Ling 3 Strucutre of English Module
Ling 3 Strucutre of English Module
Ling 3 Strucutre of English Module
0
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic I: Noun 3
Topic II: Pronoun 7
Topic III: Verb 15
Topic IV: Adjective 20
Topic V: Adverb 24
Topic VI: Preposition 28
Topic VII: Conjunction 33
Topic VIII: Interjection 36
Topic IX: Basic Sentence Pattern 40
Topic X: Sentence Structure 44
Topic XI: Four Types of Sentence 47
Topic XII: Linguistics 62
Topic XIII: Grammar 64
Topic XIV: The Sounds of English 66
Topic XV: Theories of Language Teaching 73
Topic XVI: Language Teaching Methodology 77
References: 91
0|Page
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
LESSON 1: NOUNS
Nouns can be recognized by means of the following characteristics:
2. They have two INFLECTIONS, the PLURAL {-es} and the POSSESSIVE
(sometimes called the GENITIVE) {-‘s}. Both inflections have various
ALLOMORPHS
/əz/ appears after morphs ending in sibilants or affricates / s, z, š, ž, č ǰ /
/s/ appears after morphs ending in voiceless consonants / p, t, k, f, Ɵ /,
except the sibilants and affricate / s, š, č /
/z/ appears after morphs ending in vowels and voiced consonants / b, d,
g, v, ð, m, n, ŋ, l, r. y, w /, except the sibilants and the affricate / z, ž,
ǰ/
added to adjectives
{-ity} facility
{-ness} happiness
1|Page
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
5. Unlike other languages, gender is not an important feature of English
grammar. Gender is only marked in certain pairs of nouns, e.g.,
waiter/waitress, host/hostess
Functions of Nouns
Noun Types
2|Page
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
3. COLLECTIVE NOUNS are able to take either singular or plural verbs
forms, depending on the interpretation given to the noun, i.e., whether
it is seen as a unit or as a collection of individuals
The team has won all its games.
The team have won awards in their respective events.
NOUN GENDER
Examples
Masculine Feminine Gender neutral
man woman person
father mother parent
boy girl child
uncle aunt
husband wife spouse
actor actress
prince princess
waiter waitress server
rooster hen chicken
stallion mare horse
Many nouns that refer to people's roles and jobs can be used for either a
masculine or a feminine subject, like for example cousin, teenager, teacher,
doctor, student, friend, and colleagues.
Examples:
Examples
3|Page
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Sam is a female doctor.
No, he is not my boyfriend, he is just a male friend.
I have three female cousins and two male cousins.
Infrequently, nouns describing things without a gender are referred to with a
gendered pronoun to show familiarity. It is also correct to use the gender-neutral
pronoun (it).
Examples
I love my car. She (the car) is my greatest passion.
France is popular with her (France's) neighbours at the moment.
I travelled from England to New York on the Queen Elizabeth; she (the Queen
Elizabeth) is a great ship.
ANOTHER EXAMPLE
1. by adding -ess:
host – hostess
2. If the masculine ends in -er or -or the -er or -or is dropped before adding –ress:
tiger - tigress
actor - actress
4|Page
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
ARTICLES
5|Page
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
of, or certain The chapel in the village engineers.
a smile (only one chapel)
an insight
5 Before few and little Identification of a class, With institutions and
to mean some but especially in a practices felt to be unique
not many generalization, Offices open at 7 o’clock.
A few friends followed by a noun, or an Dinner is usually late.
A little salt adjective
The youth is the hope of the
future.
the physically challenged
6 When using a proper Beginning of a phrase With set phrases, usually
noun to indicate the containing an appositive pairs
characteristics of the Interpret this item, the one Heaven and hell
person named with an illustration
She is a Sister
Teresa. (a saintly
person)
7 To name “a certain With prepositional phrases
person whose name At rest, in danger,
is.” on time
A Mr Alba came to
see you.
8 With nouns used in
headlines in newspapers,
captions in books, signs,
labels and the like
MURDERER ESCAPES
BEWARE OF DOG
9 For a family name in the With common nouns used
plural as terms of address and
The Basas have arrived. therefore capitalized.
We are ready to go,
Mother.
10 Distinguishes people who
have the same name
The Jessica Reyes who
joined the beauty pageant
is not the Jessica Reyes
who is my cousin.
11 When the article is part of a
geographical name
6|Page
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
The Philippines
The United States
The Red Sea
12 When the article is accepted
as part of any kind of proper
name
The Philippine Star
The Princess of Negros
The Hilton
The University of St. Tomas
The United Nations
LESSON 2: PRONOUNS
7|Page
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Most pronouns stand for, refer to, or replace a noun or a noun phrase
within a text; hence, they occupy the same position as a noun or noun phrase
does. The word or words that a pronoun stands for are its ANTECEDENT or
REFERENCE.
Kinds of Pronouns
Things to Remember:
8|Page
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
1. Animals closely related to people can be referred to by he, him, and his or
she, her, and hers.
2. Use it and its to refer to inanimate objects except ships, which are always
referred as she.
4. Traditionally, the pronouns he, him, and his have been used for mixed
groups or groups in which the sex is unknown. Many people now object to
this use, so they use both the masculine and feminine forms and the plural
forms to avoid the problem.
Everybody submitted his or her assignment. (awkward)
All the students submitted their assignments. (acceptable)
Reflexive Pronouns
1. Use the reflexive pronoun as the object of the verb form or preposition to
refer to the subject of the sentence.
2. The phrase by + self or its emphatic form all by + self means alone or
without any help.
Intensive Pronouns
The intensive form occurs directly after the word it modifies or at the end of the
clause.
9|Page
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Reciprocal Pronouns
1. The reciprocal pronoun forms are each other and one another. They mean
that each part of the subject did the action and also received the action.
3. Some prefer to use each other for two people or things and one another
for more than two.
The two finalists congratulated each other for making it to the top.
The class members prepared surprise gifts for one another during the
Christmas party.
Demonstrative Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
Use singular verbs with compound pronouns and use singular pronouns to refer
to them in formal writing.
10 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Informal: Nobody brought their books today.
Interrogative Pronouns
Relative Pronouns
3. Who, whom, and whose are used for persons while which is used for non-
persons.
The guest who came to dinner is the governor.
The book which I bought is a best seller.
6. That, which and whom are the only relative pronouns that can be left out.
The instrumental music (that) I like to hear often is that of Zamfir.
The house pests (which) I hate to see are the rodents and the
cockroach.
