329

Chapter 13
Ventilation

IntroductIon 5. Dry subtropical: a north–south extension of the

The quality of the environment in agricultural buildings
dry tropical zone. Greater annual temperature
is governed by such factors as temperature, light,
range. (North and south Africa).
moisture, air quality and movement, dust, odours
6. Altitude-modified wet–dry tropical: increases
and disease agents. The environment affects animal
in altitude generally result in an increase in
comfort and health – and ultimately production. It
precipitation and a reduction in mean
also influences the quality and longevity of stored
temperatures. Precipitation is seasonal and
products. From an engineering standpoint, the
varies from 500 to 1 500 mm, depending on
environment can be closely controlled. However,
local conditions. (Inland east and southeast
economic factors often limit the extent to which
Africa).
control can be justified.
The particular region of the country and the
Climate can also vary greatly over relatively
associated climatic zone will influence the manner in
small areas, in particular where the country is hilly.
which environmental requirements are met. A
For design purposes, local climatic data from a
humid area may require homes with open
nearby meteorological station should be obtained if
construction to provide continual ventilation for
possible.
comfort, whereas an arid region may need buildings
of great thermal capacity to protect against daytime
VentIlatIon process
heat and night-time chill.
Ventilation is one of several methods used to control
As a general rule, tropical climates are found
the environment in farm buildings where it fulfils
within the tropics. However, the influence of the
two main functions: controlling the temperature and
climate on structures makes the techniques used
controlling the moisture within a building.
applicable to many regions outside the tropics, e.g.
Ventilation may also be necessary to maintain
the Middle East. The following brief discussion of
adequate levels of oxygen and to remove generated
Africa’s climatic zones is general and such zones can
gases, dust, odours and pathogens.
be found worldwide in the tropics. It illustrates the
There is a considerable range of ventilation
wide variety of situations with which engineers are
requirements that depend on the local climatic
faced when designing environmentally suitable
conditions and the specific enterprise being served. This
buildings for people, animals
is illustrated by the following examples:
and products. 1. A cattle shelter in a tropical climate requires
little more than shade from a roof with the
clImatIc zones structure located to obtain maximum breeze.
There are several climatic zones on the African
2. A cattle shelter in a cold climate (seasonal frost)
continent, with widely varying characteristics.
may be open on the sunny side and provided
1. Low-latitude, wet equatorial: high rainfall and
with ventilation openings at the ridge and
humid, with a mean temperature close to 27 °C
along the rear eaves. The temperature will be
throughout the year. (Congo Basin).
cold but condensation will be controlled.
2. Monsoon and trade wind littoral: climate
3. A poultry house (with cages) in a cold climate,
dominated by trade winds. Maximum rain in
if heavily insulated, can be kept comfortably
high-sun season; minimum rain following low-
warm while mechanical ventilation removes
sun season. Intense showers in eastern coastal
excess moisture and odours.
zone. Warm throughout the year. (Central and
4. Potatoes that are stored in either a mild or a
western Africa and east coast).
cold climate may be cooled by ventilation
3. Wet–dry tropical: typified by very wet high-sun
alone. Continual air movement is required to
season and a very dry low-sun season, (West
maintain a uniform environment. The amount
and southern Africa).
of insulation used will be dictated by the lowest
4. Dry tropical: characterized by extreme heat in
temperature expected.
the high-sun season and cool in low-sun
periods. Gradually changes from arid to semi-
A great deal of research has been carried out
arid and into wet–dry tropical zone. (Sahara,
to determine the ideal environmental conditions for
South Africa).
33 Rural structures in the tropics: design and
development

various classes of livestock, types of plant and The sensible heat loss used to evaporate moisture
animal products. Within economic constraints, the (qe) is normally included in the qs term and thus not
better these ideal conditions can be maintained, the expressed explicitly.
more successful the enterprise will be. Meat animals
will gain weight faster and more efficiently, dairy The overall steady-state equation is:
cattle will produce more milk, and stored produce
will maintain better
quality and suffer fewer losses.
qs  qm  qso  qh   (AU)c  FP  Cp   V  (ti to)
determination of ventilation rates  
 c 
The objective of designing a ventilation system is to
determine the ventilation rate to maintain an
where:
acceptable temperature, as well as acceptable
U = overall unit area thermal conductance of
moisture and contaminant levels, inside a building.
To determine the ventilation rates, heat and moisture component (W/m2K). Table 12.1 shows U values
balance calculations have to be performed on a building for some selected structural components
envelope. Chapter 10 [Table 10.2] presents the heat A = area of structural component (m2)
and moisture production rates of some selected c = path of heat transfer, which may be a wall or roof
component
animals. The sensible heat balance is used to
P = building perimeter (m)
determine the maximum ventilation rate for summer
F = an experimentally determined perimeter heat
conditions, while the moisture balance is used to
loss factor (W/mK). The values of F for an un-
determine the minimum ventilation rate for winter
insulated and unheated slab floor on grade
conditions. The following examples illustrate these
range between 1.4 and 1.6 W/mK, depending on
methods.
how low the ambient temperature is
Cp = specific heat of moist air (J/kgK)
Heat balance for determination
 = air density (kg/m3)
of maximum ventilation rate
V = the volumetric airflow rate (m3/s)
Figure 13.1 below illustrates sensible heat balance in
ti and to = indoor and outdoor temperatures (°C).
an animal house.

qw Theaboveequationisusedtodetermine:(i) therequired
ventilation rate to maintain a given inside temperature
lights motor
heater
for a given heater capacity; (ii) the minimum outside
temperature (balance temperature) to maintain the
qvi qh qm qw
inlet qs desired inside temperature without using
fan qvo
qso supplemental heat (qh
vapour qe qf
= 0) at a given ventilation rate; and (iii) the size of
water
heater required to maintain the desired inside
temperature for a given ventilation rate and outside
(design) temperature.
Figure 13.1 sensible heat balance in a typical animal
house Example
Determine the ventilation rate for a laying-hen house
with 30 000 hens having an average body mass of
The steady-state heat balance in Figure 13.1 requires 1.40 kg. The inside temperature is to be maintained
heat gains to equal heat losses. These are illustrated at 18 °C, with relative humidity of 60 percent.
below. The heat gains are: Assumptions: no supplemental heating; no solar
• sensible heat from animals (qs) heat; no heat from motors; the ∑AU and FP factors
are 1 001 and 272 W/°C, respectively. The outside
• sensible heat from motors and lights (qm)
temperature is 0 °C.
• sensible heat from the sun (qso)
• sensible heat from heaters (qh)
Solution
• sensible heat from the ventilation system (qvi)
Using the above equation, the unknowns are qs and .
The heat losses are:
• sensible heat loss through the ventilation Find qs:
system (qvo)
• sensible heat loss through the building shell From Table 10.2, the sensible heat production per bird
(qw) is 3.9 W/kg.
• sensible heat loss through the floor (qf)
• sensible heat loss used to evaporate moisture Therefore,
(qe)
Chapter 13 – 33
Ventilation
q = 3.9 W/kg × 1.40 kg/bird × 30 000 birds/house
s
= 163 800
W/house.
 From the psychrometric chart, with a dry-bulb humidity at 20 °C if the outside temperature is 5 °C,
temperature of 18 °C and 60 percent relative with 90 percent relative humidity?
humidity, the specific volume is 0.826 m 3/kg. The
density is the inverse of specific volume, so the Solution
density is 1.21 kg/m3. From the psychrometric chart, at 5 °C and 90 percent
relative humidity, Wo = 0.0049 kgw/kg da. At 20 °C
163800  1001  27218  0 and
Hence, V  70 percent relative humidity, Wi = 0.0102 kgw/kg da.
1006 1.21  18  From Table 10.2, the moisture production data are
3
= 6.4 m /s- 0 shown at 12 °C (445 g/h-animal) and 25 °C (910 g/h-
house animal). Since we need the moisture to be produced
at 20 °C, we interpolate to obtain the moisture
production.
moisture balance for determination This yields 731 g/h-animal.
of minimum ventilation rate
Figure 13.2 below illustrates moisture balance in an The moisture content may also be expressed as:
animal 731 g water 1 h 1 kg
house.

h-cow    0.000203 kg water/s-cow

3600 s 1000 g

Therefore:
mvi mp
water vapour Total moisture produced = 0.000203 kg water/s-cow
water
mvo × 70 cows/house = 0.014214 kg water/s-house

Then:

Figure 13.2 moisture balance in a typical animal house 0.014214 kgw/s  house
Ma 
(0.0102 − 0.0049) kgw/kg da  2.68 kg da/s-house
The steady-state moisture balance in Figure 13.2
requires that: For inlet conditions, i = 1.27 kg/m3

mvo = mvi + mp
M 2.68
Hence, Vi 
a   2.11 m3/s
where: i 1.27
mvo = the rate at which moisture is carried out of the
airspace by ventilation air (kg/s) For outlet conditions, o = 1.20 kg/m3
mvi = the rate at which moisture is carried into the
airspace by ventilation air (kg/s) M 2.68
mp = the rate at which moisture is produced within a   2.23 m3/s
Hence, Vi 
the airspace (kg/s). i 1.20

After a few steps, the above equation can be Figure 13.3 shows an example of a ventilation curve
rewritten as: for both temperature and moisture control. In
 mp  summer, the main objective of ventilation is
m   V  temperature control, while in winter the main
  objective is moisture control.
a WW
  i o

where:
ma = mass flow rate of moisture (kg/s)
 = density (kg/m3) Ventilation for temperature control

V = volumetric flow rate (m3/s)

Ventilation rate

mp = moisture production of the animals (kg/s)

Wi and Wo = humidity ratio of inside and outside air
conditions (kgw/kg da). Ventilation for humidity control

-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 -0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Example A total of 70 dairy cows at 500 kg body mass are

housed in a mechanically ventilated building. What Outside temperature °C

must be the ventilation rate in order to maintain 70

percent relative Figure 13.3 a sample ventilation curve for both
temperature and moisture control
natural ventilation expensive than a mechanical system, it will also be
less positive in its ventilation action and more
Thermal convection or stack effect difficult to control.
Natural ventilation is provided from two sources: A building that is open on one side may be
thermal convection and wind. Air that is hotter than
ventilated naturally by leaving the ridge open for an
the surrounding air is less dense and experiences an
outlet and a slot along the rear for an inlet. An
upthrust caused by thermal buoyancy.
enclosed building may be more positively ventilated
Whenever a building contains livestock, the
with stack outlets and correctly sized inlets.
production of sensible metabolic energy is always
available to warm the air entering from the outside.
Determination of air inlet and outlet sizes
Similarly, air may be heated in a greenhouse by
To determine the inlet and outlet areas required to
incoming radiation. Provided there are two
provide a given ventilation rate by thermal
apertures with a height differential, convection
convection, the following equation, based on stack
currents will force the heated, less dense air out of
effect theory, can be used:
the upper aperture to be replaced by an equal
volume of cooler, denser air from outside. This is
referred to as the ‘stack effect’. 1 1 2g  h  Hp
2  2 
Natural ventilation caused by the stack effect can Ai A o T   S V  W V 2

provide the minimum ventilation requirement under i

winter conditions. While this system may be less

1
8

C
6
B
5
4 A
-3
X 10

8
2
AREA OF Ai AND Ao OPENINGS m

6
5
4

6
5

4
-1
X 10

1
 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 1
-3 -2 -1
X 10 X 10 X 10
3
VENTILATION RATE m /s

Figure 13.4a natural ventilation stack design (dryer)

where: reasons where conditions are not severe, manual
Ai = inlet (m²) adjustment should be the method of choice in most
Ao = outlet area (m²) cases.
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.76 m/s2)
h = height difference, inlet to outlet (m) Wind ventilation
Hp = heat supplied to building (W) As the wind flows around a building, gusts and lulls
Ti = absolute temperature in building (K, K = (°C + 273)) create regions where the static pressure is above or
 = density of air in building (kg/m³), 1.175 at 25 °C below the atmospheric pressure in the free air
S = specific heat of air (1 005 J/kg °C) stream. In general, these pressures are positive on the
V = ventilation rate (m³/s) windward side, resulting in an inflow of air, and
W = heat loss through building shell (W/°C). negative on the leeward side, resulting in an outflow
of air. Pressures are generally negative over low-
The values in Figure 13.4a and Figure 13.4b were pitched roofs. Figure 13.5 shows natural ventilation
developed using this equation. The values in (a) are in a gable-roof building primarily as a result of wind
for a solar-flue dryer, while those in (b) fit the blowing over the ridge.
conditions in a building more closely.
Natural ventilating systems may be non- Factors to consider in the design of a
adjustable, manually adjustable, or automatically naturally ventilated structure
controlled. As natural systems are likely to be The following factors should be considered in the
chosen for economy design of a naturally ventilated structure:

1
8

6
5
A B
4
-0
X 10

3
C D

6
2
AREA OF Ai + Ao OPENINGS m

5
4

6
5

4
-2
X 10

1
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 1
-2
X 10 X 10
-
X 10
-0

1
VENTILATION RATE
3
m /s

Figure 13.4b natural ventilation stack design (barn)

 Building width: The wider buildings become, the
more difficult it becomes to distribute fresh air to all
parts of the building. The widest buildings may be
found in areas with higher average wind speeds and
Gentle upward movement may not exceed about 14 metres. Wider buildings
will require mechanical ventilation assistance.
Winter ventilation - no wind outside Sidewall openings: Openings along the length of
the building provide a means for fresh air to enter.
Moveable curtains are used for controlling the
opening size to accommodate various wind speeds
and outside temperatures. Insulated curtains reduce
conductive heat loss and the infiltration of cold air
during winter periods.
slow overturn of air
Ridge openings: The purpose of the ridge-vent
system (Figure 13.6) is to generate fresh-air
Winter ventilation - wind blowing ventilation during cold winter periods, thereby
removing stale, moist air from the building. When
the wind flows perpendicular to the ridge, it
Sun heat Ridge vent removes hot air near roof produces suction at the ridge which, when
combined with thermal buoyancy, provides the force
to extract air from the building. Upstands (Figure
13.7) of 15–30 cm above the ridge increase suction at
the ridge and thus increase the ventilation rate. A
baffle control can then be used to decrease
Summer ventilator - sidewall doors ventilation if the need arises.
open

Figure 13.5 natural wind ventilation over a gable-roof

building

Location of the structure: The structure should be

located so that the ridge of the building is
perpendicular to the prevailing summer winds. Louvers
When structures are set side by side, the following
equation may be useful in determining the separation
distance: Figure 13.6 the ridge-vent system with adjustable
louvers
DSD  0.4  H L

where:
DSD = separation distance (metres)
H = total height of the obstruction (metres)
L = the length of the obstruction (metres).

