging, slope area

technique, weirs and flumes methods. The most widely and commonly used method for spot

measurement of discharge is the velocity-area techniques. Since discharge by definition is

computed as the product of the cross sectional area and velocity. The measurement is made by

sub-dividing a stream cross section into segments, and by measuring the depth and velocity in a

vertical within each segment. The total discharge is the summation of the stream cross section and

their respective average velocities (Herschy, 1995).

Current metres are often used in the velocity-area method for absolute discharge measurement. It

consists of a rotor or series of cups that rotates at a speed proportional to the flow velocity. If the

revolution can be counted over a fixed period, then the velocity can be computed from the

calibration data. Current metres can be divided into two categories; mechanical and

electromagnetic current metres. Typically, water depth and magnitude of velocity will determine

the selection of the current metre for deployment while both current metres types vary in design;

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they are generally deployed in similar ways. Deployment of current metres can be carried out by

means of a wading rod, although at greater water depth and velocities, cableways, bridges or boats

may also be used (Whiting, 2003).

Float method is another velocity-area method used in measuring river discharge. It is inexpensive

and very simple means of measuring discharge. Float is use only when it is impossible to use a

current metre. The method measures the surface velocity, mean velocity is obtain using a

correction factor. The basic idea is to measure the time that it takes the object to float a specific

distance downstream (Whiting, 2003).

Another technique used in measuring discharge is by the use of control structures such as weirs

and flumes. Weirs are overflow structures built across open channel to measure the volumetric rate

of water flow. It usually consists of a crest, which is usually perpendicular to the direction of the

flow. The weirs maybe classified into sharp-crested and broad-crested weirs. The sharp-crested

weirs consist of a notch and crest which are formed by a sharpened metal plate, while the broad-

crested weirs consist of a thicker construction usually concrete. Each type of weir maybe further

classified according to the form of the crest and terms such as triangular notch or rectangular notch

are used (Gregory and Walling, 1973).

However, it is crucial that the correct technique and instrumentation are use depending on the

environmental and flow conditions encountered. This will ensure that discharge estimations are as

reliable as possible. The most accurate technique for river discharge measurement is using stream

gauge recorder (Ogunkoya, 2000). This equipment automatically records all stream flow event

continuously. However, this equipment is very expensive to obtain for researchers in developing

countries. Besides, they are vandalized and destroyed in the field. Consequently, researchers have

to resort to cheaper and yet a reliable technique of measuring river discharge (Yusuf, 2006).

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To this end, this research will analyze the various techniques used in measuring river discharge

and at the end adopt which methods best suits measuring discharge of small rivers like the Kubanni

River in Zaria, Kaduna State.

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem

Today, the perception about water goes to the very height of the increasing worldwide concern

about human health, the environment and the path towards sustainable development of all natural

resources needed for economic development as water is one of the most essential particularly in

arid and semi-arid regions. Currently, almost half a billion people face shortage of water in 29

countries. By 2050, almost two-third of the people on our planet are forecast to experience some

type of water stress and for over billions of them, the shortage will be severe and severally

disruptive (Biswas; 1998, Ibrahim; 2011).

The demand for water doubles every 20 years, which is more than twice the rate of the world’s

population growth (US Agency for International Development, 2003). New water sources are

becoming scarcer and to treat and remediate existing sources more expensive (Clothier, Green and

Deurer; 2008). Just as world’s population is unevenly distributed by region, so is annual supply of

water. In the same vein, water shortage will not come all at once in every part of the world. Rainfall

is determined by uneven weather pattern as a result some areas of the world gets more precipitation

than others. Because of extreme fluctuation in river discharge in some climatic regions, dams are

constructed across rivers to create water reservoir for power generation, flood control, irrigation

and domestic supply (Spencer, 2003).

In 2008, the report of the Ahmadu Bello University Zaria committee on protection of the Kubanni

dam summarized that from the year 2023, rationing of water will start; first during dry season,

later in both seasons. From the year 2039, there will be no more water in the reservoir during dry
5
season. By the year 2059, the reservoir would have been completely silted up and will disappear

from maps (Committee on the protection of Kubanni Dam, 2008).