11 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
7. Who, whom, and whose can be used in both essential/RESTRICTIVE and
nonessential/NON-RESTRICTIVE clauses.
The man, who came to dinner, is the mayor. (non-essential/non-
restrictive, bounded by commas)
The man who came to dinner is the mayor. (essential/restrictive,
without commas)
10. Relative pronouns used in noun clauses are that, what, whatever,
whoever, whomever and whichever.
(noun clause as subject) Whatever you offer will be appreciated.
(noun clause as direct He will befriend whoever he gets
object) acquainted with.
11. Look at the antecedent of who, that or which when used as subject to
decide whether the verb following should be singular or plural.
The painting which is exhibited is the painter’s masterpiece.
The farmers who own orchards earn much from their harvest.
LESSON 3: VERBS
12 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
A verb can be recognized by means of the following characteristics:
The third person singular –s has the same allomorphs as the noun plural
and the noun possessive.
13 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Roses are lovely Valentine’s Day gifts.
Roses are sweet.
o COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERBS where what follows the object
(direct) relates to the object
They chose Niña, muse of the team.
o PREPOSITIONAL VERBS which requires a prepositional phrase to
be complete
We looked at the pictures taken during our graduation
Have tense and aspect qualities. Tense and aspect have to do with form.
TENSE is “the grammatical marking on verbs that usually indicates time
reference relative to either the time of speaking or the time at which some
other situation was in force” (Jacobs 1995). Time reference has to do with
meaning. Events and situations are located in time, perhaps to our
speaking about them, perhaps while we are speaking about them, or
perhaps at some later time. English has three tenses – present, past, and
future. The present and the past tenses have inflectional markings; while
the future is marked by the inclusion of the modals will or shall. Simply put,
tense is a set of verb forms that indicate a particular point in time or period
of time in the past, present, or future.
Tense-Aspect Combinations
14 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
eating
Past dreamed had dreamed was/were had been dreaming
dreaming
Ate had eaten was/were eating had been eating
Future will/shall will/shall have will/shall be will/shall have been
dream dream dreaming dreaming
will/shall eat will/shall have will/shall be will/shall have been
eaten eating eating
To talk about a settled state of affairs which includes the present moment
He lives in Sagada now.
Our teacher is very competent and considerate. We like her very
much.
15 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
To talk about an activity that took place regularly or repeatedly in the past,
but which no longer occurs
We swam in the river a great deal in my childhood.
To talk about general truths and to say what can be expected to happen if
a particular situation arises
An attack of dengue fever can keep a man off work for a few days.
He will earn nothing and he have trouble paying his hospital bills.
16 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
3. FUTURE PERFECT
To refer to something that has not happened yet, but will happen before a
particular time in the future.
By the time he graduates, his parents will already have left for New
Zealand
To talk about a habitual action that takes place regularly, especially one
which is new or temporary
She’s spending a lot on clothes these days.
17 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
3. FUTURE PROGRESSIVE
To say something will surely happen because arrangements have been
made
They will be sending their students regularly to the University for
English Proficiency Enhancement.
PERFECT-PROGRESSIVE ASPECT
18 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
By January 2011, she will have been serving this university for 38
years.
AUXILIARY/HELPING VERBS
2. AUXILIARY/HELPING VERBS
19 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
must study hard
3. OPERATORS/OPERATOR VERBS
1. Collective nouns may take either a singular or plural verb inflection depending
on the meaning.
20 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Conceived of as one entity – takes a singular verb
Our school team has won its games.
Conceived of as more than one entity or refers to individual membership –
takes plural verb
Our school team have won all their games.
2. Some common and proper nouns ending in –s, including –ics nouns and
certain diseases are always conceived as single entity – take a plural verb.
The recent news is exciting.
Mathematics is repelling to many students.
Measles is a contagious disease.
The United States is still a powerful country.
3. Titles of works even when plural in form are conceived of as single entitles.
The Ten Commandments is a beautiful movie.
The Syntax Files is good reading for those in linguistics.
The song Greenfields brings nostalgia to people of my generation.
4. Nouns occurring in sets of two take the singular when the noun pair is present
but take the plural when pair is absent.
That pair of Lee jeans is expensive.
My glasses are missing.
6. A number normally takes the plural. The number takes the singular.
A number of parents are coming for the meeting.
The number of signatories is substantial to merit approval of the
motion.
7. When we use a number and a plural noun to talk about two or more things, we
usually use a plural verb. We use a singular verb with ‘one’.
Seven days make up a week.
One solid evidence is enough to prove his dishonesty.
21 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
10. The quantifiers a lot (of), lots of, and plenty of take a singular verb if the
subject noun is non-count by plural verb if the subject head noun is plural.
A lot of sound views were advanced during the discussion.
A lot of nonsense is evident from uninterested participants.
11. Traditional grammar states that when used as a subject, none (meaning not
one) is always singular regardless of what follows in a prepositional phrase.
None of the boys joins the mountaineering group.
None of the rice is eaten at all.
12. Traditional grammar maintains that the antecedent of the relative pronoun is
the noun before.
Alice is one of the graduate students who have finished her master’s
degree in a short period of time.
13. For correlatives either . . . or and neither . . . nor, traditional grammar argues
for a proximity rule, i.e., subject-verb agreement should occur with the subject
noun nearest to the verb.
Either my friend or my classmates are expected to help me with my
project.
Neither my classmates nor my friend volunteers to lend support.
14. A singular noun or pronoun should take a singular verb inflection regardless
of what else occurs between the subject and the verb.
Jimmy, along with his co-teachers, conducts a cleanliness campaign in
the barangay.
22 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
15. In questions, subjects don’t always come before verbs. Identify accurately the
subject before deciding on the proper verb to use.
Does your father usually go jogging?
What are the pages our teacher wants us to read?
VOICE
The passive voice is more limited than the active in that it requires only the
transitive verbs – verbs that take direct objects.
The passive morphology is be . . . –en, i.e., a form of the be verb + the past
participle. Usually in passive sentences the agent is not mentioned at all, referred
to as the AGENTLESS PASSIVE. If the agent is mentioned (= AGENTED
PASSIVE), it appears in a prepositional phrase marked by the preposition by.
23 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Active: The child broke the antique vase.
Passive: The antique vase was broken.
4. Use a passive verb if you want to hide the name of the person who is
responsible for an unpleasant decision or result.
An increase in tuition fees was proposed.