Insulation: The walls and ceilings should be

insulated in order to reduce excessive heat
transmission into and out of the building. Upstand
Ceiling slope: The ceiling slope depends on the
configuration of the building. If no ceiling is used,
the lower side of the roof should slope between 1:3
and 1:2 to allow air to move up toward the ridge at
an adequate rate.
Figure 13.7 ridge ventilator with upstands to prevent
Ventilation openings: The size of the ventilation
rain and increase suction
openings is critical to ensure proper ventilation
rates.
mecHanIcal VentIlatIon
Ways of controlling natural ventilation Compared with natural ventilation, mechanical
Natural ventilation is difficult to control. However,
ventilation using fans is more positive in its action,
manipulation of the following parts of the structure
less affected by wind, and more easily controlled.
may help.
Initial installation usually costs more and there is the
added cost of operation. However, in many cases the
advantages of mechanical ventilation outweigh the
added expense.

Exhaust versus pressure systems

There are two main types of mechanical ventilating
system: pressure and exhaust. In a pressure system,
the fan blows air through inlet openings into the
building, creating a positive indoor pressure that
pushes air out of the building through the outlet Figure 13.8 a propeller fan
openings. In exhaust ventilation, the fan expels air
from the building, creating a lower-than-atmospheric
pressure inside the building. It is the pressure The tube-axial fan is a more refined version of the
difference between outside and inside that causes propeller fan (Figure 13.9). It has aerofoil-shaped fan
the ventilation air to flow in through the inlets. For blades on an impeller with a large hub, all mounted
good control of the airflow, it is important for the in a close-fitting tube. Tube-axial fans are capable of
building to be tightly sealed. operating against higher static pressures than
The exhaust ventilation system is popular ordinary propeller fans and are made for ducted
because it is easier to control the distribution of the installations with high resistance to airflow. If it is
incoming air, and is generally less expensive, as well necessary for a tube-axial fan to operate under very
as being less complex than a pressure system. considerable pressure, it may be designed with two
However, there are situations when the pressure impellers in tandem, described as a multistage model.
system (one that forces air into the building)
performs better. These include:
• very dusty conditions that tend to load up the
fans
• buildings with excessively loose construction
(many cracks)
• when continuous recirculation is required.

Under some circumstances, pressure systems

may cause humid air to be forced into building walls
and ceilings. This can result in condensation and
damage to wood and other materials.
A mechanical ventilation system comprises three
main components: fans, air-distribution system and Figure 13.9 tube-axial fan
controls to regulate the fans.

Fans and blowers Centrifugal (radial flow) fans are used for ducted
A fan is a mechanical device that uses energy inputs installations or where air must be moved through a
to move air, and can be described as the ‘heart’ of a product such as grain or potatoes. The blades on the
mechanical ventilation system. blower may be radial, for example straight from the
The two general types of fan are axial-flow and shaft, curved forward in the direction of rotation,
centrifugal. Axial-flow fans are normally divided or curved backward opposite to the direction of
into propeller and tube-axial types. They move air rotation. The latter can achieve the highest
parallel to the shaft and are the most widely used performance efficiencies under high pressure and are
types. Centrifugal (radial flow) fans (blowers) most suitable for agricultural applications.
discharge air at right angles to the shaft and often The most important attribute of the backward-
operate at substantial pressures. curve blower is its non-overloading characteristic.
Propeller fans are the least expensive and the Both the radial and forward-curved types require
easiest to install. A propeller fan may have two to six their greatest power input when airflow is cut off.
(or more) blades. In general, the more blades a fan An air blockage is therefore likely to overload the
has, the greater the pressure the fan will develop. motor and cause damage (Figure 13.10).
The best propeller fans have a close-fitting, curved All but the smallest fans should be powered by
inlet shroud or inlet ring, which improves the a capacitor-start motor that is enclosed to provide
efficiency of the fan. Propeller fans are best suited to dust and moisture protection. It should be equipped
moving large volumes of air at pressures in the with an overload protector and bearings with a long
range of 30–50 Pa (3–5 mm of water), and they are
the most commonly used in conventional farm
building ventilation (Figure 13.8).
 lubrication life. The fan should be enclosed with a
wire safety guard. Shutters and hoods are necessary
in cold climates but should not be needed in mild
climates.
Pa
The type of fan selected is largely related to
operating pressure. It is important to choose a fan
with high performance efficiency in the required
range of operating pressures in order to avoid
unnecessarily high energy consumption.

Figure 13.11a manometer, which measures static

pressure. < pa = less than the atmospheric pressure

Figure 13.10 centrifugal blower

Static pressure
When an exhaust fan is installed in the wall of a
closed building, lower air pressure will develop
inside, or if the fan blows air into the building, a o
slight pressure increase will occur. Manometers or
draught gauges are two simple but dependable Pa
devices that can be used to measure these small
o
pressure differences (Figure 13.11). They are usually
calibrated to read in millimetres of water. That is, if
the two columns of water in a glass U-tube are equal,
and then a plastic tube is connected from one side
of the U-tube to a building with an operating fan, Figure 13.11b Float-type gauge, which measures static
the columns will become unbalanced. The difference pressure or air velocity
is the millimetres of static pressure.

Table 13.1
Illustrative fan performance table
airflow in cubic meters per minute (m3/min) at
Fan Fan motor the indicated static pressure (inches of water)
diameter speed size
(cm) (rpm) (hp) 0 1/10 1/8 1/4
20 1 650 1/50 11 9 8 -
25 3 416 1/6 35 34 34 32
30 1 600 1/12 33 30 29 23
36 1 752 1/3 73 67 65 56
41 1 725 1/3 71 67 66 60
46 1 648 1/3 126 115 112 94
53 1 725 3/4 138 134 133 126
61 1 071 1/3 184 159 152 103
76 855 1 284 272 268 242
91 460 1/2 300 255 220 81
107 490 1 438 401 392 -
122 495 1 540 487 469 -
Fan performance and selection
Efficiency, in this case, means the amount of
Fan performance is expressed as the volume of air
moisture removed per unit of heat used or lost. If
moved in cubic metres per second (m³/s), or pressure
outlet ducts are required, they should be insulated to
or resistance to airflow in Pa or millimetres of water
an R of 0.5 to prevent condensation.
static pressure (mm WG). Fan performance tables
and/or curves are available from the manufacturers.
air distribution
These tables illustrate the maximum or cut-off
In addition to the ventilation rate, it is necessary to
pressure, efficiency and sound levels at different
consider the distribution of incoming air throughout
rotation velocities (rpm) and blade-angle settings, as
the building. This is particularly important in both
well as the power requirements for various operating
livestock-production buildings and product stores.
conditions. An illustration of fan performance data is
When considering fresh-air distribution, two
given in Table 13.1.
distinct temperature situations are involved. In areas
with winter frost, the outside air is cooler than the
Fan efficiency and efficiency ratios
air inside the buildings, and fresh air must be
Fan efficiency is measured as the amount of air
delivered away from the stock to avoid cold
moved by the fan motor per unit of electrical energy
draughts. However, in summer the animals may be
input. Factors that influence the energy efficiency of
subject to heat stress and may suffer considerably
a fan are motor efficiency, speed, blade design, blade-
unless cooling air currents are directed to remove
to-housing clearance and fan housing design.
excess heat from their vicinity. A good air-
distribution system also ensures that the animals
Fan laws
receive an adequate supply of oxygen and that
When fan blades are mounted directly onto the
motor shaft, it is assumed that the manufacturer has noxious gases are removed.
correctly matched the combination. However, some
fans are belt- driven, allowing for a motor with a Air inlets
different speed, or pulleys of different sizes, to be Ventilation is accomplished in an exhaust-type
substituted while the fan is in operation. Knowledge mechanical system by reducing the pressure within
of the following basic fan laws can reduce problems: the building to below outside pressure, causing fresh
air to enter wherever openings exist. The principal
• The delivery volume of a fan varies directly
with its speed. factors affecting the airflow pattern in a building are
the speed and direction of the incoming fresh air.
• The cut-off pressure of a fan varies directly as
the square of its speed. The size, location and configuration of the air inlets are
therefore important factors when designing the
• The power requirement of a fan varies directly
as the cube of its speed. distribution system.
The flow of air that streams through openings has
been closely investigated and the results are
For example, assume a fan is belt-driven by a 300
summarized by the following statements:
W output and 1 725 rpm motor. If that motor is
• The speed at which the air stream travels is
replaced by a 300W/3 400 rpm motor without
directly affected by its initial speed through the
changing pulleys, the following would occur: the
inlet.
volume discharged would be doubled, the cut-off
• The distance the air stream travels is
pressure would be quadrupled and the horsepower
proportional to the initial speed at the inlet.
requirement would be increased eightfold. The
• The higher the initial speed of air entering the
result would be such a badly overloaded motor that
building, the greater the mixing of incoming air
it would burn out unless the overload protector
with the existing air.
stopped the motor before any damage was done.
• The higher the speed of cool air entering the
The mild climate of east and southeast Africa
building, the less it will sink.
greatly simplifies the housing requirements for most
animals and some plant products. However, it seems
It can be deduced from these findings that, in
worthwhile to discuss several ventilation factors that
winter, openings should be small enough to provide
apply primarily to cooler climates.
sufficiently high velocities to avoid cold air falling
directly onto the stock, to provide good air mixing,
VentIlatIon system desIgn: cool clImates
and to maintain the required airflow pattern at the
Fan location: Assuming an enclosed building, one
low winter ventilation rate.
to three fans can be located at ceiling level
Velocities of around 3.5 to 5 m/s usually satisfy
midpoint on the protected side (opposite the
these requirements. However, at these velocities it is
prevailing wind) of the building. A greater number
important to consider the effect of internal partitions,
of fans may be distributed along the protected side.
structural members and other obstructions to the
The high level on the wall is desirable for summer
flow, and it is also important for the building to be
heat removal and has little effect on the efficiency of
relatively airtight.
moisture removal in cold weather.
When air flows through an opening of any shape,
the cross-section area of the issuing jet is reduced to
60–80 percent of the total free area of the opening. A
reasonable design value is 70 percent. This
phenomenon, the vena contracta effect, increases the
velocity of air emerging from the opening. The total
area of air inlet must be proportional to total fan
capacity. According to a common rule of thumb, the
size of air inlets should be
0.4 m² of area for each m³/s of fan capacity (Table
COLD AIR
13.2).
WARM AIR
With proper inlet adjustments, high velocity, cold air sweeps the
Table 13.2 ceiling and mixes with warm air

Ventilation inlet data (vena contracta = 0.7)

static pressure Velocity Inlet area
(mm H2o) (m/s) (m² per m³/s)

5 2.9 0.493
10 4.1 0.348
WARM AIR
15 5.0 0.286
20 5.8 0.246 WARM
25 6.5 0.219 AIR

32 7.3 0.196
• Use attic inlets or openings at the outer edge of
wide soffits, as shown in Figure 13.12.
The pressure drop across the inlet affects fan
performance and therefore should be no higher than
necessary. A draught gauge may be used to check
the pressure difference across the inlet (between the
inside and outside of the building at the inlet). A
pressure difference of 10–20 Pa indicates a velocity
of 4–6 m/s. Inlet openings, regardless of type, must
be adjustable so that the correct air velocity can be
maintained throughout the year.
Compared with inlets, the fan outlets have a
minor role to play in the distribution of fresh air in a
livestock building. The effect of an outlet is to cause
a general slow drift of air towards the outlet
position. This drift is easily overcome by convection,
animal movements or the pattern of air movement
established by the inlets. Only near the fan (within
approximately 1 metre) can a positive air movement
be detected. This applies to outlets in both exhaust
and pressurized systems of ventilation. However, it
is recommended that no inlet be placed closer than 3
metres to a fan.
Wind has a major effect on ventilation systems
because it causes pressure gradients around
buildings and directly impinges on components of
the system. The pressure gradients will cause
problems of uneven air entry, with more air entering
on the windward side than on the leeward side of
the building. Wind blowing against a fan reduces
output and hoods do little to alleviate the problem.
Wind blowing across a ridge chimney outlet may
cause overventilation.
Wind effects can be reduced by the following
actions:
• Orient the building for minimum wind
exposure.
• Provide wind breaks.
• Operate the system at relatively high pressure.
 With too wide an inlet, cold
air sinks to floor rapidly,
causing cold draughts

Figure 13.12 air inlets: winter adjustment

In situations where air must be distributed but

wall or ceiling inlets are not feasible, polythene
tubes punched with holes along their length work
well. Usually two rows of holes are spaced at 600–
750 mm intervals along the tube. The total area of
the hole should be equal to approximately 1.5 times
the cross- section area of the tube. Ducts should be
sized to provide 4–6 m/s velocity. They may be
used either to distribute air in a pressure system or
as an inlet for an exhaust system. Sizing is the same
in either case.