Several studies have been carried out on tributaries of the Kubanni drainage basin. For example,

Iguisi (1997), in trying to assess the level of siltation in the Kubanni reservoir observed that the

degradation of the biological environment around the basin results in instantaneous overland flow

during rainfall. This consequently results to high overland flow, which meant high sediment yields.

Hence, contributing immensely to the siltation of the Kubanni reservoir.

Yusuf, Iguisi and Abdulsalam (2011), made a comparison between the current metre and float

method in determining the discharge of Samaru stream, which is a 1st order tributary of River

Kubanni. The results showed that there is no significant difference between the current metre and

float method in determining the discharge. However, having a closer look at the result obtained

showed that the float method has lower mean, standard error, and standard deviation and variation

than the current metre. By this, it implies that the float method is better than current metre.

In contrast, Zubairu (2009), made a comparison on a single tributary of River Kubanni using a 2nd

order tributary which is River Tukurwa using the velocity-area method and the weir technique.

The result shows that the velocity-area method has lower mean, standard error and standard

deviation, variance and range than the weir techniques implying that the velocity area method is

more superior to the weir technique. This finding however, was also in contrast with that of Yusuf,

Iguisi and Bello (2007) where they stated that the weir technique is more superior to the velocity

area method on their study on the northernmost tributary of River Kubanni.

Nevertheless, Yusuf, Iguisi and Abdulsalam (2011), Zubairu (2009) and Yusuf, Iguisi and Bello

(2007) point out clearly that the weir technique possess many advantages over the velocity area

method, whereby it is easy to obtain the daily mean discharge of everyday while the velocity area
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method is only applicable after rain event and that will depend on the amount of rain fall because

if the water level is too low current metre cannot be used while the float method is sometimes

affected by vegetal covers and eddy current.

Another study conducted by Yusuf (2013) in an attempt to assess the sediment delivery into the

Kubanni reservoir measured the discharge of Malmo and Tukurwa stream using the 1200 and 900

v-notch weirs while he used velocity area method for Maigamo and Goruba tributaries where float

method was used for Maigamo tributary and current metre for Goruba.

Although all the studies Yusuf (2013), Yusuf, Iguisi and Abdulsalam (2011), Zubairu (2009),

Yusuf, Iguisi and Bello (2007) and Yusuf (2006) used the velocity area method and the weir

technique in determining the stream discharge of River Kubanni. It is however good to point out

here that from the previous studies, different methods were used on different orders of the stream

in determining the stream discharge.

None of the previous studies tried using both the Velocity Area Method and Weir techniques for

all the major tributaries of River Kubanni thus creating a gap in knowledge that this research

intends to fill. The study therefore will try to compare the velocity area method and weir techniques

on the four tributaries upstream of River Kubanni that is Malmo, Tukurwa, Maigamo and Goruba

in order to ascertain the best technique to be use in assessing river discharge. It is against the

backdrop that the study seeks to answer the following research question;

1. How effective are the methods used in assessing stream discharge upstream of River kubanni?

2. What is the stream discharge of the tributaries upstream of River Kubanni?

3. What is the difference in the stream discharge of the tributaries upstream of River Kubanni?

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4. What is the difference between the Velocity-Area Method and the Weir technique in

determining stream discharge m3\s?

1.3 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this study is to carry out a comparative analysis of discharge measurement using the

Velocity-Area Method and the Weir technique on the four major tributaries of River Kubanni,

which are upstream. The aim will be achieved through the following objectives, to:

(i) identify the most effective methods for measuring stream discharge upstream of River

Kubanni.

(ii) determine the stream discharge of the tributaries upstream of River Kubanni.

(iii) compare the stream discharges of the tributaries upstream of River Kubanni.

(iv) compare Velocity-Area Method and the Weir technique in determining stream

discharge upstream of River Kubanni.

1.4 Hypotheses

In order to achieve the aim and objectives of the research, the following hypotheses were

established at 0.05 level of significance:

H0 1: There is no statistically significant difference between the stream discharges of the

tributaries upstream of River Kubanni.

