ABE 131 Lecture (Chapter 2B)

Chapter 2
Primemovers in the Agricultural and

Bio-production Systems
ABE 131
AB MACHINERY AND MECHANIZATION
REYNOLD M. CAOILI, PhD

Mariano Marcos State University
College of Engineering
Department of Agricultural and
Biosystems Engineering
OUTLINE
A. Sources of Power in the Farm
B. Human Power
C. Animal Power
D. Electric Motors
E. Internal Combustion Engines
F. Tractors and their Transmission Systems
Learning Objectives
At the end of the chapter, the student must be able to:
• identify and describe the different sources of power in the

farms;
• identify the main construction of the different primemovers in

the agricultural and bio-production systems;
• identify the main construction of tractor and their

transmission systems; and
• compute problems involving testing and operations of these

primemovers.
Early History of ICE
1860 J.J.E. Lenoir developed the first fairly practical engine;

mechanical efficiency was up to 5%
1867 Otto-Langen engine, with efficiency improved to about

11%, was introduced by Nicolaus Otto and Eugen Langen
1876 Nicolaus Otto developed his four-stroke prototype engine
1978 Clark Dugald developed the first two-stroke cycle engine;

engine producing one power impulse for every revolution
instead of for every two revolutions
1884 An unpublished French patent to Alphonse Beau

de Rochas was found which described the
principles of the first four-stroke cycle
Beau de Rochas Principle

Conditions for ICE to achieve maximum efficiency:
1. The largest possible cylinder volume with the
minimum boundary surface
2. The largest possible working speed
3. The greatest possible expansion ratio
4. The greatest possible pressure at the beginning of
expansion
Early History of ICE
1892 Rudolph Diesel had perfected his compression ignition

engine
1920’s Multi-cylinder compression ignition engines were small

enough to be used with cars and trucks
• The internal combustion engine is a heat engine that

converts the heat energy of fuels into mechanical energy.
• The combustible fuel and air mixture is placed inside the

cylinder in a gaseous condition, compressed and ignited
resulting in a very rapid combustion and instantaneous
application of pressure on the piston.
• Its thermal efficiency, however, is low ranging only from
15% to 36 %.
• Despite this, it is still considered one of the few inventions

that have great influence on human lives.
Major Components of ICE
Construction and Parts of Engines:
• The internal combustion

engine is composed of
mutually constrained and
related parts that convert
the pressure generated in
the cylinder into rotational
motion
Construction and Parts
Classified into Four (4) Groups:

1. Power Chain – to receive, exert, and transmit the
motive forces
2. Stationary Parts – to constrain and support moving
parts
3. Valve System – time the operating sequence

4. Auxiliary parts & Accessories – to cool and lubricate
the surfaces and provide ignition and fuel for the
engine
Power Chain:– to receive, exert, and transmit the motive forces

• Piston – reciprocating cylindrical-shaped mass that
transmits the pressure forces in the combustion
chamber to the rotating crankshaft
• Piston rings – retain compression; reduce cylinder wall

contact thereby reducing friction losses and wear
• Piston pin – serves to fasten the piston to the upper

end of the connecting rod; wrist pin
Power Chain:
• Connecting rod – transmits the power of combustion
from the piston to the crankshaft
• Connecting rod bearing - bearing where connecting rod
fastens to crankshaft
• Crankshaft – converts the rectilinear motion of the piston
into rotation
• Flywheel – inertia, keep the engine at uniform speed when
the crankshaft is not receiving power from the piston
Stationary Parts: – to constrain and support moving parts

• Cylinder block – confines the expanding gases and forms
the combustion chamber
• Cylinder head – houses the valves and forms a cover to the

cylinder
• Combustion chamber – end of the cylinder between the

head and the piston face where combustion occurs;
sometimes synonymous with the term "cylinder”
Stationary Parts:
• Crankcase – serves the purpose of supporting the shaft,
mounting the cylinder, housing the running parts, and
forming the reservoir for lubricating oil
• Intake manifold – serves to conduct the air or air-fuel

mixture into the cylinder
• Exhaust manifold – serves to conduct the burned gases

away from the engine
Valve System: – time the operating sequence

• Valves – used for opening and closing ports leading into
or out of the combustion chambers
• Valve seats – maybe formed in the cylinder head or

block or maybe a removable inserts of special alloy steel
• Valve stem guide – fits tightly in the cylinder block and