PHRASAL VERBS
These are verbs which consist of two or three words. They consist of:
24 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
go up, spill over, and push through
2. a verb followed by a preposition;
come upon, reckon with, and bank on
3. a verb followed by an adverb and a preposition
break out of, look forward to, and go along with
1. intransitively
Why don’t you speak up?
2. transitively
Let’s cut down pollution to conserve our environment./
Let’s cut pollution down to conserve our environment.
Note that some phrasal verb may be separable. This is further explained
below.
25 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Meaning of Some Phrasal Verbs
A two-word verb often has a one-word synonym, which is generally more formal.
Here are some examples:
Object
back it/the car up
26 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
blow it/the candle out
it/the balloon up
break them/the statistics down down
them/the negotiations off
bring it/the change about
it/the subject up
burn it/the building down
them/the papers up
clear them/the dishes away
it/the misunderstanding up
close it/the business down
draw it/the agreement up
fill it/a form in/out
it/the cup up
find it/the answer out
give it/this old bag way
it/eating candy up
it/the news out
hand it/the work in/out
keep them/expenses down
it/the radio on
leave it/the question out
Let them/our friends in/out
lock them/the prisoners up
look them/our relatives in up
Manila
make it/the handwriting out
it/a story up
mix it/food being prepared up
them/people up
pass it/the responsibility on
pay it/the money back
them/my enemies back
pick it/a new shirt out
point it/the problem out
LESSON 4: ADJECTIVES
An adjective :
27 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
{-al} racial, normal
{-able} understandable, visible
{-ed} aged, learned
{-ful/-less} hopeful, hopeless
{-ish} childish, boyish
{-ive} active, native
{-ous} famous, marvellous
1. Restrictive/Non-restrictive adjectives
RESTRICTIVE adjectives are necessary for defining which noun is being
referred to while NON-RESTRICTIVE adjectives merely add information
without being essential for identification.
A concrete house. (restrictive)
My uncle owns a house, built of concrete materials. (non-restrictive)
2. Polarity
POLARITY refers to positive and negative contrasts in a language.
Positive polarity Negative polarity
big small, little
old young
long short
good bad
fast slow
28 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
and used in neutral contexts. Adjectives of negative polarity are MARKED.
They are less frequently used.
3. GRADABILITY
[Less [More
intense] intense]
Somewhat rare, rare, quite rare, very rare,
extremely rare
When two or more adjectives are used in a structure, they usually occur in a
particular order or sequence as follows:
29 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
LESSON 5: ADVERBS
30 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Kinds of Adverbs
Where we put only makes a big change in the meaning of a clause. To illustrate:
(no one else) 1. Onlyhe invited Alex to join the team this
year.
(not ordered) 2. He onlyinvited Alex to join the team this year this
year.
(no one but Alex) 3. He invited only Alex to join the team this year.
(to join, not to do 4. He invited Alex only to join the team this year.
anything else)
(recently as or 5. He invited Alex to join the team only this
year.
31 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
at no other time)
Positions of Adverbials
While some adverbials are fixed in their positions in the sentence, others
are movable. They can occur sentence initially, medially, or finally.
Order of Adverbials
LESSON 6: CONJUNCTIONS
Coordination
COORDINATION is the process of combining ideas. Two constituents of the
same type can be put together to produce another larger constituent of the same
type. Traditional grammar calls this process COMPOUNDING.
32 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Compound verb: The children playandeat during recess.
Compound object: We boiled cornandcassava.
1. ELLIPSIS: Omission or elision of the first verb phrase in the second and
adding the word too or either (for UNINVERTED FORMS), and so or
neither (for INVERTED FORMS).
Affirmative forms
My friends like to read storybooks and I, too. (uninverted)
A horse runs fast, and so does an ostrich. (Inverted)
Negative forms
Donna can’t climb a tree, and his little brother can’t, either.
(uninverted)
Ducks can’t fly high, and neither can chickens. (inverted)
Other than and, simple coordinating conjunctions include: for, nor, but, or, yet,
and so. Note the following examples:
milk or chocolate
small but/yet terrible
He came late, so he missed the fun. (clausal)
They accepted the verdict, for they failed to counter the charges against
them. (clausal)
Other forms of correlative conjunctions are either . . . or, not only . . . but also,
and neither . . . nor. These pairs are used together
Either Tony or Nico will top the test.
Anna is neither friendly nor generous.
Our teacher is not only competent but also very understanding.
33 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
3. As INFERENTIAL CONNECTIVE
34 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
A reader/listener can draw an inferential connection from sentences like
Susan jumped and hurt her ankle. The use of and invites the
listener/reader to seek some other implicit relevant connection between
stated conjuncts.
Subordination
SUBORDINATION means putting less important ideas in less important
grammatical structures like dependent clauses. One means of subordination is
SENTENCE COMBINING or REDUCING.
Sentence combining
Reducing
Although late, Melissa topped the
test
dependent independent clause
clause
Subordinating Conjunctions
35 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
while, until, as
Purpose in order to, so reason because, since,
that as
Result so that concessive although, though,
while, despite
Place where, wherever manner as, like
Relative Clauses
The most common relative pronouns which mark relative clauses are: that,
which, who, whom, and whose. Their uses are presented earlier in the section on
pronouns
36 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
LESSON 7: PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are notoriously difficult for ESL learners for several reasons.
37 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Sakalyeanggulo. (The commotion occurred on the street.)
Antayinmoakosakanto. (Meet me at the street corner.)
Meanings of Prepositions
At on in
By ↕ ↕ ↕ through
With about
Under over
From off out of
38 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
between the figure and landmark, and in denotes the enclosure of the
trajector in the landmark.
From, off, and out of are source prepositions involving the notion of
separation from place.From denotes separation from a point of
orientation, off denotes separation from contact with line or surface,
and out of, separation from inside a landmark.
Under and over are vertical space preposition. Under denotes a figure
at a lower point than the landmark. Over denotes a figure that is at a
higher point than the landmark.
39 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Selected Meanings and Uses of Common Prepositions
40 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
7. location lower than something below/beneath/under/underneath the
bed
8. location higher than something above/over the piano
9. location in/at the rear of behind/in back of the cabinet
something
10. location adjacent next to/beside the cave
NEGATION
Negation at the lexical or word level can simply use the negative affix. For
example:
untidy untidily
impossible impossible
inadequate inadequately
illegally illegally
dishonest dishonestly
atypical atypically
Determining which affix to use is not always predictable. However, the choice of
im-, in-, il- or ir- is PHONOLOGICALLY CONDITIONED by the consonant which
41 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
follows it, i.e., im- is used if the following consonant is bilabial (b, p, m), il- goes
with a stem beginning with l, and ir- with a stem beginning with r. The prefix in- is
the most common.
