Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

The Atomic Theory of Matter

❖ Law of Constant Composition (by Joseph Louis Proust, 1754-1826)
In a given compound, the relative numbers and kinds of atoms are constant.
❖ Law of Conservation of Mass (by Antoine Lavoisier)
The total mass of materials present after a chemical reaction is the same as the
total mass present before the reaction.
In a closed system,
Mass of Reactants = Mass of Products
❖ Law of Multiple Proportions (by John Dalton)
If two elements A and B combine to form more than one compound, the masses
of B that can combine with a given mass of A are in the ratio of small whole numbers.
Ammonia, NH3: 1 nitrogen, 3 hydrogen
Ammonium, NH4+: 1 nitrogen, 4 hydrogen
The Electron
❖ Cathode Ray Tube or Geissler Tube
- Sir William Crookes and Heinrich Geissler

It is a glass tube with two metal plates connected to a high-voltage source which
emitted a ray drawn from the negative plate towards the positive plate. The ray emitted
has the same nature regardless of the material of construction of the glass tube,
electrode and the gas used.

❖ Joseph John Thomson

Thomson determined the

ratio of electric charge to
the mass of an electron to
be -1.76 x 108 C/g.

❖ Robert Andrews Millikan

Robert Millikan’s Oil-Drop Experiment

determined the charge of an electron to
be -1.602 x 10-19 C.

Therefore,
1.602 x 10−19 C −𝟐𝟖
Electron mass = 1.76 x 108 C/g = 𝟗. 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟑𝟖 𝐱𝟏𝟎 𝐠

Radioactivity

❖ Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen

Discovered the x-ray, which penetrated matter, darkened unexposed
photographic plates and caused metals to emit unusual rays.

❖ Antoine Henri Becquerel

Discovered radioactivity in Uranium.

❖ Maria Skolowdowska Curie

Discovered radioactivity in Uranium and Polonium.
The Proton and the Nucleus
Ernest Rutherford performed the gold-foil experiment wherein a thin foil of gold
was bombarded with alpha particles.

He made the following generalizations:

1. Most of the atom is an empty space.
2. The positive charge of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.

The positively charged particle in

the nucleus is the proton and
carries the same quantity of
charges as an electron.

It has a mass of 1.6752 x 10-24 g about

1837 times the mass of an electron.

The Neutron
James Chadwick discovered neutron by bombarding a beryllium atom with alpha
particles producing an electrically neutral particle having a mass slightly greater than that
of a proton.

Subparticle Mass (gram) Charge (coulomb)

Neutron 1.67495x10-24 0

Proton 1.67252x10-24 1.6022x10-19

Electron 9.1095x10-28 -1.6022x10-19

✓ Protons and electrons are the only particles that have charge.
✓ Protons and neutrons have essentially the same mass.
✓ The mass of an electron is so small we ignore it.
 Atomic Number
It is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. An atom is electrically neutral
where the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.

Atomic Mass (Mass Number)

It is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

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Sample Exercise 1: Atomic Size

The diameter of a one peso coin is 23.0 mm, and the diameter of a silver atom is
2.88Å. How many silver atoms can be arranged side by side across the diameter of a
dime?
Solution:

Note: 1 m = 1 x 1010 Å

1m 1.0 x 1010 Å 1 Ag atom

23.00 mm ( )( )( ) = 𝟕. 𝟗𝟖𝟔 𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝐀𝐠 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬
1000 mm 1m 2.88 Å
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Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass number.
They are all the same element with different number of neutrons.

11 12 13 14
6 C 6 C 6 C 6
C
 Average Mass
Because in the real world we use large amounts of atoms and molecules, we use
average masses in calculations.
Average mass is calculated from the isotopes of an element weighted by their
relative abundances.

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Sample Exercise 2: Calculating Average Mass from Relative Abundance

Rubidium has two naturally occurring isotopes,

Isotope Atomic Mass Abundance

Rubidium-85 84.9118 amu 72.15%

Rubidium-87 86.9092 amu 27.85%

Calculate the atomic weight of rubidium.