Ventilation controls
Simple on–off thermostats have given dependable
and satisfactory control of many ventilation
systems. If the building is small and served by one
fan, then a two- speed motor with a thermostat
provided with two set temperatures will work
well. When several fans are required, one or more
may be operated continuously to provide the
necessary minimum ventilation rate.
Others may be controlled by a thermostat set at
the minimum design temperature. These will cycle
on and off in cold weather. The remaining fans
may be controlled with a thermostat set at the
maximum design temperature. These will only
operate in warm weather when it is necessary to
remove excessive heat.
Filled or bimetallic thermostats, placed at a
height of 2 metres near the centre of the building,
work well as controllers. Electronic controllers,
using multiple thermistors to sense temperatures in
several locations, combined with variable speed
motors and automatically-adjusting inlets are
available. Although
 temperature.
they undoubtedly do a more precise job of It should be pointed out that, although the values
controlling the building environment, their for moisture production in Table 10.2 include normal
additional cost is difficult to justify. Humidistats evaporation from feed, manure and urine, the real
have not proved very satisfactory as controllers for evaporation may well be higher or lower, depending
mechanized ventilation systems. primarily on how large a surface area of wet floor is
exposed from which evaporation can take place.
Ventilation design example
Although calculating the heat and moisture balance
for a building in cold weather (below 0 °C) is not a
typical problem for tropical climates, a sample will
show how the psychrometric chart is used, as well as
the possible difficulties encountered in cold climates.
Assume a farm has sixty 600-kg cows housed in
a 10 m by 40 m by 3 m barn, with 20 m² of windows
and 12 m² of doors. R values are: window 0.17, door
1.0, ceiling 2.6 and wall 2.1. The temperature and
relative humidity are - 10 °C and 90 percent outside
and + 12 °C and 75 percent inside. The total heat
and latent moisture production from the animals is
found in Table 10.2 and is 1 130 W and 0.485 kg/hr
per cow.
From Appendix V:6, the 1 500 metre
psychrometric chart, - 10 °C and 90 percent equals - 6
kJ/kg enthalpy and 0.0016 kg/kg specific humidity.
Also + 12 °C and
75 percent equals 31 kJ enthalpy and 0.0078
kg/kg specific humidity. From the chart, the humid
volume at 12 °C and 75 percent equals 0.98 m³/kg the
value at which the fans are exhausting air. 1 kJ =
1/3.6W.

Procedure
Heat production 60 × 1 130 = 67 800 W
Respired moisture production 60 × 0.485 = 29.1 kg/hr
Heat loss through:
Ceiling 400 × 1 / 2.6 × 22 = 3 385
W
Wall (300-32) × 1 / 2.1 × 22 = 2 808
W
Windows 20 × 1 / 0.17 × 22 = 2 588
W
Doors 12 × 1 / 1.0 × 22 = 264 W
Total heat loss 9 045 W

Heat available for ventilation 67 800 – 9 045 = 58 755

W Minimum airflow to remove moisture
29.1 / (0.0078-0.0016) = 4 694
kg/hr

Fan capacity at minimum flow

4 694 × 0.980 / 3600 =
1.28m³/s
Heat removed by airflow
4 694 × (31.5-(-6) / 3.6) = 48 896
W

As the heat available for ventilation is greater

than the heat actually removed by the minimum
ventilation rate, the inside temperature will tend to
rise or the relative humidity will fall, but a cycling of
additional fan capacity will maintain the desired
 can be added to the control circuit. Some designs
Greater evaporation would reduce the moisture to incorporate
be removed with the manure.
If the heat removed by the ventilation is greater
than that available for ventilation, the inside
temperature will fall as a result unless the
insulation of the building is improved and/or
supplemental heating is installed. It should be
noted that a lower minimum ventilation rate aimed
at maintaining the temperature may cause the
inside air to become saturated and result in
condensation on cold surfaces such as windows.
Calculations using outside summer temperatures,
e.g. 21 °C, would show the need for additional fan
capacity to remove heat and maintain an acceptable
temperature difference between inside and outside,
e.g. 4 °C.
Maximum ventilation rate is the product of
sensible heat production divided by temperature
difference (inside–outside) and isobaric specific heat
capacity.
The sensible heat production, according to Table
10.2, is 465 W per animal at 25 °C (inside
temperature) and the maximum ventilation rate is
therefore:

(60 × 465) / (4 × 0.35) = 19 950 m³/hr or 5.54m³/s.

Between the cold- and warm-weather rates,

thermostats trigger a cycling of fan operation to
maintain temperatures within the desired range.

coolIng
During high-temperature periods, ventilation alone
may be insufficient to maintain satisfactory
temperatures in animal buildings. The following
cooling system can be used effectively in totally
enclosed buildings. Other cooling techniques, such
as spray cooling, are discussed in later sections.

evaporative cooling
The evaporative cooler operates on the simple
principle of a fan drawing hot air into the building
from outside through a wet pad. The hot air is
cooled by evaporating water, which changes
sensible heat in the air into latent heat in the
vaporized moisture, thereby lowering the
temperature.
Air temperature reductions of as much as 11 °C
can be achieved in buildings during hot periods
with low humidity. Although in humid weather
the cooling effect is considerably reduced, in many
areas the system may be suitable for the greater
part of the hot season.
Commercial evaporative coolers are available in
sizes varying in capacity from 1 to 95 m³/s. Since
they are sold complete with built-in fans, it is
essential to select suitable units with correct ducting,
diffuser and register sizes to allow balanced air
distribution in the building. Ample exhaust vents
should be provided around the perimeter of the
building to allow the free outlet of air. A thermostat
is advisable to control the units.
Where humidity control is required, a humidistat
 they work well for greenhouses and potato stores, but
a heat exchanger. In these designs, the air that has are unsatisfactory
been cooled while passing through the wet pads is
used to cool other air, which actually enters the
building. Although this results in less humid air
being used for ventilation, the extra step causes a
loss in efficiency.
An alternative to the packaged evaporative cooler
can be assembled using a pad and fan system. Pads
made of 50 mm thick compressed ‘wood wool’ or
other suitable material are installed, usually in the
long wall of the building, and exhaust fans are
positioned in the opposite wall. Incoming air is
cooled as it passes through the wet pads and then,
after passing through the building, it is exhausted by
fans (Figure 13.13).
For effective operation, the air velocity through
the pad area should be limited to about 0.8 metres
per second. This is accomplished with 1–1.5 m² of
pad area per m³ and second of airflow. The cooled
air leaves the pad at a relative humidity of 85–90
percent, but is quickly moderated by the ambient air.

Distribution manifold

Shredded wood mat

Pump Sump

Figure 13.13 evaporative cooler

Water is spread evenly over the pads from a

manifold supplied from a sump with a float-
controlled water level. Water should recirculate
through the pads at the rate of approximately 160
ml/s for each m³/s airflow. The actual water
consumption, i.e. the evaporation of water into the
passing air, varies with the changing conditions of
temperature and humidity. However, as a guide, it is
approximately 20 percent of the water recirculation
rate. Evaporative cooling is discussed further in
Chapter 14.
Evaporative coolers, which rely on wind pressure
to force air through the wet pads, are less effective as
the airflow is likely to be either too low or too high
most of the time. While naturally ventilated
evaporative coolers require larger pad areas, the fact
that no fan or power is required to drive a fan
recommends these designs for small-scale
applications in rural areas. They can usually be
constructed using local materials and operated and
maintained by the farmer at low cost.
The value of evaporative cooling systems depends
on the application and on the typical wet-bulb
temperatures of the region. In areas of high humidity,
 refrigerant to condense back to a liquid
for poultry and other animals that depend on
respiration for body cooling at high temperatures.
Evaporative cooling is much more practical in dry
regions, where the air can be cooled significantly
while the humidity is still low enough to have little
effect on animal comfort.

refrigeration
The use of ventilation alone or evaporative coolers
may be insufficient to meet the temperature
requirements for storing some products. If the
product has sufficient value to justify mechanical
refrigeration, then nearly ideal conditions can be
provided.

Principles of refrigeration
Most fluids occur as either a liquid or a vapour,
depending on pressure and temperature. The
higher the pressure and the lower the temperature,
the more likely it is that the liquid phase will occur.
Whenever there is a change of phase there will be a
concurrent latent heat exchange. This means that
when a liquid changes to a vapour, heat is
absorbed; when a vapour changes to a liquid, heat
is given off. There are several materials that happen
to change state at pressures and temperatures that
make them useful in mechanical refrigeration
systems.

Refrigeration systems
A refrigeration system comprises four main parts:
• a compressor
• a condenser
• an expansion valve or other restriction in the
refrigerant line
• an evaporator

The components are connected together in a

complete circuit in the order listed. In addition,
there may be a receiver (small tank) between the
condenser and the expansion valve (see Figure
13.14).
OUTSIDE INSIDE
compressor
condenser

evaporator

receiver expansion valve

Figure 13.14 refrigeration system

When the system is charged with a refrigerant,

operating the compressor reduces the pressure in
the evaporator and causes the refrigerant to boil,
evaporate and absorb heat. This causes a drop in
temperature. At the same time, the compressor is
pumping the evaporated vapour into the
condenser at high pressure. This causes the
 system. That load can be met by operating a relatively
while giving up heat. The temperature in the small evaporator at a very low temperature (heat
condenser will rise. The receiver serves as a reservoir
for liquid refrigerant.
Obviously the evaporator is installed in the room
to be refrigerated, while the condenser is located
where ambient air can readily absorb the heat
produced. The expansion valve is the temperature
control mechanism for the system. If it is adjusted
to further restrict the refrigerant flow, both the
pressure and boiling temperature in the evaporator
will drop and, within the limit of the system’s
capacity, the room temperature may be maintained
at a lower level.
The pressure on the condenser side is determined
largely by ambient conditions. If the air temperature
is relatively low, the condenser discharges its heat
easily at normal pressures. However, in very hot
weather, or if the airflow through the condenser
becomes restricted by dust or other debris, the
temperature and pressure may rise to levels
dangerous to the system, unless a high-pressure
safety switch has been installed.

Refrigerants
A number of fluorocarbon refrigerants are used for
various temperature applications, especially in small
refrigeration systems; however, fluorocarbon
refrigerants are ozone layer depleting and are to be
completely phased out by the year 2030 according to
the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the
ozone layer. For example, manufacture of the
formerly popular R12 has stopped in developed
countries. Therefore, owners of functional R12
systems that may need refrigerant replacement are
encouraged to use alternatives such as R134a or
decommission the systems. Another popular
fluorocarbon, R22, is also undergoing replacement.
Detailed information about these refrigerants can be
found in an up-to-date handbooks on refrigeration
and air conditioning or directly from the
manufacturers.
The popular inorganic refrigerant for industrial
systems is the ammonia (R717). R717 is toxic, has a
strong pungent odour, burns in certain
concentrations in air, is prone to leaking and is piped
with steel pipes. However, ammonia is cheaper and
more efficient because it has a much higher
evaporation heat, requiring smaller component parts
throughout. Consequently, in spite of the
disadvantages, ammonia systems are often chosen
for large stores because of the economies.