Nothing, nobody, and no one are indefinite pronoun while nowhere is an adverb.
Other negative items include never (negative adverb of frequency), nor (negative
coordinating conjunction and neither . . . nor (negative correlative conjunction.
At the sentence level, not or its contraction n’t is the main NEGATOR. This
applies to different sentence types.
No and not are negative substitutes. No can be a negative substitute for a whole
sentence while not for a subordinate clause.
42 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Are you joining us on Friday? If not, please let me know by tomorrow.
Placement of not
1. Not usually follows the be-verb, whether functions as a main verb (copula) or
an auxiliary/helping verb.
2. Other than be, not follows the auxiliary verb if one is present or the first
auxiliary (modal, phrasal modal, or have) if there are two or more.
3. With other main verbs, a do-verb is introduced before negation can take place.
The child swims in the pool. The child does swim in the pool.
The child does not swim in the pool.
YES/NO QUESTIONS
YES/NO QUESTIONS are often defined as questions for which either “yes” or
“no” is the expected answer. They are produced with a rising intonation.
Yes/no questions are formed by inverting the subject and the operator.
43 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Yes/no questions may have a statement word order, i.e., the word order is
uninverted. This sentence, however, is likewise said with a rising intonation.
2
Lucy is your 3cousin3↑
2
She can speak 3fluently3↑
Yes/no questions usually take short answers using the operator. The operator is
underlined below.
If the sentence contains more than one auxiliary verb, the short answer may also
contain an auxiliary verb in addition to the operator.
44 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Semantic problems may arise for many ESL learners who react to a
negative yes/no question in a literal manner in their language. This means that
they agree or disagree with the form of the yes/no question, thus causing
miscommunication.
While neutral yes/no questions, as in the preceding cases, query on the whole
state, activity or event, this query can be more focused sometimes.
Does Alex plan a foreign trip with Melly? (or did someone else?)
Does Alex plan a foreign trip with Melly? (or did he only suggest?)
Does Alex plan a foreign trip with Melly? (or is it something else?)
Does Alex plan a foreign trip with Mélly? (or is it with someone else?)
The focused sentence element gets the primary stress as shown above.
Some and any can both occur with different question types depending on the
meaning.
45 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Would you like some cold drink? (encourages a “yes” answer)
WH-QUESTIONS
Liza bought a beautiful house for her parents before she went to Canada.
46 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Who(m) did Liza buy a beautiful house for?
(her parents)
Verb phrase: What did Liza do when she came home?
(She bought a beautiful house).
Determiner: Whose parents did Liza buy a beautiful house for when she
came home?
(her parents)
Adjective: What kind of house did Liza buy?
(a beautiful house)
Adverbial: When did Liza buy a beautiful house?
(before she went to Canada)
Adverbial: Where did Liza go?
(to Canada)
Forming Wh-Questions
If who, what, or which is the subject of the sentence, it is followed by the normal
word order of a statement.
47 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Whom/who, what and which as objects form questions by putting the wh-words
first, and do, does, or did next.
A modal (e.g., can) cannot be replaced by do, does, or did. The do-verb replaces
the main verb.
48 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
LESSON 8: INTERJECTION
An interjection is a part of speech that demonstrates the emotion or feeling
of the author. These words or phrases can stand alone, or be placed before or
after a sentence. Many times, as within the examples of interjections below, you'll
notice many interjections are followed by an exclamation point
49 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Interjections in a Sentence
Here are some more interjections, this time used in the context of an
accompanying sentence:
50 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
51 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
1. N be Adj
where the adjective is a SUBJECT COMPLEMENT, in particular a
PREDICATE ADJECTIVE. The adjective refers back to the subject.
The copula verbbe means “may be described as.”
2. N be UW (= uninflected word)
where the uninflected word is an ADVERBIAL such as here, there,
up, down, in, out, inside, upstairs, downstairs, on, off, now, then,
yesterday, and tomorrow. Be has the meaning of “be located” or
“occur.”
3. N1 be N1
where the superscript means that the two nouns have the same
referent. The second noun following the be verb is also a SUBJECT
COMPLEMENT, in particular a PREDICATE NOUN or PREDICATE
NOMINATIVE.
Glasses break.
5. N1 TrV (= transitive V) N2
where N2 does not have the same referent as N 1. N2 is called the
DIRECT OBJECT of the verb, “the receiver of the action.”
52 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
6. N1 TrV N2 N3
where the superscripts 1, 2, and 3 indicate that each noun has a
different referent.
Two noun objects occur after the verb. Still N2 is the direct object and
N3 is the INDIRECT OBJECT. If we omit the last noun, the pattern is identical to
that in item 5. Note that the indirect object is preceded by the preposition to
(sometimes for or of). If the two objects are inverted, the preposition disappears.
7. }N2
}Adj
}Pronoun
N1 TrV N2 }Adv (of place), uninflected
}Verb, present participle
}Verb, past participle
There are choices of different forms in sentence final position. These are
illustrated as follows:
53 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
The most common illustration of this sentence pattern is one with the
occurrence of a final N2.
1. Declarative sentence
(statement)
2. Interrogative sentence
(question)
3. Imperative sentence
(command)
4. Exclamative sentence
(exclamation)
54 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
1. Declarative Sentence (statement)
Declarative sentences make a statement. They tell us something. They
give us information, and they normally end with a full-stop/period.
subject + verb...
Declarative sentences can be positive or negative. Look at these
examples:
55 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
base verb...
Note that there is usually no subject—because the subject is understood,
it is YOU.
56 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
57 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
This is also a compound sentence that uses a conjunction to separate two
individual clauses.
Complex Sentences
- A complex sentence is an independent clause joined by one or more
dependent clauses. A dependent clause either lacks a subject or a verb or
has both a subject and a verb that does not express a complete thought.
- A complex sentence always has a subordinator (as, because, since,
after, although, when) or relative pronouns (who, that, which).
Examples:
1. After eating lunch at The Cheesecake Factory, Tim went to the gym to
exercise.
The independent clause is ‘Tim went to the gym to exercise.” The
subordinating clause before it is dependent on the main, independent
clause. If one were to say “after eating lunch at The Cheesecake Factory,”
it would be an incomplete thought.