H0 2: There is no statistically significant variation in the results of Velocity Area Method and the

Weir technique in determining the stream discharge upstream of River Kubanni.

1.5 Scope of the Study

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This work is mainly restricted to observation of the stream discharge on four of the tributaries

upstream of River Kubanni namely; Malmo, Turkurwa, Maigamo and Goruba all in Zaria, Kaduna

State. The study will look at only three methods (i.e. current metre, float method and weir

technique) because of the sizes of the rivers and equipment availability. The study will be limited

to only the rainy season for the year 2017 in Zaria, Kaduna.

1.6 Justification of the Study

The scarcity of water and threats of flash floods in Nigeria require further understanding of the

natural processes of water resources in order to manage and sustain current and future water

resources. To make matters worse, rainfall fluctuation and climate change are expected to increase

water scarcity in Nigeria. These combined factors will drive Nigeria to severe water stress. Hence,

hydrological measurement become more essential in order to interpret water quality data and for

water resource management (Ibrahim, 2011).

When a dam is constructed across a river, the resultant reservoir receives water and sediments

from the catchment areas of the river network (Yusuf, 2013). However, sediments yield in any

reservoir or river has a relationship with the river discharge. Hence, the need for stream discharge

measurement becomes a paramount importance in water resources evaluation. Stream discharge is

quite important on both concentration of substance dissolved in the stream and on the distribution

of habitat and organism throughout the stream, Discharge is also a major factor influencing water

chemistry (Zubairu, 2009).

Water resources scientists and policy makers need accurate information about the properties of

river they study and manage. Stream discharge is an important measure of river environment and

influence sediment transport, erosional capacity and flood dynamics. Increasing population and

9
competing priorities for water including preservation and restoration of aquatic habitat are spurring

demand for more accurate and accessible data (Gravalle, 2014).

River discharge is of great importance ranging from flood control, power generation, irrigation,

water supply and dam construction; hence, accurate measurement of river discharge needs to be

obtained for proper planning purposes mentioned earlier (Gregory and Walling, 1973). Knighton

(1998) also pointed out that if we do not consider the importance of river discharge measurement

for some reasons, it is pertinent to consider river as a water resource base that could be harnessed.

Thus, the best method of assessing river discharge is necessary.

1.7 The Study Area

The study area is in Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria. Zaria is one of the province that make up the

Central high plains of Northern Nigeria and it is approximately 670m above mean sea level. It is

located about 950km away from the coast. Zaria is the second largest city in Kaduna State,

covering a total land mass of about 61km2 making it a nodal point in terms of road and rail transport

because of locational factors (Jatau, 1999; Arowolo, 2000). The study sites are located in the upper

Kubanni drainage basin, in Zaria 11005'50'' to 11010'25''North and 7035'40''to 7038'50'' (Federal

Survey Topographical Sheet 102, Zaria South West). The Kubanni River takes its source from the

Kampagi Hill, in Shika, near Zaria. It flows in a southeast direction through Ahmadu Bello

University main campus, Samaru. It has four major tributaries upstream of the Kubanni Reservoir.

The tributaries of the river were used for this study (See Fig 1).

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Fig 1: Kubanni Reservoir and its Tributaries

Source: Adapted from topographic map of Zaria sheet S.W 102.

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Climate of Zaria is called the tropical continental climate of the AW type based on the Thorn wait

climate classification, characterized by distinct wet and dry season. The seasonality in climate is

largely determined by the limit of inter-tropical convergent zone (ITCZ) across the country. This

ITCZ is the zone where the two dominating air masses, the tropical continental (cT) from the NE

and the tropical maritime (mT) from the SW meet (Ayoade, 1988).

Zaria is drained by three major rivers. The largest of these rivers is River Galma that actually

originate from Jos plateau and it is a tributary of River Kaduna. It carries water throughout the

year. The second major river in Zaria is River Saye, and it drains the southern part of greater Zaria.