Evaporators
Fabricating a refrigeration system requires the
specialized equipment and knowledge of a
contractor. However, it is a distinct advantage for
the customer to know how the evaporator size and
corresponding operating temperature relate to the
conditions required in the cold store.
A given storage room and product quantity will
impose a particular load (watts) on the refrigeration
moves to its limited surface rapidly), or by
operating a larger evaporator at a more moderate
temperature (heat moves more slowly but to a
much greater surface area). Air passing through an
evaporator will, in nearly all cases, be cooled
sufficiently to reach saturation (100 percent RH).
The psychrometric chart shows that the
moisture- holding capacity (specific humidity) of
air at two slightly different temperatures will be
nearly the same, while air at widely differing
temperatures will have quite different specific
humidities.
For example, assume a store temperature of 10
°C and an evaporator temperature of 8 °C. The
absolute humidity of saturated air at 8 °C is 0.0066
kg/kg. That will allow a relative humidity at 10 °C
of 89 percent, which is desirable for a potato store.
In contrast, onions store best at 0 °C and 75 percent
RH, so a smaller evaporator operating at - 5 °C and
0.0025 kg/kg at saturation would provide the
desired 75 percent RH.
Unfortunately, refrigeration contractors may
not understand, or care about, this relationship and
therefore present a bid for a system based on too
small an evaporator, which would need to be
operated at too low a temperature. While this
would have a lower purchase cost, it would fail to
provide the proper conditions. Finally it should be
pointed out that, in air conditioners for homes, one
of the objectives is to reduce humidity.
Consequently small evaporators operated at low
temperatures are perfectly satisfactory.

reVIew questIons
1. Determine the ventilation rate for a W-36
laying hen house with 100 000 birds with an
average body mass of 1.40 kg. The inside
temperature is to be maintained at 21 °C with
relative humidity of 50 percent.
Assumptions: no supplemental heating; no
solar heat; no heat from motors; the
∑AU and FP factors are 1 350 and 200 W/°C,
respectively. The outside temperature is 8 °C.
2. Describe how natural ventilation works.
3. A total of 250 growing–finishing pigs at 60 kg
body mass are housed in a mechanically
ventilated building. Determine the
ventilation rate to maintain 60 percent
relative humidity at 20 °C if the outside
temperature is 15 °C with 80 percent relative
humidity.
4. Discuss the ventilation curves for both
moisture and temperature control.
5. Using similar relevant data, as shown in the
previous example of the ventilation design,
design a ventilation system for 120 000 W-36
laying hens housed in a barn measuring 70
metres long by 30 metres wide and 2.7 metres
high at sea level. The house does not have
windows.
FurtHer readIng
Albright, L.D. 1990. Environment control for animals
and plants. St. Joseph, Michigan, United States
of America, American Society of Agricultural
Engineers (ASAE).
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and
Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). 2005.
ASHRAE handbook of fundamentals. Atlanta,
Georgia. United States of America.
Building Research Establishment, Overseas Division.
1972. Building in earthquake areas. Overseas
Building Notes No. 143. Garston, Watford, United
Kingdom.
Burberry, P. 1979. Environment and services. Mitchell’s
Building Series. London, B.T. Batsford Ltd.
Chepete, H.J. & Xin, H. 2004. Heat and moisture
production of poultry and their housing systems:
molting hens. ASHRAE Transactions 110: 274–285.
Chepete, H.J., Xin, H., Puma, M.C. & Gates, R.S.
2004. Heat and moisture production of poultry and
their housing systems: pullets and layers. ASHRAE
Transactions 110: 286–299.
Midwest Plan Service (MWPS). 1983. Structures and
environment handbook. MWPS-33. Iowa State
University, Ames, Iowa.
Redding, G.J. 1981. Functional design handbook for
Australian farm buildings. Melbourne, Agricultural
Engineering Section, University of Melbourne.
United Nations, Department of Economic and
Social Affairs. 1975. Low-cost construction resistant
to earthquake and hurricanes. New York.
Van Straaten, J.F. 1967. Thermal performance of
buildings. Amsterdam, Elsevier.
Whitaker, J.H. 1979. Agricultural buildings and
structures. Reston, Virginia, Reston Publishing Co.
 343

Chapter 14
Greenhouses

IntroductIon Windbreaks: Nearby buildings and hedges act as

A greenhouse is a structure using natural light windbreaks to slow winds before they hit the
within which optimum conditions may be achieved greenhouse, which could lead to roofs being blown
for the propagation and growing of horticultural off and other damage. However, any windbreak
crops, for plant research, or for isolating plants from should be far enough away from the greenhouse to
diseases or insects. In the 1970s, in the tropical prevent shading. Normal air movement is also
areas of Africa, applications were limited because essential for natural ventilation systems and to
there were only a few situations in which a prevent locally stagnant conditions.
greenhouse could be justified owing to the optimum Water supply and quality: A good, clean water
growing conditions required for a high-value crop supply is of paramount importance. A full crop
or a research project. However, as from the 1980s, system may require up to 8 400 m³ per hectare (840
with the establishment of an export- oriented litres/m²) in a single year, and the source of water
horticulture industry (Kenya’s horticulture industry must be able to supply all that will be required.
is one of its largest foreign-exchange earners), Before using any water, have it tested for excessive
greenhouses are now found in most countries of amounts of sodium or iron and a pH imbalance,
Africa. The cost of various greenhouse designs which should be corrected before using the water for
varies greatly and a careful assessment is required to plant irrigation. Pond water should be chlorinated at
match the requirements for a given enterprise to the the time of use to kill algae and root- rot organisms.
cost of the greenhouse. For example, a greenhouse Electricity: Electricity will be required if
used for all-year flower production can justify the ventilation is to be mechanized and if stationary
cost of glass, while a greenhouse used for a month or machinery is to be used in the greenhouse.
two for starting Roadways: Roadways are essential for the delivery
vegetable plants can only justify a polythene of supplies and to collect harvested plants and/or
covering. produce. Retail operations should have an entrance
for customers separate from the one used by service
Location of the greenhouse providers and there should be adequate parking space.
The following factors should be considered when Labour force: The business of cultivating crops
deciding where to locate a greenhouse. under greenhouses is labour-intensive. Mechanization
Topography: The land should be nearly level, with of some of the operations, such as automated
the ideal gradient being 1 in 100 to l in 200. This irrigation equipment, computer-controlled heating
facilitates moving carts of plants around the and cooling systems, automated seeders and potting
complex. The land should also be well-drained and machines, can reduce labour requirements. Although
located in an open area with no shade from trees or the initial capital outlay can be considerable, these
buildings. devices enable owners to raise productivity with
Soils: Good soil is essential, with the ideal soil fewer but better-trained permanent employees.
being deep, medium-textured loam. Soils that are
less than ideal would be worth improving. Very
heavy soils are not usually satisfactory.
Height

Width
Width

Figure 14.1a the Quonset design with the arch

Figure 14.1b the Quonset design with the arch set on
extending to the ground
vertical walls
34 Rural structures in the tropics: design and
development

Ridge tube on tensioned

wire between each loop

Foundation tubes

50 x 50 frame
Diagonal timber 150 nail through end
securing the loop into door frame
door

Laths

Roll-up
blind
door
50 x 25

200 x 200 Trench for burying edge of polythene

Figure 14.1c A Quonset greenhouse frame construction

Types of greenhouse may be single, stand-alone structures (Figure 14.2a),

There is a wide variety of greenhouse designs. However, or combined side-to-side to form ridge-and-furrow
most of these are derived from two basic designs: the or gutter-connected structures (Figure 14.2b). In this
Quonset and the A-frame. The Quonset is based on an case, the interior walls are usually absent.
arched roof that permits stresses on the structure to Most commercial greenhouses now utilize some
be efficiently transferred to the ground. Quonset variation of the gutter-connected design. This is
greenhouses are normally available in two basic designs. primarily because the gutter-connected design
In the first, the arch extends to the ground with allows for a larger unobstructed interior than would be
no sidewalls (Figure 14.1a). In the second, the arch possible with stand-alone greenhouses. This improves
essentially forms the roof and gable sections of the the ability to automate common tasks such as
greenhouse and is set on straight vertical walls (see irrigation and increases space usage efficiency. Also,
Figure 14.1b). Figure 14.1c shows some construction by eliminating interior walls (which would be exterior
details of the Quonset type of greenhouse structure. exposed walls in free-standing structures), the
Usually, but not always, the A-frame has a series construction and heating costs are reduced.
of supporting trusses that form the roof and gables.
The strength of this structure comes primarily from
the trusses set on vertical walls. The weight of the
structure and other stresses are borne by the trusses
and transferred to the vertical walls, which in turn
Height

transmit the stresses to the ground.

A-frame greenhouses may have even spans or
uneven spans. In the former, both roof sections are of Width
equal length, whereas in the latter they are of
unequal length (or missing entirely). These two basic Figure 14.2a the stand-alone A-frame structure
designs
 foundation is present, the structure may be supported
by vertical beams placed on concrete footings.
Orientation: Within the latitudes found in the
tropics it is desirable to orient the ridges of
greenhouses north–south to reduce the overall
Figure 14.2b the gutter-connected A-frame structure shading by the framing members. This is true for all
types of frame, including multi-span greenhouses.
Size: While multi-span blocks of 3.2 metres each
There are several potential drawbacks with are the least expensive to build, wider spans allow
gutter- connected facilities. As the entire somewhat better light transmission. Furthermore,
production area is a single space, the ability to the general management in wider greenhouses
maintain different environmental conditions (as is (movement of machines, optimum cropping layouts,
possible using numerous individual structures) is lost. etc.) may justify the extra cost. As a general rule, the
In addition, as the size of the gutter-connected span cost is lowest when the length is four to five times
increases, uniformity and control of light, the span width. This is particularly true with wide-
temperature, airflow and humidity may be reduced. span greenhouses.
One way to minimize these drawbacks is to have Height: The height of a greenhouse should be
drop-walls or curtains made of polyethylene film sufficient for the operation of machinery and the
that can be raised or lowered between sections. This comfort of the workers. An increase in height
allows sections within the structure to be partially improves natural ventilation during still conditions
isolated so that different temperatures or relative and makes it easier to obtain the desired plant climate.
humidity levels can be maintained – if only to a However, with very high roofs, maintenance becomes
limited degree. more difficult. Gutter heights of 2.8–3.0 metres are
recommended for multi-span greenhouses to allow
Greenhouse design parameters machines to move freely. In single-span greenhouses,
Increasingly in recent years, most greenhouses are eave height should be at least 2 metres to provide
designed by engineering firms or are constructed unrestricted work space.
from packages developed by engineering firms. The
design and all the materials may be provided by the Structural materials
design firm. In many cases, the design firm will also These can be grouped into floors, frames and
build the structure. However, it is useful to coverings. Floors: Floors may be constructed of
understand the basic design considerations. porous concrete, Portland cement, gravel or
Light: It is important for crops being grown in a compacted clay covered with a strong polypropylene
greenhouse to receive the optimum amount of light, fabric. Porous concrete is usually strong enough to
not only when the skies are clear (direct light), but bear most loads encountered in greenhouse
also when they are cloudy (diffuse light). The shape situations, and allows for drainage through the
and construction of the greenhouse should be such surface. Portland cement is more expensive and does
that it allows the best possible entry of light. The size not allow drainage through the surface. However,
and cross-section of all the load-bearing members Portland cement might be desirable
have a pronounced effect on light transmission. in traffic areas where heavy loads occur.
The gutters of multispan roofs produce Concrete floors should have a slight gradient to
considerable shade, and similarly, in widespan promote drainage and prevent puddling of water.
greenhouses, the heavier roof trusses tend to cause Gravel is inexpensive and allows drainage, but can
more shading. Thus, open trusses with narrow- allow the growth of weeds and may not
section members are desirable. Light colours and accommodate all types of equipment. Although
reflective surfaces improve light transmission. In spite polypropylene fabric may be a low-cost alternative,
of a good design for natural light, artificial lighting the floor can become uneven over time and can cause
may be needed for the production of photoperiod- puddling and algae growth.
sensitive plants. Frames: Greenhouse frames range from simple to
Design loads: The greenhouse should be able to complex, depending on the imagination of the
withstand both the dead load and the live load. The designer and the engineering requirements.
dead load includes the weight of the structure, Greenhouses are generally built of steel, aluminium
framing, glazing, permanent equipment, heating and or wood and are glazed with good-quality glass,
cooling units and vents. The live load includes the clear polythene sheet, or fibreglass-reinforced
weight of people working on the roof, hanging plants polyester panels.
and wind loads. Steel must be galvanized after fabrication, as any
The foundation: The foundation must support the welding or drilling breaks the galvanized layer. Steel
structure and transfer loads to the ground. In some is cheaper than aluminium and is ideal for the main
cases, the structure may be set on an intact concrete roof frame.
foundation or slab. Supports may be bolted onto the Aluminium is very resistant to corrosion and is
foundation. In other cases, whether or not a concrete easily formed into complex sections. While it is
expensive, it is most suitable for glazing bars. As it
cannot be welded economically, bolted construction
is used.
 Wood is less suitable for the lightweight reduces light by about
construction and high moisture conditions found in
greenhouses, so only top-grade timber of the most
decay-resistant species, which has been treated with a
water-based wood preservative, should be used. The
recommended wood preservatives for greenhouses
are chromate copper arsenate (CCA), ammoniacal
copper arsenate (ACA) copper naphthanate and zinc
naphthanate.
Coverings: The type of frame and cover must be
matched correctly. Greenhouse coverings include
the following:
Glass: Glass is expensive, but it is the most
durable covering and transmits the most light (90
percent). However, the gradual build-up of dirt and
algae, along with surface etching, eventually causes
a reduction in light transmission. The minimum
width of glass ordinarily used is 610 mm. Also
common is the 730 mm width. Both of these are 4
mm thick and weigh
2.8 kg/m². An aluminium frame with a glass
covering provides a maintenance-free, weathertight
structure that minimizes heat costs and retains
humidity.
Tempered glass is frequently used because it is
two to three times stronger than regular glass. The
disadvantages of glass are that it is easily broken, is
initially expensive to build and requires much better
frame construction than fibreglass or plastic. A good
foundation is required, the frames must be strong
and they must fit together well to support heavy,
rigid glass. Fibreglass: Fibreglass is lightweight,
strong, and practically hail-proof. A good grade of
fibreglass should be used because poor grades
discolour and reduce light penetration. Use only
clear, transparent, or translucent grades for
greenhouse construction. Tedlar- coated fibreglass
lasts 15–20 years. The resin covering the glass fibres
will eventually wear off, allowing dirt to
be retained by exposed fibres.
A new coat of resin is needed after 10–15 years.
Light penetration is initially as good as glass but
can deteriorate considerably over time if poor grades
of fibreglass are used. Fibreglass-reinforced
polyester panels are more impact-resistant than glass
and more durable than polythene sheet. Light
transmission is about 85 percent but declines
significantly unless the surface is cleaned and
resurfaced with acrylic sealer every 4–5 years.
Fibreglass is intermediate in cost between glass and
polythene.
Double-wall plastic: Rigid double-layer plastic
sheets of acrylic or polycarbonate are available to
give long-life, heat-saving covers. These covers have
two layers of rigid plastic separated by webs. The
double- layer material retains more heat, so energy
savings of 30 percent are common.
Acrylic sheet is a long-life, non-yellowing
material; although polycarbonate normally yellows
faster, it is usually protected by an ultraviolet-
inhibitor coating on the exposed surface. Both can be
used on curved surfaces; the polycarbonate material
can be curved more. As a general rule, each layer
 10 percent. About 80 percent of the light filters
through double-layer plastic, compared with 90
percent for glass. Film plastic: Film-plastic coverings
are available in several quality grades and several
different materials. In general they are replaced
more frequently than other covers. Structural costs
are very low because the frame can be lighter and
plastic film is inexpensive. Light transmission of
these film-plastic coverings is comparable to glass.
The films are made of polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), copolymers, and other materials.
Commercial greenhouse-grade PE has ultraviolet
inhibitors in it to protect against ultraviolet rays; it
lasts 12–18 months. Copolymers last for 2–3 years.
New additives can be used to manufacture film
plastics that block and reflect radiated heat back
into the greenhouse, as does glass, which helps to
reduce heating costs. PVC or vinyl film costs two to
five times more than PE but lasts as long as five
years. As it attracts dust
from the air, it must be washed occasionally.