2. Opinionated women are given disadvantages in societies that privilege male
accomplishments. The subject is “opinionated women” and the verb is “are
given.” The first part of the sentence “opinionated women are given
disadvantages in societies” is an independent clause that expresses a
complete thought. The following “that privilege male accomplishments” is a
relative clause that describes which types of societies.
3. The woman who taught Art History 210 was fired for stealing school supplies.
The dependent clause in this sentence is “who taught Art History 210”
because if removed, the rest of the sentence would stand as an
independent clause. “Who taught Art History 210” is an adjective clause
that provides necessary details about the subject, woman.
Compound-Complex Sentences
- A compound-complex sentence has two independent clauses and at
least one dependent clause.
Examples:
1. After the two soccer players lost their game, they joined their other teammates
for lunch, and they went to the movies. If we remove the dependent clause
“after the two soccer players lost their game,” we have a compound
sentence. The dependent clause makes this sentence compound-
complex.
2. The man believed in the system, and he knew that justice would prevail after
the murderer was sent to jail.
Practice:
Identify whether the sentences are simple, complex, compound or compound-
complex. Please underline dependent clauses where it applies.
58 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
1. Vampires Dairies is my favourite television show, but I also love True
Blood.
2. The student wiped the white board that was filthy with last week’s notes.
3. The trendy fashion designer released her new line on Wednesday.
4. Trina and Hareem went to a bar in Hollywood to celebrate their
anniversary.
5. Wicked Regina cast a spell on the entire city, so the citizens decided to
rebel.
6. While waiting for the paint to dry, Angela went to Home Depot, and
Martin organized the kitchen appliances.
7. After listening to the Kanye West CD, I have new respect for his music.
8. After the teacher chose groups, John and Sara were selected as
partners for a project, yet Sarah did most of the work.
59 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand on
its own as a sentence.
Example: Learning a new language is often frustrating.
Dependent
A dependent clause does not express a complete thought and needs to be
joined to an independent clause to become a sentence. It usually begins
with a word such as although, while, because, who, which, if, etc.
Example: Although learning a new language is often frustrating
Phrases
A phrase is a group of words which does not have a subject, e.g. walks to
work every day or does not have a finite verb
Example: The reason being their good design
Simple sentences
A simple sentence has only one clause, which must be an independent
clause. The word “simple” does not necessarily mean “easy”; simple
sentences can also contain phrases, so they are often long and
complicated. However, they still have only one subject and one finite verb.
60 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
In this type of sentence, each clause has equal (or nearly equal) importance.
The clauses can be joined in three ways:
1. With a coordinating conjunction
Example: and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so
Example: Diversity has become a strategic imperative for corporations,
and the term has already entered the corporate vocabulary or with a
correlative conjunction
Example: not only ... but also
Example: Not only have conservationists been successful in bringing
issues to the attention of governments, but they have also achieved
considerable success in having policies and institutions introduced or
changed to meet their demand. 6
2. With a semi-colon (;)
Example: Astute depositors could see what was happening to the value of
the land that was supporting the assets of the banks; they moved quickly
to remove their deposits for cash.
3. With a semi-colon and another kind of link word called a conjunctive adverb
Example: furthermore, however, therefore, in contrast, similarly
Example: These obvious contamination problems have long been known;
however, what is not often realised is the organic matter carried in ground
water can contaminate samples. Many of these link words can also be
placed in other parts of the sentence. However, some other aspects of the
reforms appear counterproductive. Some other aspects of the reforms,
however, appear counterproductive. Some other aspects of the reforms
appear counterproductive, however.
Complex sentences
61 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
A complex sentence has one independent clause and one or more dependent
clauses
In this type of sentence, the clauses do not have equal importance. The
independent (or main) clause contains the most important idea, and the
dependent clause adds extra information. The two clauses are linked by a
subordinate conjunction placed at the beginning of the dependent clause.
e.g. although, because, just as, whereas, unless, even though
Example:
Today, New Zealand lacks crocodiles, goannas, freshwater turtles and
land turtles, even though all were probably part of its Gondwanan heritage.
Even though crocodiles, goannas, freshwater turtles and land turtles were
probably part of its Gondwanan heritage, New Zealand lacks these
species today.
Compound-complex sentences
A compound-complex sentence has two or more independent clauses and
at least one dependent clause.
Example:
When the new structure was proposed in 2003, the Council at first refused to
discuss the plans with community groups, but the Environment Court over-ruled
the decision and insisted on a full consultation process.
62 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Language - A system that uses some physical sign (sound, gesture, mark) to
express meaning.
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Its breadth and depth reach
various fields and affect our daily lives. In the field of language teaching,
linguistics plays a very important role. Primarily, it provides language teachers
with “what to teach” since basic linguistic concepts serve as the foundation of
language, hence language teaching. Secondly, the study of language and how it
is learned provide teachers with basic ideas on “how to teach”.
63 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Helps teachers understand the origins of our phonology, morphology,
orthography and semantics.
Helps teachers understand and explain our spelling system.
Provides an appreciation for the variety and expressive precision of
English vocabulary.
Enhances vocabulary teaching.
Explains the historical origin of some common errors seen in invented
spelling.
Vocabulary Building
Latin words from this period are often composed of prefixes, roots and
suffixes.
Students can learn many vocabulary words at once by learning about
these Latin roots and affixes.
Prefixes and suffixes: Using this information in the classroom
Most of today’s suffixes date from the Middle English period of history.
- Inflectional Suffixes (learned early):
-s, -es, -ed, -ing, -er, -est
Derivational Suffixes (usually change part of speech):
-able, - ness, -ful, -ment, -ity
The suffixes may change pronunciation of base words:
- define à definition
- compete àcompetition
Semantic
Arbitrariness of the Sign - Sounds of words bear no relationship to
meaning (except for onomatopoeia).
In Philosophy we often distinguish between denotation and connotation.
64 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
1. [The people] [talked [over]the noise]]] - Over is a preposition
2. [The people [talked over][the noise] – Over is a particle
Grammar - How do we know that one sentence is grammatical and the other is
not?
Enter Rules
But what are rules, and how are they represented in the brain?
How do we come to have such knowledge?
In what form is such knowledge represented in the mind?
How can children learn grammar?
Noam Chomsky
Focused on the vast and unconscious set of rules he hypothesized must exist in
the minds of speakers and hearers in order for them to produce and understand
their native language.