Solution:
We can calculate the average mass by multiplying the abundance of each isotope
by its atomic mass and summing these products.

Average mass = (0.7215)(84.9118 amu) + (0.2785)(86.9092 amu)

= 61. 2639 amu + 24.2042 amu
𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 = 𝟖𝟓. 𝟒𝟔𝟖𝟏 𝐚𝐦𝐮
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Types of Formulas
❖ Empirical Formulas give the lowest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element
in a compound.
❖ Molecular Formulas give the exact number of atoms of each element in a
compound.
 ❖ Structural Formulas show the order in which
atoms are bonded.

❖ Perspective Drawings also show the three-

dimensional array of atoms in a compound.

Ions
When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions.

✓ Cations are positive and are formed by elements on the left side of the periodic
chart.
✓ Anions are negative and are formed by elements on the right side of the periodic
chart.

Writing Chemical Formulas

Because compounds are electrically neutral, one can determine the formula of a
compound this way:

✓ The charge on the cation becomes the subscript on the anion.

✓ The charge on the anion becomes the subscript on the cation.
✓ If these subscripts are not in the lowest whole number ratio, divide them by the
greatest common factor.
Common Cations

Common Anions
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Sample Exercise 3: Using Ionic Charge to Write Empirical Formulas

Write the empirical formula of the compound formed by (a) Al3+ and Cl- ions, (b) Al3+ and
O2- ions, (c) Mg2+ and NO3- ions.

Solution:

(a) Three Cl- ions are required to balance the charge of one Al3+ ion, making the formula
AlCl3.

(b) Two Al3+ ions are required to balance the charge of three O2- ions. That is, the total
positive charge is 6+, and the total negative charge is 6-. Thus, the formula is Al2O3.

(c) Two NO3- ions are needed to balance the charge of one Mg2+, yielding Mg(NO3)2.
Note that the formula for the polyatomic ion, NO3-, must be enclosed in parentheses so
that it is clear that the subscript 2 applies to all the atoms of that ion.

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Chemical Nomenclature

Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds

1. Cations

a. Cations formed from metal atoms have the same name as the metal.

Na+: sodium ion Zn2+: zinc ion Al3+: aluminum ion

b. If a metal can form cations with different charges, the positive charge is indicated
by a Roman numeral in parentheses following the name of the metal.

Fe2+: Iron (II) ion Cu+: Copper (I) ion

Fe3+: Iron (III) ion Cu2+: Copper (II) ion

Adding –ous and –ic to the root of the element’s Latin name can also be used:

Fe2+: Ferrous ion Cu+: Cuprous ion

Fe3+: Ferric ion Cu2+: Cupric ion

Note: Ions of the same element that have different charges have different properties
such as different colors.
 2. Anions

a. The names of monoatomic anions are formed by replacing the ending of the name
of the element with –ide:

H- hydride ion O2- oxide ion N3+ nitride ion

A few polyatomic anions also have names ending with –ide:

OH- hydroxide ion CN- cyanide ion O22- peroxide ion

b. Anions derived by adding H+ to an oxyanion are named by adding as a prefix the

word hydrogen or dihydrogen, as appropriate:

An older method for naming some of these ions uses the prefix –bi.

CO32- carbonate ion PO43- phosphate ion

HCO3- hydrogen carbonate ion H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate ion
bicarbonate ion biphosphate ion

Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature

Case 1: When there are two oxyanions involving the same element:
▪ The one with fewer oxygen ends in –ite

NO2- : nitrite ; SO3-2 : sulfite

▪ The one with more oxygen ends in -ate

NO3- : nitrate ; SO4-2 : sulfate

Case 2: When there are four oxyanions involving the same element:
▪ The one with the fewest oxygen has the prefix hypo- and ends in –ite.