serves to guide the valve in motion
Valve System:
• Valve lifter or tappets – raise the valves in the L-head
and T-head types of engines; receives their motions
from cams mounted on a camshaft or cam gear
• Valve lifter guide – serves to guide the tappets in its

motion
• Rocker arm – pivoted in its center; one end contacts

the end of the valve stem and the other contacts the
upper end of the tappet
Valve System:
• Push rod - linkage between the camshaft and valves on
overhead valve engines
• Cam – a wheel with a lobe or projection on its face
• Camshaft – rotating shaft used to push open valves at

the proper time in the engine cycle
Auxiliary System: – to cool and lubricate the surfaces and provide

ignition and fuel for the engine
• Radiator – heat exchanger used to remove heat from

the engine coolant after the engine has been cooled
upstream end of the intake system; honeycomb
construction
• Water pump – pump used to circulate engine coolant

through the engine and radiator.
Physical Nomenclature
Bore (d) - the diameter of the engine cylinder. Inches,

millimeters or centimeters are used.
Stroke (L) – distance that the piston travels from bottom-dead

center (BDC) to top-dead center (TDC) or from TDC to BDC.
Inches, millimeters or centimeters are used.
BDC – the piston is as far down in the cylinder as it will travel
TDC – the piston is as far up as it will travel.
Crank throw – the distance from the center of the crankshaft to

the center of the crankpin
Piston displacement (Pd) – the volume displace by the piston

during one stroke; swept volume. Cubic inches or cubic
centimeters are used.
𝝅𝒅𝟐
𝑷𝒅 = 𝑳
𝟒
Engine displacement (Total Pd) – sum of the Pd of individual

cylinders. For multi-cylinder engine, piston displacement is
multiplied by the number of cylinders.
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒅 = 𝑵 𝑷𝒅
Where: N is number of cylinders
Clearance volume (Cv) – the volume within the cylinder above

the piston when the piston is at the top of its stroke
Total cylinder volume (V) – the volume of the cylinder when

the piston is at bottom dead center. The sum of
piston displacement and clearance volume
𝑽 = 𝑷𝒅 + 𝑪𝒗
Compression ratio (Cr) – ratio of total cylinder volume to

clearance volume
𝑽 𝑷𝒅 + 𝑪𝒗
𝑪𝒓 = =
𝑪𝒗 𝑪𝒗
Sample problem:
Determine the compression ratio of the engine with the following specification:
Total volume = 70 cc, Bore = 4 cm and Stroke = 5 cm.
Given: V = 70 cc, d = 4 cm, L = 5 cm
Required: Find Cr
Solution:
𝑷𝒅 + 𝑪𝒗
𝑪𝒓 =
𝑪𝒗 𝝅𝒅𝟐 𝝅 𝟒 𝒄𝒎 𝟐
where: 𝑷𝒅 = 𝟒
𝑳 = 𝟒
𝟓𝒄𝒎 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟖𝟑 𝒄𝒄
𝑪𝒗 = 𝑽 − 𝑷𝒅 = 𝟕𝟎 𝒄𝒄 − 𝟔𝟐. 𝟖𝟑 𝒄𝒄 = 𝟕. 𝟏𝟕 cc
𝟔𝟐. 𝟖𝟑 + 𝟕. 𝟏𝟕
𝑪𝒓 = = 𝟗. 𝟕𝟔
𝟕. 𝟏𝟕
Therefore, Cr = 9.76:1
Sample problem:
Determine the bore of the engine if its clearance volume is 7.18 cc,
compression ratio is 8:1 and stroke is 4 cm.
Given: Cv = 7.18 cc, Cr = 8:1 L = 4 cm
Requir=ed: Bore = d
Solution:
𝜋𝑑 2
from 𝑃𝑑 = 𝐿
4
4𝑃𝑑 where: 𝑃𝑑 =?
𝑑=
𝜋𝐿
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑉 − 𝐶𝑣 from 𝑉 = 𝑃𝑑 + 𝐶𝑣
4(50.26𝑐𝑐) 𝑉
𝑑= where: 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝑣 from 𝐶𝑟 =
𝜋(4 𝑐𝑚) 𝐶𝑣
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝑣 = 8 7.18 𝑐𝑐 = 57.44 𝑐𝑐
𝑑 = 4 𝑐𝑚 𝑃𝑑 = 57.44 𝑐𝑐 − 7.18 𝑐𝑐 = 50.26 cc
Quiz 1
What is the total piston displacement for a 3” × 4” four-