Chomsky’s Views
He abandons the idea that children produce languages only by imitation
(abandon behaviorism)
He rejects the idea that direct teaching and correcting of grammar could
account for children’s utterances because the rules children were
unconsciously acquiring are buried in the unconscious of the adults.
65 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
He claims that there are generative rules (explicit algorithms that
characterize the structures of a
Grammar is descriptive
Support for Chomsky 2
Claim that children can’t be taught grammatical rules because they are not
explicitly known. Rather, they absorb these rules unconsciously, as their
language is spoken around them.
Cognitivist
Structuralist Transformationalis Functionalis Behaviorist Interactionali
t t st
System Mental Interaction
Phenomenon
Arbitrary Innate To persuade Repetition Socialization
(absolute)
Means of To give/ask Reinforceme
Communication LAD information nt
Primarily Vocal To make
someone do
something
OTHER DEFINITIONS
PSYCHOLINGUISTS- Language is learned through schema
SOCIOLINGUISTICS- Language performs a social function
WEBSTER- Language is the expression and communication of emotions or ideas
between human beings by means of speech and hearing that is systematized and
confirmed by usage among a given people over a period of time.
66 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
B. CONSTANT SOUNDS
What is a word?
A word is a particular combination of sounds and meaning.
The sound sequences that make for ‘possible words’ in their language.
What lies behind our ability to distinguish possible from not possible
words?
67 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Tacit knowledge of the phonotactic constraints of the language.
Loanwords
A plethora of theories have evolved and they can be broken down into four
major categories:
Behaviorist “Use behavioral training for accurate pronunciation and rote
memory of information such as object and motor vocabulary.”
Humanistic “Reduce tension and support a positive emotional state in the
learner.
Cognitivist “Align learning with the brain and its natural ways of knowledge
acquisition.”
Postmodern Techniques of Knowledge:
Constructivist “Leave behind one-size-fits-all methods and negotiate
activities and objectives based on the needs of the learner, using
knowledge of learning styles and multiple intelligences, and encouraging
meta-cognition and self-reflection in order to increase students’ self-
knowledge and capacity for making conscious meaning.”
Linguistic Concepts
Phonological Rules
The rule system within a language by which phonemes are sequenced and
uttered to make words. Language consists of a fairly small set of sounds
(phonemes). There are about 40 in English. Most have no meaning in
themselves; rather we string them together to form meaningful bits and pieces.
68 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
- Remembering names
- Rhyming, identifying syllables
- Segmenting and blending sounds
Consonant phoneme
A consonant phoneme is a speech sound that is formed by fully or partially
obstructing flow of the airstreams. Consonants are often described as
closed sounds
69 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
ii. Released /p/ as in spot
iii. Unreleased /p/ as in pot
Consonants - sounds produced with the obstruction of airflow. The airflow is
either blocked momentarily or restricted so much that noise is produced as air
flows past the constriction. Consonants are described in terms of physical
dimensions such as: place of articulation- a point of contact between two
articulators (e.g. tongue and lips), manner of articulation- the description of how
the speech organs are involved in making a sound, and voicing-the change in
sound (i.e. either voiced or voiceless). To further understand and remember
these concepts, check the table of consonant sounds below. (Source: Parker, F.
& Riley, K. (1994) Linguistics for Non-Linguists)
Phonics – Teaching the connections between sounds and spelling
PHONETICS: The study of linguistic speech sounds and how they are produced
and perceived.
What parts of your mouth are involved?
- tongue & roof of mouth; lower lip and upper teeth; lower teeth
and tongue
Orthography - A writing system.
What part of each of these words stands for the sound of long e?
tree speak chief be baby receive these
Which orthographic rule is used in adding each of the suffixes below?
cups pennies tripped starring baking
Labiodental
Interdental
Alveolar
Bilabial
Palatal
Glottal
Velar
voiceles
s p T K
STOPS Voiced b D G
voiceles
s f ϴ S Š h
FRICATIVES Voiced v ð Z Ž
voiceles
AFFRICATE s Č
S Voiced ǰ
voiceles
s
NASALS Voiced m N Ƞ
voiceles
s
LIQUIDS Voiced L R
voiceles
s
GLIDES Voiced w Y
Vowels- sounds produced with little obstruction in the vocal tract and are
generally voiced. They are described in terms of: tongue height, frontness, lip
rounding, and tenseness. To further understand and remember these concepts,
check the diagram of vowel sounds below. (Source: www.thedialectcoach.com)
70 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
e.g.
2 1 2 1 1 2
Fundamental introductory secondary
Juncture - refers to the pauses or breaks between syllables. The lack of
any real break between syllables of words is referred to as close juncture;
plus juncture, or open juncture is used to describe a break or pause
between syllables in the same word or adjacent word—e.g. nitrate vs.
night rate; why try vs. white rye; black bird vs. blackbird
2. Morphology is the study of the patterns from which words, through the
combination of sounds, are formed. When these sound units are
combined, they form distinctive units of meaning called morphemes. In
general English terminology, these are usually called affixes—although
morphemes are more than just the ordinary affix that we have learned in
Basic English courses. Some of the most important concepts to be
remembered are the following:
Morphological Rules
Language is made up of Morphemes. (we call these morphemes as Lexicon - our
mental dictionary). 3 million words in English (about 200,000 words in
common use today).
71 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Allomorphs- variants of a morpheme that may be phonologically or
morphologically conditioned (e.g. the plural {-s} has at least three
allomorphs [-s] as in /catS/, [-z] as in /dogZ/, and [-iz] as in /boxIZ/
Free morphemes- those that can stand on their own as independent
words—e.g. {view} in review and {like} in unlike; they can also occur in
isolation.
Bound morphemes- those that cannot stand on their own as independent
words; they need to be attached to a free morpheme or a free form—e.g.
{re-}, and {un-} they are commonly called affixes
Inflectional morphemes- those that do not change the form class of the
words or morphemes to which they are attached; they are always attached
to complete words; they cap the word; they are a closed-ended set of
morphemes. English has only 8 inflectional morphemes:
-s 3rd person sing. Pres. She stay-s at home.
-ed past tense She stay-ed at home.
-ing progressive She is stay-ing at home.
-en past participle She has writt-en a
letter.
-s plural She wrote letter-s
-‘s possessive Kay-‘s book is new.
-er comparative This car is fast-er than that.
-est superlative This is the fast-est car.
Syntactic Rules
Rules that enable us to combine morphemes into sentences (bridge between
sound and meaning). When children put words together they are following
syntactic rules about how morphemes are put together.