ClO- : hypochlorite (contains one oxygen)

▪ The one with the second fewest oxygen ends in –ite.

ClO2- : chlorite (contains two oxygens)
 ▪ The one with the second most oxygen ends in -ate

ClO3- : chlorate (contains three oxygens)

▪ The one with the most oxygen has the prefix per- and ends in –ate.
ClO4- : perchlorate (contains four oxygens)

Acid Nomenclature

▪ If the anion in the acid ends in –ide, change the ending to –ic acid and add the
prefix hydro-

HCl: hydrochloric acid

HBr: hydrobromic acid
HI: hydroiodic acid

▪ If the anion in the acid ends in –ite, change the ending to –ous acid:

HClO: hypochlorous acid

HClO2: chlorous acid

▪ If the anion in the acid ends in –ate, change the ending to –ic acid

HClO: hypochlorous acid

HClO2: chlorous acid
Nomenclature of Binary Compounds

▪ The less electronegative atom is usually listed first.

▪ A prefix is used to denote the number of atoms of
each element in the compound (mono- is not used
on the first element listed, however).
▪ The ending on the more electronegative element is
changed to –ide.
CO2: carbon dioxide
CCl4: carbon tetrachloride
▪ If the prefix ends with a or o and the name of the
element begins with a vowel, the two successive
vowels are often elided into one.
N2O5: dinitrogen pentoxide

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Sample Exercise 4: Determining the Names of Ionic Compounds from Their
Formulas

Name the ionic compounds (a) K2SO4, (b) Ba(OH)2, (c) FeCl3.
Solution:
In naming ionic compounds, it is important to recognize polyatomic ions and to
determine the charge of cations with variable charge.
(a) The cation is K+, the potassium ion, and the anion is SO42-, the sulfate ion, making the
name potassium sulfate.
(b) The cation is Ba2+, the barium ion, and the anion is OH-, the hydroxide ion, making the
name barium hydroxide.
(c) You must determine the charge of Fe in this compound. Since the compound contains
three Cl- ions, the cation must be Fe3+. Thus, the compound is iron (III) chloride or ferric
chloride.
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References:
Brown, T. et.al. (2012). Chemistry: The Central Science, 12th ed. Pearson Prentice Hall.
Chang, R and Goldsby K. (2013). Chemistry, 11th ed. McGraw Hill.
Prepared by: Engr. Bliss Capidos, RChE
Name: Date Accomplished:

Write your complete solution and answers on your notebook. Your notebooks will
only be accepted until October 15 (Thursday), 4:00 pm.

1. Fill in the gaps in the following table, assuming each column represents a neutral atom.
(16pts.)

Symbol 65Zn

Protons 38 92
Neutrons 58 49
Electrons 38 36
Mass no. 81 235

2. It has been found by mass spectrometric analysis that in nature, the relative
abundances of the various isotopic atoms of silicon are 28Si: 92.23%, 29Si: 4.67%, and
30
Si: 3.1%. Calculate the atomic weight of silicon from this information and from the
nuclidic masses. Show your complete solution. (4 pts.)
Nuclidic masses: 28Si: 27.97693 u, 29Si: 28.97649 u, 30Si: 29.97377 u

3. Name these compounds: (10 pts.)

(a) Na2CrO4 (f) K2Cr2O7
(b) K2HPO4 (g) NH4NO2
(c) HBr (gas) (h) PF3
(d) HBr (in water) (i) P4O6
(e) Li2CO3 (j) Na2CO3 . 10H2O

4. Write the formulas for the following compounds: (10 pts.)

(a) rubidium nitrite (f) plumbic carbonate
(b) perbromic acid (g) selenium hexafluoride
(c) boron trichloride (h) strontium chlorite
(d) ferrous perchlorate (i) copper (I) cyanide
(e) iodine heptafluoride (j) tetraphosphorus decasulfide