stroke cycle engine with 4 cylinders?
a. 21,000 in3
b. 113 in3
c. 28 in3
d. 150 in3
e. 2,000 in3
Theory of Operation
• The function of all internal combustion engines is to
convert fuel (chemical energy) to power.
• Accomplished by burning a fuel in a closed chamber and
using the increase in temperature within the closed
chamber to cause a rise in pressure
• Pressure produces a force on the head of the piston
causing it to move
• The linear movement of the piston is converted to
rotary motion (at the crankshaft)
• Rotary motion is more useful than linear movement
Eight (8) Requirements for Operation
1. Air (oxygen) is drawn into the engine cylinder.
2. A quantity of fuel is introduced into the engine.
3. The air and the fuel are mixed.
4. The fuel–air mixture is compressed.
5. The fuel–air mixture is ignited by the spark plug in
gasoline engines or by the heat of compression in
diesel engines.
6. The burning of the fuel–air mixture causes a rapid
pressure increase in the cylinder, which acts against
the piston, producing a force on the piston.
Eight (8) Requirements for Operation
7. The use of a connecting rod and a crankshaft
converts the linear movement of the piston to
rotary motion. The force on the piston is converted
to torque on the crankshaft.
8. The products of combustion are expelled from the
engine.
2 ways in which combustion takes place in ICE
1. By rapid explosion of mixture within cylinder when
it is ignited by a spark (constant-volume process)
2. By relatively slow burning as the fuel is injected
into highly compressed, heated air (constant –
pressure process)
Engine Classifications
1. Type of ignition
a. Spark Ignition (SI)
b. Compression Ignition (CI)
2. Engine Cycle
a. 4-stroke cycle
b. 2-stroke cycle
3. Valve location
a. Valves in head / overhead valve (I-head engine)
b. Valves in block / flat head (L-head engine)
c. One valve in head (intake) and one in block (F-head
engine)
3. Valve location
L-head
I-head F-head
4. Basic design
a. Reciprocating
b. Rotary
5. Position and Number of cylinders of reciprocating engines
a. Single cylinder
b. In-line
c. V-engine
d. Opposed cylinder engine
e. W-engine
f. Opposed piston engine
g. Radial engine
4. Position and
Number of
cylinders of
a. Single cylinder b. In-line c. V-engine
reciprocating
engines
d. Opposed cylinder engine

e. W-engine
f. Opposed piston engine

g. Radial engine
6. Air intake process

a. Naturally aspirated
b. Supercharged
c. Turbocharged
d. Crankcase compressed
7. Methods of fuel input (SI)

a. Carbureted
b. Multi-point port fuel injection
c. Throttle body fuel injection
8. Fuel used
a. Gasoline
b. Diesel or fuel oil
c. Gas, natural gas , methane
d. LPG
e. Alco-ethyl, methyl
f. Dual fuel
g. Gasohol or alcogas
9. Application
a. Automobile, truck, bus
b. Locomotive
c. Stationary
d. Marine
e. Aircraft
f. Small portable, chainsaw, model airplane
10. Type of cooling

a. Air-cooled
b. Liquid-cooled, water-cooled
Engine Classifications:
Based on the number of strokes to

complete the cycle
• All internal combustion engines

during their operation follow a
definite cycle.
Engine Cycle of
• A cycle is a series of events operation
occurring one after the other in a
definite order and repeats itself
after the last event has occurred.
Events for one cycle
a. Intake -air or air-fuel mixture enters the
combustion chamber.
b. Compression - air or air-fuel mixture is
compressed inside the combustion chamber. Engine Cycle of
c. Power - air-fuel mixture is ignited resulting to a operation
very rapid expansion of the burning mixture.

d. Exhaust - burned gases are removed from the
combustion chamber, and the cycle is repeated.
Four-stroke-cycle engine: This
engine requires four strokes
of the piston to complete the
cycle.
A stroke is the movement of

the piston from one extreme
position to the other extreme
position.
-Top dead center position
(TDC)
-Bottom dead center position
(BDC).
1) Intake stroke
• Begins with the piston moves downward from