The third river in Zaria is River Kubanni, which have many tributaries. The major tributaries are

Malmo, Tukurwa, Maigamo and Goruba. The River has its major source from Kampagi hill in

shika near Zaria. It flows in southeast direction through ABU (Yusuf, Iguisi and Bello, 2007). We

have other rivers, which includes Basawa River and Shika River, which are both tributaries of

River Galma and River Yashi that drains the southwestern section of Zaria.

1.8 Methodology

1.8.1 Reconnaissance Survey

As part of preparation for the study, a reconnaissance survey was carried out in order to be

acquainted with the study area. During the reconnaissance survey, observation was made on the

nature of the terrain, type of streams, their characteristics and where to install the measuring

instruments.

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1.8.2 Types and sources of data

1.8.2.1 Types of data

The types of data we need to collect is the discharge data derived from

- Velocity measurement

-Cross sectional area and

- Stage measurement of weirs

1.8.2.2 Sources of data

A primary source of data is going to be obtained from field observation in the study area. Reading

are going to be taken from the measuring instruments that will be installed at the gauging stations

across the four tributaries of River Kubanni for the rainy season of the year 2017. While secondary

sources including textbooks, past projects, journals and theses were used as literature review

materials.

1.8.3 Data collection procedure and anaylsis

Objective i: Identify the most effective methods used in measuring stream discharge upstream

of River Kubanni.

Each of the tributaries will be surveyed to identify the most effective methods that can be used in

measuring their stream discharges. This is because some of the methods cannot be used unless

during raining season because of the nature of the terrain, types and sizes of the Rivers and

equipment availability.

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Objective ii: To determine the stream discharge of the tributaries upstream of River Kubanni.

The velocity-area method technique will be used simultaneously with that of the weir method. This

is based on the fact that discharge Q, is a direct function of average stream velocity, V, and the

cross sectional area of the channel A, at the point measurement.

Q = VA-------------------------------------- 1

The stream velocity can be obtained by using one of the several methods described by Gregory

and Walling (1973). In this study, however the current metre, buoyant float and the weir techniques

will be used because of its simplicity and accuracy.

Current metre

This consists of a rotor or series of cups that rotates at a speed proportional to the flow velocity.

The revolution will be counted over a fixed period of time so as to get the velocity from the

calibration data. Measuring tape will also be used to get the width and staff gauge (ruler) to

determine the depth of the River.

Since Q = VA

Where Q = Discharge

V = velocity measured in m/s

A = cross sectional area (width X depth)

Since discharge by definition is the product of velocity and cross sectional area. Therefore, in

order to get the discharge both the velocity and the cross sectional have to be computed. This will

14
be observed in the morning by 7.00 am and in the evening by 6.00pm every day, which represent

a regular interval monitoring (Ogunkoya, 2000).

Float method

A float that will not be submerged in the river will be use, a staff gauge and stopwatch will be used

to determine the length of travel by the float at a given time. Though the float can be obstructed

by vegetation, eddy current or wind, the float coefficient will be used to compute the discharge.

This will also be observed twice a day.

Weirs technique

For the purpose of this study, the 1200 V-notch sharp crested weirs of 0.5m height with a calibrated

stage measurement will be installed at the four gauging stations across the tributaries to estimates

the discharge, with the discharge formulae in the equation.

Q = 2.47H2.5------------------------------ 2

Where Q = Discharge in m3/s

H = Head of water in meter (stage).

The measurement of the water head also referred to as the depth above the weir crest (H) will be

carried out with a staff gauge at a distance of two to three the maximum head behind the crest, in

order to avoid the effect of the drawn down. The staff gauge reading will be observe twice a day,

by 7.00 am in the morning and 6.00 pm in the evening.

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Objective iii: Compare the stream discharges of the tributaries upstream of River Kubanni.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) will be used to compare the stream discharges between the

tributaries upstream of River Kubanni.

Objective iv: Compare Velocity Area Method and Weir technique in determining stream

discharge upstream of River Kubanni.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) will be used to compare whether there is a statistical significant

variation between the velocity-area method and the weir technique in the determination of the

stream discharge upstream of River Kubanni.

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