Ventilation
In tropical regions, ventilation is likely to be the
most important environmental control feature of the
greenhouse. The air inside the building is exchanged
for outside air to lower temperature, to reduce
humidity, and to maintain a supply of carbon dioxide
for photosynthesis. This is accomplished by natural
means, with vents and doors, or by mechanical
means, using fans.
The ventilation rate is usually expressed as
cubic metres per second of airflow per square
metre of floor area. To obtain a reasonable heat rise
of less than 4 °C in a glass-clad greenhouse, the
airflow rate in the tropics should be 0.04–0.05 m³/s
and per m² of floor area.
Polythene-clad greenhouses do not become as
hot because of the transparency of the plastic to
long- wave radiation that is transmitted back out of
the greenhouse. The ventilation rate for a
polythene-clad greenhouse can therefore be
reduced to 0.03–0.04 m³/s and m². This further
reduces the cost of a polythene- covered greenhouse.
Adequate natural ventilation is often provided
by large doors at each end, even though this may
amount to only 3–7 percent of the floor area. These
large doors not only aid ventilation but also allow
easy access to the greenhouse.
Installing circulating fans in the greenhouse is a
good investment. In cold regions, during the winter
when the greenhouse is heated, air circulation must
be maintained so that temperatures remain
uniform throughout the inside of the structure.
Without air- mixing fans, the warm air rises to the
top and cool air settles around the plants on the
floor.
Small fans with a cubic-metre-per-minute
(m3/min) air-moving capacity equal to one-quarter
of the air volume of the greenhouse are sufficient.
For small greenhouses (less than 18 metres long), the
fans should be located in diagonally opposite
corners, but away from the ends and sides. The goal
is to develop a circular (oval) pattern of
air movement. In addition, the fans should be Active systems
operated continuously during the winter and turned Fan-and-pad system: This is the most common type of
off during the summer when the greenhouse will active cooling system used in commercial
need to be ventilated. greenhouses. The system uses the principle of the
latent heat of evaporation, i.e. as liquid water
Cooling evaporates it absorbs energy from the environment
As a result of the long hot season in the tropics, the (surrounding air), which results in a lowering of the
greenhouse must be cooled to achieve the desired temperature of the surrounding air. This process is
conditions. Glazing materials allow shorter-wavelength called evaporative cooling. The evaporative cooler
radiation (i.e. visible light) to pass through, but long- works best when the humidity of the outside air is
wavelength radiation such as infrared (heat) is low. Figure 14.3 shows the temperature reductions
trapped inside the greenhouse. The temperature that are possible with evaporative cooling. The
inside a greenhouse may be up to 20–30 oC higher evaporative cooler capacity should be sized at 1.0–
than the ambient temperature outside (hence the 1.5 times the volume of the greenhouse.
greenhouse effect). Owing to the greenhouse effect, In a fan-and-pad system, pads made from
greenhouses require both summer and winter cellulose (or another material) are placed in one wall
cooling systems. of the greenhouse and fans are placed in the
opposite wall. The fans expel air from the
Summer cooling systems greenhouse, which creates a pressure drop inside
Passive systems and causes air to enter through the pads at the
Venting: High summer temperatures mean that there opposite end of the greenhouse. All vents, except for
is a constant need to remove heat from the the pad opening, must be closed when the fan and
greenhouse. This may be accomplished by replacing pad system is in operation. Figure 14.4 shows the
existing air in the greenhouse with cooler air from fan-and-pad cooling system, and Figure 14.5 shows a
outside the structure. If outside temperatures are low schematic of the evaporative cooling pad.
enough, and if temperatures in the greenhouses are not
excessive, warm air may be passively exhausted
Evaporative cooling pad
through roof vents.
The upward and outward movement of warm air
pulls in cool air from side- or end-vents. This system
is most effective in the winter, spring and autumn. It
is limited in its effectiveness for summer cooling, as
the incoming solar load and the outside air Direction
temperature may exceed the capabilities of this of air flow

system.
Shading: Shading is another method of passive
Exhaust
cooling used to reduce the amount of light fan
transmitted into the greenhouse, thereby reducing
the solar load. In glass houses, shading may be Figure 14.4 the fan-and-pad cooling system
achieved simply by applying water-based
whitewash to the inside of the roof to cut down
light transmission. When the weather conditions are
steady and reliable, whitewash is cheap and effective
Water distribution pipe
and easily washed off when it is no longer needed.
Whitewash seems particularly appropriate for
shading in tropical areas.
Evaporative
cooling pad To sump
7

6 Return gutter
Amount of cooling possible °C

5
Figure 14.5 the evaporative cooling pad
4

0
During operation, the water is pumped to the pad
15 17
21
19
23 25 27 29 from a tank or sump that serves as a reservoir. The
Ambient temperature °C [dry bulb]
Figure 14.3 Limits of evaporative cooling
water is first supplied to a feed-line
that runs the length of the pads.
Holes in the top of the feed-line allow
water to be forced out of the line. The
water is forced
upward, strikes a cover plate and trickles down to Winter cooling systems
the pads. A cover material may be placed over the In some regions, high light levels or fluctuating
pad to ensure more even wetting of the pad. temperatures may necessitate cooling even during cold
The water trickles down through the pad, is days. In addition, during some seasons heating may
collected in a catch basin and is recycled back to the be required at night and in the early morning, while
reservoir. Water evaporates as it passes through the some cooling may be required during the day when
pads, with the result that it must be continuously solar loads are high. Passive venting, as discussed, is
resupplied to the reservoir. This is accomplished by one method that may be used for this type of
having a water supply line to the reservoir that is cooling. However, if the solar load is too high, an
controlled by a float-valve. The reservoir should active cooling system may be required to increase
have sufficient water- holding capacity to fill all the rate at which warm inside air is replaced with cool
pipes and saturate the pads. The water supply air from outside the greenhouse.
system should operate so that the entire pad is kept In such a situation, the top vent may be closed
wet. and fans in the greenhouse walls activated.
Pads need to be properly maintained, particularly Louvered vents in the opposite walls open to allow
as salt build-up and algae growth are the greatest air to move into the greenhouse. The fans may be
threat to pad longevity. As water evaporates, salts multispeed fans so that just enough air is exhausted
accumulate on the pads. These deposits physically from the greenhouse (and replaced with outside air)
block air movement through the pads and prevent to maintain the desired temperature. If temperatures
uniform wetting. If the water supply is high in salts, continue to increase, the fan speed can be increased.
blended water should be used. Another method used for cold-season cooling
Algae can also accumulate on the pads, and utilizes fans placed in the gable of the greenhouse,
several types of biocide can be added to the water to combined with a polyethylene tube extending the
prevent their growth. Sodium hypochlorite (bleach) length of the greenhouse in the gable. The inlet vent
may be added at a rate of 1 percent by volume, is louvered and opens only when the fans turn on.
which provides a 3–5 parts per million chloride(Cl-) There is an additional set of louvered vents at the
solution. However, the bleach will tend to raise the opposite end of the greenhouse that allows warm
pH of the water, and this can damage pads by greenhouse air to escape, while cooler outside air is
softening the glue holding together the pad layers. forced into the structure. The cool air is forced
Calcium hypochlorite, or pool bleach, is a preferred through the polyethylene tube to ensure more even
biocide for use with fan-and-pad cooling systems. distribution of the cool air.
If the efficiency of the evaporative cooling system
is known, the temperature of air exiting a cooling calculating greenhouse cooling requirements
pad can be calculated using the following equation. To determine the specifications for a cooling system,
the volume of the greenhouse must be calculated. Some
Tcool = Tout – (% efficiency) × (Tout – Twb) rules of thumb and assumptions are often used and a
flow-rate per minute (air exchange) requirement is
where: determined.
Tcool = temperature of air exiting the cooling pad (°C) As an example, cooling specifications are outlined
Tout = temperature of the outside air (°C) below for a Quonset greenhouse that is 10 metres
Twb = wet-bulb temperature of the outside air (°C) wide and 24 metres long.