TDC to BDC.
• The movement increases the volume within the
combustion chamber producing partial vacuum so
that air or air-fuel mixture will enter the cylinder.
• Simultaneously, the intake valve opens to allow
the entry of air alone (in CI) or air-fuel mixture
(in SI).
• At the completion of this stroke, the piston is at
the bottom of the cylinder and both valves are
closed.
2) Compression stroke
• When the piston reaches at the bottom of the

cylinder on the intake stroke it starts now to
moves upward
• The movement reduces the volume of the
combustion chamber occupied by the air or
air-fuel mixture with an accompanying
increase in pressure and temperature.
• The valves are closed to prevent compressed
gases from leaking.
• At the top of this stroke, the fuel mixture is
compressed tightly.
3) Power stroke
• Before the piston moves downward, fuel is

introduced or a spark from the spark plug
is produced initiating the combustion of the
air-fuel mixture resulting in a very high-
pressure pushing the piston down very
rapidly.
• It is this movement of the piston that gives

power to the engine.
• Still, both valves are closed to get maximum

power from the expanding gases.
4) Exhaust stroke
• When the piston reaches the bottom,

the piston again moves upward
sweeping the burned gases out of the
combustion chamber.
• This time, the exhaust valve is open to
allow the exit of burned gases or
exhaust fumes out of the cylinder.
• Exhaust stroke is completed with the
piston at TDC.
• Cycle is repeated.
How Diesel Engines Work - Part - 1 (Four Stroke Combustion Cycle)

Diesel Engine, how it works
Two-stroke-cycle engine
This engine requires only two

movements of the piston to
complete the cycle.
This implies that in one stroke

several events have to occur.
1) Downward stroke –
• At the beginning of the

stroke, power event is being
accomplished.
• Towards the end of the
stroke, the exhaust port along
the side of the cylinder is
uncovered by the piston that
starts the exhaust event.
• Still further down, the piston
also uncovers the inlet port
that now starts the intake
event.
2) Upward stroke –
• At the beginning of the stroke,

both intake and exhaust events
are occurring.
• As the piston goes up, the inlet

port will be covered and followed
by the exhaust port.
• From then on, compression will be

accomplished and the crankcase
recharged with fresh supply of air-
fuel mixture.
Two-stroke engine animation

2-stroke vs 4-stroke engine
Based on the manner of igniting the fuel:
a. Spark-ignition engine –
• This engine uses a spark produced by a
spark plug to ignite the compressed air-
fuel mixture.
• The spark is timed to occur before the
end of compression such that maximum
pressure due to the expansion of burning
gases is felt when the piston is ready to
start its downward movement.
• The fuel used in this engine is gasoline
and the carburetor does the metering.
b. Compression-ignition engine –
• This engine uses the heat of compressed air to

ignite the fuel.
• During the intake stroke, only air is taken in

hence, only air is compressed.
• The air is compressed to a very high degree

producing a very high temperature in the
combustion chamber.
b. Compression-ignition engine –
• Towards the end of compression, pressurized fuel is

injected into the cylinder.
• The moment the fuel comes in contact with the

hot air, spontaneous ignition and combustion
occurs producing the power of the engine.
Therefore, based on the classification of engines, four
different types of engines may be identified:
1. Four-stroke-cycle-spark-ignition engine
2. Four-stroke-cycle-compression-ignition engine
3. Two-stroke-cycle-spark ignition engine
4. Two-stroke-cycle compression-ignition engine

Four-stroke-cycle-spark-ignition engine
Four-stroke-cycle-compression-ignition engine
Two-stroke-cycle-spark ignition engine
Two-stroke-cycle compression-ignition engine
Comparison between four-stroke and two-stroke engines
CHARACTERISTICS 4-STROKE- ENGINE 2-STROKE ENGINE

No. of power events 1 per two rev. of crankshaft 2 per two rev. of crankshaft
Power output smaller larger (1.5 times)
Valve mechanism required not required
Fuel consumption lesser more (15% more)
Oil consumption little much
Size of crankcase smaller larger
Carbon deposits little much
Weight per hp heavier lighter
Cost higher lower
Comparison between spark-ignition and
compression-ignition engines
SPARK-IGNITION COMPRESSION-IGNITION
CHARACTERISTICS
ENGINE ENGINE
Method of ignition Spark heat of compression
Compression ratio lower (5-8:1) higher (14-22:1)
Thermal efficiency lower (25-30%) higher (30-36%)

Fuel induction carburetor injector
Fuel used gasoline diesel
12-15:1 15-100:1
Air-fuel ratio
Fuel consumption higher lower
Exhaust gas temp. higher (1300F) lower (900F)
Weight per hp lower higher
Cost lower higher

