Experiment No: 2

Determine the step response of first order and second order system
and obtain their transfer function
Contents
1. Objectives 1
2. Expected outcome of experiment 1

3. Theory 2
4. Equipments required 6
5. Procedure 6
6. Observations 8
7. Results and discussion 9
8. Conclusion 9

1. Objective

Any nth order linear systems can be formulated by combing first order and second order system.
So it is important to make a study of these separately such that their dynamics can be understood.
The experiment is designed in such a way that the student is able to understand the changes in
the dynamics of the system with the variation in the forward path gain. The experiment has the
following objectives:

 Identify the transfer functions of each block.

 Find the response of first order closed loop system.
 Find the response of second order closed loop system.
 Verify the dynamics of the response theoretically.

2. Expected outcomes of the experiment:

 Knowledge about first order and second order systems.

 Ability to understand the effect of feedback and variation in forward path gain.
 Ability to measure time constant, gain, rise time, maximum overshoot, settling time, etc.
from CRO.

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3. Theory:

3.1. First Order System:

The system whose input-output equation is a first order differential equation is called first order
system. The order of the differential equation is the highest degree of derivative present in an
equation. First order system contains only one energy storing element. These systems are
characterized by one pole and/or a zero. A pure integrator and a single time constant having
K K
transfer function of the form and are two commonly studied models.
s Ts+1

C( s) K
The unit step response for =
R( s) s

1
For unit step input is given by R ( s )=
s

K
C ( s) =
s2

∴ c ( t )=Kt

C( s) K
Again for =
R( s) (Ts+1)

K
C ( s) =
s(Ts+1)
−t
∴ c ( t )=K (1−e T )

The time constant defined from above equation at t=T which gives

c ( t ) =.632 K

3.2. Second Order System:

These systems are characterized by two poles and upto two zeros. For the purpose of transient
response studies zeroes are usually not considered. The general expression of transfer function of a
second order control system is given as

ω n2
G ( s )=
s 2+ 2ζ ωn s+ ωn2

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Where ζ is called the damping ratio and ω n the undamped natural frequency. Depending upon
the values of ζ , the poles of the system may real repeated or complex conjugate which is
reflected on the nature of the step response. The three cases may be given by

3.2.1. Critically damped case (ζ =1)

c ( t ) =1−e−ω t (1+ ωn t)
n

3.2.2. Overdamped case (ζ >1)

ωn e−at e−bt
c ( t ) =1+ ( − )
2 √ ζ 2−1 a b

Where a=(ζ + √ ζ 2−1)ωn and b=(ζ − √ζ 2−1)ω n

3.2.3. Undamped case (0<ζ <1)

e−ζ ω t 2
−1 √ 1−ζ
n

c ( t ) =1− sin (ωd t + tan )

√1−ζ 2 ζ

Where ω d=ωn √ 1−ζ 2 is termed as the damped natural frequency.

A standard undamped step response is given below.

Figure 1: Response of undamped second order system

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Time domain specifications of a standard second order are given below

Delay time: It is the time required for the response to reach half of its final value from the zero
instant. It is denoted by t d.

Rise time: It is the time required for the response to rise from 0% to 100% of its final value. This is
applicable for the under-damped systems. For the over-damped systems, consider the duration from
10% to 90% of the final value. Rise time is denoted by t r.

π−β 1−ζ 2
t r= where β=tan−1 √
ωd ζ

Peak time: It is the time required for the response to reach the peak value for the first time. It is
denoted by t p.

π
t p=
ωd

Peak overshoot: Peak overshoot  M p is defined as the deviation of the response at peak time from the
final value of response. It is also called the maximum overshoot. Percentage of peak overshoot can
be calculated by using this formula.
−πζ
√ 1−ζ 2
M p=e

Settling time: It is the time required for the response to reach the steady state and stay within the
specified tolerance bands around the final value. In general, the tolerance bands are 2% and 5%. The
settling time is denoted by t s.