A well-designed, properly installed and The volume of the structure is determined as: 0.5×
operated evaporative cooling system may have an (πr2L)
efficiency of up to 85 percent.
Fog-cooling systems: These systems use = 0.5× [(3.14)(52)(24)]
evaporative cooling, just as in the fan-and-pad
system. However, with fog-cooling systems, very = 942 m3
small droplets of water (approximately 0.1 cm in
diameter) are forced into the air. Owing to the small An air exchange of 1–1.5 times per minute is
size of the droplets, they remain suspended in the air required. The higher value of 1.5 would be used if
(and thus do not wet the plant material). the greenhouse were to be used during the hot
The droplets evaporate while suspended in the (summer) months when very high solar loads and
air, thereby cooling the air through evaporation. The temperatures are experienced. In this example, one
water- saturated air is slowly removed from the exchange per minute is used, so that 942 m3/min is
greenhouse through roof vents or low-volume fans required.
mounted in the greenhouse walls. Fog-cooling Fans should be spaced not more than 7.6 metres
systems require some specialized equipment and are apart. This structure therefore requires two fans
most useful for cooling structures used for spaced along the 10-metre wall. The structure will
propagation and seed germination. require two fans with a capacity of (942 m3/min/2) =
471 m3/min. From Table 13.1, two 1-horsepower fans
measuring 122 cm in diameter, operating at 1/10
inch of water static pressure are selected, providing a
total of 974 m3/min.
 A particular brand of pads may be selected. In
fuel source, size of the operation and maintenance
this example, we assume that 10.2-cm (4-inch)
costs must therefore all be considered when deciding
cellulose pads are selected and included to create a
whether to use a centralized or localized heating
fan-and- pad cooling system. From the pad
system.
specifications of the manufacturers, assume that 1
square metre of this type of pad will accommodate
Methods of heat conservation
75 m3/min. Therefore, 974 m3/min/75 = 13 m2 of
The methods of heat conservation should focus on:
pad wall is required. The pad wall should extend
• Greenhouse design: minimizing the exposed
the entire length of the wall. Therefore the pad
surface area can reduce heat loss. This is
should be 10 m wide and 13 m2/10 m = 1.3 m tall. accomplished primarily through the use of
The pump capacity must take into account the gutter- connected designs
water flow volume required by the system (pipes • Glazing selection: heat loss can be reduced by
and pads), as well as water loss through evaporation selecting glazing with low thermal conductance
from the pads. values
To accommodate the system, assume that 6 litres • Wall insulation: heat loss may also be reduced
are required per metre length per minute. Therefore, by including insulated curtains walls along the
10 metres × 6 litres/metre/minute = 60 litres per lower level (1–1.2 metres) of the greenhouse
minute to accommodate the system. walls
To compensate for evaporation, 0.2 litres are • Thermal screens: polyester, cloth, or
required per 28 m3/min of airflow. Therefore, (974 polyethylene screens that can be pulled closed
m3/ min/28 m3/min) × 0.2 = 7.0 litres are required at night reduce heat loss through the roof
to compensate for evaporation. panels of the greenhouse
The total pump capacity is 60 litres per minute + • Windbreaks: windbreaks reduce the effect of
7.0 litres per minute = 67 litres per minute. wind on heat loss. However, windbreaks (i.e.
To determine the sump capacity, assume 60 high walls or trees) can also reduce light
litres/ m2 of pad area. The sump capacity is 13 m 2 of entering the greenhouse if placed too close to
pad × 30 litres/m2 of pad = 390 litres. the structure
• Air leaks: broken panels, loose panels, poorly
HEAtInG sealed doors, and other openings in the
For some climates, there is at least one period during greenhouse structure, increase the mass air flow
the year when the ambient temperatures outside are (infiltration and exfiltration) and increase heat
too low for crop production. During such periods, it loss.
is essential to provide heat energy to maintain
optimal temperatures within the greenhouse. During AIr QuALIty In GrEEnHousEs
heating, the heating system employed should be able The air quality in greenhouses can influence many
to replace heat at the rate it is lost from the aspects of plant growth and crop quality. The degree
greenhouse. of control over air quality is at least partially
The heat is lost by conduction (through the dependent upon the type of greenhouse structure
glazing, metal purlins, doors and fans), infiltration being used and the technology available. There are
and ex-filtration (loss through cracks between or three basic aspects of the greenhouse atmosphere
around glass panels, doors and fans by mass airflow) that should be considered: carbon dioxide, humidity
and radiation (energy loss from the emission of and pollutants.
radiant energy from a warm body [greenhouse] to a Carbon dioxide and light: Carbon dioxide (CO 2)
cold object [outside objects], with little warming of and light are essential for plant growth. As the sun
the air). A heat balance should be calculated to rises in the morning to provide light, the plants
quantify the amount of supplementary heating begin to produce food energy (photosynthesis) and
required to maintain the desired indoor conditions. oxygen. In open-field conditions, the process
Greenhouses may utilize central heating systems proceeds without any concern for the availability of
or localized heating units. Central heating systems CO2. The CO2 availability in atmospheric air was
generate heat (usually using a large boiler) in one estimated at 300 ppm in 2002, which was sufficient to
location, and distribute the heat generated to many meet the photosynthetic requirement of field crops.
locations. Localized heating systems (such as In closed-field conditions, such as in greenhouses,
convection heaters and radiant heaters) are located the enclosed air may have a CO2 concentration of
in the greenhouse, or greenhouse section, that they 1 000 ppm from respired CO 2 that remains trapped
are responsible for heating. overnight. As the sunlight becomes available,
For large operations, a central-heating system the photosynthesis process begins and CO 2 in the
may be more efficient than a localized one. greenhouse is depleted, falling below 300 ppm well
However, the cost of installation and maintenance of before noon. Additional CO 2 from other sources
a centralized heating system can be high and may would then be needed.
not be justifiable for smaller operations. The size of The amount of CO2 required for enrichment is
the boiler unit, the the amount of CO2 used by plants minus the amount
of CO2 lost through infiltration. The amount used by
plants varies with the microclimatic parameters, type
of crop and level of nutrition. For calculation
purposes,
the general range varies from 0.6–1.2 litres per hour
and the heat exchanger should be checked
per m2 of floor area. The loss of CO 2 is greater in periodically. Calibration of the thermostat, as well as
glass than in plastic film greenhouses as a result of checks of the structural integrity, and any other
differences in infiltration rates. The infiltration loss maintenance items prescribed by the manufacturer
can be determined using the expression given below: on all pieces of equipment used, should be undertaken
periodically.
IL = Vg × N × 10-6 × (DL – 300)
rEvIEw QuEstIons
where: 1. Discuss the factors that must be considered
IL = infiltration loss (m3/h) when designing a greenhouse.
Vg = volume of greenhouse (m3) 2. Calculate how far apart the fans should be
N = number of air changes per hour spaced in a greenhouse given a fan capacity of
DL = designed CO2 level (ppm). 700 m3/ min, ventilation rate of 4.0
m3/min/m2 and a distance between the fan
The CO2 in the greenhouse is replenished through and outlet of 45 metres.
ventilation. As CO2 and light complement each other, 3. Outline the procedure for determining the size
electric lighting combined with the injection of CO 2 of an evaporative cooling pad and the capacity
is used to increase yields of vegetable and flowering of the cooling water tank in a greenhouse.
crops. Bottled CO2, dry ice and combustion of 4. Describe the evaporative cooling phenomenon.
sulphur- free fuels can be used as CO 2 sources. 5. Identify a greenhouse near you and perform
Commercial greenhouses use such methods. an energy analysis on it to determine whether
Relative humidity: High humidity promotes the it requires heating or cooling.
development of certain diseases (e.g. black spot and
powdery mildew), as well as various physiological
abnormalities (e.g. leaf-edge burn in poinsettia and FurtHEr rEAdInG
blossom-end rot of tomatoes) in some greenhouse Aldrich, R.A. & Bartok Jr., J.W. 1994. Greenhouse
crops. In addition, high humidity can increase engineering. Ithaca, New York, United States
condensation on the inside of the glazing, reducing of America, Natural Resource, Agriculture and
light levels and causing water to drip onto plants. Engineering Service (NRAES-33), Cooperative
During the summer, vents are usually open and Extension.
the ambient relative humidity outdoors is the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
humidity at which the greenhouse will be Air- conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). 1995.
maintained (although the relative humidity in the HVAC applications. ASHRAE handbook. Atlanta,
greenhouse may still be higher than that outside Georgia, United States of America.
because of evaporation–transpiration). However, FAO. 1960. Agricultural machinery workshops: design,
during cool months when vents are closed and equipment and management, FAO Agricultural
heating is required, very high relative humidities can Development Paper No. 66. Rome.
occur. To control this, growers will periodically FAO. 1982. Plastic greenhouses for warm climates, by
increase greenhouse temperatures to saturate the air K. Virhammar. FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin
with water vapour and then vent the warm No. 48. Rome
saturated air out of the greenhouse. FAO. 1999. Greenhouses and shelter structures for
Pollutants and toxic substances: Carbon monoxide tropical regions, by C. von Zabeltitz & W.O.
is dangerous to humans. It is generated by Baudoin. FAO Plant Production and Protection
malfunctioning heaters and other machinery with Paper No. 154. Rome, Italy.
internal combustion engines. Unit heaters without Iowa State University (Cooperative Extension
internal heat exchangers should be avoided, as they Service). 1980. Planning and equipping a service
emit exhaust and carbon monoxide directly into the center for your farm. Ames, Iowa, United States of
structure they are intended to heat. Malfunctioning America.
heaters may also generate ethylene, which is Noton, N.H. 1982. Farm buildings. Reading, United
damaging to plants. Numerous chemicals, including Kingdom, College of Estate Management.
herbicides, paints and cleaning materials, may Tiwari, G.N. 2003.
release potentially damaging volatile chemicals and Greenhousetechnologyforcontrolled environment.
caution should be exercised when using them in or Pangbourne, United Kingdom, Alpha Science
around greenhouses. International Ltd.
Whitaker, J.H. 1979. Agricultural buildings and
Equipment maintenance structures, Reston, Virginia, Reston Publishing Co.
Proper maintenance of all equipment used in the
greenhouse is critical. Maintenance should include
appropriate cleaning and checking of the air intake,
exhaust system, fuel lines and fans. The burner
system
 351

Chapter 15
Handling semi-
perishable and
perishable crops

Semi-periSHable cropS cause the crop to become unmarketable. Yet, with high
Food crops fall into two broad categories: perishable moisture content, storage of these crops is more difficult
crops and non-perishable crops. This normally refers to because there is a greater likelihood of insect and fungal
the rate at which a crop deteriorates after harvest and thus damage.
the length of time it can be stored. While some crops fall Whereas lowering the moisture content of grain
clearly into one or other category, others are less easy to inhibits sprouting without affecting viability, the high-
categorize. For example, cereal grains can be stored for over moisture vegetable crops, which cannot be allowed to dry
a year and are considered to be non-perishable, whereas out, are more prone to sprouting. However, there is generally
tomatoes are perishable crops and, when picked fresh, will a period of dormancy following harvest that can be used to
deteriorate in a few days. However, tubers, such as potatoes, good advantage.
may be successfully stored for periods extending to several Perishable and semi-perishable crops are living
months. organisms and, as such, continue torespire. Consequently, any
Although there are methods for preserving many of the storage will need ventilation to remove the heat and moisture
perishable crops, such as canning and freeze-drying, these are of respiration and to prevent condensation on cool surfaces.
normally industrialized processes and are not found on Fruits and vegetables are nearly always susceptible to
farms. However, it is possible to apply farm- scale physical damage such as bruising, cutting and cracking.
methods of preservation to cereals and pulses, as well as the Much of this results from dropping the fruits or tubers onto
less perishable crops such as potatoes. To do this hard surfaces or onto other fruits and tubers while they are
successfully, it is necessary to know the ways in which a crop being loaded into containers or bins. In many cases, 200–
can deteriorate, and hence the methods for controlling this 300 mm is the maximum safe drop.
process. Further losses can occur if the heat of respiration is
Crops may need conditioning at harvest time to make allowed to cause a temperature rise. For example, ‘black
them storable, and they may also require periodic inspection heart’ in potatoes is a serious problem resulting from high
and care during the storage period. The viability of seed temperatures under storage conditions. In contrast, low
must be maintained and susceptibility to damage by fungal temperatures approaching freezing produce a characteristic
and insect pests must be minimized. In contrast to grain, sweetening in potatoes.
crops such as potatoes, yams, carrots and onions are more Losses can also be caused by disease. This tends to be
perishable and require carefully managed storage conditions worse if the crop has been damaged, allowing the
to maintain top quality. While market value is seldom great organisms that cause disease to enter through surface cuts
enough to justify the expense of ideal levels of temperature and cracks. Removal of soils adhering to the crop and
and humidity control, first the desired conditions will be careful loading before storage can help to reduce this
discussed and then various methods of achieving levels as problem.
close to ideal as is economically justifiable will be
described.
Storage requirements for potatoes
and other horticultural crops
properties Potatoes are the most commonly stored root crop, for
The properties of the many horticultural crops are far more which the greatest amount of research has been conducted
varied than those of grains and pulses. This in turn results into ideal storage requirements. However, very similar
in highly varied storage characteristics. For example, yams facilities and operating conditions are suitable for several
and potatoes can be stored adequately for several months, other crops with varying perishability characteristics. Although
while cassava, if not processed, can be kept for only a few the following sections deal primarily with potatoes, much
days without deterioration. of the information, including the storage facilities described,
The initial moisture content after harvest is much higher also applies to other semiperishable crops.
in these mature crops than in grains. With grains, a loss of As mentioned, some bruising and cutting of the tubers
moisture is desirable for storage and does not affect the is likely to occur during harvesting. These fresh wounds
subsequent use of the crop. This is not the case with fruits provide an ideal entry point for disease and rot
and vegetables. Loss of moisture may
35 Rural structures in the tropics: design and
development

organisms. The infection can be minimized by storing the quality if left in the ground beyond a certain stage. For
potatoes for the first 1–2 weeks at a temperature of 13–20 example, carrots tend to become tough and woody.
°C and a relative humidity of 90–95 percent. During this
curing period the skin toughens, making the tubers much
Clamp
less subject to further injury or disease. Potatoes are naturally
In areas that have low mean soil temperatures, a simple ground
dormant for about 2 months.
clamp (Figure 15.1) may be suitable, especially for potatoes.
However, it is often necessary to store them for longer
The potatoes are piled on the ground in a long row and
periods of time by extending the dormancy period and by
covered with 150–200 mm of straw or coarse grass. Chicken
keeping shrinkage to a minimum. Temperature and humidity
wire is laid all around the base to protect against rodents, and
are important factors in this respect. Suitable temperatures for
then soil is dug out around the pile and placed on the straw.
long-term storage are related to the eventual use of the
This store is not likely to be satisfactory for more than a
potatoes.
month or two unless the soil temperature is near 10 °C and air
For seed stock, temperatures of 3–5 °C will delay
temperatures at night are 10 °C or lower. To control soil
sprouting for up to 8 months. For ware potatoes, 4–8 °C
pests, the ground can be treated with an insecticide before the
will allow 4–8 months of storage without serious sprouting,
clamp is made.
while lower temperatures increase the risk of sweetening, that
is, the conversion of starch to sugar. Finally, for processing
potatoes, a minimum temperature of 7–10 °C is required in 15−20 cm Straw or course grass
order to prevent discoloration and to keep sweetening to an
absolute minimum. In stores with higher temperatures, it is
possible to control sprouting in ware and processing
potatoes for up to 6–8 months by using a sprout-suppressant Drainage trench Crop
chemical.
The relative humidity (RH) of the air in the store is of
great importance. Low RH will lead to shrinkage and 1 to 2·5 m wide
weight loss, while excessively high RH will cause Rodent protection wire netting buried
condensation on the surfaces. This is undesirable because and turned outwards

free water on the potatoes greatly increases the possibility

of rot and the spread of disease. A potato tuber comprises
roughly 80 percent water and, strictly speaking, air is in 150 mm
equilibrium with the tuber at a relative humidity of 98
percent. However, in practice the relative humidity is kept
between 90 percent and 96 percent, to avoid condensation. 150 mm

Potatoes exposed to direct or indirect sunlight will turn

green and develop a bitter taste, which is poisonous and Figure 15.1 Simple root-crop clamp
makes the tubers unsuitable for human consumption. Stores
should therefore have no windows and ventilation openings
should have light traps. Covered clamp
Potatoes that have been held at low temperatures tend Another simple solution for short-term storage is the
to be brittle and subject to considerable damage when covered clamp (see Figure 15.2) consisting of a raised
being handled. If the store has been maintained at low platform on which the potatoes are heaped and then
temperatures throughout the storage period, it is best to covered with 10 cm of grass or straw. Air is free to
warm the store to about 10 °C for a few days prior to circulate through both produce and straw. A thatch roof
removing the potatoes. overhead provides shade to help reduce daytime
temperatures. Protection from rodents will be required.