Specifications of engines:
In the acquisition, replacement and comparison of engines, it is

necessary to take into consideration the following specifications:
1. Engine type (number of strokes, manner of ignition, cylinder

number and arrangement).
2. Engine dimensions (bore, stroke, displacement, weight, length,
width, and height)
3. Output (maximum power, rated power, compression ratio,
maximum torque and rpm)
4.Capacities (fuel, lubricating oil and cooling water)
5. Auxiliary systems (valve, ignition, fuel, air cleaning, cooling,
lubrication, starting and governing)
Specifications of engines:
Example of engine specifications
CHARACTERISTIC SPECIFICATION
Engine type : 4-stroke spark-ignition vertical single cylinder
Maximum output : 6.8 hp at 4,000 rpm
Rated output : 5.0 hp at 3,600 rpm
Bore x stroke, displacement : 72 x 59 mm, 240 cc
Compression ratio : 6:1
Maximum torque : 1.25 kg-m at 3,000 rpm
Ignition system : flywheel magneto
Starting system : recoil starter
Air cleaner : semi-dry type (polyurethane)
Lubrication system : splash type
Lubrication capacity : 0.82 li
Fuel tank capacity : 6.9 li
Dry weight : 28 kg
Dimensions : 410 mm x 370 mm x 490 mm
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
TORQUE and POWER
TORQUE
• turning effort
• good indicator of an engine’s ability to do
work
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
TORQUE and POWER

Force doing work
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
TORQUE and POWER
Power – rate of doing work
Rotary Speed/Angular Speed – amount of

angular rotation per unit of time
Rotary Power – product of work/rev and rotary

speed
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
INDICATED POWER
– power generated in the cylinder and
received by the piston
2-stroke where:
IP – indicated power
P – indicated mean effective pressure
L – stroke
4-stroke A – Area of piston/cylinder
N – angular speed of crankshaft (rpm)
n – number of engine cylinders
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Mean Effective Pressure

• equivalent constant pressure develop at the
top of the piston during the power stroke
• merely the height of the p-v diagram
• area within the p-v diagram divided by the

displacement volume of one cylinder
ENGINE PERFORMANCE

ENGINE PERFORMANCE

ENGINE PERFORMANCE
BRAKE POWER
– power that is available at the engine output
shaft/flywheel for doing useful work
where:
BP – brake power
T – torque
N – angular speed of crankshaft (rpm)
F – force
L – length/radius of brake arm
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
FRICTION POWER
– Part of the indicated power that is absorbed in the
engine and is not available for useful work
– Includes the power required to overcome the friction

in the moving parts of the engine plus pumping
losses on the intake and compression strokes
where:
FP – friction power
BP – brake power
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Brake Power Measurement
Dynamometer
– instrument for measuring engine (brake) power
Essential Elements:
-means for controlling torque
-means for measuring torque
-means for measuring speed
-means for dissipating the power
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Dynamometer
Prony Brake Dynamometer

ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Electric Dynamometer
– use of generator to control the torque and dissipate the
power
Eddy-Current Dynamometer
– use of magnetic field to control torque
Hydraulic Dynamometer
– use of water or oil pumped through orifices to absorbed
engine power
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Mechanical Efficiency
– fraction of IP that is delivered as useful power
– ratio of BP to IP
where:
Effm – mechanical efficiency
BP – brake power
• Varies from 75% to 90% depending on the

speed, load and other factors
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Mechanical Efficiency
Factors:
• losses due to friction in the moving parts such as
crankshaft and connecting- rod bearings, pistons and
cylinders, valve mechanisms, and cooling and pump
• losses involved in the induction of the fuel mixture

and the exhaust of the residue.
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
Indicated Thermal Efficiency

– fraction of power value of fuel that is converted to IP
Note: Power must be converted into heat-energy units or the

fuel into mechanical power unit
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
Brake Thermal Efficiency

– fraction of power value of fuel that is converted to BP
– overall efficiency of the engine in converting fuel power into
useful work
ICE have thermal efficiencies that vary from 15% to 35% depending
on the type of engine, speed, load and other factors.
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Fuel Consumption
– quantity of fuel consumed by the engine per unit time
– by volume or by mass
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
(Brake) Specific Fuel Consumption