SYNTAX: The rule system governing sentence formation; the study of sentence
structure.
Arrange these words into a coherent sentence and write it down.
little mine red is sports car cute the
72 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
“the red cute little sports car” “the sports little red cute
car”
73 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
husband gets annoyed/interested/amused: husband ignores/
husband searches for brochures/ husband takes the wife with
him to the car dealer)
Conversational maxims is any of four rules which were
proposed by Grice (1975) stating that a speaker is assumed to
make a contribution that is adequately but not overly informative
(quantity maxim); the speaker does not believe to be false and
for which adequate evidence is had (quality maxim); is relevant
(maxim of relation or relevance), and is clear, unambiguous,
brief, and orderly (maxim of manner).
Implicature is something that is meant, implied, or suggested
which is different from what is actually said. (e.g. When Aling
Myrna said that Mang Jun is going to drive them to the Airport,
Aling Aning said “I better check my insurance policy”. Aling
Aning’s utterance shows that Mang Jun is a fast and reckless
driver.)
Theories of Language
74 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
75 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
76 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
c. The monitor hypothesis claims that learners who have acquired
or learned particular language rules will eventually monitor or check
himself or herself during the process by which he/she uses that
language. The monitor is an editing device that may normally operate
before language performance.
d. The input hypothesis. For an individual to learn a language,
Krashen believes that learners should be exposed to grammatical
features a little beyond their current level (i + 1), those features are
acquired. Too difficult lessons may threaten the learner, while too easy
lessons may bore a learner. This will both result in failure
e. The affective filter hypothesis. Krashen believes that emotions
play a very important role in language learning. The more threatened
or anxious a learner is, the lesser or slower will he/she learns. On the
other hand, the more confident a learner is, the higher and faster is the
possibility for him/her to learn a language.
• Other Universal Theories
1. The Competition Model by Felix (1985):
2. Dulay and Burt’s Creative Construction Theory (1974):
3. Krashen’s Monitor Model
1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis (1981)
2. The Natural Order Hypothesis
3. The Monitor Hypothesis: The Input Hypothesis:
4. The Affective Filter Hypothesis
77 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
such as Directed Reading Thinking Activity, Story Grammar, Thinking-
Aloud, etc.
3. The Functional view led to the creation of communication-based
methods that provide exercises and classroom activities that focus on the
realistic functions of the language, rather than the previous focus on the
forms of the language. Some of the offshoots of functional view are
Communicative Language Teaching/ Communicative Approach, Notional-
Functional Approach, and Natural Approach. These methods are learner-
centered which means that learners have ample time for interaction,
information sharing, and negotiation of meaning, as opposed to the
previous approaches that are teacher-centered.
4. The view that is both cognitive and affective eventually developed to a
holistic approach to language learning or whole-person learning. These
approaches created humanistic techniques in teaching the language,
which means that aside from the cognitive aspects of the learner, teaching
has involved the emotions of the learners. One of these approaches is
what has come to be known as the Community Language Learning.
78 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Approach - is a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language,
learning, and teaching. (Anthony, E.; 1963)
- defines assumptions, beliefs, and theories about the nature of language
and language learning. (Richards, J. and Rodgers, T.; 1982, 1986)
Method – is an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based
upon a selected approach. (Anthony, E.; 1963)
- is an umbrella term for the specification and interrelation of theory and
practice. (Richards, J. and Rodgers, T.; 1982, 1986)
Technique – is a specific activity manifested in the classroom which is
consistent with a method and therefore in harmony with an approach as
well. (Anthony, E.; 1963)
- is the level at which classroom procedures are described. It is a medium
of implementation (e.g., a particular trick, strategy, or contrivance) used to
accomplish an immediate objective.
Design – specifies the relationship of theories to classroom materials and
activities. (Richards, J. and Rodgers, T.; 1982, 1986)
Procedures – are the techniques and practices that are derived from
one’s approach and design. (Richards, J. and Rodgers, T.; 1982, 1986)
Strategies – are specific methods of approaching a problem or task ,
modes of operation for achieving a particular end, planned designs for
controlling and manipulating certain information.
79 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
sentences. It is assumed that by understanding these small units, the
aural input will eventually be understood. Hence, comprehension is built
from “bottom” (sounds) to “up” (understanding)
3. Top-down processing
This process may be referred to as the opposite of bottom up. In top down
processing, the assumption is that learners must learn how to apply their
schema or background knowledge to facilitate comprehension.
It is generally believed now that processing of information is neither top-
down nor bottom-up alone. It is now common knowledge that processing
occurs at the same time in what is known as parallel processing (Eysenck,
1993). In some instances, one type of processing might take precedence
over the other, depending on the amount of practice an individual has had
on a specific task.
Learners also develop listening skills cognitively through the use of listening
comprehension strategies. These are mental mechanisms used to process and
manage information. The three categories of listening strategies are
80 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Cognitive- this strategy involves processing, interpreting, storing, and
recalling information. Some of the sample skills involved here are
inferencing and predicting.
Metacognitive: this strategy involves managing & facilitating mental
processes and coping up with difficulties during listening. Examples of
such strategies include comprehension monitoring and visualizing.
Social-affective: this strategy involves asking the help of others to facilitate
comprehension and managing one’s emotions when listening such as
confidence building and cooperation.
Task Response
81 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Restoration Include omitted words or phrases
Create original message with words
Reconstruction
heard or noted down
Sorting Sequence, rank, categorize items
Identify inconsistencies and
Evaluation
contradictions
Match information from listening to
Matching
pictures or written texts
Jigsaw Create a whole from different parts
Task Response
Creative dictation Dictate to each other to complete a text
Sequence/reproduce/complete pictures
Description
or diagrams
Listen and express opinion in simulated
Simulation
situations
Listen and respond to formal and
Presentation
informal presentations
Stages in a Listening Lesson
Pre-listening stage (activating schema and allowing them to use words which
they will shortly hear in the text)
“tuning-in” to the topic or given text
Expressing their views about the text to be listened to
Predicting content from the title
Answering a set of questions
Studying and examining pictures
Singing a song or chant
While-listening stage-
Tasks should be enjoyable and meaningful to students;
should be simple and easy to handle;
should provide opportunities for students to succeed
Post-listening stage
“off-shoots” or extension of the work done at the pre-and while
stages
Students have time to think, reflect, discuss, and to write
2. Teaching Pronunciation
The role of pronunciation work in a communicative, interactive course of
study
82 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
The Goal of Teaching Speaking is to produce students who can competently
express themselves and avoiding confusion in the message due to faulty
pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary. Moreover, learners should also learn how
to observe the social and cultural rules that apply in each communication
situation.