Storage without buildings Thatched roof

Delayed harvest
The simplest form of storage for some crops is to leave
them in the ground and harvest them only as required. There Crop
is a risk of pest and rodent damage, but any deterioration
that may take place after harvest may exceed field losses;
hence delayed harvest is a reasonable choice. This is 1 to 2·5 m wide
Sides and ends
particularly useful for cassava, where left open
field deterioration is normally substantially less than post- 15 cm grass cover Simple wooden lattice

harvest losses even for short-term storage. On the other

hand, some crops deteriorate substantially in Figure 15.2 covered clamp raised from the ground
Storage in multipurpose buildings Naturally ventilated stores
Figure 15.5 shows an example of how to build a potato
Slatted boxes or bins store suitable for small-scale production. The store, which
Square boxes of slatted construction, each holding about 1 m³ holds about 1 500 kg, is naturally ventilated and measures
of potatoes, provide a good option for both small- and 150 × 160 cm square. The walls are 150 cm high and a
large-scale stores. The boxes can be larger, but not deeper, slatted floor is placed 90 cm off the ground to keep rodents
than 1 metre. If they are located in a well- insulated away.
building, fluctuations in daytime temperatures will be reduced. The store shown in Figure 15.5 is made of offcuts, but
The boxes should be raised about 250–300 mm above the other materials may be just as good. For insulation, the walls
floor to enable air to circulate freely. With little insulation and have a 20 cm-thick layer of straw, which will be
only natural ventilation, this method is best suited to cooler compressed to about 10 cm when the store is loaded. The
areas, but only for relatively short storage periods of 3–4 floor should be covered with about 5 cm of straw before
months. loading, and 20 cm of straw should be spread evenly on
Smaller boxes can be handled manually, while larger the top to protect the potatoes from sunlight and drying.
boxes of 1 m³ or more cannot be moved manually when
filled (see Figure 15.3).
200 mm straw insulation 100
PLAN SIDE mm after filling
Prevailing wind

1·00 m

200 450
1·00 m
PLANKS ALL SPACED 10 mm CLEARANCE OF 250-300 mm
ABOVE GROUND

1 500
BOXES PLACED IN
TRADITIONAL
THATCHED, MUD
OR BRICK WALL Offcuts Offcuts
HOUSE

Air catchbox

900
VENTILATION WITH COOL NIGHT AIR IS BY
OPENING DOORS AND HINGED FLAPS IF FITTED 1 500

Figure 15.3 box store for root crops

Figure 15.5 a naturally ventilated store

Clamp on floor The method of operating the store is dependent on the

Using a building similar to that shown in Figure 15.3, a average temperature of the location. If the average
clamp offers an alternative to boxes. To allow adequate temperature is above 20 °C, it is necessary to extend the
ventilation with cool night air, a duct under the crop is walls on three sides down to the ground, like an apron.
included, as shown in Figure 15.4. The fourth side will have a flap that is kept open only at
night in order to take advantage of the cooler air for
ventilation.
At higher altitudes with mean temperatures below 20 °C,
it is possible to operate this potato store with continuous
ventilation, and the apron and the flap can be left out. In
this case, the store legs should be fitted with rat guards.
There should be just enough ventilation to remove the
heat caused by respiration, without causing an excessive
150

loss of moisture.

larger stores
200 Buildings for storing large quantities of potatoes or other
root crops in bulk must be of substantial construction to
Figure 15.4 Duct under produce heap resist the force of the crop against
the walls. In addition, the walls and ceiling must be well migrates from the warm side to the cold side of a wall or
insulated, regardless of whether outside air or refrigeration ceiling, requiring a vapour barrier to be installed on the warm
is used for cooling. side. In a refrigerated store in a warm area, the proper
The wall sills must be securely anchored and the studs place to install a polythene vapour barrier is on the outside
firmly fastened to the sill in order to withstand the of the wall and ceiling, where the temperature is highest.
considerable lateral force of the potatoes. It is desirable for However, air-cooled stores are much more difficult to
the concrete floor to be tied to the foundation with design, as the outside temperature may be higher at the
reinforcing bars. Tie beams should connect the top of the start of the storage season, and the inside temperature may
sidewalls on opposite sides of the building to resist the load, be higher later on. A very careful assessment must be
with braces at frequent intervals to withstand uneven loading. made when deciding whether or not to use a vapour
barrier and, if so, on which side to install the vapour barrier.
Insulation and vapour barriers Alternatively, non-permeable rigid insulation can be installed
Regardless of the climate of the area in which they are to resist moisture penetration from either side.
built, large air-cooled or refrigerated stores should be well
insulated. In the uplands (e.g. in southern Africa), some Ventilation system
insulation will prevent freezing of the potatoes in midwinter. There are many different types of air distribution system
In contrast, in hot regions where mechanical refrigeration incorporated into large stores, not only for potatoes, but
may be necessary, substantial insulation will help to reduce for several other fruits and vegetables. They range from
the operating cost. An R value of 4–5 in the ceiling and 3– simple natural ventilation to manually controlled fans and
3.75 in the walls should be adequate to prevent inlets, and finally to complex automatically controlled
condensation in a cold climate and to ensure economical dampers and variable-speed fans. The choice of system is
operation in warm areas. These large stores are expensive determined not only by environmental needs, but also by
buildings and it is important to install high-quality economic factors.
commercial insulation. A ventilation system of medium complexity, as shown
Vapour barriers are essential to prevent the in Figure 15.6, can be installed in a store
accumulation of moisture in the insulation. Moisture

A A A

Wire mensh

min
B B 2d B

A. 100% airchange B. Proportioning C. 100% recirculation

Inlet air

Outlet air

A. Differential
thermostat

B. Proportional
thermostat

Figure 15.6 Ventilation system

 Insulated roof Controllable gable ventilator

Main duct

3.0 m
Insulated load-
bearing walls

4.0 m
nd
Lateral damp-proof membrane
Concrete floor a
Recirculation duct

Movable store division

Fan house

Secondary doors Main doors

Fan
Main duct Laterals

Figure 15.7 large bulk store

similar to that shown in Figure 15.7. The ventilation the heat load is much smaller, the difference can then be
system allows a complete exchange of air, as well as reduced to less than 2 °C and an adequate humidity level will
complete recirculation, or various combinations of both. be maintained. Unit-blower evaporators are most commonly
Although automatic controls will provide more accurate chosen for the storage of produce.
regulation of the system, manual control is possible Any cool store should have an adjacent room for
because conditions change slowly in a large store. To grading, packing and shipping the produce. It should be well
control the relative humidity in the store and the lit and adequate in size to store empty containers and
temperature of the incoming air, a humidifier can be installed packed produce for immediate shipment.
in the ventilation system. As mentioned earlier, prior to handling potatoes that
have spent a period in cold storage, they need to be
Air distribution warmed to at least 10 °C. If they have been stored in bulk
Air from the proportioning system is forced into a main in the store, they must be warmed where they lie. If they
distribution duct, and from there into lateral ducts cast into have been stored in pallet boxes, they may be warmed in
the concrete floor. The laterals may be covered with the packing room, which can be maintained at a comfortable
removable 50 by 100 mm wood slats, allowing an elevator temperature for the workers. If the cool store is used for
to be set up in the duct for unloading the bin. other produce, it may be desirable to have some
The spacing of the lateral ducts is limited to 80 refrigeration in the packing room so that grading and
percent of the height of the heap, i.e. 0.8 H between packaging of perishable produce can be completed under
centres, and dimensioned to limit air velocity to no more cool conditions.
than 5 m/s. The ducts should be tapered or stepped, in Later in this chapter the storage requirements for a
order to maintain a fairly uniform velocity as air is fed off to number of fruits and vegetables are discussed. In many cases,
one bin after another. As the potatoes cover about 75 the temperature and humidity requirements are similar to
percent of the open area, the wood slats should be spaced those for potatoes and many of the points covered in
to give four times the area needed for the correct velocity. relation to potatoes apply equally to other produce, with a
few exceptions. If produce is held in storage for a short
Evaporator size time, the air-distribution system is probably not necessary
As described earlier, the size of an evaporator influences the and unit-blower evaporators will be adequate. Note also that
temperature at which it can operate, and the difference between several fruits and vegetables are not compatible for
the temperature of the evaporator and that of the store greatly simultaneous storage, even though they may require similar
affects the relative humidity of the store. It is satisfactory to storage conditions.
choose an evaporator size that will require roughly a 6 °C
temperature difference during the loading period. When the field Grading and handling facilities
heat has dissipated and Grading of crops for sale is more likely to be required
where large volumes are handled. The principle
requirements of a structure for this purpose are to protect
the crop during handling and to allow grading to be
Small seed potato chitting stores
For the small landholder who requires a limited quantity of
carried out in any weather. Both the stored produce and the
chitted potatoes, a rack similar to that shown in Figure
workers require protection from sun, rain, wind and dust. In
15.9, built under the eaves of the family home, is a simple
some cases, a pole-building without walls will be adequate.
and inexpensive solution.
In other situations, an enclosed room with lighting,
ventilation, and perhaps either heating or cooling, will be
required.

Seed potato stores

Seed potatoes must be kept from one season to the next.
Clearly it is important to maintain the tubers in good
disease-free condition and to keep them as viable as possible.
Seed potatoes may be held satisfactorily in a refrigerated
store at 4–5 °C for up to 8 months, but that is not always
possible. A lower-cost alternative is to keep seed potatoes in
naturally ventilated stores at ambient temperature where
sprouting is allowed under the influence of diffuse sunlight.
This technique is well proven and seed held over the long
term has been found to be nearly as viable as that held in
refrigerated stores for a similar length of time. This method
of using the ambient temperature together with diffuse
sunlight, which allows chits (short, sturdy sprouts) to form,
can be used for seed potatoes as soon as the dormancy period
has come to an end. However, once the chits have developed
it is important to control aphids by the routine application of Figure 15.9 Small-scale chitting racks
a systemic insecticide, failing which viral diseases are likely
to be introduced.
Buildings for use as chitting stores can be very simple. They
Potato chitting trays may be built of poles, blocks, bamboo, reinforcing wire and
Regardless of how seed potatoes are stored, it is desirable netting, and are constructed so that the sides let in light and
for the tubers to chit (sprout) before planting, and this is done ventilation. The interior is always at ambient temperature and
by deliberately exposing them to either artificial light or lit by indirect daylight. As a result, once potato dormancy
diffused natural light. The light must reach all of the potatoes, finishes, the tuber sprouts grow, but only slowly, remaining
and consequently shallow trays with slatted bottoms are short, green and strong. A medium-sized chitting store is
required for both good light distribution and adequate air shown in Figure 15.10.
circulation. A good design is shown in Figure 15.8. For good
light penetration, the alleyways between stacks of trays
should be at least 1 metre wide, and lines of trays should 2m

be placed in the store to give the best lighting from the

sides and top (if lighting panels are fitted in the roof). PLAN

Space under the bottom trays is essential for air circulation.

2m

A A
1m

SECTION AT A-A
30 x 30 mm corner posts
2 m to eaves

Spacer
300

25 mm
gap
25 x 25 mm sides
40 x 15 mm
40 x 15 mm slats spaced not
75 x 15 mm more than 12 mm apart

Figure 15.8 potato chitting tray (approx. 350 × 500 mm) Figure 15.10 medium-sized chitting store with shelves
 Direct sunlight must be avoided and, if roof-lights are Table 15.1
installed, a shading device should be fitted below the roof to comparison of cereals and horticultural crops
diffuse the light. Whitewashed strip-bamboo cereals and oil seedsHorticultural crops

curtains suspended about 1 metre below the roof-lights serve low moisture content High moisture content
(typically 10%–20%) (typically 70%–95%)
this purpose well.
These naturally ventilated ambient-temperature stores are Small unit size (typically less large unit size (typically 5 g
than 1 gram) to 5 kg)
best suited to areas or altitudes with maximum temperatures in
the 18–24 °C range. Although results have shown losses Very low respiration rate, High to very high respiration
with little heat generation rate
somewhat higher than in expensive refrigerated stores,
satisfactory seed quality remains after 5–6 months, Heat production is typically Heat production typically
0.5 MJ/tonne/day for dry ranges from 0.5–10 MJ/tonne/
provided that insecticide has been applied on a regular grain day at 0 °C to 5 to 70 MJ/
basis. tonne/day at 20 °C
Larger stores with similar characteristics can be Hard texture Soft texture, easily bruised
built to suit the amount of seed to be stored (see Figure Stable: natural shelf life is Perishable: natural shelf life is
15.11). It is also quite possible to use the maize crib shown from one to several years a few days to several months
in Chapter 16, Figure 16.5 for chitting seed potatoes if it is losses usually caused by losses usually caused by
not needed for maize storage at the time. moulds, insects and rodents rotting (bacteria, fungi),
senescence, sprouting and
bruising

Storage requirements
To store perishable crops, the main requirements are to
lower the temperature substantially and to retain moisture
in the produce. Table 15.2 illustrates the storage
conditions and storage life of some fruits and vegetables.