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The settling time for 5% tolerance band is –
ζ ωn

4
The settling time for 2% tolerance band is -
ζ ωn

3.3 Closed loop system

Closed loop or feedback systems involve a measurement of the output of the system and
generation of control signals which are based on decision making under the influence of a
command or reference signal and the measured value. The closed loop transfer function
formulation of the block given below is given by

C( s) G( s)
=
R( s) 1+G (s)

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 R(s)
Figure 2: Closed loop block diagram of a system

3.3.1 Closed loop first order

K
G ( s )=
sT +1

C (s ) K K /(1+ K)
∴ = =
R (s) sT + K + 1 sT / (1+ K )+1

This has a response similar to that of the first order open loop system. It can be seen that the time
constant of the system decreases with increases with the forward gain K.

3.3.2 Closed loop second order

K
G ( s )=
s (sT +1)

C (s ) K K /T
∴ = 2 = 2
R (s) s T + s+ K s + s/T + K /T

The denominator of the closed loop system also known as the characteristic equation can be used
to obtain the poles of the system which will determine the response of the system.

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4. Equipments required:

Sl. No Unit Quantity

1 Linear system simulator kit 1
2 CRO/DSO 1
3 CRO probes/DSO probes 1
4 Connecting wires As required

5. Procedure:

Open loop response:

At first the open loop transfer functions of all the blocks are to be determined i.e. integrator, time
constant, uncommitted amplifier and error detector/adder gain are to be determined
experimentally.

a) Error detector cum variable gain

 Apply a 100 mV p-p square wave signal to any of the three inputs.
 Set the gain setting potentiometers to 10.
 Measure the p-p output voltage and calculate its gain.
 Repeat for other two inputs one by one.

b) Uncommitted amplifier
 Apply a 1 V p-p square wave signal to input.
 Measure the peak to peak output voltage and note its sign.

c) Integrator
 Apply a 1 V p-p square wave signal to input of integrator of known frequency.
 Measure the p-p output voltage of the triangular wave.
 Calculate the gain constant K of integrator using the formula (

4∗f ∗V ( p− p ) of output
K= ).
V ( p− p ) of input

d) Time Constants
 Apply a 100mV p-p square wave to the input.
 Find the time t=T at which the response reaches 63.2%. This is the time constant.
 Find the steady state value of the response. The value of gain K is obtained by p-p steady
state output to the p-p input amplitude.
 Put the time constant and gain to find the transfer function of the system.

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Closed loop response:

First order system

 The connection diagram of the first order closed loop system is given in Fig.
 Apply 1 V p-p square wave input and trace the output for 3 values of K. Calculate the
time constant for each case and then compare with theoretical results.

Figure 3: Connection for first order close loop system

Second order systems

 The connection diagram of the first order closed loop system is given in Fig.
 Apply a 1V p-p square wave input and trace the output for waveform for three different
values of K.
 Obtain the maximum overshoot, settling time, rise time and steady state error. Calculate ζ
and ω n. Compare with theoretical results.

Figure 4: Connection for second order close loop system

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6. Observation:

Open loop response:

Error detector cum variable gain

Sl.no Input voltage Output voltage Gain

1 100 mV
2 100 mV
3 100 mV

Uncommitted amplifier

Sl.no Input voltage Output voltage Gain

1 1V

Integrator

Sl. No Input voltage Input frequency Output voltage Gain

1 1V

Time Constants

Sl. No Input voltage Output voltage Gain Time constant

Closed loop response:

First order:

Sl. Input voltage Set value of Gain Time constant Time constant
No (from trace) (theoretical)
1 1V 2
2 1V 5
3 1V 8
Second order:

Sl. Input Set value Maximum Settling time Maximum Settling

No voltage of gain overshoot (from trace) overshoot time
(from trace) (theoretical) (theoretical
)
1 1V
2 1V

10
 3 1V
7. Results and discussion:

Based on your measurements, let us now discuss the results that you obtained. Please provide
responses to following points:

 What is the maximum gain of the error detector block?

 What is the gain of the integrator?
 What is the time constant and gain of the time constant block?
 For the observations obtained in closed loop first order transfer function, what is the
effect of gain on the time constant of the system?
 For the observations obtained in closed loop second order transfer function, what is the
effect of gain on the rise time and maximum overshoot of the system?

8. Conclusion:

Write in your own words the conclusion of performing this experiment. Write about what you
learned from this experiment.

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