83 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Learning to produce waves of language in a vacuum, without interlocutors
– would rob speaking skills of its richest component; the creativity of
conversational negotiation.
TEACHING CONVERSATION
1. Conversation – indirect (strategy conscious –raising)
2. Conversation – direct (gambits)
3. Conversation – transactional (ordering from a catalog)
4. Meaningful oral; grammar practice (modal auxiliary would)
5. Individual practice ; oral dialog journals
84 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
TEACHING PRONUNCIATION
Rather than attempting to build a learners articulatory competence from the
bottom –up, and simply as the mastery of a list of phonemes and allophones,
atop down approach is taken in which the most relevant features of pronunciation
– stress, rhythm, and intonation – are given high ;priority.
Instead of teaching only the role of articulation within words, or at best, phrases,
we teach its role in a whole stream of discourse.
85 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
1. Native Language- mother Language affects the learning of the target
language
2. Age- learners within the critical period (i.e. between age 5 and puberty)
3. Exposure- quality and intensity of exposure is better than duration/length
of time
4. Innate phonetic ability- some people manifest ‘better’ phonetic coding
ability than others
5. Identity and Language Ego- attitude towards speakers of the target
language
Language ego – you are what you speak
“It’s better to keep your mouth closed and have others think you are
ignorant than to open it and remove all doubt.”
Affective factors
Obstacles to learners – causing anxiety – the anxiety generated over the
risks of blurting things out wrong, stupid, or incomprehensible
86 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
or impromptu
Tasks: oral reports; summaries; short speeches;
picture-cued storytelling; retelling a story or a news
event
Practice stage
Students do most of the talking
Teacher is facilitator and monitor
Production stage
Stage where students use the language for themselves
Free use of language (free expression is more important than mistakes)
Opportunities to use language as they wish make students become more
aware the they have learned something; thus, they become encouraged to
go on
Does it make sense? No, it does not, but a linguistic analysis can tell you
that for example, “slithy” is an adjective, and “gyre” and “gimble” are verbs.
87 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
because of different experiences. Hence, conclusions might mislead a
learner. For example, at first glance, a reader might fill the blanks below
with “ship or boat” and “sea or ocean”
However, if you would further read it, the blanks may have the following
words to fill them.
JERRY SWUNG THE RACKET, AND THE BALL WENT SAILING
ACROSS THE NET.
“Tell me and I’ll forget. Show me, and I may remember. But involve me
and I’ll understand.” –Chinese proverb
The Goals of Teaching Reading- similar with listening and speaking, teaching
reading of course entails certain goals. The following are just some of them.
88 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
e. Responding creatively using multiple intelligences
A. Vocabulary Development
1. Structural Analysis- is largely focused on the unfamiliar word itself. In this
strategy, the meaning of a word is derived by looking at the root word.
“Structural analysis includes attention to root words, affixes and
inflections. It may also include attention to plural forms, tenses,
comparisons, contractions, and compound words” (Arias & Acuña, 2002).
Hence, learners should be exposed to the different meanings of the affixes
in order to use structural analysis. The table below shows some of the
most commonly used affixes.
89 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
2. Contextual Analysis- is the strategy that we use in attempting to obtain the
meaning of an unfamiliar word by examining the context in which it
appears. This strategy encourages you to look for “contextual clues,” i.e.,
related information that would provide the meaning of the unfamiliar word.
Simply put, contextual analysis involves your analysis of other words that
surround the unknown word. Some of the most common context clues are
the following:
a. Synonyms- e.g. The newcomer looks dubious, his credentials are
questionable.
b. Antonyms- e.g. Doña Mariana’s boisterous laughter distracted the
calm classroom.
c. Examples- e.g. It’s amazing how Joe maintains his citrus fruit trees;
you can see oranges, ponkans, mandarins, and even lemons in his
backyard.
d. Comparison and Contrast- The tuk-tuk of Thailand, like that of our
tricycles, amazes most tourists.
B. Comprehension Development
1. Anticipation Guide- consists of a list of statements that are related to the
topic of the text your students will be reading. While some of the
statements may be clearly true or false, a good anticipation guide includes
statements that provoke disagreement and challenge students’ beliefs
about the topic. Before reading the text, students indicate for each
statement whether they agree or disagree with it.
2. ReQuest- is designed to encourage students to: a) formulate their own
questions about the material they are reading and develop questioning
behavior; b) adopt an active, inquiring attitude to reading; c) acquire
reasonable purposes for reading; and, d) improve their independent
reading comprehension skills. (Readence, nd)
3. K-W-L (Know-Want to know-Learned)- K-W-L is the creation of Donna
Ogle and is a 3-column chart that helps capture the Before, During, and
After components of reading a text selection. In this strategy, learners are
encouraged to fill-out column K with what they already know about the
topic. Then, they will fill out column W with what they want to learn or
know about the topic. After reading the selection, they will be filling out
column L to list down what they have learned from reading the text. In this
strategy, learners monitor their own learning.
4. Mapping- provides a visual guide for students to clarify textual information
such as characters, problems, settings, reactions, and outcomes.
5. PLAN- a graphic organizer in which students create a map to visually
organize and better understand the information. It includes: P-rediction of
the content; L-ocating the known and unknown information; A-dding words
or phrases to the unknown as students locate information; and N-oting
new understanding or information about the text.
90 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
Distance- the writer and the reader are usually away from each other in
both time and space,
Orthography- written texts have limited amount of information, unlike oral
speech (e.g. intonation, stress, pitch, volume, junctures, etc.)
Complexity- written language is usually composed of longer clauses and
subordinators, while spoken language is usually short
Formality- writing is more formal and more binding than spoken language
Writing Theories
Writing as a social and cultural phenomenon- writing is not merely a product
of an individual but of society and culture. Writing takes place within a context,
with a particular purpose and an intended audience.
91 | P a g e
LING 3 Structure of English 202
0
REFERENCES
Books:
Huddleston, R., & Pullum, G. K. (2002). The Cambridge grammar of the English
language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, R., Leech, G., & Svartvik, J. (1985). A comprehensive
grammar of the English language. London: Longman.
Internet:
https://ltl.lincoln.ac.nz/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2016/01/Sentence-
structure.pdf
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/
https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/content/4_WritingSkills/06sentences.htm
92 | P a g e