Mixing commodities
Some crops produce odours in storage, while others emit
volatile gases such as ethylene. Ethylene stimulates the
ripening of many fruits and vegetables. This is negligible
at low temperatures but may be a nuisance at higher
temperatures. Consequently, even when two or three crops
require the same storage conditions, it is not advisable to
Roof light
store them together.
Products that emit ethylene include bananas, avocados,
melons, tomatoes, apples, pears and all fleshy fruits.
Lettuce, carrots and greens are damaged when stored with
fruits or vegetables that produce ethylene. Even very small
Light and ventilation
amounts can be harmful. It is recommended that onions,
nuts, citrus fruits and potatoes each be stored separately.
Table 15.3 shows compatibility groups for storage of some
Rat guard fruits and vegetables. More compatibility groups can be
found in the literature.
Chitting trays stacked side by side

Onions
Figure 15.11 larger-scale potato chitting store The following technique has been developed for
harvesting, drying and storing onions:
• Onions are harvested when at least one-third of the
periSHable cropS tops have fallen over.
• If the weather is dry, the onions are left in the field
Fruit and vegetables to dry. The neck must become tight and the outer
The majority of fruits and vegetables are highly perishable scales should rustle when dry. This is most
commodities with a short storage life. The exceptions, important, and successful storage depends on full
including apples and potatoes, can last for several months drying or curing.
if well stored. Table 15.1 gives the primary differences • If the weather is unsuitable for outside curing, the
between non-perishable and perishable crops. onions may be placed on slatted shelves in a well-
Table 15.2
ideal storage temperature, relative humidity and expected storage life of fruits and vegetables
product Temperature relative humidity (percent) approximate storage life
apples -1–4 90–95 1–12 months
apricots -0.5–0 90–95 1–3 weeks
asparagus 0–2 95–100 2–3 weeks
avocados 13 85–90 2 weeks
bananas, green 13–14 90–95 14 weeks
beans, green or snap 4–7 95 7–10 days
beans, lima (in pods) 5–6 95 5 days
beets, bunched 0 98–100 10–14 days
broccoli 0 95–100 10–14 days
brussels sprouts 0 95–100 3–5 weeks
Cabbage, early 0 98–100 3–6 weeks
Carrots, mature 0 98–100 7–9 months
Carrots, immature 0 98–100 4–6 weeks
Celery 0 98–100 2–3 months
Coconuts 0–1.5 80–85 1–2 months
Cucumbers 10–13 95 10–14 days
eggplants 12 90–95 1 week
Garlic 0 65–70 6–7 months
Ginger root 13 65 6 months
Grapes, vinifera -1 to -0.5 90–95 1–6 months
Guavas 5–10 90 2–3 weeks
Kale 0 95–100 2–3 weeks
Kiwifruit 0 90–95 3–5 months
leeks 0 95–100 2–3 months
lemons 10–13 85–90 1–6 months
lettuce 0 98–100 2–3 weeks
Mangoes 13 85–90 2–3 weeks
Mushrooms 0 95 34 days
Okra 7–10 90–95 7–10 days
Olives, fresh 5–10 85–90 +6 weeks
Onions, dry 0 65–70 1–8 months
Papayas 7–13 85–90 1–3 weeks
Parsley 0 95–100 2–2.5 months
Peaches –0.5–0 90–95 2–4 weeks
Pears -1.5 to -0.5 90–95 2–7 months
Peas, green 0 95–98 1–2 weeks
Peas, southern 4–5 95 6–8 days
Peppers, chili (dry) 0–10 60–70 6 months
Peppers, sweet 7–13 90–95 2–3 weeks
Pineapples 7–13 85–90 24 weeks
Plantain 13–14 90–95 1–5 weeks
Plums and prunes –0.5–0 90–95 2–5 weeks
Potatoes, late crop 4.5–13 90–95 5–10 months
Pumpkins 10–13 50–70 2–3 months
Spinach 0 95–100 10–14 days
Squashes, summer 5–10 95 1–2 weeks
Tangerines and related citrus fruits 4 90–95 24 weeks
Tomatoes, mature-green 18–22 90–95 1–3 weeks
Tomatoes, firm-ripe 13–15 90–95 4–7 days
Turnips 0 95 4–5 months
Watermelons 10–15 90 2–3 weeks
Yams 16 70–80 6–7 months
Yucca root 0–5 85–90 1–2 months
Source: McGregor, b.M. 1989. Tropical products transport handbook. United States Department of agriculture (USDa) Office
of Transportation, agricultural Handbook 668.
Table 15.3
compatibility groups for storage of fruits and vegetables
Group 1: many products in this group produce ethylene at 0–2 °c, 90–95% relative humidity. *citrus treated with biphenyl may transfer
odours to other products

apricots Horseradish Peaches

apples Grapes (without sulphur dioxide) Parsnips
Kohlrabi Pears Plums
leeks Persimmons Pomegranates
beets, topped longan Prunes
berries (except cranberries) loquat Quinces
Cashew apple lychee Radishes
Cherries Mushrooms
Coconuts Nectarines
Group 2: many products in this group are sensitive to ethylene at 0–2 °c, 95–100% relative humidity. *These products can be top-iced

amaranth* Cherries Parsley*

anise Daikon* Parsnips*
artichokes* endive* Peas*
asparagus escarole* Pomegranate
bean sprouts Grapes (without sulphur dioxide) Radicchio
beets* Horseradish Radishes*

Source: McGregor, b.M. 1989. Tropical products transport handbook. United States Department of agriculture (USDa) Office
of Transportation, agricultural Handbook 668.

ventilated open shed. Layers should be no more than resulting temperatures at midday on the following day as much as
10–15 cm deep (the seed potato store can be used for 10 °C below ambient temperature.
this purpose).
• Onions will keep at higher temperatures than shown Commercial cool store
in Table 15.2, and this seems practical, particularly As Table 15.2 shows, only a few crops, including
in dry areas. This involves placing cured onions in a potatoes, onions, carrots and apples, can be stored for
slatted-floor store that is freely ventilated, except periods longer than a few days or weeks. However, the
during damp periods. wholesale merchant will require short-term refrigerated storage
for the produce and separate rooms will be needed for
Storage structures for perishables crops that are not compatible for storage together. As with
refrigerated potato stores, attention must be given to adequate
A low-cost cool store insulation, a good vapour seal and large evaporators to help to
A simple, low-cost structure for storing vegetables for the maintain high humidity. To make sure the storage room can
few hours between harvesting and transport to the market be kept at the desired temperature, the required refrigeration
should be useful to all types of farmer. The basic capacity should be calculated using the most severe conditions
construction is similar to that shown in Figure 15.2. A expected during operation. These conditions include the
simple frame is constructed with poles or other low- cost mean maximum outside temperature, the maximum amount of
materials. A covering of grass or other thatching material produce cooled each day, and the maximum temperature
provides protection for the produce from excess of the produce to be cooled. The total amount of heat that
temperatures and moisture loss until it can be transported to the refrigeration system must remove from the cooling
market. room is called the heat load.
The wall should be extended to ground level on three The sources of heat include:
sides but left open on the fourth (prevailing wind) side, for Heat conduction: heat entering through the insulated
ventilation. This allows free air movement most of the walls, ceiling, and floor.
time, but canvas flaps should be provided for closing the Field heat: heat extracted from the produce as it cools
ventilation openings when required. to the storage temperature.
The grass roof and walls can be kept wet with a Heat of respiration: heat generated by the produce as a
sprinkler pipeline or, if that is not available, the thatching can be natural by-product of its respiration.
sprinkled by hand as required. The interior will be kept cool Service load: heat from lights, equipment, people, and
and moist with temperatures as much as 5–8 °C lower than warm, moist air entering through cracks or through the door
outside. More important, produce harvested late in the when opened.
afternoon can be cooled during the night, with
common cooling methods for produce Transportation of horticultural crops
Cooling methods include the following: Transport vehicles should be well insulated to maintain cool
Room cooling: This involves placing produce in an environments for precooled commodities and well
insulated room equipped with refrigeration units to chill ventilated to allow air movement through the produce.
the air. Although room cooling is effective for storing Travelling during the night and early morning can reduce the
precooled produce, in some cases it cannot remove field heat load on vehicles transporting produce. Mixed loads
heat rapidly enough. Carefully directing the output of the can be a serious concern when optimum temperatures are
cooling system evaporator fans can improve the cooling
not compatible or when ethylene-producing commodities and
rate significantly.
ethylene-sensitive commodities are transported together.
Forced-air cooling: This is used in conjunction with a
A wide range of pallet covers are available for covering
cooling room and is effective on most packaged produce. cooled products during handling and transportation.
To increase the cooling rate, additional fans are used to Polyethylene covers are inexpensive and lightweight and they
increase the flow of cool air through the packages of protect pallet loads from dust, moisture and some loss of
produce. Although the cooling rate depends on the air cold. Lightweight insulated covers can protect the load
temperature and the rate of airflow through the packages, this from heat gain for several hours. Heavyweight covers are
method is usually 75–90 percent faster than room cooling. sometimes used to protect tropical products from the cold
The fans are normally equipped with a thermostat that during winter shipment.
automatically shuts them off as soon as the desired produce
temperature is reached, to reduce energy consumption and
refrigerated trailers
water loss from the produce.
For optimum transport temperature management,
Hydro-cooling: This method can be used on most
refrigerated trailers need insulation, a high-capacity
commodities that are not sensitive to wetting. Wetting often
refrigeration unit and fan, and an air delivery duct. The
encourages the growth of microorganisms. In this process,
condition of the inside of a refrigerated trailer affects its
chilled water flows over the produce, rapidly removing
ability to maintain desired temperatures during transportation.
heat. At typical flow rates and temperature differences,
Handlers should inspect the trailer before loading and check the
water removes heat about 15 times faster than air. However,
following:
hydro-cooling is only about 20–40 percent energy efficient,
compared with 70–80 percent for room cooling and • door and door seal damage
forced-air cooling. • wall damage
Top or liquid icing: This may be used on a variety of • clean floor
commodities. In the top-icing process, crushed ice is • floor drains clean and open
added to the container on top of the produce by hand or • door and inside height adequate for the intended load
machine. For liquid icing, aslurry of water and ice is injected • trailer precooled before loading
into produce packages through vents or handholds without • refrigeration unit operates satisfactorily.
de-palletizing the packages or removing their tops. As the
ice has a residual effect, this method works well with
commodities, such as sweet- corn and broccoli, that have a open vehicles
high respiration rate. One kilogram of ice will cool about 3 An open-air vehicle can be loaded in such a way as to
kg of produce from 29 °C to 4 °C. allow air to pass through the load, and to provide some
Vacuum cooling: This system is effective on products cooling of the produce as the vehicle moves. Bulk loads of
that have a high ratio of surface area to volume, such as leafy produce should be carefully loaded to avoid causing
greens and lettuce, which would be very difficult to cool mechanical damage. Vehicles can be padded or lined with
with forced-air or hydro-cooling. The produce is placed a thick layer of straw. Woven mats or sacks can be used in
inside a large metal cylinder and much of the air is the beds of small vehicles. Other loads should not be
evacuated. The vacuum causes water to evaporate rapidly placed on top of the bulk commodity. High transportation
from the surface of the produce, lowering its temperature. speeds and/or long-distance transport run the risk of causing
If overdone, this process may cause wilting from water excess drying of the crop.
loss. Vacuum coolers can be energy efficient but are
expensive to purchase and operate.
Evaporative cooling: This is an effective and
inexpensive means of providing a lower temperature
atmosphere with high relative humidity for cooling
produce. It is accomplished by misting or wetting the
produce in the presence of a stream of dry air. Evaporative
cooling works best when the relative humidity of the air is
below 65 percent.
reView queSTioNS FurTHer reaDiNG
1. Describe the operational principle of a refrigeration
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system.
storage, Lima, International Potato Centre.
2. Describe some of the ways in which some
Farm Electric Centre. 1974. Vegetable storage: a guide
semiperishable and perishable crops are stored in your
to the practical design of installations. Warwickshire,
locality, and identify the advantages and disadvantages
National Agriculture Centre.
of such storage systems.
FAO. 1970. Sundrying fruits and vegetables. FAO
3. Discuss the different crop-cooling methods for
Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 5. Rome.
produce while in storage.
FAO. 1972. Fruit juice processing. FAO Agricultural
4. Outline in detail the steps involved in determining the
Services Bulletin No. 13. Rome.
refrigeration load required for a cold-storage facility.
FAO. 1973. Cold-storage design and operation: fruit
juice processing. FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No.
19. Rome.
FAO. 1977. Cassava Processing, 2nd ed. FAO Agricultural
Services Bulletin No. 8. Rome.
FAO. 1980. Food loss prevention in perishable crops.
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Golob, P., Farrell, G. & Orchard, J.E. 2002. Crop post-
harvest: science and technology. Volume 1. Oxford,
United Kingdom, Blackwell Science Ltd.
Graf Ballestrem, C. & Holler, H.J. 1977.
Potato production in Kenya: experiences and
recommendations for improvements. Eschborn,
German Agency for Technical Cooperation, Ltd.
(GTZ).
Kasmire, R.F. & Hinsch, R.T. 1987. Maintaining
optimum transit temperatures in refrigerated truck
shipments of perishables. University of California
Perishables Handling Transportation Supplement No. 2.
McGregor, B.M. 1989. Tropical products transport
handbook. Agricultural Handbook No. 668. United
States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Office of
Transportation.
McLean, K.A. 1980. Handling and storage of
combinable crops. Ipswich, Farming Press Ltd.
Plucknett, D.L. (ed.). 1979. Small-scale processing and
storage of tropical root crops. Westview Tropical
Agricultural Series No. 1. Boulder, Colorado,
Westview Press Inc.
Willis, R.H.H., Lee, T.H., Graham D., McGlasson,
W.B. & Hall, E.G. 1981. Postharvest: an
introduction to thephysiology andhandlingoffruit
andvegetables. London, Granada Publishing Ltd.
World Food Programme (WFP). 1979. Food storage:
handbook on good storage practice. Rome.