– fuel consumption in relation to the amount of work that is being
done by the engine
– good indicator of engine efficiency
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
PAES Engine Test

ENGINE PERFORMANCE
PAES Engine Test
Performance Curve
Varying Load Test

ENGINE PERFORMANCE
PAES Engine Test
Performance Curve
Continuous Running Test

Problem Set 2
1. The crankshaft of a 100 mm square engine turns

at 2000 rpm. If the instantaneous piston head
pressure is 800 kPa when the shaft has rotated
90 deg after head dead center, what is the torque
available at the crankshaft? Neglect friction
effects.
Problem Set 2
2. A 4-cylinder, 4-stroke, 90 mm x 100 mm engine

develops an indicated mean effective pressure of 900
kPa while generating a crankshaft torque of 150 Nm
at 2500 rpm. Determine the ff:
a. IP, hp
b. BP, hp
c. FP, hp
d. Effm, %
Problem Set 2
3. Estimate the thermal efficiency of an engine

having a brake specific fuel consumption of 0.25
kg/kW-hr. The fuel used has a heating value of
about 47,600 kJ/kg.
Special Acknowledgment:
Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo (AENG 261)

Dr. Fernando O. Paras, Jr. (AENG 266)
IAE, CEAT, UPLB
For more information contact:
REYNOLD M. CAOILI, PhD

Mariano Marcos State University
College of Engineering
Department of Agricultural and
Biosystems Engineering
email address:
rmcaoili@mmsu.edu.ph
reynoldmcaoili@yahoo.com
FB Account Name:
Reynold M. Caoili
Contact Number:
(+63) 09356852107
SCHEDULES (2nd Sem 2020-2021)

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Chapter 2

Primemovers in the Agricultural and

REYNOLD M. CAOILI, PhD

• identify and describe the different sources of power in the

• identify the main construction of the different primemovers in

• identify the main construction of tractor and their

• compute problems involving testing and operations of these

1860 J.J.E. Lenoir developed the first fairly practical engine;

1867 Otto-Langen engine, with efficiency improved to about

1876 Nicolaus Otto developed his four-stroke prototype engine

1978 Clark Dugald developed the first two-stroke cycle engine;

1884 An unpublished French patent to Alphonse Beau

Beau de Rochas Principle

Early History of ICE

1892 Rudolph Diesel had perfected his compression ignition

1920’s Multi-cylinder compression ignition engines were small

• The internal combustion engine is a heat engine that

• The combustible fuel and air mixture is placed inside the

• Despite this, it is still considered one of the few inventions

• The internal combustion

Classified into Four (4) Groups:

3. Valve System – time the operating sequence

Power Chain:– to receive, exert, and transmit the motive forces

• Piston rings – retain compression; reduce cylinder wall

• Piston pin – serves to fasten the piston to the upper

Stationary Parts: – to constrain and support moving parts

• Cylinder head – houses the valves and forms a cover to the

• Combustion chamber – end of the cylinder between the

• Intake manifold – serves to conduct the air or air-fuel

• Exhaust manifold – serves to conduct the burned gases

Valve System: – time the operating sequence

• Valve seats – maybe formed in the cylinder head or

• Valve stem guide – fits tightly in the cylinder block and

• Valve lifter guide – serves to guide the tappets in its

• Rocker arm – pivoted in its center; one end contacts

• Cam – a wheel with a lobe or projection on its face

• Camshaft – rotating shaft used to push open valves at

Auxiliary System: – to cool and lubricate the surfaces and provide

• Radiator – heat exchanger used to remove heat from

• Water pump – pump used to circulate engine coolant

Bore (d) - the diameter of the engine cylinder. Inches,

Stroke (L) – distance that the piston travels from bottom-dead

Crank throw – the distance from the center of the crankshaft to

Piston displacement (Pd) – the volume displace by the piston

Engine displacement (Total Pd) – sum of the Pd of individual

Clearance volume (Cv) – the volume within the cylinder above

Total cylinder volume (V) – the volume of the cylinder when

Compression ratio (Cr) – ratio of total cylinder volume to

What is the total piston displacement for a 3” × 4” four-

d. Opposed cylinder engine

f. Opposed piston engine

6. Air intake process

7. Methods of fuel input (SI)

10. Type of cooling

Based on the number of strokes to

• All internal combustion engines

very rapid expansion of the burning mixture.

A stroke is the movement of

• Begins with the piston moves downward from

• When the piston reaches at the bottom of the